Glass

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!oldavite, a natural glass formed by meteor impact, from "esednice, "ohemia

#oman $age $up from the %th century $&

'ldest mouth(blo)n )indo)(glass in *)eden (+osta Glasbruk, ,-%. . /n the middle is the pontil mark from the glassblo)er0s pipe. Glass is an amorphous (non(crystalline solid material that e1hibits a glass transition, )hich is the reversible transition in amorphous materials (or in amorphous regions )ithin semicrystalline materials from a hard and relatively brittle state into a molten or rubber( like state. Glasses are typically brittle and can be optically transparent. The most familiar type of glass, used for centuries in )indo)s and drinking vessels, is soda(lime glass, )hich is composed of about -23 *ilicon dio1ide (*i'. , sodium o1ide (4a.' from soda ash, lime ($a' , and several minor additives. The term glass is often used to refer only to this specific use. /n the ,5th century, various types of fancy glass became significant branches of the decorative arts. Glass is used not only for traditional ob6ects such as vessels (bo)ls, vases, bottles, and other containers , paper)eights, marbles, and beads, but also in sculpture and installation art as )ell. While glass is sometimes painted, colored or stained glass is also popular. /n science, ho)ever, the term glass is defined in a broader sense, encompassing every solid that possesses a non(crystalline (i.e. amorphous structure and e1hibits a glass transition )hen heated to)ards the li7uid state. These sorts of glasses can be made of 7uite different kinds of materials: metallic alloys, ionic melts, a7ueous solutions, molecular li7uids, and polymers. For many applications (bottles, eye)ear polymer glasses (acrylic glass, polycarbonate, polyethylene terephthalate are a lighter alternative to traditional silica glasses.

Contents

, *ilicate glass o ,., 8istory ,.,., *elected chronology of advances o ,.. /ngredients o ,.9 $ontemporary production ,.9., :rchitecture o ,.% /n the laboratory . 'ther types o .., 4et)ork glasses o ... :morphous metals o ..9 &lectrolytes o ..% :7ueous solutions o ..2 !olecular li7uids o ..; <olymers o ..- $olloidal glasses o ..= Glass(ceramics 9 *tructure

% $omparison )ith supercooled li7uid o %., "ehavior of anti7ue glass 2 <hysical properties o 2., 'ptical properties o 2.. $olor ; /n art o ;., !useums - *ee also = #eferences 5 Further reading ,> &1ternal links

Silicate glass

: tube fulgurite. *ilica (the chemical compound *i'. is a common fundamental constituent of glass. /n nature, vitrification of 7uart? occurs )hen lightning strikes sand, forming hollo), branching rootlike structures called fulgurite.

History
!ain article: 8istory of glass

4aturally occurring glass, especially the volcanic glass obsidian, has been used by many *tone :ge societies across the globe for the production of sharp cutting tools and, due to its limited source areas, )as e1tensively traded. "ut in general, archaeological evidence suggests that the first true glass )as made in coastal north *yria, !esopotamia or :ncient &gypt.@,A The earliest kno)n glass ob6ects, of the mid third millennium "$&, )ere beads, perhaps initially created as accidental by(products of metal()orking (slags or during the production of faience, a pre(glass vitreous material made by a process similar to gla?ing.
@.A

Glass remained a lu1ury material, and the disasters that overtook Bate "ron?e :ge civili?ations seem to have brought glass(making to a halt. /ndigenous development of glass technology in *outh :sia may have begun in ,-9> "$&.@9A /n ancient $hina, though, glassmaking seems to have a late start, compared to ceramics and metal )ork. /n the #oman &mpire, glass ob6ects have been recovered across the #oman &mpire in domestic, industrial and funerary conte1ts. :nglo(*a1on glass has been found across &ngland during archaeological e1cavations of both settlement and cemetery sites. Glass in the :nglo(*a1on period )as used in the manufacture of a range of ob6ects including vessels, beads, )indo)s and )as even used in 6e)elry. The term glass developed in the late #oman &mpire. /t )as in the #oman glassmaking center at Trier, no) in modern Germany, that the late(Batin term glesum originated, probably from a Germanic )ord for a transparent, lustrous substance.@%A Selected chronology of advances *ource:@2A

,..; C D"road *heetD first produced in *usse1 ,99> C D$ro)n GlassD first produced in #ouen, France. D"road *heetD also produced. "oth )ere also supplied for e1port ,;.> C D"lo)n <lateD first produced in Bondon. Esed for mirrors and coach plates. ,;-= C D$ro)n GlassD first produced in Bondon. This process dominated until the ,5th century ,=%9 C :n early form of DFloat GlassD invented by 8enry "essemer, pouring glass onto li7uid tin. &1pensive and not a commercial success. ,=== C D!achine #olledD glass introduced allo)ing patterns to be introduced ,=5= C DWired $astD glass invented by <ilkington for use )here safety or security )as an issue. ,525 C DFloat GlassD launched in E+. /nvented by *ir :lastair <ilkington.

Ingredients

Fuart? sand (silica is the main ra) material in commercial glass production While fused 7uart? (primarily composed of *i'. is used for some special applications, it is not very common due to its high glass transition temperature of over ,.>> G$ (.,5. GF .@;A 4ormally, other substances are added to simplify processing. 'ne is sodium carbonate (4a.$'9, DsodaD , )hich lo)ers the glass transition temperature. 8o)ever, the soda makes the glass )ater soluble, )hich is usually undesirable, so lime (calcium o1ide @$a'A, generally obtained from limestone , some magnesium o1ide (!g' and aluminium o1ide (:l.'9 are added to provide for a better chemical durability. The resulting glass contains about -> to -%3 silica by )eight and is called a soda(lime glass. @-A *oda(lime glasses account for about 5>3 of manufactured glass. !ost common glass contains other ingredients added to change its properties. Bead glass or flint glass is more 0brilliant0 because the increased refractive inde1 causes noticeably more specular reflection and increased optical dispersion. :dding barium also increases the refractive inde1. Thorium o1ide gives glass a high refractive inde1 and lo) dispersion and )as formerly used in producing high(7uality lenses, but due to its radioactivity has been replaced by lanthanum o1ide in modern eye glasses.@citation neededA /ron can be incorporated into glass to absorb infrared energy, for e1ample in heat absorbing filters for movie pro6ectors, )hile cerium(/H o1ide can be used for glass that absorbs EH )avelengths.@=A The follo)ing is a list of the more common types of silicate glasses, and their ingredients, properties, and applications: ,. Fused silica glass, vitreous silica glass: silica (*i'. . 8as very lo) thermal e1pansion, is very hard and resists high temperatures (,>>>C,2>> G$ . /t is also the most resistant against )eathering (alkali ions leaching out of the glass, )hile staining it . /t is used for high temperature applications such as furnace tubes, melting crucibles, etc. .. Soda-lime-silica glass, window glass: silica -.3 I sodium o1ide (4a.' ,%..3 I magnesia (!g' ..23 I lime ($a' ,>.>3 I alumina (:l.'9 >.;3. /s transparent, easily formed and most suitable for )indo) glass. /t has a high thermal e1pansion and poor resistance to heat (2>>C;>> G$ . Esed for )indo)s, containers, light bulbs, table)are.

9. Sodium borosilicate glass, Pyrex: silica =,3 I boric o1ide (".'9 ,.3 I soda (4a.' %.23 I alumina (:l.'9 ..>3. *tands heat e1pansion much better than )indo) glass. Esed for chemical glass)are, cooking glass, car head lamps, etc. "orosilicate glasses (e.g. <yre1 have as main constituents silica and boron o1ide. They have fairly lo) coefficients of thermal e1pansion (--%> <yre1 $T& is 9..2J,>C;KG$@5A as compared to about 5J,>L;KG$ for a typical soda(lime glass@,>A , making them more dimensionally stable. The lo)er $T& also makes them less sub6ect to stress caused by thermal e1pansion, thus less vulnerable to cracking from thermal shock. They are commonly used for reagent bottles, optical components and household cook)are. %. ead-oxide glass, crystal glass: silica 253 I soda (4a.' ..>3 I lead o1ide (<b' .23 I potassium o1ide (+.' ,.3 I alumina >.%3 I ?inc o1ide (Mn' ,.23. 8as a high refractive inde1, making the look of glass)are more brilliant (crystal glass . /t also has a high elasticity, making glass)are 0ring0. /t is also more )orkable in the factory, but cannot stand heating very )ell. 2. !luminosilicate glass: silica 2-3 I alumina ,;3 I boric o1ide (".'9 %.>3 I barium o1ide ("a' ;.>3 I magnesia -.>3 I lime ,>3. &1tensively used for fiberglass, used for making glass(reinforced plastics (boats, fishing rods, etc. . :lso for halogen bulb glass. ;. "xide glass: alumina 5>3 I germanium o1ide (Ge'. ,>3. &1tremely clear glass, used for fiber(optic )ave guides in communication net)orks. Bight loses only 23 of its intensity through , km of glass fiber.@,,A :nother common glass ingredient is DculletD (recycled glass . The recycled glass saves on ra) materials and energyN ho)ever, impurities in the cullet can lead to product and e7uipment failure. Fining agents such as sodium sulfate, sodium chloride, or antimony o1ide may be added to reduce the number of air bubbles in the glass mi1ture.@-A Glass batch calculation is the method by )hich the correct ra) material mi1ture is determined to achieve the desired glass composition.

Contem#orary #roduction

: modern greenhouse in Wisley Garden, &ngland, made from float glass !ain articles: Glass production, Float glass, and Gla?ier

Follo)ing the glass batch preparation and mi1ing, the ra) materials are transported to the furnace. *oda(lime glass for mass production is melted in gas fired units. *maller scale furnaces for specialty glasses include electric melters, pot furnaces, and day tanks.@-A :fter melting, homogeni?ation and refining (removal of bubbles , the glass is formed. Flat glass for )indo)s and similar applications is formed by the float glass process, developed bet)een ,529 and ,52- by *ir :lastair <ilkington and +enneth "ickerstaff of the E+0s <ilkington "rothers, )ho created a continuous ribbon of glass using a molten tin bath on )hich the molten glass flo)s unhindered under the influence of gravity. The top surface of the glass is sub6ected to nitrogen under pressure to obtain a polished finish.@,.A $ontainer glass for common bottles and 6ars is formed by blo)ing and pressing methods. Further glass forming techni7ues are summari?ed in the table Glass forming techni7ues. 'nce the desired form is obtained, glass is usually annealed for the removal of stresses. *urface treatments, coatings or lamination may follo) to improve the chemical durability (glass container coatings, glass container internal treatment , strength (toughened glass, bulletproof glass, )indshields , or optical properties (insulated gla?ing, anti(reflective coating . !rchitecture !ain articles: :rchitectural glass and Gla?ing The use of glass in buildings is a transparent feature to allo) light to enter into rooms and floors, illuminating enclosed spaces and framing an e1terior vie) through a )indo). /t is also a material for internal partitions and e1ternal cladding.

In the laboratory
4e) chemical glass compositions or ne) treatment techni7ues can be initially investigated in small(scale laboratory e1periments. The ra) materials for laboratory(scale glass melts are often different from those used in mass production because the cost factor has a lo) priority. /n the laboratory mostly pure chemicals are used. $are must be taken that the ra) materials have not reacted )ith moisture or other chemicals in the environment (such as alkali or alkaline earth metal o1ides and hydro1ides, or boron o1ide , or that the impurities are 7uantified (loss on ignition .@,9A &vaporation losses during glass melting should be considered during the selection of the ra) materials, e.g., sodium selenite may be preferred over easily evaporating *e'.. :lso, more readily reacting ra) materials may be preferred over relatively inert ones, such as :l('8 9 over :l.'9. Esually, the melts are carried out in platinum crucibles to reduce contamination from the crucible material. Glass homogeneity is achieved by homogeni?ing the ra) materials mi1ture (glass batch , by stirring the melt, and by crushing and re(melting the first melt. The obtained glass is usually annealed to prevent breakage during processing.
@,9A@,%A

/n order to make glass from materials )ith poor glass forming tendencies, novel techni7ues are used to increase cooling rate, or reduce crystal nucleation triggers. &1amples of these techni7ues include aerodynamic levitation (cooling the melt )hilst it floats on a gas stream , splat 7uenching (pressing the melt bet)een t)o metal anvils and roller 7uenching (pouring the melt through rollers . *ee also: 'ptical lens design, Fabrication and testing of optical components

"ther ty#es
$etwor% glasses

: $O(#W ($O . $halcogenide glasses form the basis of re()ritable $O and OHO solid( state memory technology.@,2A *ome glasses that do not include silica as a ma6or constituent may have physico(chemical properties useful for their application in fiber optics and other speciali?ed technical applications. These include fluoride glasses, aluminosilicates, phosphate glasses, borate glasses, and chalcogenide glasses. There are three classes of components for o1ide glasses: net)ork formers, intermediates, and modifiers. The net)ork formers (silicon, boron, germanium form a highly cross( linked net)ork of chemical bonds. The intermediates (titanium, aluminium, ?irconium, beryllium, magnesium, ?inc can act as both net)ork formers and modifiers, according to the glass composition. The modifiers (calcium, lead, lithium, sodium, potassium alter the net)ork structureN they are usually present as ions, compensated by nearby non(bridging o1ygen atoms, bound by one covalent bond to the glass net)ork and holding one negative charge to compensate for the positive ion nearby. *ome elements can play multiple rolesN e.g. lead can act both as a net)ork former (<b%I replacing *i%I , or as a modifier. The presence of non(bridging o1ygens lo)ers the relative number of strong bonds in the material and disrupts the net)ork, decreasing the viscosity of the melt and lo)ering the melting temperature.

The alkali metal ions are small and mobileN their presence in glass allo)s a degree of electrical conductivity, especially in molten state or at high temperature. Their mobility, ho)ever, decreases the chemical resistance of the glass, allo)ing leaching by )ater and facilitating corrosion. :lkaline earth ions, )ith their t)o positive charges and re7uirement for t)o non(bridging o1ygen ions to compensate for their charge, are much less mobile themselves and also hinder diffusion of other ions, especially the alkalis. The most common commercial glasses contain both alkali and alkaline earth ions (usually sodium and calcium , for easier processing and satisfying corrosion resistance.@,;A $orrosion resistance of glass can be achieved by dealkali?ation, removal of the alkali ions from the glass surface by reaction )ith e.g. sulfur or fluorine compounds. <resence of alkaline metal ions has also detrimental effect to the loss tangent of the glass, and to its electrical resistanceN glasses for electronics (sealing, vacuum tubes, lamps... have to take this in account. :ddition of lead(// o1ide lo)ers melting point, lo)ers viscosity of the melt, and increases refractive inde1. Bead o1ide also facilitates solubility of other metal o1ides and therefore is used in colored glasses. The viscosity decrease of lead glass melt is very significant (roughly ,>> times in comparison )ith soda glasses N this allo)s easier removal of bubbles and )orking at lo)er temperatures, hence its fre7uent use as an additive in vitreous enamels and glass solders. The high ionic radius of the <b.I ion renders it highly immobile in the matri1 and hinders the movement of other ionsN lead glasses therefore have high electrical resistance, about t)o orders of magnitude higher than soda(lime glass (,>=.2 vs ,>;.2 'hmPcm, O$ at .2> G$ . For more details, see lead glass.@,-A :ddition of fluorine lo)ers the dielectric constant of glass. Fluorine is highly electronegative and attracts the electrons in the lattice, lo)ering the polari?ability of the material. *uch silicon dio1ide(fluoride is used in manufacture of integrated circuits as an insulator. 8igh levels of fluorine doping lead to formation of volatile *iF.' and such glass is then thermally unstable. *table layers )ere achieved )ith dielectric constant do)n to about 9.2C9.-.@,=A

!mor#hous metals

*amples of amorphous metal, )ith millimeter scale

/n the past, small batches of amorphous metals )ith high surface area configurations (ribbons, )ires, films, etc. have been produced through the implementation of e1tremely rapid rates of cooling. This )as initially termed Dsplat coolingD by doctoral student W. +lement at $altech, )ho sho)ed that cooling rates on the order of millions of degrees per second is sufficient to impede the formation of crystals, and the metallic atoms become Dlocked intoD a glassy state. :morphous metal )ires have been produced by sputtering molten metal onto a spinning metal disk. !ore recently a number of alloys have been produced in layers )ith thickness e1ceeding , millimeter. These are kno)n as bulk metallic glasses ("!G . Bi7uidmetal Technologies sell a number of ?irconium(based "!Gs. "atches of amorphous steel have also been produced that demonstrate mechanical properties far e1ceeding those found in conventional steel alloys.@,5A@.>A@.,A /n .>>%, 4/*T researchers presented evidence that an isotropic non(crystalline metallic phase (dubbed D7(glassD could be gro)n from the melt. This phase is the first phase, or Dprimary phase,D to form in the :l(Fe(*i system during rapid cooling. /nterestingly, e1perimental evidence indicates that this phase forms by a first-order transition. Transmission electron microscopy (T&! images sho) that the 7(glass nucleates from the melt as discrete particles, )hich gro) spherically )ith a uniform gro)th rate in all directions. The diffraction pattern sho)s it to be an isotropic glassy phase. Qet there is a nucleation barrier, )hich implies an interfacial discontinuity (or internal surface bet)een the glass and the melt.@..A@.9A

&lectrolytes
&lectrolytes or molten salts are mi1tures of different ions. /n a mi1ture of three or more ionic species of dissimilar si?e and shape, crystalli?ation can be so difficult that the li7uid can easily be supercooled into a glass. The best studied e1ample is $a>.%+>.;(4'9 ,.%.

!'ueous solutions
*ome a7ueous solutions can be supercooled into a glassy state, for instance Bi$l:R8.' in the composition range %RRR=.

(olecular li'uids
: molecular liquid is composed of molecules that do not form a covalent net)ork but interact only through )eak van der Waals forces or through transient hydrogen bonds. !any molecular li7uids can be supercooled into a glassN some are e1cellent glass formers that normally do not crystalli?e. : )idely kno)n e1ample is sugar glass. Ender e1tremes of pressure and temperature solids may e1hibit large structural and physical changes that can lead to polyamorphic phase transitions.@.%A /n .>>; /talian scientists created an amorphous phase of carbon dio1ide using e1treme pressure. The

substance )as named amorphous carbonia(a($'. and e1hibits an atomic structure resembling that of silica.@.2A

Polymers
This section does not cite any references or sources. <lease help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Ensourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2013) /mportant polymer glasses include amorphous and glassy pharmaceutical compounds. These are useful because the solubility of the compound is greatly increased )hen it is amorphous compared to the same crystalline composition. !any emerging pharmaceuticals are practically insoluble in their crystalline forms. :ccording to the &astman $ompany, D@tAhe Glass <olymerS family of cosmetic materials offers innovative design and application possibilities. /t is a compelling alternative to traditional polymers and can be used )here glass falls short.D@.;A

Colloidal glasses
$oncentrated colloidal suspensions may e1hibit a distinct glass transition as function of particle concentration or density.@.-A@.=A@.5A

Glass-ceramics

: high(strength glass(ceramic cooktop )ith negligible thermal e1pansion. Glass(ceramic materials share many properties )ith both non(crystalline glass and crystalline ceramics. They are formed as a glass, and then partially crystalli?ed by heat treatment. For e1ample, the microstructure of )hite)are ceramics fre7uently contains both amorphous and crystalline phases. $rystalline grains are often embedded )ithin a non(crystalline intergranular phase of grain boundaries. When applied to )hite)are ceramics, vitreous means the material has an e1tremely lo) permeability to li7uids, often but not al)ays )ater, )hen determined by a specified test regime.@9>A@9,A The term mainly refers to a mi1 of lithium and aluminosilicates that yields an array of materials )ith interesting thermomechanical properties. The most commercially important of these have the distinction of being impervious to thermal shock. Thus, glass(

ceramics have become e1tremely useful for countertop cooking. The negative thermal e1pansion coefficient ($T& of the crystalline ceramic phase can be balanced )ith the positive $T& of the glassy phase. :t a certain point (T->3 crystalline the glass(ceramic has a net $T& near ?ero. This type of glass(ceramic e1hibits e1cellent mechanical properties and can sustain repeated and 7uick temperature changes up to ,>>> G$.@9>A@9,A

The amorphous structure of glassy silica (*i'. in t)o dimensions. 4o long(range order is present, although there is local ordering )ith respect to the tetrahedral arrangement of o1ygen (' atoms around the silicon (*i atoms.

Structure
!ain article: *tructure of li7uids and glasses :s in other amorphous solids, the atomic structure of a glass lacks any long(range translational periodicity. 8o)ever, due to chemical bonding characteristics glasses do possess a high degree of short(range order )ith respect to local atomic polyhedra.@9.A

Com#arison with su#ercooled li'uid

!ain article: Glass transition /n physics, the standard definition of a glass (or vitreous solid is a solid formed by rapid melt 7uenching.@99A@9%A@92A@9;A@9-A 8o)ever, the term glass is often used to describe any amorphous solid that e1hibits a glass transition temperature Tg. /f the cooling is sufficiently rapid (relative to the characteristic crystalli?ation time then crystalli?ation is prevented and instead the disordered atomic configuration of the supercooled li7uid is fro?en into the solid state at Tg. Generally, the structure of a glass e1ists in a metastable state )ith respect to its crystalline form, although in certain circumstances, for e1ample in atactic polymers, there is no crystalline analogue of the amorphous phase.@9=A

*ome people consider glass to be a li7uid due to its lack of a first(order phase transition@95A@%>A )here certain thermodynamic variables such as volume, entropy and enthalpy are discontinuous through the glass transition range. 8o)ever, the glass transition may be described as analogous to a second(order phase transition )here the intensive thermodynamic variables such as the thermal e1pansivity and heat capacity are discontinuous.@%,A Oespite this, the e7uilibrium theory of phase transformations does not entirely hold for glass, and hence the glass transition cannot be classed as one of the classical e7uilibrium phase transformations in solids.@9;A@9-A Bist of unsolved problems in physics What is the nature of the transition between a fluid or regular solid and a glassy hase! DThe deepest and most interesting unsolved problem in solid state theory is probably the theory of the nature of glass and the glass transition.D <.W. :nderson@%.A Glass is an amorphous solid. /t e1hibits an atomic structure close to that observed in the supercooled li7uid phase but displays all the mechanical properties of a solid.@95A@%9A The notion that glass flo)s to an appreciable e1tent over e1tended periods of time is not supported by empirical research or theoretical analysis (see viscosity of amorphous materials . Baboratory measurements of room temperature glass flo) do sho) a motion consistent )ith a material viscosity on the order of ,>,-C,>,= <a s.@%%A :lthough the atomic structure of glass shares characteristics of the structure in a supercooled li7uid, glass tends to behave as a solid belo) its glass transition temperature. @%2A : supercooled li7uid behaves as a li7uid, but it is belo) the free?ing point of the material, and in some cases )ill crystalli?e almost instantly if a crystal is added as a core. The change in heat capacity at a glass transition and a melting transition of comparable materials are typically of the same order of magnitude, indicating that the change in active degrees of freedom is comparable as )ell. "oth in a glass and in a crystal it is mostly only the vibrational degrees of freedom that remain active, )hereas rotational and translational motion is arrested. This helps to e1plain )hy both crystalline and non( crystalline solids e1hibit rigidity on most e1perimental time scales.

)ehavior of anti'ue glass

The observation that old )indo)s are sometimes found to be thicker at the bottom than at the top is often offered as supporting evidence for the vie) that glass flo)s over a timescale of centuries, the assumption being that the glass )as once uniform but has flo)ed to its ne) shape, )hich is a property of li7uid.@%;A 8o)ever, this assumption is incorrectN once solidified, glass stops flo)ing. The reason for the observation is that in the past, )hen panes of glass )ere commonly made by glassblo)ers, the techni7ue used )as to spin molten glass so as to create a round, mostly flat and even plate (the cro)n glass process, described above . This plate )as then cut to fit a )indo). The pieces )ere not, ho)ever, absolutely flatN the edges of the disk became a different thickness as the glass spun. When installed in a )indo) frame, the glass )ould be placed )ith the thicker side do)n both for the sake of stability and to prevent )ater accumulating in the lead cames at the bottom of the )indo).@%-A 'ccasionally such glass has been found thinner side do)n or thicker on either side of the )indo)0s edge, the result of carelessness during installation.@%=A !ass production of glass )indo) panes in the early t)entieth century caused a similar effect. /n glass factories, molten glass )as poured onto a large cooling table and allo)ed to spread. The resulting glass is thicker at the location of the pour, located at the center of the large sheet. These sheets )ere cut into smaller )indo) panes )ith nonuniform thickness, typically )ith the location of the pour centered in one of the panes (kno)n as Dbull0s(eyesD for decorative effect. !odern glass intended for )indo)s is produced as float glass and is very uniform in thickness. *everal other points can be considered that contradict the Dcathedral glass flo)D theory:

Writing in the :merican Journal of <hysics, materials engineer &dgar O. Manotto states D... the predicted rela1ation time for Ge'. at room temperature is ,>9. years. 8ence, the rela1ation period (characteristic flo) time of cathedral glasses )ould be even longer.D@%5A (,>9. years is many times longer than the estimated age of the Eniverse. /f medieval glass has flo)ed perceptibly, then ancient #oman and &gyptian ob6ects should have flo)ed proportionately more U but this is not observed. *imilarly, prehistoric obsidian blades should have lost their edgeN this is not observed either (although obsidian may have a different viscosity from )indo) glass .@95A /f glass flo)s at a rate that allo)s changes to be seen )ith the naked eye after centuries, then the effect should be noticeable in anti7ue telescopes. :ny slight deformation in the anti7ue telescopic lenses )ould lead to a dramatic decrease in optical performance, a phenomenon that is not observed.@95A There are many e1amples of centuries(old glass shelving that has not bent, even though it is under much higher stress from gravitational loads than vertical )indo) glass.@citation neededA

The above does not apply to materials that have a glass transition temperature close to room temperature, such as certain plastics used in daily life like polystyrene and polypropylene.

Physical #ro#erties
*ee also: Bist of physical properties of glass

"#tical #ro#erties
Glass is in )idespread use largely due to the production of glass compositions that are transparent to visible )avelengths of light. /n contrast, polycrystalline materials do not in general transmit visible light.@2>A The individual crystallites may be transparent, but their facets (grain boundaries reflect or scatter light resulting in diffuse reflection. Glass does not contain the internal subdivisions associated )ith grain boundaries in polycrystals and hence does not scatter light in the same manner as a polycrystalline material. The surface of a glass is often smooth since during glass formation the molecules of the supercooled li7uid are not forced to dispose in rigid crystal geometries and can follo) surface tension, )hich imposes a microscopically smooth surface. These properties, )hich give glass its clearness, can be retained even if glass is partially light(absorbing i.e. colored.@2,A Glass has the ability to refract, reflect, and transmit light follo)ing geometrical optics, )ithout scattering it. /t is used in the manufacture of lenses and )indo)s. $ommon glass has a refraction inde1 around ,.2. :ccording to Fresnel e7uations, the reflectivity of a sheet of glass is about %3 per surface (at normal incidence in air , and the transmissivity of one element (t)o surfaces is about 5>3. Glass also finds application in optoelectronics e.g., for light(transmitting optical fibers.

Color
!ain article: Glass coloring and color marking

$ommon soda(lime float glass appears green in thick sections because of Fe.I impurities.

*tudio glass or art glass often includes multiple colors, )hich increases the difficulty of production, as each color has different chemical and physical properties )hen molten. $olor in glass may be obtained by addition of electrically charged ions (or color centers that are homogeneously distributed, and by precipitation of finely dispersed particles (such as in photochromic glasses .@2.A 'rdinary soda(lime glass appears colorless to the naked eye )hen it is thin, although iron(// o1ide (Fe' impurities of up to >., )t3@29A produce a green tint, )hich can be vie)ed in thick pieces or )ith the aid of scientific instruments. Further Fe' and $r.'9 additions may be used for the production of green bottles. *ulfur, together )ith carbon and iron salts, is used to form iron polysulfides and produce amber glass ranging from yello)ish to almost black.@2%A : glass melt can also ac7uire an amber color from a reducing combustion atmosphere. !anganese dio1ide can be added in small amounts to remove the green tint given by iron(// o1ide. When used in art glass or studio glass glass is colored using closely guarded recipes that involve specific combinations of metal o1ides, melting temperatures and 0cook0 times. !ost colored glass used in the art market is manufactured in volume by vendors )ho serve this market although there are some glass makers )ith the ability to make their o)n color from ra) materials.

In art

: vase being created at the #ei6myre glass)orks, *)eden

<aper)eight )ith items inside the glass, $orning !useum of Glass

: glass sculpture by Oale $hihuly, DThe *unD at the DGardens of GlassD e1hibition in +e) Gardens, Bondon. The piece is % metres (,9 feet high and made from ,>>> separate glass ob6ects.

Glass tiles mosaic (detail .

: display at $anberra Glass)orks, :ustralia !ain articles: *tudio glass, :rt glass, and Glass art From the ,5th century, various types of fancy glass started to become significant branches of the decorative arts. $ameo glass )as revived for the first time since the #omans, initially mostly used for pieces in a neo(classical style. The :rt 4ouveau movement in particular made great use of glass, )ith #enV Bali7ue, Wmile GallV, and Oaum of 4ancy important names in the first French )ave of the movement, producing colored vases and similar pieces, often in cameo glass, and also using lustre techni7ues. Bouis $omfort Tiffany in :merica speciali?ed in secular stained glass, mostly of plant sub6ects, both in panels and his famous lamps. From the .>th century, some glass artists began to class themselves as in effect sculptors )orking in glass, and as part of the fine arts. *everal of the most common techni7ues for producing glass art include: blo)ing, kiln( casting, fusing, slumping, pate(de(verre, flame()orking, hot(sculpting and cold()orking. $old )ork includes traditional stained glass )ork as )ell as other methods of shaping glass at room temperature. Glass can also be cut )ith a diamond sa), or copper )heels embedded )ith abrasives, and polished to give gleaming facetsN the techni7ue used in

creating Waterford crystal.@22A :rt is sometimes etched into glass via the use of acid, caustic, or abrasive substances. Traditionally this )as done after the glass )as blo)n or cast. /n the ,5.>s a ne) mould(etch process )as invented, in )hich art )as etched directly into the mould, so that each cast piece emerged from the mould )ith the image already on the surface of the glass. This reduced manufacturing costs and, combined )ith a )ider use of colored glass, led to cheap glass)are in the ,59>s, )hich later became kno)n as Oepression glass.@2;A :s the types of acids used in this process are e1tremely ha?ardous, abrasive methods have gained popularity. 'b6ects made out of glass include not only traditional ob6ects such as vessels (bo)ls, vases, bottles, and other containers , paper)eights, marbles, beads, but also an endless range of sculpture and installation art as )ell. $olored glass is often used, though sometimes the glass is painted, innumerable e1amples e1ist of the use of stained glass.

(useums
:part from historical collections in general museums, modern )orks of art in glass can be seen in a variety of museums, including the $hrysler !useum, the !useum of Glass in Tacoma, the !etropolitan !useum of :rt, the Toledo !useum of :rt, and $orning !useum of Glass, in $orning, 4Q, )hich houses the )orld0s largest collection of glass art and history, )ith more than %2,>>> ob6ects in its collection.@2-A /n February .>>> the *mith !useum of *tained Glass Windo)s, located in $hicago0s 4avy <ier, opened as the first museum in :merica dedicated solely to stained glass )indo)s. The museum features )orks by Bouis $omfort Tiffany and John Bafarge, and is open daily free to the public.@2=A The 8arvard !useum of 4atural 8istory has a collection of e1tremely detailed models of flo)ers made of painted glass. These )ere lamp)orked by Beopold "laschka and his son #udolph, )ho never revealed the method he used to make them. The "laschka Glass Flo)ers are still an inspiration to glassblo)ers today.@25A The E+0s 4ational Glass $entre is located in the city of *underland, Tyne and Wear.

See also

Fiberglass *uperglass Tektite Holcanic glass Hitrified sand <rince #upert0s Orops +imberley points Glass recycling $ane)orking !urrine Fire glass

*eferences
,. .. +um# u# , DGlass 'nline: The 8istory of GlassD. #etrieved .>>-(,>(.5. +um# u# , True gla?ing over a ceramic body )as not used until many centuries after the production of the first glass. 9. +um# u# , Go)lett, J.:.J. (,55- . "igh #efinition $rchaeology% &hreads &hrough the 'ast. #outledge. /*"4 >(%,2(,=%.5(>. %. +um# u# , Oouglas, #. W. (,5-. . $ history of glassma(ing. 8enley(on( Thames: G T Foulis X $o Btd. /*"4 >(=2%.5(,,-(.. 2. +um# u# , 8istory of Glass !anufacture: Bondon $ro)n Glass co. ;. +um# u# , !. /. '6ovan (.>>% . DGlass Formation in :morphous *i'. as a <ercolation <hase Transition in a *ystem of 4et)ork OefectsD. )*&' +etters -. (,. : ;9.C;9%. "ibcode:.>>%J&T<B..-5..;9.'. doi:,>.,,9%K,.,-5>>.,. -. Y Jump up to: a b c ". 8. W. *. de Jong, DGlassDN in DEllmann0s &ncyclopedia of /ndustrial $hemistryDN 2th edition, vol. :,., H$8 <ublishers, Weinheim, Germany, ,5=5, /*"4 9(2.-(.>,,.(2, pp. 9;2C%9.. =. +um# u# , 8ein? G. <faender (,55; . ,chott guide to glass. *pringer. pp. ,92, ,=;. /*"4 5-=(>(%,.(;.>;>(-. #etrieved = February .>,,. 5. +um# u# , $orning, /nc. <yre1 data sheet. (<OF . #etrieved on .>,.(>2( ,2. ,>. +um# u# , @,A *chott, 4.:., /nc data sheet ,,. +um# u# , !ining the sea sand. *eafriends.org.n? (,55%(>.(>= . #etrieved on .>,.(>2(,2. ,.. +um# u# , D<FG GlassD. <fg.co.?a. #etrieved .>>5(,>(.%. ,9. Y Jump up to: a b DGlass melting, <acific 4orth)est 4ational BaboratoryD. Oepts.)ashington.edu. #etrieved .>>5(,>(.%. ,%. +um# u# , :le1ander Fluegel. DGlass melting in the laboratoryD. Glassproperties.com. #etrieved .>>5(,>(.%. ,2. +um# u# , Greer, :. BindsayN !athur, 4 (.>>2 . D!aterials science: $hanging face of the chameleonD. -ature /0- (->;9 : ,.%;C,.%-. "ibcode:.>>24atur.%9-.,.%;G. doi:,>.,>9=K%9-,.%;a. <!/O ,;.2,5%,. ,;. +um# u# , &ric Be "ourhis (.>>- . .lass% Mechanics and &echnology. Wiley(H$8. p. -%. /*"4 9(2.-(9,2%5(-. ,-. +um# u# , James F. *hackelford, #obert 8. Ooremus (.>>= . /eramic and .lass Materials% ,tructure0 'ro erties and 'rocessing. *pringer. p. ,2=. /*"4 >(9=-(-99;,(.. ,=. +um# u# , #obert Ooering, Qoshio 4ishi (.>>- . "andboo( of semiconductor manufacturing technology. $#$ <ress. pp. ,.C9. /*"4 ,(2-%%%( ;-2(%. ,5. +um# u# , +lement, W.N Willens, #. 8.N Ou)e?, <'B (,5;> . D4on( crystalline *tructure in *olidified Gold(*ilicon :lloysD. -ature 12- (%-%> : =;5. "ibcode:,5;>4atur.,=-..=;5+. doi:,>.,>9=K,=-=;5b>. .>. +um# u# , Biebermann, 8.N Graham, $. (,5-; . D<roduction of :morphous :lloy #ibbons and &ffects of :pparatus <arameters 'n #ibbon OimensionsD. 1*** &ransactions on Magnetics 13 (; : 5.,. "ibcode:,5-;/T!....,...5.,B. doi:,>.,,>5KT!:G.,5-;.,>25.>,.

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+um# u# , Folmer, J. $. W.N Fran?en, *tefan (.>>9 . D*tudy of polymer glasses by modulated differential scanning calorimetry in the undergraduate physical chemistry laboratoryD. )ournal of /hemical *ducation 25 (- : =,9. "ibcode:.>>9J$h&d..=>..=,9F. doi:,>.,>.,Ked>=>p=,9. 95. Y Jump up to: a b c d <hilip Gibbs. D/s glass li7uid or solid]D. #etrieved .>>-(>9(.,. %>. +um# u# , Jim Boy. DGlass /s : Bi7uid]D. #etrieved .>>-(>9(.,. %,. +um# u# , !. /. '6ovan, W. &. Bee (.>>; . DTopologically disordered systems at the glass transitionD. )7 'hys7% /ondensed Matter 12 (2> : ,,2>-C ,,2.>. "ibcode:.>>;J<$!...,=,,2>-'. doi:,>.,>==K>529(=5=%K,=K2>K>>-. %.. +um# u# , <. W. :nderson (,552 . DThrough the Glass BightlyD. ,cience 36- (2.>% : ,;,2. doi:,>.,,.;Kscience..;-.2.>%.,;,2(e. %9. +um# u# , D<hilip GibbsD .lass Worldwide, (!ayKJune .>>- , pp. ,%C,= %%. +um# u# , Hannoni, !.N *ordoni, :.N !olesini, G. (.>,, . D#ela1ation time and viscosity of fused silica glass at room temperatureD. *ur7 'hys7 )7 * 0/: 5C,%. doi:,>.,,%>Kep6eKi.>,,(,,>5.(5. %2. +um# u# , Florin 4eumann. DGlass: Bi7uid or *olid C *cience vs. an Erban BegendD. #etrieved .>>-(>%(>=. %;. +um# u# , $hang, +enneth (.>>=(>-(.5 . DThe 4ature of Glass #emains :nything but $learD. -ew 8or( &imes. #etrieved .>>=(>-(.5. %-. +um# u# , DOr +arl0s 8ome)ork: Glass Flo)sD. :ustralia: :"$. .>>>( >,(.;. #etrieved .>>5(,>(.%. %=. +um# u# , 8. 8alem. DOoes Glass Flo)D. #etrieved .>,>(>5(>.. %5. +um# u# , Manotto, &dgar Outra (,55= . DOo $athedral Glasses Flo)]D. $merican )ournal of 'hysics 66 (2 : 95.C95;. "ibcode:,55=:mJ<h..;;..95.M. doi:,>.,,,5K,.,5>.;. 2>. +um# u# , "arsoum, !ichel W. (.>>9 . 9undamentals of ceramics (. ed. . "ristol: /'<. /*"4 >(-2>9(>5>.(%. 2,. +um# u# , Oonald #. Ehlmann, 4orbert J. +reidl, ed. (,55, . 5 tical ro erties of glass. Westerville, '8: :merican $eramic *ociety. /*"4 >( 5%%5>%(92(,. 2.. +um# u# , Werner Hogel (,55% . .lass /hemistry (. ed. . *pringer( Herlag "erlin and 8eidelberg Gmb8 X $o. +. /*"4 9(2%>(2-2-.(9. 29. +um# u# , Thomas <. *e)ard, ed. (.>>2 . "igh tem erature glass melt ro erty database for rocess modeling. Westerville, 'hio: :merican $eramic *ociety. /*"4 ,(2-%5=(..2(-. 2%. +um# u# , *ubstances Esed in the !aking of $oloured Glass ,st.glassman.com (Oavid ! /ssitt . #etrieved 9 :ugust .>>;. 22. +um# u# , DWaterford $rystal Hisitors $entreD. #etrieved .>>-(,>(,5. 2;. +um# u# , DOepression GlassD. #etrieved .>>-(,>(,5. 2-. +um# u# , D$orning !useum of GlassD. :rchived from the original on .>>=(>,(,.. #etrieved .>>-(,>(,%. 2=. +um# u# , *mith !useum of *tained Glass Windo)s 25. +um# u# , The Ware $ollection of "laschka Glass !odels of <lants. The 8arvard !useum of 4atural 8istory

Further reading

Ghosh, :malananda (,55> . $n *ncyclo aedia of 1ndian $rchaeology. "#/BB. /*"4 5>(>%(>5.;.(2. Go)lett, J. :. J. (,55- . "igh #efinition $rchaeology% &hreads &hrough the 'ast. #outledge. /*"4 >(%,2(,=%.5(>. 4oel $. *tokesN &he .lass and .la:ing "andboo(N *tandards :ustraliaN *:: 8",.2C,55= staff (. 4ov .>,, . Robot s eeds u glass de3elo ment (press release . Fraunhofer /nstitute. #etrieved ,> Oec .>,,. (reprinted by R;# Maga:ine *tookey, O. Oonald. *< lorations in .lass% $n $utobiogra hy. Wiley, .>>>. /*"4 5-=(,(2-%5=(,.%(Hogel, Werner. /hemistry of .lass. Wiley, ,5=2. /*"4 5-=(>(5,;>5%(-9(-

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