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Module 1 (Lecture 3) GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL AND OF REINFORCED SOIL Topics 1.1 CAPILLARY RISE IN SOIL 1.2 CONSOLIDATIONS-GENERAL 1.3 CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT CALCULATION 1.4 TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION

CAPILLARY RISE IN SOIL When a capillary tube is placed in water, the water level in the tube rises (figure 1.15a). The rise is caused by the surface tension effect. According to figure 1.15a, the pressure at any point A in the capillary tube (with respect to the atmospheric pressure) can be expressed as = (for = 0 to ) And = 0 (for z hc )

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Figure 1.15 Capillary rise In a given soil mass, the interconnected void spaces can behave like a number of capillary tubes with varying diameters. The surface tension force may cause in the soil to rise above the water table, as shown in figure 1.15b. The height the capillary rise will depend on the diameter of the capillary tubes. The capillary rise will decrease with the increase of the tube diameter. Because the capillary tube in soil has variable diameters, the height of capillary rise will be nonuniformly. The pore water pressure at any point in the zone of capillary rise in soil cause approximated as = Where = degree fo saturation of soil [equation (7)] CONSOLIDATION-GENERAL [1.52]

= distance measured above the water table In the field, when the stress on a saturated clay layer is increased-for exam by the construction of a foundation-the pore water pressure in the clay increase. Because the hydraulic conductivity of clays is very small, sometime be required for the excess pore water pressure to dissipate and the stress increase to be transferred to the soil skeleton gradually. According to figure 1.16 if a surcharge at the ground surface over a very large area, the increase of total structure , at any depth of the clay layer will be equal to , or =

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Figure 1.16 Principles of consolidation However, at time = 0 (that is, immediately after the stress application), the excess pore water pressure at any depth, , will equal , or = 1 = Hence the increase of effective stress at time = 0 will be = = 0 = 0 Theoretically, at time = , when all the excess pore water pressure in the clay layer has dissipated as a result of drainage into the sand layers, Then the increase of effective stress in the clay layer is = = 0 at time = ) (at time = 0)

This gradual increase in the effective stress in the claylayer will cause settlement over a period of time and is referred to as consolidation. Laboratory tests on undisturbed saturated clay specimens can be conducted (ASTM Test Designation D-2435) to determine the consolidation settlement caused by various incremental loadings. The test specimens are usually 2.5 in. (63.5 mm) in diameter and 1 in. (25.4 mm) in height. Specimens are placed inside a ring, with one porous stone at the top and one at the bottom of the specimen (figure 1.17a). Load on the specimen is then applied so that the total vertical stress is equal to . Settlement readings for the specimen are taken for 24 hours. After that, the load on the specimen is doubled and settlement readings are taken. At all times during the test the specimen is kept under water. This procedure is continued until the desired limit of stress on the clay specimen is reached.

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Figure 1.17 (a) Schematic diagram of consolidation test arrangement; (b) log curve for a soft clay from East St. Louis, Illinois

Figure 1.17 continued Based on the laboratory tests, a graph can be plotted showing the variation of the void ratio at the end of consolidation against the corresponding vertical stress

NPTEL - ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-1 (semilogarithmic graph: on the arithmetic scale and on the log scale). The nature of variation of against log for a clay specimen is shown in figure 1.17b. After the desired consolidation pressure has been reached, the specimen can be gradually unloaded, which will result in the swelling of the specimen. Figure 1.17b also shows the variation of the void ratio during the unloading period. From the log curve shown in figure 1.17b, three parameters necessary for calculating settlement in the field can be determined.

1. The preconsolidation pressure, , is the maximum past effective overburden pressure to which the soil specimen has been subjected. It can be determined by using a simple graphical procedure as proposed by Casegrande (1936). This procedure for determining the preconsolidation pressure, with reference to figure 1.17b, involves five steps: a. Determine the point O on the log curve that has the sharpest curvature (that is, the smallest radius of curvature). b. Draw a horizontal line OA. c. Draw a line OB that is tangent to the log curve at O. d. Draw a line OC that bisects the angle AOB, e. Produce the straight-line portion of the log curve backward to intersect OC. This is point D. the pressure that corresponds to point is the preconsolidation pressure, .

Natural soil deposits can be normally consolidated or overconsolidated (or preconsolidated). If the present effective overburden pressure = is equal to the preconsolidated pressure the soil is normally consolidated. However, if < , the sol is overconsolidated. Preconsolidation pressure ( ) has been correlated with the index parameters by several investigators. Stas and Kulhawy (1984) suggested that

Where

= 10(1.11 1.62 )

[1.53a]

= atmospheric stress in derived unit = liquidity index =

_

The liquidity index of a soil is defined as [1.53b]

Where

= moisture content

NPTEL - ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-1 = liquid limit

= plastic limit

Nagaraj and Murthy (1985) provided an empirical relation to calculate , which is as follows:
1.122 0.0463 log

Where

kN/m2

log =

0.188

kN/m2

[1.54]

= void ratio

= effective overburden pressure = void ratio of the soil at liquid limit =

(%) 100

[1.55]

The U. S. Department of the Navy (1982) also provided generalized relationships between , and the sensitivity of clayey soils ( ). This relationship was also recommended by Kulhawy and Mayne (1990). The definition of sensitivity is given in section. Figure 1.18 shows the relationship.

Figure 1.18 Variation of with LI (after U. S. Department of the Navy, 1982)

NPTEL - ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-1 2. The compression index, , is the slope of straight-line portion (latter part of the loading curve), or
2 = log 1 log = 2 1

log 2 1

1 2

[1.56]

where 1 and 2 are the void ratios at the end of consolidation under stresses 1 and 2 , respectively

The compression index, as determined from the laboratory log curve, will be somewhat different from that encountered in the field. The primary reason is that the soil remolds to some degree during the field exploration. The nature of variation of the log curve in the field for normally consolidated clay is shown in figure 1.19. It is generally referred to as the virgin compression curve. The virgin curve approximately intersects the laboratory curve at a void ratio of 0.42 (Terzaghi and Peck, 1967). Note that is the void ratio of the clay in the field. Knowing the values of and you can easily construct the virgin curve and calculate the compression index of the virgin curve by using equation (56).

Figure 1.19 Construction of virgin compression curve for normally consolidated clay

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The value of can vary widely depending on the soil. Skempton (1944) has given am empirical correlation for the compression index in which = 0.009( 10) Where = liquid limit [1.57]

Besides Skempton, other investigators have proposed correlations for the compression index. Some of these correlations are summarized in table 14. 3. The swelling index, , is the slope of the unloading portion of the log curve. In figure 1.17b, it can be defined as =
3 4 log 4
3

[1.58]

In most cases the value of the swelling index ( ) is 1 to 1 of the compression index. 4 5 Flowing are some representative values of / for natural soil deposits. The swelling index is also referred to as the recompression index. Description of soil Boston Blue clay Chicago clay New Orleans clay St. Lawrence clay Table 14 Correlations for Compression Index Reference Azzouz, Krizek, and Corotis (1976) Correlation = 0.01 (Chicago clay) 0.24-0.33 0.15-0.3 0.15-0.28 0.05-0.1 /

= 0.208 + 0.0083 = 0.0046( 9) = 0.0115

(organic soils, peat)

(Chicago clay)

(Brazillian clay)

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Rendon-Herrero (1980)

12 0.141

1 + 2.38

Nagaraj and Murthy (1985) Wroth and Wood (1978) Leroueil, Tavenas, and LeBihan (1983)

= 0.2343 100 = 0.5 100

Note: = specific gravity of soil solids = liquid limit = sensitivity = plasticity index = natural moisture content

The swelling index determination is important in the estimation of consolidation settlement of overconsolidated clays. In the field, depending on the pressure increase, an overconsolidated clay will follow an e-log path , as shown in figure 1.20. Note that point with coordinates of and corresponds to the field condition before any pressure increase. Point corresponds to the preconsolidation pressure ( ) of the clay. Line is approximately parallel to the laboratory unloading cure (Schmertmann, 1953). Hence, if you know , , , , and , you can easily construct the field consolidation curve.

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Figure 1.20 Construction of field consolidation curve for over consolidated clay Nagaraj and Murthy (1985) expressed the swelling index as = 0.0463 100

[1.59]

It is essential to point out that any of the empirical correlations for and given in the section are only approximate. It may be valid for a given soil for which the relationship was developed but may not hold good for other soils. As an example, figure 1.21 shows the plots of and with liquid limit for soils from Richmond, Virginia (Martin et al., 1985). For these soils,

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Figure 1.21 Variation of and with liquid limit for soils from Richmond, Virginia (after Martin et al., 1995) = 0.0326( 43.4) And = 0.00045( + 11.9) [1.61] [1.60]

1 1 The / ratio is about 25 ; whereas, the typical range is about1 to 10 . 5

CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT CALCULATION The one-dimensional consolidation settlement (caused by an additional load) of a clay layer (figure 1.22a) having a thickness may be calculated as

NPTEL - ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-1 = 1+

[1.62]

Figure 1.22 One-dimensional settlement calculation: (b) is for equation (64); (c) is for equations (66 and 68) Where = settlement

= total change of void ratio caused by the additional load application = the void ratio of the clay before the application of load Note that
1+

For normally consolidated clay, the field log curve will be like the one shown in figure 1.22b. If = initial average effective overburden pressure on the clay layer and = average pressure increase on the clay layer caused by the added load, the change of void ratio caused by the load increase is

= = vertical strain

NPTEL - ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-1 = log

+

[1.63]

Now, combining equations (62 and 63) yields

= 1+ log

[1.64]

For overconsolidated clay, the field log curve will be like the one show figure 1.22c. In this case, depending on the value of , two conditions may at. First, if + < , = log
+

[1.65]

Combining equations (62 and 65) gives

= 1+ log

[1.66]

Second, if < < + ,

= 1 + 2 = log + log
+

[1.67]

Now, combining equations (62 and 67) yields

= 1+ log + 1+ log

[1.68]

TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION In section we showed that consolidation is the result gradual dissipation of the excess pore water pressure from a clay layer. Pore water pressure dissipation, in turn, increases the effective stress, which induces settlement. Hence, to estimate the degree of consolidation of a clay layer at some time t after the load application, you need to know the rate of dissipation of the excess pore water pressure. Figure 1.23 shows a clay layer of thickness that has highly permeable sand layers at its top and bottom. Here, the excess pore pressure at any point at any time t after the load application is = () . For a vertical drainage condition (that is, in the direction of z only) from the clay layer, Terzaghi derived the following differential equation:

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Figure 1.23 (a) Derivation of equation (71); (b) nature of variation of with time
( )

2 ( ) 2

[1.69]

Where = coefficient of consolidation = Where

(1+ )

[1.70]

= hydraulic conductivity of the clay

= total change of void ratio caused by a stress increase of p = average void ratio during consolidation = volume coefficient of compressibility = /[(1 + )]

Equation (69) can be solved to obtain as a function of time t with the following boundary conditions:

NPTEL - ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-1 1. Because highly permeable sand layers are located at = 0 and = , the excess pore water pressure developed in the clay at those points will be immediately dissipated. Hence = 0 at = 0 = 0 at = = 2 Where = Length of maximum drainage path (due to two-way drainage condition-that is, at the top and bottom of the clay) 2. At time = 0, = = initial excess pore water pressure after the load application With the preceding boundary conditions, equation (69) yields
= = 0 2( )

[1.71]

Where = [(2 + 1)]/2 = an integer = 1, 2, = nondimensional time factor = ( )/ 2

[1.72]

Determining the field value of is difficult. Figure 1.24 provides a first-order determination of using the liquid limit (u. A. Department of the Navy, 1971). The value of for various depths (that is, = 0 to = 2 ) at time given time t (thus ) can be calculated from equation (71). The nature of this variation of is shown in figure 1.23b.

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Figure 1.24 Range of (after U. S. Department of the Navy, 1971) The average degree of consolidation of the clay layer can be defined as =

[1.73]

Where

= average degree of consolidation = settlement of a clay layer at time after the load application = maximum consolidation settlement that the clay will undergo under given loading If the initial pore water pressure ( ) distribution is constant with depth as shown in figure 1.25a, the average of consolidation can also be expressed as

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Figure 1.25 Drainage condition for consolidation: (a) two-way drainage; (b) oneway drainage
2 2

= Or =

0 ( ) 0 ( ) 0 ( )
2

[1.74]

( )20 ( ) ( )2

=1

0 ( ) 2 ( )

[1.75]

Now, combining equations (71 and 75) we obtain =

= = 1 =0 2 2
2

[1.76]

The variation of with can be calculated from equation (76) and is plotted in figure 1.26. Note that equation (76) and thus figure 1.26 are also valid when an impermeable layer is located at the bottom of the clay layer (figure 1.25b). In that case, excess pore water pressure dissipation can take place in one direction only.

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The length of the maximum drainage path then is equal to = . = 4 100 And
% 2

Figure 1.26 Plot of time factor against average degree of consolidation ( = constant)

The variation of with shown in figure 1.26 can also be approximated by (for = 0 60%)

[1.77]

= 1.781 0.933 log(100 %) (for > 60%)

[1.78]

Sivaram and Swamee (1977) have also developed an empirical relationship between and that is valid for U varying from 0 to 100%. It is of the form =
% 2 4 100 0.357 % 5.6 1 100

[1.79]

In some cases, initial excess pore water pressure may not be constant with depth as shown in figure 1.25. Following are a few cases of those and the solutions for the average degree of consolidation.

NPTEL - ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-1 Trapezoidal Variation Figure 1.27 shows a trapezoidal variation of initial excess pore water pressure with two-way drainage. For this case the variation of with will be the same as shown in figure 1.26.

Figure 1.27 Trapezoidal initial excess pore water pressure distribution Sinusoidal Variation This variation is shown in figures 1.28a and 1.28b. For the initial excess pore water pressure variation shown in figure 1.28a,

z Figure 1.28 Sinusoidal initial excess pore water pressure distribution

NPTEL - ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-1 = 2 Similarly, for the case shown in figure 1.28b, = 4

[1.80]

[1.81]

The variations of with for these two cases are shown in figure 1.29

Figure 1.29 Variation of with sinusoidal variation of initial excess pore water pressure distribution Triangular Variation Figures 1.30 and 1.31 show several types of initial pore water pressure variation and the variation of with the average degree of consolidation.

NPTEL - ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-1

z Figure 1.30 Variation of with triangular initial excess pore water pressure distribution

Figure 1.31 triangular initial excess pore water pressure distribution-variation of with

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Example 9 A laboratory consolidation test on normally consolidated clay showed the following Load, (kN/m2 ) 140 212 Void ratio at the end of consolidation, e 0.92 0.86

The specimen tested was 25.4 mm in thickness and drained on both sides. The time required for the specimen to reach 50% consolidation was 4.5 min. A similar clay layer in the field, 2.8 m thick and drained on both sides, is subjected to similar average pressure increase (that is, = 140 kN/m2 and po + p = 212kN/m2 ). Determine the a. Expected maximum consolidation settlement in the field b. Length of time required for the total settlement in the field to reach 40 mm (assume uniform initial excess pore water pressure increase with depth) Solution Part a For normally consolidated clay [equation 56] =
1 2 2
1

From equation (64)

= 1+

0.920.86
212 140

= 0.333 140 = 0.0875 m = 87.5 mm

212

Part b

(0.333)(2.8) 1+0.92

From equation (73) the average degree of consolidation is =

The coefficient of consolidation, , can be calculated from the laboratory test. From equation (72) =
2

= 87.5 (100) = 45.7%

40

NPTEL - ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-1 For 50% consolidation (figure 1.26), = 0.197, = 4.5 min, and = /2 = 12.7 mm, so = 50
2

Again, for field consolidation, = 45.7%. From equation (77) = 4 100 = 4 100 = 0.164 But = Or =
2 % 2 45.7 2

(0.197)(12.7)2 4.5

= 7.061 mm2 /min

0.164

7.061

2.81000 2 2

= 45,523 min = 31.6 days