Semicondutor P-N Junction

Notes 01 Introduction to Power Electronics
Marc T. Thompson, Ph.D. Thompson Consulting, Inc. 9 Jacob Gates Road Harvard, MA 01451 Phone: (978) 456-7722 Fax: (240) 414-2655 Email: marctt@thompsonrd.com marctt@thompsonrd com Web: http://www.thompsonrd.com
Marc Thompson, 2005-2007 Power Electronics Introduction to Power Electronics 1
Introduction to Power Electronics

Power electronics relates to the control and flow of electrical energy Control is done using electronic switches, capacitors, magnetics, and control systems Scope S of f power electronics: l t i milliWatts illiW tt gigaWatts i W tt Power electronics is a growing field due to the improvement in switching technologies and the need for more and more efficient switching circuits
Power Electronics
Summary
History/scope of power electronics Some interesting PE-related PE related projects Circuit concepts important to power electronics Some tools for approximate analysis of power electronics l t i systems t DC/DC converters --- first-cut analysis Key design challenges in DC/DC converter design Basic system concepts
Power Electronics
Scope of Power Electronics

Power Level (Watts) System 0.1-10 Battery-operated equipment Flashes/strobes 10-100 Satellite power systems Typical offline flyback supply 100 1kW Computer power supply Blender 1 10 kW Hot tub 10 100 kW Electric car Eddy current braking 100 kW 1 MW Bus micro-SMES 1 MW 10 MW SMES 10 MW 100 MW Magnetic aircraft launch Big locomotives 100 MW 1 GW Power plant > 1 GW Sandy S d P Pond d substation b t ti (2.2 (2 2 GW)
Power Electronics Introduction to Power Electronics 4
Scope of Power Electronics
Power Electronics
Areas of Application of Power Electronics

High frequency power conversion DC/DC, inverters Low frequency power conversion Line rectifiers Distributed p power systems Power devices Power Transmission HVDC HVAC Power quality Power factor correction Harmonic reduction Passive P i filt filtering i Active filtering
Power Electronics
Some Applications
Heating and lighting control Induction heating Fluorescent lamp ballasts
Passive Active
Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) Electric power transmission Automotive electronics

Electronic ignitions Alternators
Motor drives Battery chargers Electric vehicles

Motors Regenerative braking
Energy storage
Flywheels y Capacitors SMES
Switching power supplies Spacecraft power systems

Battery powered Flywheel powered
Power conditioning for alternative power sources

Solar cells Fuel cells Wind turbines
7
Power Electronics
Some Power Electronics-Related Projects Worked on at TCI (Harvard Labs)

High speed lens actuator Laser diode pulsers Levitated flywheel Maglev Permanent magnet brakes Switching power supplies Magnetic analysis Laser driver pulsers 50 kW inverter switch Transcutaneous (through-skin) non-contact power supply
Power Electronics
Lens Actuator
z r Iron Coil Back iron Permanent Nd-Fe-Bo g Magnet
Lens
Air gap
Power Electronics
High Power Laser Diode Driver Based on gy Power Converter Technology

Overdrive duration set
Array Driver
O.D. current set
OVERDRIVE Switching Array
Laser Diode
Iod
THRESH. current set
-12V
Drive TTL INPUT Array Driver Drive* PEAK Switching Array Is

PEAK current set
Ith -12
Rsense -12 Power Converter
Diff. Amp.
Vsense
D PWM P.W.M. Vc Loop Filter
See: 1. B. Santarelli and M. Thompson, U.S. Patent #5,123,023, "Laser Driver with Plural Feedback Loops," issued June 16, 1992 2. M. Thompson, U.S. Patent #5,444,728, "Laser Driver Circuit," issued August 22, 1995 3. W. T. Plummer, M. Thompson, D. S. Goodman and P. P. Clark, U.S. Patent #6,061,372, Two-Level Semiconductor Laser Driver, issued May 9, 2000 4. Marc T. Thompson and Martin F. Schlecht, Laser Diode Driver Based on Power Converter Technology, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 12, no. 1, Jan. 1997, pp. 46-52 Power Electronics Introduction to Power Electronics 10
Magnetically-Levitated Magnetically Levitated Flywheel Energy Storage

For NASA; P = 100W, energy storage = 100 W-hrs
Guidance and Suspension
S N
N S
Flywheel (Rotating) Stator Winding
N S
S N
N S N S
S N S N
z N S
S N
r
S N
N S
Power Electronics
11
Electromagnetic Suspension --- Maglev
Power Electronics
12
Maglev - German Transrapid
Power Electronics
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Maglev - Japanese EDS
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Japanese EDS Guideway
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15
MIT Maglev Suspension Magnet
Reference: M. T. Thompson, R. D. Thornton and A. Kondoleon, Flux-canceling electrodynamic maglev suspension: Part I. I Test fixture design and modeling modeling, IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, vol. vol 35 35, no no. 3 3, May 1999 pp. 1956-1963 Power Electronics Introduction to Power Electronics 16
MIT Maglev Test Fixture
M. T. Thompson, R. D. Thornton and A. Kondoleon, Flux Flux-canceling canceling electrodynamic maglev suspension: Part I. Test fixture design and modeling, IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, vol. 35, no. 3, May 1999 pp. 1956-1963
Power Electronics
17
MIT Maglev Test Fixture

2 meter diameter test wheel Max. speed 1000 RPM (84 m/s) For F testing t ti flux fl canceling HTSC Maglev Sidewall levitation
electrodynamic maglev suspension: Part I. Test fixture f M. T. Thompson, R. D. Thornton and A. Kondoleon, Flux-canceling design and modeling, IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, vol. 35, no. 3, May 1999 pp. 1956-1963 Power Electronics Introduction to Power Electronics 18
Permanent Magnet Brakes

For roller coasters 10,000 000 Braking force > 10 Newtons per meter of brake
Reference: http://www.magnetarcorp.com Power Electronics Introduction to Power Electronics 19
Halbach Permanent Magnet Array

Special PM arrangement allows strong side (bottom) and weak side (top) fields Applicable to magnetic suspensions (Maglev), linear motors, and induction brakes
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Halbach Permanent Magnet Array
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Linear Motor Design and Analysis
Power Electronics
22
Variac Failure Analysis
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Photovoltaics
Reference: S. Druyea, S. Islam and W. Lawrance, A battery management system for stand-alone photovoltaic energy systems, IEEE Industry Applications Magazine, vol. 7, no. 3, May-June 2001, pp. 67-72 Power Electronics Introduction to Power Electronics 24
Offline Flyback Power Supply
Reference: P P. Maige Maige, A A universal power supply integrated circuit for TV and monitor applications applications, IEEE Transactions on Consumer Electronics, vol. 36, no. 1, Feb. 1990, pp. 10-17 Power Electronics Introduction to Power Electronics 25
Transcutaneous Energy gy Transmission
Reference: H H. Matsuki Matsuki, Y Y. Yamakata Yamakata, N N. Chubachi Chubachi, S S.-I. -I Nitta and H. H Hashimoto, Hashimoto Transcutaneous Transcutaneous DC-DC converter for totally implantable artificial heart using synchronous rectifier, IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, vol. 32 , no. 5, Sept. 1996, pp. 5118 - 5120 Power Electronics Introduction to Power Electronics 26
50 KW Inverter Switch
Power Electronics
27
Non Contact Battery Charger Non-Contact
Power Electronics
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High Voltage RF Supply
Power Electronics
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60 Hz Transformer Shielding Study
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Intuitive Analog Circuit Design
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Power Quality in Electrical Systems
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Some Other Interesting Power-Electronics Related Systems
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Conventional vs. vs Electric Car
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High Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission
Power Electronics
35
Mass Spectrometer
Reference: http://www.cameca.fr/doc_en_pdf/oral_sims14_schuhmacher_ims1270improvements.pdf Power Electronics Introduction to Power Electronics 36
Some Disciplines Encompassed in the Field of Power Electronics

Analog circuits
High speed (MOSFET switching, etc.) High power PC b board dl layout t Filters
EMI
Machines/motors Simulation
SPICE, Matlab, etc.
Device physics
How to make a better MOSFET, IGBT, etc.
Control theory Magnetics

Inductor design Transformer design
Thermal/cooling
How to design a heat sink Thermal interfaces Thermal modeling
Power systems
Transmission lines Line filtering
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Selected History of Power Switching Devices

1831 --- Transformer action demonstrated by Michael Faraday 1880s: modern transformer invented
Reference: f J. W. Coltman, C The Transformer f (historical ( overview, IEEE Industry Applications Magazine, vol. 8, no. 1, Jan.-Feb. 2002, pp. 8-15 Power Electronics Introduction to Power Electronics 38
Selected History y of Power Switching g Devices

Early 1900s: vacuum tube Lee DeForest --- triode, 1906 1920-1940: 1920 1940 mercury arc t tubes b t to convert 50Hz, 2000V to 3000VDC for railway
Reference: M. C. Duffy, The mercury-arc rectifier and supply to electric railways, IEEE Engineering Science and Education Journal, vol. 4, no. 4, August 1995, pp. 183-192 Power Electronics Introduction to Power Electronics 39

1930s: selenium rectifiers 1948 - Silicon Transistor (BJT) introduced (Bell Labs) 1950s - semiconductor power diodes begin replacing vacuum tubes 1956 - GE introduces SiliconControlled Rectifier (SCR)
f N. Holonyak, Jr., The Silicon S p-n-p-n Switch S and Controlled C Rectifier f (Thyristor), ( ) IEEE Transactions on Reference: Power Electronics, vol. 16, no. 1, January 2001, pp. 8-16 Power Electronics Introduction to Power Electronics 40

1960s - switching speed of BJTs allow DC/DC converters possible in 10-20 kHz range 1960 - Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) for integrated circuits 1976 - power MOSFET becomes commercially available, allows > 100 kHz operation
Reference: B. J. Baliga, Trends in Power Semiconductor Devices, IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices, vol. 43, no. 10, October 1996, pp. 1717-1731 Power Electronics Introduction to Power Electronics 41

1982 - Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) introduced
Reference: B. J. Baliga, Trends in Power Semiconductor Devices, IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices, vol. 43, no. 10, October 1996, pp. 1717-1731 Power Electronics Introduction to Power Electronics 42
Review of Basic Circuit Concepts

Some background in circuits Laplace notation First-order and secondorder systems Resonant circuits, damping p g ratio, ,Q Reference for this material: M. T. Thompson, Intuitive Analog Circuit Design, Elsevier, Elsevier 2006 (course book for ECE529) and Power Quality in Electrical Systems, McGraw-Hill, 2007 by A. Kusko and M. Thompson
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Laplace p Notation
Basic idea: Laplace transform converts differential equation to algebraic equation Generally, G ll method th d i is used di in sinusoidal i id l steady t d state t t after all startup transients have died out
Circuit domain Resistance, R Inductance L C Capacitance i C Laplace (s) domain R Ls 1 Cs
R1 vi + R2 C vo
+ ) vi (s + -
R1 R2 1 /(C s )
+ ) vo(s -
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System Function
Find transfer function H(s) by solving Laplace transformed circuit
R1 vi + R2 C vo -
+
) vi (s + -
R1 R2 1 /(C s )
+ ) vo(s -
H ( s) =
R2Cs + 1 vo ( s ) = = ( R1 + R2 )Cs + 1 vi ( s ) R + R + 1 1 2 Cs
Introduction to Power Electronics 45
R2 +
1 Cs
Power Electronics
First-Order Systems
vo (t ) = V (1 e ) V ir (t ) = e R = RC Time constant
t t
R = 2.2
h =
1
Risetime
h fh = 2
Bandwidth
0.35 R = fh
46
Power Electronics
First-Order Step p and Frequency q y Response p

Step R esponse 1 0.8 Am plitud de 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0
3 T im e (sec.) Bode Diagram s
Ph hase (deg); M agnitude e (dB)
0 -10 -20 -20 -40 -60 -80 10

-1
10 Frequency (rad/sec)
10
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Review of Second-Order Second Order Systems

R vi + L + C vo -
2 n vo ( s ) 1 1 = = = 2 = 2 H ( s) = 2 2 2s LCs + RCs + 1 s s + 2 n s + n vi ( s ) R + Ls + 1 + +1 2 Cs n n
1 Cs
Natural frequency q y n = Damping ratio
1 LC RC 1 R 1 R = n = = 2 2 L 2 Zo C
48
Power Electronics
Second-Order System Frequency Response

H ( j ) = 1 2 j 2 + 1 2 n n 1 2 2 + 1 2 n n
2 2
H ( j ) =
2 n 1 1 2 n H ( j ) = tan = tan 2 2 2 n 1 2 n
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Second-Order Second Order System Frequency Response

Plots show varying damping ratio
Frequency response for natural frequency = 1 and various dam ping ratios
30 20 10 0 Phase (deg); M agnitude (dB) a -10 -20 -30 -40
-50
-100
-150
10
-1
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
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Second-Order System Frequency Response at Natural Frequency

Now, what happens if we excite this system exactly at the natural t l frequency, f or = n? Th The response i is:
H ( s ) =
1 = 2
H ( s ) =n =
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Relationship Between Damping Ratio and Quality Factor Q

A second order system can also be characterized by its Q lit F Quality Factor t or Q
H ( s ) =
1 = =Q 2
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Second-Order System Step Response

Shown for varying values of damping ratio
Step R esponse Step response for natural frequency = 1 and various dam ping ratios 2 1.8 1.6 14 1.4 1.2 Am plitude 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 Tim e (sec.) 6 7 8 9 10
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Second-Order Mechanical System

Electromechanical modeling
Reference: Leo Beranek, Acoustics, Acoustical Society of America, 1954 Power Electronics Introduction to Power Electronics 54
Pole Location Variation with Damping
Very underdamped
j x + j n
Critically damped
j
Overdamped
j
n x 2 poles
x j n
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55
Undamped Resonant Circuit

iL + vc L
Now, we can find the resonant frequency by guessing that the voltage v(t) is sinusoidal with v(t) = Vosint. Putting this into the equation for capacitor voltage results in:
1 sin(t ) = sin(t ) LC
2
This means that the resonant frequency is the standard (as expected) resonance:
r2 =
Power Electronics
1 LC
56
Energy Methods
iL + vc L C
By using energy methods we can find the ratio of maximum capacitor voltage to maximum inductor current. Assuming that the capacitor it is i i initially iti ll charged h dt to Vo volts, lt and d remembering b i th that t 2 capacitor stored energy Ec = CV and inductor stored energy is EL = LI2, we can write the following:
1 1 2 2 CVo = LI o 2 2
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57
Energy Methods
iL + vc What does this mean about the magnitude of the inductor current ? Well, we can solve for the ratio of Vo/Io resulting in:
Vo L = Zo C Io
The term Z Zo is defined as the characteristic impedance of a resonant circuit. Lets assume that we have an inductor-capacitor circuit with C = 1 microFarad and L = 1 microHenry. This means that the resonant frequency is 106 radians/second (or 166.7 kHz) and that the characteristic impedance i 1 Oh is Ohm.
Simulation
iL + vc L C
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Typical Resonant Circuit

Model of a MOSFET gate drive circuit
1 1 vo ( s ) H ( s) = = = = 2 2 1 2s vi ( s ) R + Ls + LCs + RCs + 1 s + +1 2 Cs n n
1 LC RC 1 R 1 R = n = = 2 2 L 2 Zo C
1 Cs
n =
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Resonant Circuit --- Underdamped

With small ll resistor, i t circuit i it i is underdamped d d d
n =
LC f n 31.8 MHz
= 200 Mrad / sec
L = 5 Zo = C n RC 1 R 1 R = = = = 0.001 2 2 L 2 Zo C
Resonant eso a C Circuit cu --- U Underdamped de da ped Results esu s

This circuit is very underdamped, so we expect step p to oscillate at around 31.8 MHz response Expect peaky frequency response with peak near 31.8 MHz
n =
LC f n 31.8 MHz
= 200 Mrad / sec
L = 5 C n RC 1 R 1 R = = = 0.001 = 2 2 L 2 Zo C Zo =
Resonant eso a C Circuit cu --- U Underdamped de da ped Results, esu s, Step Response
Rings at around 31.8 MHz
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Resonant eso a C Circuit cu --- U Underdamped de da ped Results, esu s, Frequency Response
Frequency response peaks at 31.8 MHz
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Resonant eso a C Circuit cu --- C Critical ca Damping a p g

Now, lets employ critical damping by increasing value of resistor to 10 Ohms This is also a typical MOSFET gate drive damping resistor value
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Critical C ca Damping, a p g, S Step ep Response espo se

Note that response is still relatively fast (< 100 ns p time) ) but with no overshoot response If we make R larger, the risetime slows down
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Critical C ca Damping, a p g, Frequency eque cy Response espo se

No overshoot in the transient response corresponds to peaking g in the frequency q y response p no p
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Circuit Concepts
Power Reactive power Power quality Power factor Root R t Mean M S Square (RMS) Harmonics Harmonic distortion
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Sinewaves
A sinewave can be expressed as v(t) = Vpksin(t) Vpk = peak voltage = radian frequency (rad/sec) = 2f where f is in Hz VRMS = Vpk/sqrt(2) = 120V for sinewave with peaks at 170V More on RMS later
120V RMS 60 Hz sinewave 200 150
100
50
-50
-100
-150
-200 0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008 0.01 Time[sec Time [sec.] ]
0.012
0.014
0.016
0.018
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Sinewave with Resistive Load

v(t) and i(t) are in phase and have the same shape; i.e. no harmonics in current - Time representation -Phasor Ph representation t ti -In this case, V and I have the same phase p
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Sinewave with Inductive Load

For an inductor, remember that v = Ldi/dt So, i(t) lags v(t) by 90o in an inductor
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Sinewave with Inductive Load --- PSIM
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Sinewave with L/R Load

Phase shift (also called angle) between v and i is somewhere between 0o and -90o
L = tan R
1
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Sinewave with Capacitive Load

Remember that i = Cdv/dt for a capacitor Current leads voltage by +90o
- Phasor representation
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Phasor Representation of L and C
In inductor, current lags g by y 90 degrees g voltage
In capacitor, voltage lags current by 90 degrees

75
Power Electronics
Response of L and C to pulses
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76
Review of Complex Numbers

In rectangular form, a complex number is written in terms of real and imaginary components A = Re(A) + jIm(A)
- Angle
Im( A) = tan Re( A)

1
- Magnitude of A
A=
2 2 (Re( ) ( ) ( A) + Im( ( A)
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Find Polar Form

Assume that current I = -3.5 3 5 + j(4 j(4.2) 2)
I = ( 3.5) 2 + ( 4.2) 2 = 5.5 A
= 180o
4.2 o = tan = 50 . 2 3.5 = 180o 50.2 o = 129.8o
1
5.5 A129.8o
Converting from Polar to Rectangular Form
Re{A} = A cos( ) Im{A} = A sin( )

Power
Power has many shapes and forms Real power p Reactive power Reactive power does not do real work Instantaneous power
p (t ) = v(t )i (t )
Peak P k instantaneous i t t power Average power
T
1 p (t ) = T
Power Electronics
v(t )i (t )dt
80
Power Factor
Ratio of delivered power to the product of RMS voltage and RMS current
<P> PF = VRMS I RMS
Power factor always <= 1 With pure sine wave and resistive load, PF = 1 With p pure sine wave and p purely y reactive load, , PF = 0 Whenever PF < 1 the circuit carries currents or voltages that do not perform useful work The more spikey spikey a waveform is the worse is its PF
Diode rectifiers have poor power factor
Power factor can be helped by power factor correction

Causes of Low Power Factor Factor--- L/R Load

Power angle is = tan-1(L/R) For L = 1H 1H, R = 377 Ohms Ohms, = 45o and PF = cos(45o) = 0.707
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Causes of Low Power Factor --- Non-linear Load

Nonlinear loads include: Variable-speed drives Frequency converters Uninterruptable power supplies (UPS) Saturated magnetic circuits Dimmer switches Televisions Fluorescent lamps Welding sets Arc furnaces Semiconductors Battery B tt chargers h
Half Wave Rectifier with RC Load

In applications where cost is a major consideration, a capacitive filter may be used. If RC >> 1/f then this operates like a peak detector and the output voltage <vout> is approximately the peak of the input voltage Diode is only ON for a short time near the sinewave peaks
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Note poor power factor due to peaky input line current
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85
Unity Power Factor --- Resistive Load

Example: purely resistive load
Voltage and currents in phase
v(t ) = V sin t V i (t ) = sin t R V2 sin 2 t p(t ) = v(t )i (t ) = R V2 < p(t ) >= 2R V VRMS = 2 V I RMS = R 2 V2 < p(t ) > 2R PF = = =1 VRMS I RMS V V 2 R 2
Causes of Low Power Factor --- Reactive Load

Example: purely inductive load
Voltage and currents 90o out of phase
v(t ) = V sin t V i (t ) = cos t L V2 p(t ) = v(t )i (t ) = sin t cos t L < p (t ) > >= 0
For purely reactive load PF=0 load, PF 0
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Why is Power Factor Important?

Consider peak-detector full-wave rectifier
Typical power factor kp = 0.6 What is maximum power you can deliver to load ? VAC x current x kp x rectifier efficiency (120)(15)(0.6)(0.98) = 1058 Watts Assume you replace this simple rectifier by power electronics module with 99% power factor and 93% y efficiency: (120)(15)(0.99)(0.93) = 1657 Watts
Power Factor Correction

Typical toaster can draw 1400W from a 120VAC/15A line Typical offline switching converter can draw <1000W because it has poor power factor High power factor results in: Reduced electric utility bills Increased system capacity Improved voltage Reduced heat losses Methods of power factor correction Passive Add capacitors across an inductive load to resonate Add inductance in a capacitor circuit Active
Power Factor Correction --- Passive

Switch capacitors in and out as needed as load changes
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Power Factor Correction --- Active

Fluorescent lamp ballast application
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91
Root Mean Square (RMS)

Used for description of periodic, often multi-harmonic, waveforms Square root of the average over a cycle (mean) of the square of a waveform T
I RMS = 1 2 i (t )dt T 0
RMS current of any waveshape will dissipate the same amount of heat in a resistor as a DC current of the same value DC waveform: Vrms = VDC Symmetrical square wave: IRMS = Ipk Pure sine wave 0 0 pk IRMS=0.707I Example: 120 VRMS line voltage has peaks of 169.7 V
Intuitive Description of RMS

The RMS value of a sinusoidal or other periodic waveform dissipates the same amount of power in a resistive load as does a battery y of the same RMS value So, 120VRMS into a resistive load dissipates as much power in the load as does a 120V battery
RMS Value of Various Waveforms

Following are a bunch of waveforms typically found in power electronics, power systems, and motors, and their corresponding RMS values Reference: R. W. Erickson and D. Maksimovic, Fundamentals of Power Electronics, 2nd edition, Kluwer, 2001
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DC Voltage
Battery
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Sinewave
AC line
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Square Wave
This type of waveform can be put out by a square wave converter or full-bridge converter
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DC with Ripple
Buck converter inductor current (DC value + ripple)
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Triangular Ripple
Capacitor ripple current in some converters (no DC value)
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Pulsating Waveform
Buck converter input switch current (assuming small ripple)
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Pulsating with Ripple

i.e. buck converter switch current We can use this result to get RMS value of buck diode current
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Triangular
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Piecewise Calculation
This works if the different components are at different frequencies
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103
Piecewise Calculation --- Example

What Wh t is i RMS value l of f DC + ripple i l ( (shown h b before)? f )?
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Harmonics
Harmonics are created by nonlinear circuits Rectifiers Half-wave rectifier has first harmonic at 60 Hz Full-wave has first harmonic at 120 Hz Switching DC/DC converters DC/DC operating at 100 kHz generally creates harmonics at DC, 100 kHz, 200 kHz, 300 kHz, etc. Line Li harmonics h i can be b t treated t d by b li line filt filters Passive Active
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Total Harmonic Distortion

Total harmonic distortion (THD) Ratio of the RMS value of all the nonfundamental frequency terms to the RMS value of the 2 fundamental I 2 2
THD =
n 1 n , RMS
I1, RMS
I RMS I1, RMS I12, RMS
Symmetrical square wave: THD = 48.3%

I RMS = 1 I1 = 4 2
2
4 1 2 = 0.483 THD = 2 4 2
Symmetrical triangle wave: THD = 12.1%

Half-Wave Rectifier, Resistive Load

Simplest, cheapest rectifier Line current has DC component; this current appears in neutral High harmonic content, Power factor = 0.7
P.F . =
Pavg VRMS I RMS
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Half Wave Rectifier with Resistive Load --- Power F t and Factor d Average A Output O t t Voltage V lt
Average output voltage:
1 < v d >= 2
V pk sin( i (t )d (t ) =
2
V pk 2
[ cos( (t )]
t = t = 0
V pk
Power factor calculation:

2 I pk 1 I pk <P>= R= R 2 2 4
VRMS = I RMS =
V pk 2
RI pk 2
I pk 1 2 2
2 I pk
R <P> 4 = 0.707 = PF = I I VRMS I RMS pk pk 1 R 2 2 2

Half-Wave Rectifier, Resistive Load --- Spectrum of fL Load dV Voltage lt
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More practical rectifier For large RC, this behaves like a peak detector
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110

Note poor power factor due to peaky line current Note DC component of line current
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Half Wave Rectifier with RC Load --S Spectrum t of f Line Li Current C t
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112
Crest Factor
Another term sometimes used in power engineering Ratio of peak value to RMS value For F a sinewave, i crest t factor f t = 1.4 14 Peak = 1; RMS = 0.707 For a square wave, crest factor = 1 Peak = 1; RMS = 1
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Harmonics and THD - Sinewave

THD = 0%
Number of harmonics N = 1 THD = 0 % 15 1.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1 1.5 5
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
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Harmonics and THD - Sinewave + 3rd Harmonic
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115
Harmonics and THD --- Sinewave + 3rd + 5th Harmonic

THD = 38.9%
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Harmonics --- Up to N = 103

THD = 48%
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Full Wave Rectifier (Single Phase) Full-Wave
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Full-Wave Rectifier with Capacitor Filter
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6-Pulse (3-Phase) Rectifier

Typically used for higher-power applications where 3phase power is available
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12-Pulse Rectifier
T Two paralleled ll l d 6 6-pulse l rectifiers tifi 5th and 7th harmonics are eliminated Only y harmonics are the 11th, 13th, 23rd, 25th
Reference: R. W. Erickson and D. Maksimovic, Fundamentals of Power Electronics, 2d edition Power Electronics Introduction to Power Electronics 121
Techniques for Analysis of Power Electronics Circuits

Power electronics systems are often switching, nonlinear, li and d with ith other th t transients. i t A variety i t of f techniques have been developed to help approximately pp y analyze y these circuits Assumed states Small ripple assumption Periodic steady state After getting approximate answers, often circuit simulation is used
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Assumed States
In a circuit with diodes, etc. or other nonlinear elements, how do you figure out what is happening ? Guess.and G d th then check h k your guess
1 10 1:10 120 VAC Vout
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123
Small Ripple Assumption

In power electronic circuits, generally our interest is in the average value of voltages and current if the ripple is small compared to the nominal operating point. In DC/DC converters, often our goal is to regulate the average value of the output voltage vo. State-space averaging is a circuit approach to analyzing the local average g behavior of circuit elements. In this method, , we make use of a running average, or:
1 v (t ) = v( )d T t T
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124
Periodic Steady State

In the periodic steady state assumption, we assume that p transients have died out and that from p periodall startup to-period the inductor currents and capacitor voltages return to the same value. In other words words, for one part of the cycle the inductor current ripples UP; for the second part of the cycle, the inductor current ripples DOWN. Can C calculate l l t converter t d dependence d on switching it hi b by using volt-second balance.
Power Electronics
125
Motivation for DC/DC Converter: Offline Linear +5V, 50 Watt Regulator

AC Vbus Cbus Linear Reg. Vo
Must accommodate:
Variation in line voltage
Typically 10%
In order I d to t maintain i t i regulation:
Drop in rectifier rectifier, transformer

Rectifier 1-2V total Transformer drop depends on load current
Vbus > 5V + Vdropout
Regulator power dissipation:
Ripple in bus voltage
P [< Vbus > Vo ]I o b
Vbus
IL 120Cbus
Dropout D t voltage lt of f regulator l t

Typically 0.25-1V
Power Electronics
For <Vbus> = 7V and Io = 10A, P = 20 Watts !

126
Offline Switching +5V +5V, 50 Watt Regulator

If switching regulator is 90% efficient, Preg = 5.6 Watts (ignoring losses in diode bridge and transformer) Other switching topologies can do better
AC
Vbus Cbus
Switching Reg.
Vo
Power Electronics
127
PSIM Simulation
Power Electronics
128
PSIM Simulation
Power Electronics
129
Switcher Implementation
D + Vi RL vo(t) -
Switch turns on and off with switching frequency fsw D is duty duty cycle, cycle or fraction of switching cycle that v (t) switch is closed
o
Vi <v vo(t) (t)> t DT T T+DT
Average value of output <v vo(t) (t)> = Dvi

Can provide real-time control of <vo(t)> by varying duty cycle
Unfortunately, output is has very high ripple at switching frequency fsw

Switcher Design Issues

Lowpass filter provides effective ripple reduction in vo(t) if LC >> 1/fsw Unfortunately, this circuit has a fatal flaw..
D L + Vi C RL vo( (t) ) -
Power Electronics
131
Buck Converter
Add diode to allow continuous inductor current flow when switch is open
D L + Vi C RL vo(t) -
This is a common circuit for voltage step-down applications Examples E l of f buck b k converter t given i l later t
Power Electronics
132
Types of Converters
Can have DC or AC inputs and outputs AC DC Rectifier DC DC Designed to convert one DC voltage to another DC voltage Buck, boost, flyback, buck/boost, SEPIC, Cuk, etc. DC AC Inverter AC AC Light dimmers Cycloconverters
Power Electronics
133
Ideal Power Converter

Converts voltages and currents without dissipating power p Pout Pout Efficiency = 100% = = Pin Pout + Ploss Efficiency is very important, especially at high power levels High Hi h efficiency ffi i results lt i in smaller ll size i (d (due t to cooling li requirements) Example: p 100 kW converter 90% efficient dissipates 11.1 kW 1 Pdiss = Pout 1 99% efficient dissipates 1010 W 99.9% 99 9% efficient dissipates 100 W
Buck Converter
Also called down converter Designed to convert a higher DC voltage to a lower DC voltage Output voltage controlled by modifying switching duty i ratio D ratio D
L
Vcc
L + C vc R
Vo
Well figure out the details of how this works in later weeks
Possible Implementations
Many companies make buck controller chips (where you supply y pp y external components) p ) as well as complete p modules
Power Electronics
136
Real World Buck Converter Issues Real-World

Real-world buck converter has losses in: MOSFET Conduction loss Switching loss Inductor I d t ESR Capacitor ESR Diode Diode ON voltage
Power Electronics
137
Converter Loss Mechanisms

Input rectifier Input filtering EMI filtering Capacitor ESR Transformer DC winding loss AC winding loss Skin effect Proximity effect Core loss Hysteresis Eddy currents Ou Output pu filter e Capacitor ESR
Power Electronics
Control system Controller Current C t sensing i d device i Switch MOSFET conduction loss MOSFET switching loss Avalanche loss Gate driving loss Clamp/snubber Diode Di d Conduction loss Reverse recovery Reverse current
138

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Notes 01 Introduction to Power Electronics

Marc Thompson, 2005-2007 Power Electronics Introduction to Power Electronics 1

Introduction to Power Electronics

Introduction to Power Electronics

Introduction to Power Electronics

Scope of Power Electronics

Scope of Power Electronics

Introduction to Power Electronics

Areas of Application of Power Electronics

Introduction to Power Electronics

Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) Electric power transmission Automotive electronics

Motor drives Battery chargers Electric vehicles

Switching power supplies Spacecraft power systems

Power conditioning for alternative power sources

Introduction to Power Electronics

Some Power Electronics-Related Projects Worked on at TCI (Harvard Labs)

Introduction to Power Electronics

Introduction to Power Electronics

High Power Laser Diode Driver Based on gy Power Converter Technology

OVERDRIVE Switching Array

THRESH. current set

Drive TTL INPUT Array Driver Drive* PEAK Switching Array Is

Rsense -12 Power Converter

D PWM P.W.M. Vc Loop Filter

Magnetically-Levitated Magnetically Levitated Flywheel Energy Storage

Flywheel (Rotating) Stator Winding

Introduction to Power Electronics

Electromagnetic Suspension --- Maglev

Introduction to Power Electronics

Maglev - German Transrapid

Introduction to Power Electronics

Maglev - Japanese EDS

Introduction to Power Electronics

Japanese EDS Guideway

Introduction to Power Electronics

MIT Maglev Suspension Magnet

MIT Maglev Test Fixture

Introduction to Power Electronics

MIT Maglev Test Fixture

Permanent Magnet Brakes

Reference: http://www.magnetarcorp.com Power Electronics Introduction to Power Electronics 19

Halbach Permanent Magnet Array

Introduction to Power Electronics

Halbach Permanent Magnet Array

Introduction to Power Electronics

Linear Motor Design and Analysis

Introduction to Power Electronics

Variac Failure Analysis

Introduction to Power Electronics

Offline Flyback Power Supply

Transcutaneous Energy gy Transmission

Introduction to Power Electronics

Non Contact Battery Charger Non-Contact

Introduction to Power Electronics

High Voltage RF Supply

Introduction to Power Electronics

60 Hz Transformer Shielding Study

Introduction to Power Electronics

Intuitive Analog Circuit Design

Introduction to Power Electronics

Power Quality in Electrical Systems

Introduction to Power Electronics

Some Other Interesting Power-Electronics Related Systems