4

4.1

Quantization of the photon eld

Maxwell equations and gauge invariance

The hamiltonian of the electromagnetic eld is H= d3 x(E 2 + B 2 ), (145)

where E i and B i are the electric and magnetic elds, respectively. The electric and magnetic elds can be derived from the four components of the vector potential. Using = (1 , 2 , 3 ), we have E = A0 0 A, B = A, (147) (146)

which represents the unication of electricity and magnetism due to Maxwell and Faraday. The electric and magnetic eld obey (in the absence of sources) Maxwell equations. Using the rationalized gaussian system of units (Heaviside-Lorentz) that is most suitable for particle physics see e.g. appendix C of Aitchison and Hey. E = 0, E + B = 0, (148)

E B = 0, B = 0. (149) t t These equations are expressed in a more covariant notation introducing the eld-strength tensor F = A A . Then F 0i = 0 Ai i A0 = E i = 0 Ai + i A0 , F ij = i Aj j Ai = Then Maxwell equations read F = 0. (153)
ijk

(150)

(151) (152)

Bk.

Given the denition of F the following set of identities (Bianchi identities) hold automatically

F = 0.

(154)

If we impose the Bianchi identities on F , then equation (150) follows. 28

Maxwell equations can be derived from the following lagrangian L= 1 4 d3 xF F . (155)

In terms of A the equations of motion for A are F = 2A A = 0. (156)

We immediately notice one problem. Imagine we have found one solution A (x), then A (x)+ is a solution too. Thus we can expect solutions that we will not be able to interpret in terms of a superposition of one-particle states in a direct manner. We note that this freedom in choosing A is precisely the one that we discussed in the previous lecture; namely the local U (1) invariance that the Dirac lagrangian coupled to electromagnetism via minimal coupling exhibits. Thus, this degree of freedom is spureous. It cannot be detected when coupling electromagnetism to matter elds. Another peculiarity of this (for the time being) classical eld theory is that since F 00 = 0, the canonical momentum conjugate to A 0 vanishes 0 0. This is thus a constraint rather than a dynamical variable. Thus gauge invariance prevents us from nding solutions to the Euler-Lagrange equations and we have to remove this unobservable but bothersome degree of freedom. We shall choose the A to satisfy the covariant condition A = 0. (158) (157)

This is called choosing a gauge, this particular condition is called the Lorenz gauge (after the Danish physicist H. Lorenz). Then the equation of motion is very simple 2A = 0, (159)

quite similar to Klein Gordon. We have to make sure that we can reach the Lorenz condition from any conguration. Indeed if we have A (x) = (x) we just have to change to A (x) + with 2(x) = (x), a condition that can always be fullled, at least locally. Equation (158) has has solutions of the type A = N
ikx

(160)

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with k 2 = 0 (as bets a massless particle such as the photon). The Lorenz condition now reduces to a condition on k = 0.

is a polarization vector.

(161)

This does not exhaust all the gauge freedom however. From the previous reasoning we see that we can still make transformations provided that 2 = 0, i.e. is a harmonic function. In terms of the , this amounts to a redenition

(162)

+ k .

(163)

This happens only because the photon is massless. Consider a solution with k = (k 0 , k ) and

= ( 0 , ). We can use the residual gauge invariance to choose k = 0.

= 0. Then Lorenz (164)

condition reads

This means that we can choose two independent 3-vectors orthogonal to the direction of motion of the particle. For a wave travelling in the z direction these could be, for instance (1, 0, 0), (linear polarization) or (0, 1, 0), (165)

1 (1, i, 0), 2

1 (1, i, 0). 2

(166)

(circular polarization). Here we recover a classical result of electromagnetism, namely that electromagnetic elds are purely transverse. We see that

() ( ) = ,

(167)

or

() ( ) = ,

(168)

For = 1, 2. Note again that only because the photon is massless we can get rid of two of the four degrees of freedom of A (x).

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4.2

Quantizing the eld A

At this point we may write an expansion for the photon eld A (x) = d3 k (2 )3 2Ek [ (k, )a(k, )eikx +

(k, )a (k, )eikx ].

(169)

We may ask which is the lagrangian leading to the equation of motion (159). The answer is 1 1 L = F F ( A )2 . 4 2 Now the canonical momenta conjugate to A 0 is non-zero: 0 = A . They are i = i A0 0 Ai = E i . A plausible set of commutation relations then could be (x0 y 0 )[A (x), (y )] = ig, (4) (x y), together with (x0 y 0 )[A (x), A (y )] = (x0 y 0 )[ (x), (y )] = 0. (174) (173) (172) (171) (170)

The other momenta, the i are unchanged by the addition of this extra term to the lagrangian.

We see however that something strange is going on as the sign of the commutator changes when going from the time to the space components. However, g is necessary on the r.h.s. of (??) on Lorentz covariance grounds. Another surprise (or perhaps not...) is that in spite of the change in the lagrangian and of the subsequent change in the eqution of motion, it is not consistent with the ETC to impose A ! Therefore we still have the four polarizations in the game at this point. For instance, for a particle moving in the z direction these could be

(1) = (0, 1, 0, 0),

(2) = (0, 0, 1, 0),

(transverse polarization)

(175) (176) (177)

(0) = (1, 0, 0, 0)

(time like polarization), (longitudinal polarization).

(3) = (0, 0, 0, 1)

we have to modify the polarization vectors For a photon moving in an arbitrary direction k accordingly. Notice that

(k, ) (k, ) = g, . 31

(178)

The polarization vectors also obey a pseudo-completeness relation g

(k, ) (k, ) = g .

(179)

Let us nevertheless continue. We substitute the expansion A (x) = d3 k (2 )3 2Ek

3

[ (k, )a(k, )eikx +

=0

(k, )a (k, )eikx ]

(180)

back in the commutator. This leads to [a(k, ), a (k , )] = g, (2 )3 2Ek (3) (k k ). (181)

Now we face the problem in all its crudity. Time-like polarization states lead to negative norm states. This is of course unacceptable quantum mechanically. Thus as we see, having a well dened 0 or a well-posed equation of motion does not save us from the trouble. The root of the diculty is that we want to describe two degrees with freedom with a four-vector, in order to preserve covariance, and too many states appear, some of them with unwanted properties. Eliminating these unwanted states by hand from the Hilbert space will bring diculties with Lorentz invariance. At this point we have to recall the Lorenz gauge condition. We have to impose A = 0, but we cannot do that at the lagrangian level for instance, or we will be back at the starting point. We have to impose this as a constraint on our physical states. That is A(+) | = 0, (182)

where we signal that only positive frequency (annihilation operators) are considered. Likewise | A() = 0. Therefore for any pair of physical states | A | = 0. (184) (183)

Consider states of well dened momentum and let us take for instance k in the z direction, then this implies (a(k, 0) a(k, 3))| = 0. 32 (185)

To see what this implies consider the normal-ordered hamiltonian. H= 1 2 d3 k 3 [ a (k, )a(k, ) a (k, 0)a(k, 0)], (2 )3 =1 (186)

for any physical state however thanks to the constraint |a (k, 3)a(k, 3) a (k, 0)a(k, 0)| = 0. (187)

So only the transverse modes survive and contribute to the dynamics. Therefore, it is consistent to implement the Lorenz gauge condition and indeed decouples the unwanted degrees of freedom from the physical Hilbert space. At this point we may ask what is special about the term ( A )2 that we have added to the Hamiltonian to have well dened Euler-Lagrange equations and 0 . Indeed we may well suspect that since on physical states A = 0 we can perfectly well add 1 ( A )2 , 2 (188)

with any value for . This term is called the gauge xing term in the lagrangian that now reads 1 1 L = F F ( A )2 . 4 2 1 (2g (1 ) )A = 0. (189)

The corresponding Euler-Lagrange equations are (190)

4.3

Introducing electromagnetic interactions

Interactions are introduced via the gauge paradigm. The point has already been made, but it is worth repeating it here once more. The gauge degree of freedom is not observable because interactions are constructed in a way that are manifestly gauge invariant. The tool to implement interactions is the principle of minimal coupling, replacing normal derivatives by covariant ones D = + ieA . (191)

Then under a local phase redenition, combined with a gauge transformation in the A eld (x) eie(x) (x) A (x) A (x) (x), (192) (193)

D (x) eie(x) D (x). 33

Similar transformation laws apply to a complex scalar eld (x). After coupling to matter elds, the lagrangian has now an interaction term A = j A , Lint = e em and the hamiltonian of the system has likewise an interaction piece Hint = Lint = e A0 e A. Recalling what we have already learnt in lectures 1 and 3, this takes the form A0 j A.
is just the Noether current associated to global phase invariance. jem

(194)

(195)

(196)

The full lagrangian describing matter and radiation shall be 1 1 D m. L = F F ( A )2 + i 4 2 The corresponding Euler-Lagrange equations will be 1 . (2g (1 ) )A = jem (198) (197)

The interaction term makes three particles to coincide at the same point in space time: the photon, one particle and its antiparticle.

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