Lecture Notes On Fluid Mechanics

LECTURE NOTES ON FLUID MECHANICS
Version 1.1
Ming-Jyh Chern, D.Phil. Oxon
Department of Mechanical Engineering National Taiwan University of Science and Technology 43 Sec. 4 Keelung Road Taipei 10607 Taiwan
PREFACE
Fluid mechanics is one of important subjects in engineering science. Although it has been developing for more than one hundred years, the area which uid mechanics covers is getting wider, e.g. biomechanics and nanouids. I started to write up this manuscript when I was assigned to give lectures on uid mechanics for senior undergraduate students. The main purpose of this lecture is to bring physics of uid motion to students during a semester. Mathematics was not addressed in the lecture. However, students were also required to learn use mathematics to describe phenomena of uid dynamics when they were familiar with physics in this subject. As I nished this book, I do hope that readers can get something from this book. Meanwhile, I wold like to express my graditude to those who helped me nish this book.
Ming-Jyh Chern Associate Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering National Taiwan University of Science and Technology mjchern@mail.ntust.edu.tw May 29, 2007
II
Contents
PREFACE 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 1.2 1.3 Why study FLUID MECHANICS? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . What is a uid? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Approaches to study Fluid Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Analytical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Expenmental Fluid Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Computation Fluid Dynamics (CFD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 4 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 9
History of Fluid Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fluid as a continuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Macroscopic physical properties of uids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6.1 1.6.2 1.6.3 1.6.4 1.6.5 density, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . specic gravity, SG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . specic volume, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . specic weight, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Compressibility of uids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7 1.8 1.9
Ideal gas law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pascals law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Speed of sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9.1 Viscosity, & . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.10 Hookes law and Newtons viscosity law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.11 Categories of Fluid Dynamics 2 FLUID STATICS 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 15
Review of Taylor Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 The Hydrostatic Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Pressure variation in incompressible uids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 III
2.5 2.6
Pressure variation in compressible uids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Standard Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 2.6.1 2.6.2 Absolute pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Gauge pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.7
Facilities for pressure measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2.7.1 2.7.2 Manometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Barometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.8 2.9
Inclined-tube Manometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Hydrostatic force on vertical walls of constant width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.10 Hydrostatic force on an inclined surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 2.11 Hydrostatic force on a curved surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2.12 Buoyance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 3 INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MOTION I 3.1 3.2 3.3 33
Lagrangian and Eulerian Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Control Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Steady and Unsteady ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.3.5 Streamlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Pathlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Streaklines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Streamtubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Denition of 1-D ows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.4 3.5 3.6
Variation of physical properties in a control volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Mass conservation of 1-D ows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Momemtum conservation for 1-D ows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 41
4 INTRODUCATION TO FLUID MOTION II 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6
The Bernoulli equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Derive the Bernoulli equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Stagnation Pressure and Dynamic Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Mass conservation in channel ows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Relationship between cross area, velocity ana pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Applications of Bernoulli equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 4.6.1 4.6.2 4.6.3 4.6.4 4.6.5 Pitot tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Siphon() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Torricellis Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 vena contracta eect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Free jets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
IV
4.6.6 4.6.7
Venturi tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Flowrate pass through a sluice gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 59
5 EQUATIONS OF MOTION IN INTEGRAL FORM 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5
Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Reynolds Transport Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Continuity Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Momentum Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Moment-of-Momentum Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 65
6 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF MOTIONS 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5
Lagrangian and Eulerian systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Rate of Change Following a Fluid Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Continuity Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Momentum Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 71
7 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6
Why dimension analysis? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Fundamental dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 How to carry out a dimensional analysis? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Common nondimensional parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Nondimensional Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Scale model tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 83
8 Viscous Internal Flow 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8
Fully developed ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Laminar, transition and turbulent ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 2-D Poiseuille ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Hagen-Poiseuille ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Transition and turbulent pipe ows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Darcy equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Hydraulic diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Brief Introduction to Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 101
9 Viscous External Flows 9.1 9.2 9.3
Boundary Layer Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Uniform ow past a at plat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Boundary Layer Thickness, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 V
9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9
Displacement Boundary Layer Thickness, d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Momentum Boundary Layer Thickness, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Boundary Layer Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Friction coecient, Cf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Drag coecient, CD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
9.10 Lift force and attack angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 9.11 Streamline body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 9.12 Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 9.13 Separation and Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
VI
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Why study FLUID MECHANICS?
Fluid mechanics is highly relevant to our daily life. We live in the world full of uids! Fluid mechanics covers many areas such as meteorology, oceanography, aerodynamics, biomechanics, hydraulics, mechanical engineering, civil engineering, naval architecture engineering, and etc. It does not only explain scientic phenomena but also leads industrial applications. 1.2 What is a uid?
The main dierence between uid and solid is their behaviour when shear forces acting on them. A certain amount of displacement is found when a shear force is applied to a solid element. The displacement disappears as the shear force is released from the solid element. A uid deforms continuously under the application of a shear force. Liquids and gases are both regarded as uids.
1
1.3
Approaches to study Fluid Mechanics
Analytical Methods Experiments Computations

1.3.1 Analytical Methods
Using advanced mathematics, we can solve governing equations of uid motions and obtain specic solutions for various ow problems. For example: pipe ows.
1.3.2 Expenmental Fluid Mechanics
This approach utilities facilities to measure considered ow elds or uses various visualization methods to visualize ow pattern. For example: LDA (Laser Doppler Anemometer), hot wire, wind-tunnel test.
1.3.3 Computation Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
For most of ow problems, we cannnot obtain an analytical solution. Hence, we can adopt numerical methods to solve governing equations. The results are so-called numerical solutions. On the other hands, costs of experiments become very expensive. Numerical solutions proides an alternative approach to observe ow elds without built-up a real ow eld. For example: nite volume method, nite element method. 1.4 History of Fluid Mechanics
Archmides (207-212 B.C.): buoyance theory.

2 INTRODUCTION
Leodnado da Vinci (1452-1519): He described wave motions, hydraulic jump, jet and vortex motion. Torricelli (1608-1647): He is well known for measuring atmospheric pressure. Newton (1643-1727): He explained his famous second law in Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. This is one of main laws governing uid motions. He also provided the idea of linear viscosity describing the relationship between uid deformation and shearing forces. Bernoulli (1700-1782): Bernoulli equation. Euler (1707-1783): Euler equation. Reynolds (1842-1919): Pipe ows, Reynolds stress, turbulence theory. Prandtl (1875-1953), Boundary layer theory.
Y Volume V of mass m Y0 Volume V of mass, m
C X0
Z0 Z
Figure 1.1: Concept of a continuum.
1.4 History of Fluid Mechanics
m V
m =lim V V V V
Figure 1.2: Variation of a physical property with respect to the size of a continuum. Density is used as an example.
1.5
Fluid as a continuum
The concept of a continuum is the basis of classic uid mechanics. The continuum assumption is valid in treating the behaviour of uids under normal conditions. However, it breaks down whenever the mean free path of the magnitude as the smallest characteristic dimension of the problem. In a problem such as rare ed gas ow (e.g. as encountered in ights into the upper reaches of the atmosphere), we must abandon the concept of a continuum in favor of the microscopic and statistical points of view. As a consequence of the continuum, each uid property is assumed to have a denite value at every point in space. Thus uid properties such as density, temperature, velocity, and so on, are considered to be continuous functions of position and time. There exists a nondimensional number which is utilizd to judge whether
4 INTRODUCTION
DISCRETE PARTICLE OR MOLECULAR MODEL
BOLTZMANN EQUATION
COLLISIONLESS BOLTZMANN EQUATION
CONTINUUM EUL.ER NAVER-STOKES MODEL EQUATIONS EQS.
CONSERVATION EQUATIONS DO NOT FROM A CLOSED SET
0 INVISCID LIMIT
0.01
0.1
10
100
LOCAL KNUDSEN NUMBER
00 FREE-MOLECULE LIMIT
Figure 1.3: Knusden number and continuum.
uids are continuous or not. Its denition is Kn = , L (1.1)
where is the free mean path of a uid molecule and L is the smallest characteristic length of a ow eld. Kn is the so-called Knusen number.
1.5 Fluid as a continuum
1.6
1.6.1
Macroscopic physical properties of uids

density,
kg m3 Air Water Sea Water Mercury

1.6.2 specic gravity, SG
1.204 998.2 1025 13550
SG =
density of substance density of water Air 0.001206 Oil Ice 0.79 0.917
(1.2)
1.6.3
specic volume,
=
1.6.4 specic weight,
(1.3)
= g
1.6.5 Compressibility of uids
(1.4)
When uids are pressurized, the total volume V is changed. The amount of volume change is the compressibility of uids. In uid mechanics, we use bulk modulus which is denoted as Ev = V
6 INTRODUCTION
dP dP = , dV d
(1.5)
A high bulk modulus means that uids are not easy to be compressed. Hence, uids with a high bulk modulus are incompressible. Units and dimensions of bulk modulus are as same as pressure. For most of liquids, they have very large bulk moduluses (109 in S.I.). It means liquids are incompressible. For most of gases, they are regarded as compressible uids due to their small bulk moduluses. 1.7 Ideal gas law
The ideal gas law describes the relationship among pressure, density, and temperature for an ideal gas. It can be shown that P = RT where R is the gas constant. For air R = 287.03 m2s2 K1 = 1716.4 ft2 s2R2 1.8 Pascals law (1.6)
The Pascals law indicates that pressure transmission does not decrease within a closed container lled with uids. As shown in Fig. 1.4, pressure at point A and point B are equal in terms of Pascal law. Therefore, if we apply a force to the area A, it will produce a force on B and the force is larger than the force on A. 1.9 Speed of sound
When disturbances are intorduced into uid, they are propagated at a nite velocity. The velocity depends on the compressibility of considered uids. It is called the acoustic velocity or the speed of sound, C . It is dend as
1.7 Ideal gas law 7
Figure 1.4: Concept of Pascals law.
C= For ideal gases, C=
dP = d
Ev
d(RT ) = RT d
Example: Determine acoustic velocities of air and water where the temperature is 20o C. Cwater = Ev = 2.19 109 N m2 = 1480 m s1 3 998.2 kg m (1.7)
Consider air as an ideal gas Cair = RT = 290 m s1 (1.8)
It implies that sound in incompressible uids propagates faster than in compressible uids.
8 INTRODUCTION
u t y
x
Figure 1.5: Deformation of a uid experiencing shear stress.
1.9.1
Viscosity, &
Newtonian uids
Consider uids are full of two parallel walls. A shear stress, , is applied to the upper wall. Fluids are deformed continuously because uids cannot support shear stresses. The deformation rate, however, is constant. Furthermore, if the deformation rate or the so-called rate of strain is proportional to the shear stress, then the uid will be classied as a Newtonian uid, i.e. where is shear angle or = In addition, d du = . dt dy Hence, = du . dy (1.12) (1.11) d . dt (1.10) d , dt (1.9)
Again, the relationship between shear stress acting on a Newtonian uid and rate of strain (or velocity gradient) is linear. If it is not linear, then
1.9 Speed of sound 9
the uid will be called a non-Newtonian uid. is the so-called dynamic s or Poise (cP). In addition, lb s or Ryne viscosity. Its units are dyne cm 2 in2 in B.G. 1 microRyne = 0.145 (cP) Another denition of viscosity is the kinematic viscosity which is = 2 2 in Its units are cm s or Stoke(cS) in S.I. In addition, s or Newt in B.G. 1 Newt = 0.00155 (cS). Example: Determine the shear stress exerted on the bottom. Solution:
U = 10 cm/s
oil (
= 0.036 Ns/m2) y x
u(y)
d =5.0 mm
According to Newtons viscosity law, we have du dy
b =
.
y =0
(1.13)
The velocity prole is available by a non-slip boundary condition, i.e.
u =
U y d 0.1 m s1 y = 0.005 m = 20y .
(1.14)
In addition, the velocity gradient on the bottom can be obtained by

10 INTRODUCTION
du dy Therefore, the shear stress is
=
y =0
U = 20 . d
(1.15)
b = 0.036 20 = 0.72 N m2.

Saybolt viscometer
(1.16)
When we try to measure the viscosity for a uid, we do not measure the shear stress, and the volocity gradient but another variable, time. Saybolt viscometer is designed to measure the viscosity of a uid in constant temperature. The principle of a uids drain from a container in constant temperature and we measure the total time till it takes for 60 ml of uids. Then we use empirical formulae to evaluate kinematic viscosity, . The time, measured in second, is the viscosity of the oil in ocial units called Saybolt Universal Seconds (SOS). (cS) = 0.226t 195 , t 100 SOS t 135 (cS) = 0.22t , t 100 SOS t (1.17) (1.18)
(temperature= 1500 F ) 1.10 Hookes law and Newtons viscosity law
Hookes law for a solid element , L
= E = E
(1.19)
where is stress, is strain and E is the so-called Youngs modulus.

1.10 Hookes law and Newtons viscosity law 11
Sample
temperature is constant
60ml
Figure 1.6: Saybolt viscosmeter
Newtons viscosity law du dy
= =
(1.20)
solid E uid u
In solid mechains, we utilize displacement to describe solid motions or respons. Velocity, however, is employed in uid motions instead of displacement. It is because uid deformation under shear stress is continuous, so it is hard to nd a displacement to indicate the magnitude of a uid motion. 1.11 Categories of Fluid Dynamics
Hydrodynamics & Hydraulics

12 INTRODUCTION
Inviscid Fluid Flows(Potential Flows) & Viscous Fluid Flows Laminar Flows & Turbulent Flows Internal Flows & External Flows
1.11 Categories of Fluid Dynamics
13
14
INTRODUCTION
Chapter 2
FLUID STATICS
In uid statics, uids at rest are considered. No relative motion between adjacent uid particles. Since there is no relative motion between uids, viscous stress shoud not exist. Otherwise, uids would not be at rest. Weight of uids is the only force in uid statics. To keep static equilibrium, resultant forces must be zero. Therefore pressure should be included to keep equilibrium. 2.1 Review of Taylor Expansion
For a continuous function, f (x), it can be expanded in a power series in the neighborhood of x = . This is the so-called Taylor Expansion given by f () f n () f () 2 (x )+ (x ) + . . . + (x )n + . . . (2.1) f (x) = f ()+ 1! 2! n! 2.2 Pressure
Pressure is continuous throughout a ow eld in terms of continuum concept. Pressure is isotropic. In other words, pressure is independent of
15
direction. Positive pressure means compression. On the other hand, negative pressure means tension. It is opposite to a normal stress. Pressure can be regarded as a scalar.
z g y z P1dA dz P2dydz gdxdydz/2 x ds
P3dxdy x
dA = ds dy =dy dz/sin
Figure 2.1: Fluid element in a static uid domain.
F=0 Fx = P2 dy dz P1 dA sin = 0 P2 dy dz = P1 dy dz sin sin
(2.2) (2.3) (2.4) (2.5) (2.6) (2.7) (2.8) (2.9)
P2 = P1 1 dx Fz = P3 dy dx = g dxdy dz + P1 dy cos 2 cos 1 P3 = P1 + g dz 2 dz 0, P3 = P1 P1 = P2 = P3 units of pressure S.I. 1 N m2 = 1 Pascal(Pa) = 0.01 mbar(mb)

16 FLUID STATICS
(2.10)
B.G. 1 lb in2 = 1 psi = 144 psf(lbf ft2) 2.3 The Hydrostatic Equation (2.11)
Consider a uid particle at rest shown in Figure 2.2. The centroid of the
z
y
x
z x
y
Figure 2.2: Concept of a uid element.
uid element is at the original point O. The uid element has a small volume V = xy z . Furthermore, the uid is at static equilibrium, so resultant forces acting on the uid element should be zero, i.e. F=0 . (2.12)
No shear stresses should exist owing to static equilibrium. Therefore, we can just consider resultant forces in the z-direction, i.e. Fz = 0 . (2.13)
Resultant forces in the z-direction include the weight of the uid and surface forces caused by pressure. The weight of the uid particle can be given by W = gV = g xy z . (2.14)
17
2.3 The Hydrostatic Equation
Subsequently, surface forces acting on the uid element can be given by Fs = (P2 P1 )xy , and P2 can be expanded using Taylor Expansion, i.e. z P (0) + P1 = P (0) + 1! 2 and P (0) z P2 = P (0) + 1! 2 comes z z + P (0) Fs = 2 P (0) 2 2
3
(2.15)
where P1 and P2 are pressures on the top and the bottom respectively. P1 P (0) z + + 2! 2 P (0) z + 2! 2
2
+ ...
(2.16)
+ ...
(2.17)
Substituting formulae above into the surface force, the surface force be-
+ . . . xy .
(2.18)
Consider static equilibrium again, then we nd z z + P (0) Fz = Fs +W = 2 P (0) 2 2

3
+ . . . xy g xy z = 0 (2.19) (2.20)
2 P (0)
z z + P (0) 2 2
+ . . . = g z
In terms of continuum concept, z should be very small (not zero), so we can negelect high order terms in the formula, i.e. P (0)z = g z or dP = g . (2.22) dz z =0 We can use a notation directional gradient to show the equation again, i.e. P = g . This is called the hydrostatic equation.
18 FLUID STATICS
(2.21)
(2.23)
2.4
Pressure variation in incompressible uids
Density is constant throughout an incompressible uid domain. Hence, we can evaluate the pressure dierence between two points(z = z1 and z2 ), i.e. P |2 1
2
=
1 2
dP dz dz g dz
2
=
1
= g
dz
1
= g (z2 z1 ) .
P g
(2.24)
is called a pressure head and equal to z . Pressure variation in compressible uids
2.5
Density is not constant throughout a compressible uid domain. In other words, density may be aected by temperature and pressure. If we consider a perfect gas, then the equation of state for a perfect gas can be used: P = RT (2.25)
Substituting the perfect gas law to the hydrostatic equation, we obtain dP Pg dP g = g = = dz dz RT P RT (2.26)
In addition, the pressure dierence between two points (z = z1 and z2 ) can be evaluated by integrating the hydrostatic equation:
2 1 2 1
dP = P
g dz RT
(2.27)
g =lnP|2 1 =- RT (z2 z1 ) 2.4 Pressure variation in incompressible uids 19
g (z2 z1 )] P2 =P1 exp[- RT
g P2 =ln P =- RT (z2 z1 ) 1
g P |2 1 =P2 -P1 =-P1 1 exp RT (z2 z1 )
Example: Determine the pressure at the gasoline-water interface, and at the bottom of the tank (see Fig. 2.3). Gasoline and water can be both
open
17ft gasoline P1 water P2

Figure 2.3: Problem of hydrostatic force on bottom of a tank.
S.G.=0.68 3ft
regarded as incompressible uids. Hence, P1 = gasoline h + P0 If we assume P0 =0, then P1 = 0.68 62.4 lb/ft3 17 = 721 psf In addition, the pressure at the bottom is determined by P2 = water 3 + P1 = 62.4 3 + 721 = 908 psf . 2.6 Standard Atmosphere (2.30) (2.29) (2.28)
Sea level conditions of the U.S. Standard Atmosphere.

20 FLUID STATICS
50 z(km) 40 20 10 surface -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 Temperature T = T0- (z-zo) 40 80 Pressure 120
= 6.5Kkm-1
Figure 2.4: Variation of atmospheric pressure.
Table 2.1: sea level condition
S.I. Temperature 15o C Pressure Density 101.33 kPa
B.G. 59oC 2116.2 psf
1.225 kg/m3 0.002377 slug/ft3
Homework: Derive the formula for the pressure variation within the convection layer. Remember pressure and temperature are both functions of elevation. Ans: P = P0 (z z0 ) 1 T0 = 6.5 Kkm1 R = 287 Jkg1K1 g = 9.8 ms2
g/R
(2.31) (2.32) (2.33) (2.34)

2.6 Standard Atmosphere 21
2.6.1
Absolute pressure
Pressure measured relative to an absolute vacuum.(Pb)

2.6.2 Gauge pressure
Pressure measured relative to atmospheric pressure.(Pg )

Pa d h
.
z
Pressure caused by fluid weight. Pressure caused by atmospheric.
Figure 2.5: Variation of static pressure.
Pb = Pg + Pa , (Pa : atmospheric pressure)
(2.35)
Consider uids shown in Fig. 2.5. Its depth is h. If we evaluate pressure at z = h d, pressure at z = h d should include two components, atmospheric pressure and static pressure, i.e. Pz = Pa + gd = Pa + g (h z ) . The resultant force acting on a small area dA at z can be given by dF = Pz dA = Pa + g (h z )dA . (2.37) (2.36)
If we evaluate the resultant force on the bottom, then we obtain F =

22 FLUID STATICS
(Pa + gh)dA .
(2.38)
2.7
2.7.1
Facilities for pressure measurement

Manometers
P1
A Z1
P2 B
Z2
Figure 2.6: Schematic of a manometer.
Manometers are utilized to measure pressure dierence between two points, P = P1 P2 = gh .

2.7.2 Barometers
(2.39)
Barometers are devices designed to measure absolute pressure,
Figure 2.7: Schematic of a barometer.
Pb = g h .
(2.40)
23
2.7 Facilities for pressure measurement
2.8
Inclined-tube Manometer
The main purpose of an inclined-tube manometer is to improve its resolution. Therefore, if a small pressure change is expected in an experiment, then an inclined-tube manometer should be considered.
h2
h1
l2
Figure 2.8: Inclined manometer.
P1 = P2 + 2(l2 sin ) PA + 1h1 = PB + 3h2 + 2 (l2 sin ) PA PB = 3 h3 + 2(l2 sin ) 1 h1 If we ignore 1 and 3, then PA PB = 2 l2 sin and PA PB . 2 sin If PA -PB and 2 are constant, l2 is quite large as is small. l2 = 2.9 Hydrostatic force on vertical walls of constant width dF = Pb wdz
24 FLUID STATICS
(2.41) (2.42) (2.43)
(2.44)
(2.45)
(2.46)
Pa
dF h
dz
Figure 2.9: Hydrostatic force exerted on a vertical gate.
Pb = Pa + g (h z ) dF = [Pa + g (h z )]wdz For the whole vertical wall, the resultant force is F = =
0 h
(2.47) (2.48)
dF
h
[Pa + g (h z )]wdz
h
=
0
Pa wdz +
0
g (h z )wdz
(2.49)
Pawh
gh2 w 2
If we just consider pressure caused by the weight of uids, then the force will be
2.9 Hydrostatic force on vertical walls of constant width 25
Fs =
gh2 w . 2
(2.50)
The force exerts a moment at point z = 0 and the moment is given by dM0 = z dFs = z g (h z )wdz and then M0 = =
0
(2.51)
dM0
h
g (h z )wz dz
h 0
hz 2 z 3 = gw 2 3 3 3 h h = gw 2 3 gh3 w = . 6 We can evaluate the moment arm z , i.e. M0 = z = F

gh3 w 6 gh2 w 2
(2.52)
h . 3
(2.53)
2.10
Hydrostatic force on an inclined surface
Consider an inclined surface shown in Fig. 2.10, then dF = ghdA, h = y sin = gy sin dA, dA = wdy
26 FLUID STATICS
(2.54)
O Y h dF w dA X
Figure 2.10: Hydrostatic force exerted on an inclined gate.
and F = = dF gy sin dA y dA . (2.55)
= g sin
y dA is the rst moment of the area with respect to the x-axis, so we can say y dA = yc A, (2.56)
where yc is the centroid of the area. Furthermore, the resultant force becomes F = g sin yc A = ghc A (2.57)
We consider the moment caused by the resultant force with respect to

2.10 Hydrostatic force on an inclined surface 27
the original point O. First of all,we know
dM = y dF
(2.58)
and then
M = = =
dM y dF gy 2 sin dA . (2.59)
y 2 dA is called the second moment of the area with respect to the x-axis, Ix. We know
M = F yR
(2.60)
and g sin y 2 dA M Ix yR = = = , F g sin yc A yc A
(2.61)
where yR is the acting point of the resultant force or so-called the centre of pressure. Example: Consider a dam of width 100 m and depth 6 m. Determine the resultant hydrostatic force and the moment with respect to A.
28 FLUID STATICS
Figure 2.11: Problem of hydrostatic force exerted on a dam.
Sol: F = hc A h = A 2 = 1000 9.8 0.5 6 (6 100) = 17660 kN M = F hf 1 = F h 3 = 35320 kN-m
(2.62)
2.11
Hydrostatic force on a curved surface
Consider a curved surface shown in Fig. 2.12. The resultant force acting
2.11 Hydrostatic force on a curved surface 29
h Z dF
Fx dA
Fz
Figure 2.12: Hydrostatic force exerted on a curved surface.
on a small element of the curved surface is given by dF = P n dA = g (h z )n dA The resultant force in the x-direction, Fx , can be denoted as dFx = g (h z ) sin dA, (2.64) (2.63)
where is the angle between the z-axis and the normal direction of the small area. In addition, Fx = = = g = g
30 FLUID STATICS
dFx g (h z ) sin dA (h z ) sin dA (h z )dAv , (2.65)
where dAv is the project area of dA on the z-axis. In terms of the formula, the resultant force in the x-axisis equal to the force acting on a vertical plane. On the other hand, the resulatant force in the z-axis is given by dFz = g (h z ) cos dA In addition, Fz = = dFz g (h z ) cos dA (h z )dAh , (2.67) (2.66)
= g
where dAh is the project area of dA on the x-axis. In terms of this formula, Fz is equal to the weight of liquids above the curved surface. The resultant force F can be given by |F| = 2.12 Buoyance
2 + F 2. Fx z
(2.68)
It is well-knoen that Archimede provided the buoyance principle to evaluate the buoyant force acting on a submerged solid body. In fact, we can derive the buoyance principle from the hydrostatic equation. Let us consider a submerged body shown in Fig. 2.13. The resultant force caused by pressure on the small wetted area is given by dF = P2 dA P1 dA = (gz2 + gz1 )dA and F = dF = g (z1 z2 )dA = gV . (2.70)
31
(2.69)
2.12 Buoyance
P1
Z1
dA
Z2
P2
Figure 2.13: Schematic of buoyance exerted on an immersed body.
Therefore, we know the resultant force caused by static pressure or called the buoyant force is equal to the weight of liquids of volume equal to the submerged body. In addition, the point where the buoyant force exerts is called the centre of buoyance.
32
FLUID STATICS
Chapter 3
INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MOTION I

The chapter demonstrates basic concepts of uid kinematics and fundamental laws which uids conserve.
3.1
Lagrangian and Eulerian Systems
When we describle physical quantities, such as density, pressure, and so on, of adynamic problem, we usually chose either Lagrangine or Eulerian system. In terms of Lagrangine system, we move with the considered system or particles, so physical quantities, say , is only a function of time, i.e. = (t) = (x(t), y (t), z (t), t) . (3.1)
Its coordinates are also functions of time. Lagrangian system is often employed in solid dynamic. On the other hand, we x a point in space and observe the variation at this point in terms of Eulerian system. Therefore physical quantities, , are not only functions of time but also functions of
33
space, i.e. = (x, y, z, t) , (3.2)
where x, y, z, and t are independent. Eulerian system is commonly used in uid dynamics. It may be because lots of uid particles are involved in a considered ow. It contains dierent uid particles at the observed point as time goes in Eulerian system. Hence it is hard to describe a system or its physical quantities in terms of a specied uid particle. Therefore, we utilize Eulerian system to describe a system. 3.2 Control Volume
In addition, we utilize a control volume concept to describe a uid ow problem. Coupled with Eulerian system, a control volume is a xed region with artical boundaries in a uid eld. A control volume contains lots of and various uid particles as time goes. Fluid ows in and out through its control surface and then physical quantities in a control volume change. 3.3 Steady and Unsteady ow
If physical quantities of a ow eld are independent of time, then the ow will be called steady. Otherwise, it is unsteady.
3.3.1 Streamlines
A steamline is dened as a line that is everywhere tangential to the instantaneous velocity direction, i.e. v dy v dx u dy = , = , and = . dx u dz w dz w Streamlines cannot cross.
34 INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MOTION I
(3.3)
3.3.2
Pathlines
A pathline is dened as the path along which a specied uid particle ows. It is a Lagrangine concept. Hence, coordinates of a pathline are functions of time.
3.3.3 Streaklines
A streakline is the line traced out by particles that pass through a particular point.
3.3.4 Streamtubes
A streamtube is formed by steamlines. Since streamlines cannot cross, they are parallel in a streamtube.
3.3.5 Denition of 1-D ows
1 2
Figure 3.1: 1-D ow
1-D ows are idealizd ows (see Fig. 3.1). It means physical properties of ows are only functions of a spatial variable. The spatial variable can be coordinates of an axis, such as x, or along a streamline. For example,
3.3 Steady and Unsteady ow 35
density , for 1-D ows can be given: = (x) . In addition, 1-D ows can be steady or unsteady, so it may be = (x, t) . (3.5) (3.4)
3.4
Variation of physical properties in a control volume
Consider a control volume in a ow eld (see Fig. 3.2). The rate of variation of a physical property in a control volume shall be equal to the sum of the ux through its control surface and the surface of the physical property.
source of
Figure 3.2: Control volume
d dt
dV =
control surface
u dA +
dV t
(3.6)
: physical property in a unit volume. For example, mass in a unit volume is density. ( m V = )
3.5
Mass conservation of 1-D ows
When uids move, the mass conservation law should be satised throughout a ow eld. In terms of a control volume, the change rate of mass in a control volume should be zero, i.e. m =0 . (3.7)
Consider a 1-D ow like the gure and uids move along a streamline. If we consider the control volume between point 1 and point 2 and the mass conservation law should be satised in the control volume. If we donot consider any mass source or sink in the control volume, then the rest will be mass ux on the surface 1 and 2, i.e. m c = m 1 + m 2 = 0 . m 1 = m 2 In addition, m = u A and then 1 u1 A1 = 2 u2A2 , (3.11) (3.10) (3.8) (3.9)
where u1 and u2 are average velocities at points 1 and 2, respectively. If density of uids are the same at surface 1 and 2, i.e. Q = u 1 A1 = u 2 A2 , (3.12)
where Q is the volumetric ow rate. In terms of the mass conservation law, we nd that average velocity on a small area is higher than one on a large area.
3.5 Mass conservation of 1-D ows 37
3.6
Momemtum conservation for 1-D ows
According to Newtons second law, an object should retain the same velocity or be at rest if the resultant force exerted on it is zero. That means the change rate of momentum in the object should be zero. We look into the control volume concept again. If a control volume is not accelerated, then the resultant force should be zero in the control volume. i.e. F=0 , or d (mu) = 0 . dt (3.14) (3.13)
If we donot consider any force source in a control volume for a 1-D ow like Fig. 3.2, then only momentum uxes on surface 1, 2 are considered, i.e. F= or d (1A1 u1 u1 + 2 A2u2 u2) = 0 dt (3.16) d (m1u1 + m2 u2) = 0 dt (3.15)
If the 1-D ow is steady, then we can remove the total derivative, i.e. 1 A1(u1 u1 ) + 2 A2 (u2 u2) = 0 or
2 1 A1 u2 1 = 2 A2 u2 .
(3.17)
(3.18)
If we consider other forces acting on the control volume, then F = 0 = F0 +

d (mu) = 0 dt
(3.19)
F0 +
d (1A1u1 u1 + 2 A2u2 u2) = 0 . dt
(3.20)
This is consistent with Newton third law. F can be divided into two parts: 1. body forces such as gravity forces, magnetic forces; 2. surface forces such as pressure.
3.6 Momemtum conservation for 1-D ows
39
40
INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MOTION I
Chapter 4
INTRODUCATION TO FLUID MOTION II

4.1 The Bernoulli equation
Consider a steady inviscid ow. If we apply Newtons second law along a stream line, we will obtain the Bernoulli equation 1 2 1 + gz = P + u + gz2 = const . P1 + u2 1 2 2 1 2 2 (4.1)
The detailed deviation of the Bernoulli equation will be given later. The Bernoulli equation above is based on four assumptions: 1. along a same streamline 2. steady ow 3. same density 4. inviscid
41
4.2
Derive the Bernoulli equation
Consider a steady ow shown in Fig. 4.1. For a uid particle in the streamline A, the momentum should be conserved. Assume the volume of the uid is xns. The total force along the streamline should be
Z g ( P+ P ds dndx ) s 2 n s n n s A
( P- P ds ) dndx s 2 gxns Y
Figure 4.1: Force balance for a uid element in the tangential direction of a streamline.
Fs = =
42
P ds s 2
P+
P ds s 2
dndx g xns sin (4.2)
P dsdndx g xns sin . s
The momentum change along the streamline should be 1 u (mu) = ds (xns) (u) + (xns) u + t t s 1 u = (xns) ds t s u = (xns) u , (4.3) s where u is the tangential velocity component. Let us consider Newtons second law, i.e. Fs = (mu) t (4.4)
Substitution of Eq. (4.2) into (4.3) gives and then z u P g = u . s s s (4.6) P u z g sin = u , sin = s s s (4.5)
This is the so-called Euler equation along a streamline in a steady ow. If the Euler equation is multiplied by ds, it will become dP g dz = udu (4.7)
Futhermore, we integrate the whole equation and obtain the Bernoulli equation, i.e. 1 P + u2 + gz = constant . 2 (4.8)
The Euler equation refers to force balance along a streamline, so the product of the Euler equation and ds can be regarded as work done by a uid along the streamline. The integral of the resultant equation is constant along a streamline. It turns out that the Bernoulli equation refers to en4.2 Derive the Bernoulli equation 43
ergy conservation along a streamline. energy and

u2 2,
+ gz can be regarded as potential
of course, is the kinetic energy.
Moreover, we consider force balance across a streamline. The resultant force should be
( P+
P dn dsdx ) n 2
( P-P dn ) dsdx n 2 W
Figure 4.2: Force balance of a uid element in the normal direction of a streamline.
Fn =
P dn P dn dsdx P + dsdx g xsn cos . n 2 n 2 (4.9) u2 mun = xsn , t R
Its momentum change across a streamline should be (4.10)
where un is the velocity component normal to a streamline and R is the

44 INTRODUCATION TO FLUID MOTION II
curvature radius. Let us consider Newtons second law again. Fn = mun t (4.11)
Substitution of Eq. (4.9) into (4.10) gives u2 P dndsdx g xsn cos = xsn n R cos = and then z u2 P + g = . n n R (4.14) z n (4.12) (4.13)
This is the Euler equation across a streamline. If the Euler equation is multiplied by dn and integrated along the normal direction, it will become dP g dz = u2 dn . R (4.15)
It is the Bernoulli equation along the normal direction of a stream. Example: Determine the pressure variation along the streamline from
3 u=u0(1+a3 ) x
Figure 4.3: 2-D ow past a circle.
point A to point B .
4.2 Derive the Bernoulli equation 45
Solution: From the Bernoulli equation along a streamline, dP g dz = udu (4.16)
Since point A and B are at the horizontal streamline, dz = 0 Hence dP = udu . In additions,
O O
(4.17)
dP =
A A
udu .
We know that du = u0a3 (3)x4dx a3 = 3u0 4 dx . x As a result,

O
(4.18)
PO PA = =
u0 1 +
A O A
3u2 0
a3 a3 3 u 0 4 x3 x a3 a6 + dx x4 x7
O A O
dx
u2 0 u2 0 x3
a6 a3 + x3 2x6 1+ 1 2x3
= a3
.
A
(4.19)
The x-coordinate of point B is -a, so PB PA = 4.3 u2 0 1 1 3 2a u2 0 a 3 xA

3
1+
1 2x3 A
(4.20)
Stagnation Pressure and Dynamic Pressure
Consider uids ow toward a horizontal plate far upstream. Fluids moves at u and pressure is P upstream. Because uids cannot pass through a
P u
P0
stagnation point stagnation streamline
Figure 4.4: Stagnation point
plate, uids must ow along the plate. Subsequently we can nd a point where uids are at rest. This is the so-called stagnation point. Furthermore, we can nd a stagnation steamline which leads to the stagnation point. Owing to no variation of altitude in the whole ow, pressure and velocity are considered in the Bernoulli equation. If we apply the Bernoulli equation along the stagnation line, we will nd P0 P u2 + = , 2
(4.21)
where P0 is called the stagnation pressure or total pressure, P is called the static pressure, and
u2 2
is called dynamic pressure which is distincted
from the pressure due to hydrostatic pressure, P .

4.3 Stagnation Pressure and Dynamic Pressure 47
Pressure coecient is dened as Cp = P P u 2 ) . = 1 ( 1 2 u u 2 (4.22)
Its means the ratio of pressure dierence to inertia force. At a stagnation point, Cp = 1, that means all of kinetic energy is transfered to pressure energy. Cp is zero far upstream. It means no kinetic energy is transfered to pressure energy. 4.4 Mass conservation in channel ows
Consider uid ow in a channel with various cross section areas show in Fig. 4.5. Fluids connot accumulate at any cross sections. In other words,
Figure 4.5: Mass conservation in 1-D ow.
mass must be conserved at any cross section. Hence mass owrates, the amount of mass passing a cross section per unit time, must be equal at every cross section, i.e. m =m 1 = m 2 ,
(4.23)
where m is the mass ow rate in the channel. In addition, m = Q , where is uid density and Q is volumeric owrate. Then, 1 Q1 = 2 Q2 or 1 u1 A1 = 2 u2A2 , (4.26) (4.25) (4.24)
where u1 and u2 are average velocity at cross sections 1 and 2, A1 and A2 are cross sectional areas. For incompressible uids, 1 = 2 and consequently u1 A1 = u2A2. 4.5 Relationship between cross area, velocity ana pressure
Consider a steady ow in a channel with varied cross sectional areas. In terms of the continuity equation, velocity decreases as its cross sectional area diverages for incompressible uids. In addition, pressure increases as velocity decreases in terms of the Bernoulli equation. For a converged channel, cross sectional area decreases so velocity increases. Subsequently, pressure decreases owing to increasing velocity. 4.6
4.6.1
Applications of Bernoulli equation

Pitot tube
1 1 2 P + a u2 + a gz = PO + a uO + a gzO 2 2 z = zO , uO = 0 1 P + a u2 = PO 2
(4.27) (4.28) (4.29)

49
4.5 Relationship between cross area, velocity ana pressure
A V P
A V P
Figure 4.6: Variations of velocity and pressure in converged and diverged channels.
1 (PO P ) = a u2 2 PO P = g h 1 g h = a u2 2 g h u2 =2 a
(4.30) (4.31) (4.32) (4.33)
4.6.2
Siphon()
A siphon is a device transfering uids from a lower level to a higher level. Consider a siphon shown in Fig. 4.8. The free surface in the tank is assumed to be still owing to the ow rate to the siphon is very slow. Hence the velocity is zero at the free surface. Furthermore, the Bernoulli equation is applied to analyze the ow in a siphon. Consider conditions at points 1 and 3 and Pa u2 Pa + 0 + gz1 = + 3 + gz3 , 2
(4.34)
P u
z0 z
h l
Figure 4.7: Schematic of Pitot tube.
where z1 = 0, z3 = h3 . Velocity at point 3 is obtained from the equation i.e. u3 = 2gh3 . (4.35)
Another interesting location is at point 2. In terms of Bernoulli equation, we nd Pa P2 u2 + 0 + gz1 = + 2 + gz2 , 2 where z1 = 0, z2 = h2 . Then we nd pressure at point 2 is P2 Pa u2 = 2 gh2 , 2 where
u2 2 2
(4.36)
(4.37)
and gh2 must be positive. It turns out that P2 should be less
than the atmospheric pressure. If point 2 is high enough to let pressure at point 2 less than vapor presure, then gas in uids will form bubbles. These bubbles will move with uids. If pressure around bubbles increases and is higher than vapor pressure, then bubbles will burst. The phenomenon is
4.6 Applications of Bernoulli equation 51
2 z 1 h2
h3 3
Figure 4.8: Schematic of siphon tube.
called cavitation. Cavitation is often found in ow elds around a inside propeller or uid machinery.
4.6.3 Torricellis Theorem
1 Pa H Pa
Figure 4.9: Torricellis theorem.
Consider a liquid tank of high H. There is a hole, shown in Fig. 4.9, near the ground. Liquids drain from the hole. It is assumed that the tank is quite large, so the location of the free surface is almost still. Hence, u1 = 0. Moreover, pressure at the hole is assumed to be equal to the atmospheric
pressure. Now we can apply Bernoulli equation to point 1 and 2, i.e. P1 u2 P2 u2 1 + + gz1 = + 2 + gz2 , 2 2 where P1 = P2 = Pa , u1 = 0, and (z1 z2 ) = H . It then becomes Pa u2 Pa + gH = + 2 . 2 It turns out that u2 = This is the Torricellis Theorem.
4.6.4 vena contracta eect
(4.38)
(4.39)
2gH .
(4.40)
dj dh
Figure 4.10: Vena contracta eect
contraction coecient Aj ( dj ) 2 Cc = = Ah ( dh ) 2 (4.41)

53
4.6 Applications of Bernoulli equation
h
l
Figure 4.11: Free jet
4.6.5
Free jets
Consider uids in a tank. A nozzle is arranged at the bottom of the tank. Fluids ow through the nozzle due to the gravitational force and consequently a jet is observed. Suppose no energy loss in the nozzle. Bernoulli equation can be utilized to determine the jet condition at the exit of the nozzle. The free surface of the tank is assumed to be still if the tank is large enough. Therefore, u1 = 0. According to the Bernoulli equation, the total energy along a streamline from the free surface to the exit should be the same, i.e. P2 u2 P1 u2 1 + + gz1 = + 2 + gz2 = constant . 2 2 (4.42)
We know u1 = 0, P1 = P2 = Pa and (z1 z2 ) = h + l. The equation becomes u2 2 = g (h + l ) 2

(4.43)
or
u2 =
2g (h + l ) .
(4.44)
The result is as same as Torricellis Theorem. However, if the nozzle is not designed well, then there will be energy loss at the nozzle. As a result, Bernoulli equation has to be modied.
4.6.6
Venturi tube
Figure 4.12: Venturi tube.
55
u A AA = u B AB AA uB = uA AB AA > AB uA < uB PA u2 PB u2 A + = + B 2 2 2 uB u2 PA PB A = 2 AA 2 u2 A ( AB ) uA = 2 2 2 ua AA = 1 2 AB
(4.45)
A Venturi tube is a device made up of a contraction followed by a diverging section. Fluids moving toward the contraction are speeded up according to the continuity equation. In addition, pressure decreases as velocity increases in terms of the Bernoulli equation. A famous application of a Ventui tube is a carburetor. A carburetor is shown in Fig. 4.13. Fuel is sucked into the throat due to the low pressure at the throat. Subsequently, fuel is mixed with air at the throat. Venturi tube is a facility to measure the ow rate in a pipe. Fluids ow a contraction part and then a expansion part in a Venturi tube.
Q(Air)
Butterfly Valve
Throat of Venturi FUEL Air-Fuel Mixture
Q
Figure 4.13: Schematic of caburetor.
4.6.7
Flowrate pass through a sluice gate
Form the Bernoulli equation, P1 u2 P2 u2 1 + + z1 = + 2 + z2 r 2g r 2g P1 = P2 = Pa u2 u2 1 + z1 = 2 + z2 2g 2g Form mass conservation u1z1 = u2 z2 z2 u2 . u1 = z1
(4.46)
(4.47)
57
Substituting into Bernoulli equation u2 2 2g u2 2 2g z2 z1 z2 z1

2
+ z1
2
u2 = 2 + z2 2g = z2 z1 2g z2 z1 . z2 2 (z ) 1 1 (4.48)
u2 =
The owrate pass through the sluice gate must be Q = u2 z2 = z2
2g (z2 z1 ) . z2 2 (z ) 1 1
(4.49)
58
Chapter 5
EQUATIONS OF MOTION IN INTEGRAL FORM

We consider one-dimensional ows in Chapter 3 and 4. Conservation laws of mass, momentum and energy are obtained for one-dimensional ows. Most of uid ows, however, cannot be simplied as one-dimensional ows. Therefore, we have to look into conservation laws again and derive governing equations for general uid ows. These equations for uid ows can be either in integral form or in dierential form. Equations in integral form are derived in terms of the control volume concept. Equations in integral form do not give any information throughout a ow eld, but they can provide resultant forces acting on a control volume. On the other hand, equations in dierential form provide details regarding variations in a ow eld, so we can get values of physical variables throughout a ow eld. In this chapter, we consider governing equation of uid ows in integral form rst.
59
5.1
Flux
We mentioned the control volume concept in Chapter 3. A control volume is bounded articially in a ow eld. Physical properties in a control volume may vary in space or in time, because uids with various physical properties ow in and out a control volume and it causes variations of physical properties in a control volume. The amount of a physical property cross an unit surface per second is called ux. A ux can be revealed as b(u A), where b is a physical property per unit volume, u is the velocity over the area and A is the area vector. We may use nA instead of A and n is the unit vector in the normal direction of the area. Physical properties considered in this chapter can be mass, momentum or energy, so we have dierent uxes: mass ux : (u n)A momentum ux : u(u n)A energy ux : e(u n)A e : energy contained in a unit volume, i.e., specic energy (5.1) (5.2) (5.3) (5.4) (5.5)
It should be noticed that n is positive in the outward direction of the area but negative in the inward direction.
60
5.2
Reynolds Transport Theorem
2 1 III II I
Figure 5.1: Flow through a control volume.
We consider a control volume I+II in a ow eld. Fluids contained in the control volume at t = t will ow, so the control volume containing same uids at t = t+t will be II+III. The rate of change of a physical D property in the control volume can be shown in D c.v. dV where t is the amount of the physical property per unit mass. In terms of Fig. 5.1, we know the rate of change in the control volume can be divided into two parts. The rst is the local chang at the region II, which can be shown
in t II
dV . The second is the net ux including the ux from the
region I to the region II and the ux from the region II to the region III, so we have
c.s.1 (u
n)dA and
c.s.2 (u
n)dA. We can combine

61
5.2 Reynolds Transport Theorem
uxes across two surfaces and get have D Dt At t = t0 dV =

c.v. c.s.
c.s. (u
n)dA. As t 0, we will t
(u n)dA +
dV
c.v.
(5.6)
Bsys = BI (t) + BII (t) . At t = t0 + t Bsys = BII (t + t) + BIII (t + t) DBsys Bsys = lim t0 t Dt or Bsys BII (t + t) + BIII (t + t) BII (t) BI (t) = t t BII (t + t) BII (t) BII lim = t0 t t
BI (t) t
(5.7)
(5.8) (5.9)
(5.10) (5.11)
is the ux ow through in C.S.1 and is denote as (u dA) (5.12)
C.S.1
In addition,
BIII (t+t) t
is the ux ow out C.S.2 and is denoted as (u dA) (5.13)
C.S.2
C.S.1
(u dA) +
C.S.2
(u dA) =
C.S.
(u dA) (5.14)
Besides,
t0
lim (C.V.I +C.V.II ) = lim (C.V.III +C.V.II ) = C.V.II = C.V. =

t0 C.V.
dV (5.15)
62
As a result DBsys D = Dt Dt and Bc.v.II = t t 5.3 Continuity Equation dV

c.v.
dV
c.v.
(5.16)
(5.17)
If we consider mass variation in a control volume, then we will have = 1. In terms of Reynolds transport theorem, the conservation of mass can be revealed as D Dt dV =
c.v. c.s.
(u n)dA +
dV = 0
c.v.
(5.18)
This is the continuity equation in integral form. 5.4 Momentum Equation
Subsequntly, we consider momentum in a control volume, then will be u. The momentum equation in integral form then is denoted as D Dt udV =
c.v. c.s.
u(u n)dA +
udV . (5.19)
c.v.
Moreover, the rate of momentum is equal to the resultant force acting on the control volume, i.e. D Dt udV = F = Fbody + Fsurface + Fext . (5.20)
c.v.
If we consider gravity in body force, then we will have Fbody = gdV .

c.v. 5.3 Continuity Equation 63
(5.21)
The surface can be divided into pressure and shear stress, i.e. Fsurface = Hence, D Dt udV =
c.v. c.v.
c.s.
(p + ij )ndA .
(5.22)
gdV +
c.s.
(p + ij )ndA + Fext . (5.23)
5.5
Moment-of-Momentum Equation
Now we consider moment-of-momentum, then will ru. Using Reynolds transport theorem, we obtain D Dt or (r F)c.v. = (r u)(u n)dA + t (r u)dV = Tshaft , (5.25) where Tshaft is the resultant torque applied to uids in the control volume. r udV = (r u)(u n)dA + t (r u)dV (5.24)
c.v.
c.s.
c.v.
c.s.
c.v.
64
Chapter 6
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF MOTIONS

We obtain governing equations of uid ows in integral form in Chapter 5. As mentioned before, governing equations in integral form cannot provide details throughout a control volume. If we would like to know more about a ow eld, such as velocity, pressure and so on, then governing equations of uid ows in dierential form are necessary. Solving dierential governing equation can get the whole information of a ow eld. 6.1 Lagrangian and Eulerian systems
These systems are used very often in dynamics. An observer follows a specied particle if Lagrangian system is employed. In other words, a coordinate system is xed at a particular uid particle when Lagrangian system is utilized to describe a ow eld. In addition, physical variables described by Lagrangian system are functions of time only. All of spatial coordinates are functions of time too (x = ut). We can say = (t). d = +u +v +w dt t x y z
65
(6.1)
The term at the left hand side of the equation is called the total derivative or material derivative. It means the rate of change of in a uid particle, d i.e., Lagrangian point of view. It is often to use D Dt instead of dt to indicate a material derivative, i.e. D = +u +v +w . Dt t x y z
(6.2)
The trems at the right hand side of the equation are, in fact, described by Eulerian system. The rst term is called a local derivative or unsteady term. The rest are called convective terms because they are caused by ow motions. This equation can shown in vector form, i.e. D = + (u ) . Dt t
(6.3)
It should be noted that u and cannot be communtive. In other words, ( u ) = ( u) . (6.4)
Eulerian system is an alternative way to describe a ow eld. An observer is xed at a selected point of space if Eulerian system is adopted. Hence, the coordinate system does not move as uids ow. In addition, spatial coordinates are required to indicate the point which is observed. Hence, physical variables described by Eulerian system are functions of time and space, i.e. = (x, t)
66 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF MOTIONS
(6.5)
6.2
Rate of Change Following a Fluid Particle
is a continuous function of space and time. Its innite samll change can be described using chain rule of dierentiation, i.e. d = dt + dx + dy + dz , t x y z (6.6)
where Cartesian coordinate system is used. Moreover, the equation is divided by dt and we get d dx dy dz = + + + . dt t x dt y dt z dt (6.7)
In Chapter 5, the change rate of a physical variable in a control volume can be shown in D Dt dV =
c.v. c.s.
(u n)dA +
dV
c.v.
(6.8)
The ux across the control surface can be convered to a term in volume intrgral using Gauss theorem, i.e.
c.s.
(u n)dA =
c.v.
(u)dV t
(6.9)
Subsequently, we can rewrite the control volume formula and obtain D Dt D Dt 6.3 dV =
c.v. c.v.
(u)dV +
dV (6.10)
c.v.
If the volume does not change, then it will be dV =

c.v. c.v.
() + (u) dV t
(6.11)
Continuity Equation
Mass conservation is obeyed as uid particles move. Then it can shown as Dm D = Dt Dt dV = 0 .

c.v. 6.2 Rate of Change Following a Fluid Particle 67
(6.12)
It means that mass of a uid particle does not change with time. This is the continuity equation in integral form. The Eulerian system can be applied to describe the continuity equation, i.e.
D Dt In addition,
dV =
c.v. c.v.
+ (u) dV = 0 t
(6.13)
(u) = ( u) + (u ) .
(6.14)
When dV does not change with time, the continuity equation becomes D + ( u) + (u ) = + ( u) = 0 . (6.15) t Dt For an incompressible uid, D Dt = 0. The continuity equation becomes u= 0 . In a Cartesian coordinate system, it becomes u v w + + =0 . x y z In a cylindrical coordinate system, it becomes ur ur 1 u uz + + + =0 . r r r z 6.4 Momentum Equation (6.18) (6.17) (6.16)
Consider momentum conservation in uid particles. It can be shown as D D (mu) = Dt Dt or D (u) = f , Dt

68 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF MOTIONS
udV = F =
c.v. c.v.
f dV .
(6.19)
(6.20)
where f is the resultant force per unit volume acting on the uid particle. When dV does not change with time. The total derivative can be revealed as D (u) = (u) + (u )u, Dt t (6.21)
There are two kinds of forces, body force and surface force, so it becomes f = fbody + fsurface (6.22)
Body force is caused by gravity or electromagnetic forces. Surface forces are caused by pressure and shear stress. If viscosity of uids is ignored, then shear stress can be removed from the equation. Now, we have the momentum equation D (u) = (u) + (u )u = fbody + fsurface Dt t (6.23)
This is the so-called Navier-Stokes equation. If only gravity appears in the body force, then fbody = g . Surface force can be shown in fsurface = p + 2 u . Substituting these terms into the N-S equation, we obtain D (u) = (u) + (u )(u) = g p + 2 u . Dt t If the viscosity of uids is ignored, then it will become D (u) = g p Dt which is called the Euler equation.
6.4 Momentum Equation 69
(6.24)
(6.25)
(6.26)
(6.27)
6.5
Boundary Conditions
The continuity equation and the N-S equation constitute an initial-boundary value problem. Hence approiate boundary and initial conditions are required to get a particular solution. Velocity and pressure are main variables in the continuity euation and N-S equation. They have to be prescribed before solving these equations. It is, however, not easy to obtain conditions for pressure. For velocity, non-slip boundary condition is imposed in the solid boundary, i.e. u=0. (6.28)
If viscosity of uids is ignored, then the non-slip condition cannot be used. Therefore impereable condition is utilized, i.e. un=0, which means no uids pass through a solid boundary. (6.29)
70
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF MOTIONS
Chapter 7
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
7.1 Why dimension analysis?
1. Some important dimensionless parameters are obtained as a dimensional analysis is conducted in a uid mechanic problem. In terms of those dimensionless parameters, we can understand features of a ow problem. 2. Governing equations based on physical laws for ow problems are revealed in nondimensional form. This avoids eects of system unit in a uid ow problem. 7.2 Fundamental dimensions
1. MLT: As we consider physical variables, three fundamental dimensions are often involved. They are mass(M), length(L), and time(T). 2. FLT: FLT is an alternative view to adopt fundamental dimensions. They are force(F), Length(L), and time(T). In fact, F = MLT 2 .
71
(7.1)
MLT is more often used than FLT, so it will be considered in the following dimensional analysis. Examples: velocity: LT 1 acceleration: LT 2 force: MLT 2 density: ML3 volume: L3 pressure: ML1 T 2 power: ML2 T 3 work: ML2 T 2 dynamic viscosity: ML1T 1 kinematic viscosity: L2T 1
7.3
How to carry out a dimensional analysis?
1. Find out all of physical variables in a uid ow problem as possible as you can. It depends on your experiences and your fundamental knowledge in uid dynamics. Assume we have n variables in a uid ow problem. Find out their dimensions. 2. Check out how many fundamental dimensions are involved in these variables. In most of time, three fundamental dimensions are all involved. Assume fundamental dimensions are involved. 3. The relationships between these physical variables are not obtained.
72 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Pick up one of them as the dependent variable. For example: A1 = f ( A2 , , An ) , (7.2)
where A1, , An are chosen independent variables and A1 is the dependent variable. 4. Now we utilize dimensional analysis to non-dimensionalized physical variables. theory is used to reach the goal. For n physical variables and fundamental dimensions, (n ) products will be obtained. Those products are dimensionless. 5. To nd out products, physical variables have to be chosen rst. The main principle to choose these physical variables depends on their dimensions. Basically physical variables with less dimensions are chosen. The dependent variable cannot be chosen as one of them. For example, we choose A2 , , A2+1. 6. Now the rst 1 product will be
b c 1 = A1 (Aa 2 A3 A4 )
(7.3)
if = 3. To make 1 dimensionless, check its dimensions in turn, i.e. A1 = M y1 L y2 T y3 A2 = M y4 L y5 T y6 A3 = M y7 L y8 T y9 A4 = M y10 Ly11 T y12 M : y1 + ay4 + by7 + cy10 = 0
7.3 How to carry out a dimensional analysis?
(7.4) (7.5) (7.6) (7.7) (7.8)

73
L : y2 + ay5 + by8 + cy11 = 0 T : y3 + ay6 + by9 + cy12 = 0 ,
(7.9) (7.10)
where y1 , ..., y12 are known. a, b, and c are obtained by solving the simultaneous equations. 7. Each product can be found in turn using the step 6 where the rest of physical variables are used to replace A1 . At last, n products are obtained and Eq. (7.2) becomes 1 = F (2 , , n) . It is the result of a dimensional analysis. Ex: Drag on a sphere (7.11)
Figure 7.1: Flow past a sphere.
1. geometric variable: D(diameter of the sphere), material variables: (density), (viscosity),

kinematic variable: u(velocity), dynamic variable: FD (drag on the sphere) 2. D : L : ML3 : ML1 T 1 u : LT 1 FD : MLT 2 Three fundamental dimensions are involved in physical variables. 3. Since the drag on the sphere is the main variable which we would like to know, we choose FD as the dependent variable, i.e. FD = f (D, , u, ) (7.12)
4. 5-3=2. It means that 2 nondimensional parameters should be found in the analysis. 5. Choose D, u, and , to nondimensionalize other variables. 6. 1 = FD Da ubc M :1+0+0+c= 0 L : 1 + a + b 3c = 0 T : 2 + 0 b + 0 = 0 a = 2 b = 2 c = 1 (7.13)
(7.14)
1 = FD D2u21 =
FD D2 u2
(7.15)
75
7.3 How to carry out a dimensional analysis?
7. 2 = Da ubc M :1+0+0+c= 0 L : 1 + a + b 3c = 0 T : 1 + 0 b + 0 = 0 a = 1 b = 1 c = 1
(7.16)
(7.17)
2 = D1 u11 = 8. As a result, FD = F ( ) u2D2 uD CD =
uD
(7.18)
(7.19)
FD uD = F ( ) u2 D2
(7.20)
2 FD : drag coecient , A = D 1 2A 4 u 2 Re = uD : Reynolds number
(7.21)
(7.22)
Ex: Pipe ows 1. geometric variable: D(diameter of a pipe), L(length),(ruoghness) material variables: (density), kinematic variable: uavg (average velocity) dynamic variable: P (pressure drop)
ua
Figure 7.2: Flow in a straight pipe.
2. D:L L:L :L : ML3 : ML1T 1 uavg : LT 1 P : ML1T 2 Three fundamental dimensions are involved in physical variables. 3. Choose P as the dependent variable and then P = f (D, L, , , , uavg ) . (7.23)
4. Choose D, , uavg to nondimensionalize other variables. There will be

7.3 How to carry out a dimensional analysis? 77
7-3=4 products. 5. 1 = P Da b uc avg M :1+0+b+0=0 L : 1 + a 3b + c = 0 T : 2 + 0 + 0 c = 0 a=0 b = 1 c = 2
(7.24)
(7.25)
2 1 = P 1 u avg =
P u2 avg
(7.26)
6. 2 = LDa b uc avg M :0+0+b+c=0 (7.27)
L : 1 + a 3b c = 0 T :0+0+0c=0 a = 1 b=0 c=0 2 = L D 7. 3 = Da b uc avg 3 = 8. 4 = Da b uc avg 4 =

(7.28)
(7.29)
(7.30)
uavg D
(7.31)
9. P L uavg D L , , ) = F ( , , ) = F ( u2 D D uavg D D D avg Cp = Re = P , (pressure coecient) 1 2 u avg 2 uavg D , (Reynolds number) (7.32) (7.33) (7.34)
7.4
Common nondimensional parameters Names of Parameters Formula Reynolds number(Re) Froude number(Fr) Euler number(Eu) Mach number(Ma) Strouhal number(St) Weber number(We)
uL u gL P
1 2 2 u
Physical meanings inertia force viscous force inertia force gravitational force pressure force inertia force inertia force compressibility force inertia force surface tension force
u C fL u 1 2 2 u L
7.5 Ex:
Nondimensional Equations
1 P + u2 + gh = const 2 characteristic length: L characteristic velocity: u0 1 u2 gh P + 2 = const 2+ u0 2 u2 u0 0 P gh u2 + + 1 1 2 = const 2 2 u u 0 0 2 2 u0
(7.35) (7.36) (7.37) (7.38) (7.39)

79
7.4 Common nondimensional parameters
Ex: u v + =0 x y L u L v + u0 x u0 y u v + =0 x y u v x y u = , v = , x = , y = u0 u0 L L 7.6 Scale model tests (7.40) (7.41) (7.42) (7.43)
To establish similitude between a protype system and a model system, geometric, kinematic, and dynamic similarities have to be considered. 1. Geometric Similarity Lm = const , (7.44) Lp where subscripts m and p refer to model and protype, respectively. 2. Kinematic Similarity u2m u3m u1m = = = const u1p u2p u3p (7.45)
3. Dynamic Similarity - Dynamic parameters between a model and a protype must be equal as possible. For example, it viscous force is important in the ow eld, then Reynolds number will be the important dynamic parameter and Rem = Rep and up Lp um Lm = m p L p m um = up . L m p
(7.46)
(7.47)
Hence, the adjustment of characteristic velocity in the model ow relies on the geometric similarity. If the model is tiny, then the characteristic velocity in the model ow will become very fast. Sometimes, it is impossible to generate very fast characteristic velocity in the model ow. As a result, one has to enlarge the model size. When geometric, kinematic, and dynamic similarities are reached between a model and a protype, a scaled model can be conducted and summarized using the result of a dimensional analysis. Consequently, relationships among various products can be obtained. In addition, the variation of the dependent valiable for the protype can be predicted. For example, in the previous example concerning a uniform ow past a sphere, we have CD = F (Re) . (7.48)
When Rem is equal to Rep , the dynamic similarity is reached. Subsequently, the drag exerted on the sphere can be determined using the drag coecient, i.e. ( FD ) p = 1 p upAp CD 2 1 = p upAp F (Re) 2 p up Dp 1 ) , = p upAp F ( 2 p
(7.49)
where F (Re) is obtained from the scale model test. Distorted model: It is not always possible that all dynamic parameters between a model and a protype are qual to others. For example, one cannot promise dynamic similarities of Reynolds number and Frounde number at
7.6 Scale model tests 81
the same time, because for Reynolds number um = up and for Froude number um = up Lm . Lp (7.51) L p m L m p (7.50)
One has to chose one of them to perform dynamic similarity and ignore the other one. When not all dynamic parameters are equal between a model and a protype, it is the so-called distorted model.
82
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Chapter 8
Viscous Internal Flow

We have investigated governing equations in dierential forms for uid ow problems in Chapter 6. In addition, specic uid ow problems such as pipe ows, ows past obstacles and etc. will be studied. First of all, viscous internal ows are discussed in this chapter. Internal uid ows refer to ows which are bounded by solid walls. For example, a pipe ow is a typical internal ow. It is bounded by pipe walls. 8.1 Fully developed ow
Consider uids ow into a pipe from a tank shown in Fig. 8.1. The ow is uniform (U0) at the entrance of the pipe. The uniform veloctiy prole does not retain as soon as uids enter the pipe. Owing to viscosity, uid are still on the pipenwall and then velocity of uids increases along the radial direction. The viscous eect gradually aects velocity of uids as uids move downstream. In the region near the entrance, the viscous eect is not full of the pipe but appears near the pipe wall. The velocity in the aected region is slower than the unaected region. The aected region is called a boundary layer. Mathematically, u = 0.99U0 is the articial edge
83
Boundary Layer
U0
entrance u=0.99U0 fully developed region
Figure 8.1: Schematic of development of pipe ow from the inlet.
of a boundary layer. The viscous eect disperses from the pipe wall to the centre as uids move downstream. Finally, the viscous eect is full of the pipe and the ow in the region is called a fully developed ow. 8.2 Laminar, transition and turbulent ow
When uid ows in a pipe, various patterns are found according to dierent physical parameters, such as velocity, viscosity and pipe diameter. If we dye a point in a pipe ow, then we will nd that the streakline from the point may be a straight line or a distorted line. If it is a straight line, it means all uid particles move along the same straight line as uids travel downstream. This is the so-called laminar ow. If it is a distorted line, it means uid particles do mot move along the same line as they
84 Viscous Internal Flow
Figure 8.2: Experimental appratus of Reynolds pipe ow. Source: http : //www.eng.man.ac.uk/historic/reynolds/oreynB.htm
travel downstream but are disturbed. This is the so-called turbulent ow. In 1833 A.D., O. Reynolds explained physical phenomena in pipe ows using pipes of various diameters and a control value (see Fig. 8.2 and 8.2). He controled the ow rate across a pipe using the vale and dyed the ow to visualize the pipe ow. He had same conclusions as the presvious description.
8.3
2-D Poiseuille ow
Consider a fully developed laminar ow between two innite parallel plates. To analyze the laminar ow, assumptions are made to simplify the whole problems. They are
8.3 2-D Poiseuille ow 85
Figure 8.3: Flow patterns of laminar, transition, and turbulent pipe ows. Source: http : //www.eng.man.ac.uk/historic/reynolds/oreynB.htm
1. 2-D 2. steady ow 3. incompressible 4. v = 0 5. ignore gravity The analytical solution can be obtained by solving the continuity equation and the Navier-Stokes equations which are revealed as u v + =0 , x y u u 1 P u +u +v = + t x y x and v v v 1 P +u +v = + t x y y
uD ,
(8.1) 2u 2u + x2 y 2 2v 2v + x2 y 2 . (8.2)
(8.3)
In additoin, he found that a very important nondimensional parameter, which is highly relevant to the ow patterns. It is the well-known
Reynolds number. Pipe ows are classied as three kinds of patterns according to Reynolds unmber, i.e.,
y D x
C L
Figure 8.4: 2-D Poiseuille ow.
laminar ow: Re < 2,300 transition ow: 2,300 < Re < 4,000 turbulent ow: Re > 4,000. In laminar ow regime, the pipe ow can be examined using analytical methods. The laminar ow solution is called Poiseuille ow which is named after J. L. M. Poiseuille. Transition and turbulent ows, however, cannot be studied using analytical methods. Therefore, most of konwledge of transition and turbulent ows come from experimental data. First of all, we look into the continuity equation and get u v + =0 x y and u = u(y ) . (8.5) (8.4)
The continuity equation is satisied as u is a function of y . Subsequently,

8.3 2-D Poiseuille ow 87
the N-S equation in the y -direction is simplied as v v v 1 P +u +v = + t x y y 2v 2v + x2 y 2 . (8.6) (8.7) Since we assume that the ow is in a steady state, so we get P =0 y which leads to P = P (x) . (8.9) (8.8)
v t
= 0, v = 0 and
Therefore, the N-S equation is satied as pressure is a function of x. Furthermore, the N-S equation in the x-direction is reconsidered as u u u 1 P +u +v = + t x y x 2u 2 u + x2 y 2
u t
(8.10)
Again, we assume that the ow is in a steady state, so v = 0 and we get 1 dP 2u = . y 2 dx In addition, u 1 dP dP = y + C1 , = const. y dx dx and consequently 1 dP y 2 u= + C1 y + C2 . dx 2
= 0 , u = u(y ) ,
(8.11)
(8.12)
(8.13)
Appropriate boundary conditions are required to obtain arbitary constants, C1 and C2 , in the general solution. Since uids are viscous, non-slip boundary condition can be imposed on solid walls, i.e. u y=
D 2
=0
(8.14)
and u y= Using non-slip conditions, we nd u y= and D u y= 2 1 dP D2 C1D + C2 = 0 , = dx 8 2 d dP D2 + 2 C2 = 0 dx 8 1 dP D 2 . C2 = dx 8 Substitution of C2 into Eq. (8.13) gives 1 dP D2 C1 D 1 dP D2 + =0 dx 8 2 dx 8 which leads to C1 = 0 . (8.21) (8.20) (8.17) D 2 = 1 dP D2 C1D + + C2 = 0 dx 8 2 (8.16) D 2 =0 . (8.15)
where C2 is found by adding these equations and we get (8.18) (8.19)
The solution for velocity in laminar ow between two innite parallel plates is shown as 1 dP y 2 1 dP D2 u(y ) = dx 2 dx 8 1 dP 1 2 D 2 = y dx 2 4 dP D2 2y 1 ( ) = 2 dx 4 D D2 dP = ( ) 1 8 dx 2y D
2 2
+1 . (8.22)
89
8.3 2-D Poiseuille ow
It is obvious that velocity in a fully developed laminar ow between two innite parallel plates is parabolic. The maximum values of velocity prole can be obtained by its rst derivative, i.e. du D2 dP 2 = ( ) 2 y = 0 . dy 8 dx D It happens at y = 0 and the maximum value is umax = D2 8 dP dx . (8.24) (8.23)
Moreover, the ow rate per unit width in a cross area can be obtained by integrating velocity, i.e.
D 2
Q = 2
0
udy 4 y3 2 y 2 D 3 0 D 4 1 D3 2 2 D 3 8 D D 2 6 D 3 . (8.25)
D
= = = = =
D2 dP 2 8 dx dP D2 2 8 dx 2 D dP 4 dx 2 dP D 4 dx D3 dP 12 dx
The averaged velocity is then found by uavg = Q A dP 1 D3 = D 12 dx D2 dP = . 12 dx 2 uavg = umax . 3

(8.26)
We nd (8.27)
In addition, u uavg 3 = 1 2 2y D
2
(8.28)
Viscous stress on the wall can be found by w = du dy
D2 = 8
y = D 2
dP dx
4 2y D2
dP D2 = 8 dx D dP = 2 dx 6uavg . = D The friction coecient Cf will be
d D D2
y = D 2
(8.29)
6 D uavg w 12 12 = Cf = 1 = = . 1 2 2 Du Re ( u ) u avg avg avg 2 2
(8.30)
The friction factor will be dP D f = 1 dx 2 2 uavg ( dP )D dx = D2 1 u ( dP ) avg 2 12 dx 24 . = Re 8.4 Hagen-Poiseuille ow
(8.31)
Poiseuille utilized analytical methods to get the solution of a laminar pipe ow. He solved the continuity equation and N-S equations based on the following assumptions:
8.4 Hagen-Poiseuille ow 91
1. steady 2. incompressible 3.

=0
4. ur , u =0 5. ignor the gravitational acceleration. The governing equation for a pipe ow can be revealed as: ur ur 1 u uz + + + =0 r r r z uz = 0, uz = uz (r ) z The 2-D N-S equations in cylindrical coordinate system are denoted as r-direction ur ur ur u2 u ur + ur + + uz t r r z r 2 u0 1 ur 1 2 ur 2 ur ur 1 P + r + 2 2 + = r r r r r z 2 r2 r2 (8.33) = 0, ur = 0, u = 0 t 1 P = 0 r P = P (z )only z-direction uz u uz uz uz + ur + + uz t r r z 1 P 1 = + z r r
(8.32)
(8.34) (8.35)
uz r r
1 2 uz 2 uz + 2 2 + (8.36) r z 2
t 1 r r r
= 0, ur = 0, u = 0, uz = uz (r ) uz r uz r r uz r r uz r r = = = = 1 dP dz 1 dP r dz 1 dP r2 + C1 dz 2 1 dP r C1 + dz 2 r 2 1 dP r + C1 ln r + C2 dz 4 (8.37) (8.38) (8.39) (8.40) (8.41) (8.42)
uz =
B.C. uz (r = D ) = 0 2 0 =
D 1 dP D2 + C1 ln + C2 dz 16 2
(8.43)
C1 must be 0, because r cannot be 0 in ln r. As a result, 1 dP D2 C2 = . dz 16 Substitution of C2 into uz gives uz 1 dP r2 1 dP 1 + = dz 4 dz 4 1 dP 1 = dz 4 1 dP 1 = dz 4 1 dP D2 = dz 16 1 dP = dz r D2 4 2r D D2 16

2 2
(8.44)
D 2
2
D 2
2r D 1 2r D
2
(8.45)
93
8.4 Hagen-Poiseuille ow
Shear stress on the pipe wall is determined by w = uz r
r= D 2
1 dP = dz dP D = . dz 4 In addition,
D2 4 2r 16 D2 (8.46)
1 dP D2 4 r duz = ( ) dr dz 16 D2 2 The maximum velocity appears at duz =0 dr r = 0 . It can be determined by (uz )max = uz (r = 0) = 1 dP D2 . dz 16
(8.47)
(8.48)
The volumetric ow rate per unit width is given by

r
Q =
0
uz 2rdr
D 2
=
0
1 dP D2 4 ( ) 2r3 2r dr 2 dz 16 D
D
= = = =
1 dP D2 8 r4 r2 2 ( ) 2 dz 16 D2 4 2 0 D2 1 dP D2 8 r4 ( ) dz 16 D2 4 16 4 1 dP D2 2 2 ( ) D D dz 16 8 4 4 1 dP D ( ) . dz 128
(8.49)
ua
Figure 8.5: Parabolic prole of velocity component in the z-direction.
The averaged velocity is (uz )avg = Q A 1 dP D2 D2 D2 4 ( ) = D2 dz 16 8 4 2 1 dP D . = ( ) dz 32 (uz )avg = (uz )max We consider uz and uavg and get uz 1 = (uz )avg 2 2r D
2 1 32 1 16
(8.50)
Furthermore, = 1 . 2 (8.51)
(8.52)
It is a parabolic prole for the velocity component in the z-direction. Meanwhile, w = 4u 8u = r0 D (8.53)
8.4 Hagen-Poiseuille ow 95
64 Re w 16 Cf = 1 = 2 Re 2 (uavg ) f= = where f is the Darcy fricition factor. 8.5 Transition and turbulent pipe ows
4 w 1 (uavg )2 2
(8.54) (8.55)
Transition and turbulent pipe ows cannot be solved using analytical methods due to extremely complicated physical phenomena. The only approach to investigate transition and turbulent pipe ows is to conduct experiments. L.F. Moody conducted pipe ow experiments and obtained the well-known Moody diagram. The Moody diagram explains the relationship between Reynolds unmber, friction factor and relative roughness. The Moody diagram can be used in the following steps:
Re
Figure 8.6: Schematic of Moody diagram.
1. Evaluate Reynolds number.

64 can be used for the laminar 2. If Re < 2,300, then the formula f = Re pipee ow. If it is not, then evaluate relative roughness, D .
3. Find the resultant relative riughness Moody diagram.
in the right-hand side of the
4. Follow the line starting from the resultant relative riughness. Find the point in the line at the resultant Reynolds number. Starting from this point, go to the left hand side and nd out the friction factor, f.
64 is correct in a laminar pipe The Moody diagram also proves that f = Re ow. In addition, some dashed lines are found between Re=2,000-5,000. It
is because those lines are in transition pipe ow. The details in transition pipe ow are still not very clear. In the region at high Reynolds number, i.e. turbulent ows, it is observed that all lines are parallel to each others. It seems that the friction factor is independent of Re in turbulent ow but only depends on the relative roughness. 8.6 Darcy equation
The major loss comes from friction losses caused by pipe walls. Darcy equation explains how to evaluate the major head loss, i.e. L u2 avg hL = f , D 2g (8.56)
64 where f must be found using the Moody diagram or the formula f = Re for a laminar ow. The minor loss comes from ttings such as valves,
elbows, expansions and so on. The minor loss is evaluated by u2 avg hL = K , 2g (8.57)
8.6 Darcy equation 97
where K is called the K-factor and depends on various ttings. The minor loss can be combined with the major loss using the concept of equivalent length. The equivalent length, le , is dened as u2 le u 2 avg avg = K , f D 2g 2g KD le = . f Then the sum of major and minor losses will be ( L + le ) u 2 avg hL = f . D 2g Hence the Bernoulli equation can be modied as P1 V12 P2 V22 + + z1 = + + z2 + hL . r 2g r 2g (8.61) (8.60) (8.58) (8.59)
valve 1 2
Figure 8.7: Concept of equivalent length.
98
8.7
Hydraulic diameter
If the duct considered is not circular, then its hydraulic diameter can be used. A hydraulic diameter is dened as DH = 8.8 4 cross-sectional area . perimeter (8.62)
Brief Introduction to Turbulence u = < u > +u 1 t+ T udt < u > = lim T T t (8.63) (8.64)
t
Figure 8.8: Fluctuations in turbulent ow.
8.7 Hydraulic diameter
99
laminar flow
turbulent flow
Figure 8.9: Dierence between laminar and turbulent pipe ows.
100
Chapter 9
Viscous External Flows

External ow are not bounded by solid walls. In external ows, interaction of uids with solid structures is usually considered. In the past, viscosity of a uid was not considered in the potential ow theory. The drag predicted by the potential ow theory for symmetrical bodies in a uniform ow is zero but it is impossible. This is the so-called dAlemberts parabox. Hence, it is obvious that viscosity plays a vital role in drag prediction. 9.1 Boundary Layer Theory
Prandtl, a German professor, provided the boundary layer concept. He thought that viscosity aects uid ows within a very thin region attached the solid body. This region aected by viscosity is the well- known boundary layer. Furthermore, he provided the non-slip condition to describle uid kinematic condition on solid walls. The boundary layer concept is shown in Fig. 9.1. The articial boundary layer starts from the front of the solid body. Its thickness (u = 0.99Ue at y = ) grows along the downstream direction. In the begin, the ow in the boundary layer is laminar. Traveling downstream, the boundary layer ow becomes transi101
ue ue ue y x
transtion turbulent sepration laminar du boundary =0 dy (inflection point) wake
stagnation point
ue
u=0.99ue
Figure 9.1: Schematic of boundary layer concept.
tion and then turbulent (can be characterized by local Reynolds unmber, Rex =
ue x )
due to disturbances from the surface of the body. If the ad-
verse pressure gradient happens in the boundary layer, then a separation appears in the boundary layer. Subsequently, a wake is observed behind the separation point.
9.2
Uniform ow past a at plat
Consider a uniform ow past over a at plate. The control volume concept can be used to analyze the boundary layer ow. This idea was provided by von K arm an in 1921. For the mass conservation,
L
Uedy +
0 0
udy +
0 L
v dx = 0 v dx = 0 .
(9.1) (9.2)
Ue +
102 Viscous External Flows
udy +
0 0
For the momentum conservation,
Fx =
Ue Uedy +
0 L 0 2 Ue 0
Uev dx +
0 L
u2dy
(9.3) (9.4)
Fx 2 = Ue +
+
0
Uev dx +
0
u2dy
From the mass conservation.
Ue y L
Figure 9.2: Schematic of boundary layer due to a uniform ow past a at plate
L 0
v dx = Ue
udy
0 9.2 Uniform ow past a at plat
(9.5)
103
Substitution of this equation into momentum equation gives

Fx 2 = Ue + Ue Ue udy + Ue 0 u2 = Ue u dy Ue 0 u = Ue u 1 dy Ue 0 u u Fx 1 dy < 0 = 2 Ue 0 Ue Ue = D D = Fx = 2 Ue 0
u2dy
(9.6) (9.7) (9.8) (9.9) (9.10)
The frictional force exerted by the boundary layer ow is obtained, but it depends on the velocity prole within the boundary layer. The rest of question is how to determine the velocity prole. 9.3 Boundary Layer Thickness,
The edge of the boundary layer is dened at the line of u = 0.99Ue. u 0.99Ue, y = 9.4 Displacement Boundary Layer Thickness, d (9.11)
Figure 9.3: Concept of displacement boundary layer thickness.
104
Viscous External Flows
d Ue = d =
(Ue u)dy (1 u )dy Ue
(9.12) (9.13)
It means that mass ux the within d is equal to the absence of mass ux due to the presence of the boundary layer. 9.5 Momentum Boundary Layer Thickness,
0
2 Ue
[(Ue u) u] dy u Ue 1 u Ue dy
(9.14) (9.15)
=
0
It means that the momentum ux within is equal to the absence of momentum ux due to the presence of the boundary layer. von K arm an made a guess of the velocity prole according to the boundary conditions: u(0) = 0, u( ) = Ue and u y (9.16) (9.17)
=0 .
y =
(9.18)
He found that a second-order polynominal ts the conditions, i.e. u Ue 2y y 2 2 . (9.19)

105
9.5 Momentum Boundary Layer Thickness,
In terms of the velocity prole, the displacement thickness and the momentum thickness are d 3 and 2 . 15 (9.20)
In addition, the wall shear stress can be obtained by w = u y 2U . (9.21)
y =0
Subsequently, the friction coecient, Cf , can be found: Cf = w 4 2Ue d = = = 2 1 1 2 2 Ue dx 2 Ue 2 Ue (9.22)
d 4 d 4 2 = 2 = Ue dx 15 15 dx 15dx d = Ue 30x 2 = Ue 5.5 x Rex 1 1.83 = x 3x Rex 2 0.73 = Cf = x 15 x Rex 2 CD = L 1.46 2 Cf ( L ) = ReL
(9.23) (9.24) (9.25) (9.26) (9.27) (9.28) (9.29) (9.30)
Althought the velocity proie is guessed, the results are very close to another contributors, Blasuis. Blasuiss solution will be discussed in the next section.
9.6
Boundary Layer Equation
Prandtl provided the boundary layer equation which comes from the N-S equation and on the following assumptions: 1. 2-D 2. steady 3. incompressible 4.
P y
=0
dP = U dU dx dx
Consequently, N-S equations can be simplied as: v u + =0 x y u u dU 2u u +v = U + 2 x y dx y u(x, 0) = v (x, 0) = 0, u(x, ) = U (x) (9.31) (9.32)
B.C.
Blasius, one of Pranstls students, tried to get the solution using the similarity solution approach which is a common approach to transform a P.D.E. to an O.D.E.. However, the transformed O.D.E. is nonlinear and impossible to obtain an analytical solution. Hence a numerical method is reguired to obtain the solution for the O.D.E. C. T oepfer (1912) used the Runge-Kutta method to solve the O.D.E. and obtain the numerical solution. In terms of the numerical solution for velocity, the boundary layer thickness, , is found according to its denition and revealed as 3.5 2x Ue (u = 0.99Ue)
9.6 Boundary Layer Equation
(9.33)
107
or 5.0 x Rex 5.5 ) (K arm ans answer Rex (9.34)
The displacement thickness, d , can be obtained as well and shown as 1.7208 d = x Rex 5.5 (Ks answer ) Rex (9.35)
In addition, the momentum thickness, , is 0.604 = x Rex (9.36)
The wall shear stress can be evaluated using the Newtons viscosity law, i.e. w = u y (9.37)
y =0
and the friction coecient, Cf , will be Cf ( x ) = 0.664 w = = 1 2 x Rex 2 Ue (9.38)
Finally, the drag coecent, Cd , will be D Cd = 1 2 = 2 Ue L 9.7

L 0 w dx 1 2 2 Ue L
1.328 = ReL
1.46 (Ks answer: ) ReL
(9.39)
Friction coecient, Cf Cf = w 1 2 2 Ue (9.40)
In boundary layer ow, the wall shear stress, Cf , is a function of its local coordinates.
9.8
Drag coecient, CD CD = D = D 1 2 2 Ue
L 0 2 w (x)dx = Ue
(9.41) (9.42) (9.43) (9.44) (9.45)
2 w (x) = Ue
Cf = 2 CD 9.9 Drag
d dx 2 = L
d dx
We mentioned drag calculation in a boundary layer ow. In fact, drag calculation should consider friction drag caused by the boundary layer and form drag caused by a wake. A low pressure region is generated owing to a wake, so the pressure dierence between the front part and the rear part of an obstacle is formed. Hence a form drag is produced. frictional drag boundary layer form drag pressure dierence wake 9.10 9.11 Lift force and attack angle Streamline body
A streamline body can reduce the wake region. In other words, most of uids are attached on the surface of the body. The resultant wake is very small. Hence drag is mainly from friction within its boundary layer. In contrust, if a bodys drag comes mainly from form drag. That means its
9.8 Drag coecient, CD 109
L stall
Figure 9.4: Stall
separation happens very near the front part and its wake, therefore, is very large. Such a body is blu. Some designs to let turbulence happens earlier are made for blu bodies. For example, a golf ball is given more roughness on its surface to trigger turbulence in its boundary layer. 9.12 Separation
The separation phenomenon happens in a boundary layer as ows past an obstacle. Before the separation point, the pressure gradient is negative. Hence uids before the separation point are accelerated. However, momentum in the boundary layer is lost because of viscous energy dissipation. Therefore the pressure gradient gradually increases and nally becomes positive. It is called an adverse pressure gradient. When an
dP dx <0 favorable
dP >0 dx adverse
dP dx =0 separation point
Figure 9.5: Separation due to an adverse pressure gradient.
adverse pressure gradient appears in the boundary layer, uids are decelerated. Finally velocity in the boundary layer becomes negative, i.e. a reverse ow appears. Then the separation happens. 9.13 Separation and Turbulence
As mentioned, separation is caused by an adverse pressure gradient due to viscous energy dissipation. On the other hand, turbulence is able to improve mixing in ows. The momentum mixing in a turbulent boundary layer is better than in a laminar boundary layer. Therefore, momentum near the wall within a turbulent boundary layer is higher than a laminar boundary layer. This means that the net momentum in turbulent boundary layer is higher than a laminar boundary layer. Hence an ad9.13 Separation and Turbulence 111
verse pressure gradient does not easily happens and the separation in a turbulent boundary layer. This will make a wake smaller than without turbulence.
Figure 9.6: K arm an vortex street.
Owing to the feature of a turbulent boundary layer, the form drag can be reduced. This is useful for a bul body because its drag is mainly dominated by form drag. Therefore another reason of the separation is because of a sharp corner. Hence a sudden expansion or contraction shape generates separation. When the separation happens, a wake is generated behind the separation. Eddies are produced in a wake and cause a low pressure region. It was found by von K arm an and name after him, K arm an Vortex Street. Eddy motion in a wake may be periodic, so a frequency may be found. Strouhal number is the nondimensional unmber for the frequency. St =
f D , u
(9.46)
where f is the main frequency, D is the characteristic length of the obstacle, and u is the magnitude of characteristic velocity. The eddy motion causes vibration of the obstacle. If the frequency of the eddy motion is very close to or even equal to the natural frequency of the obstacle, then the resonance will happen and cause a very serious damage.
9.13 Separation and Turbulence
113

Lecture Notes On Fluid Mechanics

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LECTURE NOTES ON FLUID MECHANICS

Ming-Jyh Chern, D.Phil. Oxon

1.7 1.8 1.9

Inclined-tube Manometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Hydrostatic force on vertical walls of constant width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Denition of 1-D ows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3.4 3.5 3.6

4 INTRODUCATION TO FLUID MOTION II 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6

Venturi tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Flowrate pass through a sluice gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 59

5 EQUATIONS OF MOTION IN INTEGRAL FORM 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5

6 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF MOTIONS 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5

7 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6

9 Viscous External Flows 9.1 9.2 9.3

Boundary Layer Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Uniform ow past a at plat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

Boundary Layer Thickness, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 V

9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9

Approaches to study Fluid Mechanics

Analytical Methods Experiments Computations

Archmides (207-212 B.C.): buoyance theory.

Figure 1.1: Concept of a continuum.

1.4 History of Fluid Mechanics

DISCRETE PARTICLE OR MOLECULAR MODEL

COLLISIONLESS BOLTZMANN EQUATION

CONTINUUM EUL.ER NAVER-STOKES MODEL EQUATIONS EQS.

CONSERVATION EQUATIONS DO NOT FROM A CLOSED SET

LOCAL KNUDSEN NUMBER

Figure 1.3: Knusden number and continuum.

uids are continuous or not. Its denition is Kn = , L (1.1)

1.5 Fluid as a continuum

Macroscopic physical properties of uids

kg m3 Air Water Sea Water Mercury

1.204 998.2 1025 13550

Figure 1.4: Concept of Pascals law.

C= For ideal gases, C=

Consider air as an ideal gas Cair = RT = 290 m s1 (1.8)

Figure 1.5: Deformation of a uid experiencing shear stress.

According to Newtons viscosity law, we have du dy

The velocity prole is available by a non-slip boundary condition, i.e.

U y d 0.1 m s1 y = 0.005 m = 20y .

In addition, the velocity gradient on the bottom can be obtained by

du dy Therefore, the shear stress is

b = 0.036 20 = 0.72 N m2.

(temperature= 1500 F ) 1.10 Hookes law and Newtons viscosity law

Hookes law for a solid element , L

where is stress, is strain and E is the so-called Youngs modulus.

Figure 1.6: Saybolt viscosmeter

Newtons viscosity law du dy

Hydrodynamics & Hydraulics

1.11 Categories of Fluid Dynamics

F=0 Fx = P2 dy dz P1 dA sin = 0 P2 dy dz = P1 dy dz sin sin

(2.2) (2.3) (2.4) (2.5) (2.6) (2.7) (2.8) (2.9)

P2 = P1 1 dx Fz = P3 dy dx = g dxdy dz + P1 dy cos 2 cos 1 P3 = P1 + g dz 2 dz 0, P3 = P1 P1 = P2 = P3 units of pressure S.I. 1 N m2 = 1 Pascal(Pa) = 0.01 mbar(mb)

Figure 2.2: Concept of a uid element.

2.3 The Hydrostatic Equation

Consider static equilibrium again, then we nd z z + P (0) Fz = Fs +W = 2 P (0) 2 2

Pressure variation in incompressible uids

is called a pressure head and equal to z . Pressure variation in compressible uids

g =lnP|2 1 =- RT (z2 z1 ) 2.4 Pressure variation in incompressible uids 19

g (z2 z1 )] P2 =P1 exp[- RT

g P |2 1 =P2 -P1 =-P1 1 exp RT (z2 z1 )

17ft gasoline P1 water P2

Sea level conditions of the U.S. Standard Atmosphere.

Figure 2.4: Variation of atmospheric pressure.

Table 2.1: sea level condition