Aircraft Design Project

AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT

Aircraft Design Project

Chapter 1
2

Aircraft Design Project CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ------------------------------------1.1 Defining a new design 1.2 Design process 1.3 Concep !a" design -------------------------------------A beautiful aircraft is the expression of the genius of a great engineer who is also a great artist. Neville Shute, British Aeronauti al En!ineer an" Novelist, Fro#, No Highway, 1$%&' (hen )ou loo* at air ra+t, it is eas) to o,serve that the) have a nu#,er o+ o##on +eatures- .in!s, a tail .ith verti al an" hori/ontal .in! se tions, en!ines to propel the# throu!h the air, an" a +usela!e to arr) passen!ers or ar!o' I+, ho.ever, )ou ta*e a #ore riti al loo* ,e)on" the !ross +eatures, )ou also an see su,tle, an" so#eti#es not so su,tle, "i++eren es' (hat are the reasons +or these "i++eren es0 (hat .as on the #in"1S2 o+ the "esi!ners that ause" the# to on+i!ure the air ra+t in this .a)0 Airplane "esi!n is ,oth an art an" a s ien e' In that respe t it is "i++i ult to learn ,) rea"in! a ,oo*3 rather, it #ust ,e e4perien e" an" pra ti e"' 5o.ever, .e an o++er the +ollo.in! "e+inition an" then atte#pt to e4plain it' Airplane "esi!n is the intelle tual en!ineerin! pro ess o+ reatin! on paper 1or on a o#puter s reen2 a +l)in! #a hine to 112 #eet ertain spe i+i ations an" re6uire#ents esta,lishe" ,) potential users 1or as per eive" ,) the #anu+a turer2 an"7or 182 pioneer innovative, ne. i"eas an" te hnolo!)' An e4a#ple o+ the +or#er is the "esi!n o+ #ost o##er ial transports, startin! at least .ith the Dou!las DC91 in 1$:8, .hi h .as "esi!ne" to #eet or e4 ee" various spe i+i ations ,) an airplane o#pan)' 1The airline .as T(A, na#e" Trans ontinental an" (estern Air at that ti#e'2 An e4a#ple o+ the latter is the "esi!n o+ the ro *et9po.ere" Bell ;91, the +irst airplane to e4 ee" the spee" o+ soun" in level or li#,in! +li!ht 1O to,er 1%, 1$%&2' The "esi!n pro ess is in"ee" an intelle tual a tivit), ,ut a rather spe ial one that is te#pere" ,) !oo" intuition "evelope" via e4perien e, ,) attention pai" to su ess+ul airplane "esi!ns that have ,een use" in the past, an" ,) 1!enerall) proprietar)2 "esi!n pro e"ures an" "ata,ases 1han",oo*s, et ',2 that are a part o+ ever) airplane #anu+a turer' 1.1 Defining a new design The "esi!n o+ an air ra+t "ra.s on a nu#,er o+ ,asi areas o+ aerospa e en!ineerin!' As sho.n in the illustration, these in lu"e aero")na#i s, propulsion, li!ht9.ei!ht stru tures an" ontrol' Ea h o+ these areas involves para#eters that !overn the si/e, shape, .ei!ht an" per+or#an e o+ an air ra+t' Althou!h .e !enerall) tr) to see* opti#u# in all these aspe ts, .ith an air ra+t, this is pra ti all) i#possi,le to a hieve' The reason is that in #an) ases, opti#i/in! one hara teristi "e!ra"es another'

Aircraft Design Project

Aero")na#i s

Propulsion

<i!ht9(ei!ht Stru tures

Control

In #ost ases, the "esi!n o,=e tives are not as +o use"' >ore o+ten, the nature o+ an air ra+t "esi!n is o#pro#ise' That is, the !oal is to ,alan e the "i++erent aspe ts o+ the total per+or#an e .hile tr)in! to opti#i/e a +e. 1or one2 ,ase" on .ell9"e+ine" #ission re6uire#ents' There are #an) per+or#an e aspe ts that an ,e spe i+ie" ,) the #ission re6uire#ents' These in lu"e 1.1.1 The air ra+t purpose or #ission pro+ile3 The t)pe1s2 an" a#ount o+ pa)loa"3 The ruise an" #a4i#u# spee"s3 The nor#al ruise altitu"e3 The ran!e or ra"ius .ith nor#al pa)loa"3 The en"uran e3 The ta*e9o++ "istan e at the #a4i#u# .ei!ht3 The lan"in! "istan e .ith ?@ per ent o+ the #a4i#u# +uel .ei!ht3 The pur hase ost3 An" other re6uire#ents onsi"ere" i#portant3

Aircraf P!rpose The startin! point o+ an) ne. air ra+t is to learl) i"enti+) its purpose' (ith this, it is o+ten possi,le to pla e a "esi!n into a !eneral ate!or)' Su h ate!ories in lu"e o#,at air ra+t, passen!er or ar!o transports, an" !eneral aviation air ra+t' These #a) also ,e +urther re+ine" into su, ate!ories ,ase" on parti ular "esi!n o,=e tives su h as ran!e 1short or lon!2, ta*e9o++ or lan"in! "istan es, #a4i#u# spee", et ' The pro ess o+ ate!ori/in! is use+ul in i"enti+)in! an) e4istin! air ra+t that #i!ht ,e use" in #a*in! o#parisons to a propose" "esi!n' (ith #o"ern #ilitar) air ra+t, the purpose +or a ne. air ra+t !enerall) o#es +ro# a #ilitar) pro!ra# o++i e' For e4a#ple, the #ission spe i+i ations +or the ;98$ pi ture" in +i!ure 1'1 a#e +ro# a 1$&& re6uest +or proposals +ro# the A'S' Air For e Fli!ht D)na#i s <a,orator) in .hi h the) .ere see*in! a resear h air ra+t that .oul" e4plore the +or.ar" s.ept .in! on ept an" vali"ate stu"ies that in"i ate" su h a "esi!n oul" provi"e ,etter ontrol an" li+t 6ualities in e4tre#e #aneuvers' !

Aircraft Design Project (ith #o"ern o##er ial air ra+t, a proposal +or a ne. "esi!n usuall) o#es as the response to internal stu"ies that ai# to pro=e t +uture #ar*et nee"s' For e4a#ple, the spe i+i ations +or the #ost re ent Boein! o##er ial air ra+t 1B9&&&2 .ere ,ase" on the interest o+ o##er ial airlines to have a t.in9en!ine air ra+t .ith a pa)loa" an" ran!e in ,et.een those o+ the e4istin! B9&B& an" B9 &%& air ra+t'

#igure 1.1 $%2& Sin e it is not usuall) possi,le to opti#i/e all o+ the per+or#an e aspe ts in an air ra+t, "e+inin! the purpose lea"s the .a) in settin! .hi h o+ these aspe ts .ill ,e the C"esi!n "rivers'D For e4a#ple, .ith the B9&&&, t.o o+ the pro#inent "esi!n "rivers .ere ran!e an" pa)loa"' 1.1.2 Pa#"oad The pa)loa" is .hat is arrie" on ,oar" an" "elivere" as part o+ the air ra+tEs #ission' Stan"ar" pa)loa"s are passen!ers, ar!o or or"nan e' The +irst t.o are onsi"ere" non9e4pen"a,le pa)loa" ,e ause the) are e4pe te" to ,e transporte" +or the o#plete "uration o+ the +li!ht plan' >ilitar) or"nan e is e4pen"a,le pa)loa" sin e at so#e point in the +li!ht plan it per#anentl) leaves the air ra+t' This in lu"es ,o#,s, ro *ets, #issiles an" a##unition +or on9,oar" !uns' For personal or s#all !eneral aviation air ra+t, the pa)loa" in lu"es the pilot as .ell as passen!ers an" ,a!!a!e' For ,usiness, o##uter an" o##er ial air ra+t, the pa)loa" "oes not in lu"e the +li!ht or a,in re., onl) the passen!ers, ,a!!a!e an" ar!o' 1.1.3 Cr!ise and $a%i&!& 'peeds The #ission o+ an air ra+t usuall) "i tates its spee" ran!e' Propeller9"riven air ra+t are usuall) "esi!ne" to ruise at spee"s ,et.een 1?@ to :@@ *nots' Jet po.ere" air ra+t have hi!her ruise spee"s that are nor#all) spe i+ie" in ter#s o+ >a h nu#,er' The t)pi al ruise >a h nu#,er +or ,usiness an" o##er ial =et air ra+t is +ro# @'F to @'F?' This ran!e o+ ruise spee"s is lose to opti#u# +or #a4i#i/in! the o#,ination o+ pa)loa" .ei!ht, ran!e an" spee"' The +e. supersoni o##er ial air ra+t "esi!ns 112 have supersoni ruise spee" as their prin iple "esi!n "river an" 182 sa ri+i e ran!e an" pa)loa"' The ruise >a h nu#,er o+ the Con or"e is 8'@8' It .ill arr) 1@@ passen!ers .ith a ran!e o+ :&%@ #iles, .hi h is onsi"era,l) less than the air ra+t o+ nor#al lass, .hi h have hi!h su,soni ruise spee"s'

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Aircraft Design Project >o"ern #ilitar) =et o#,at an" atta * air ra+t usuall) have a +li!ht plan that involves e++i ient ruise at hi!h su,soni >a h nu#,ers' This is usuall) in the ran!e +ro# >a h @'F? to @'$@' The #a4i#u# spee" is usuall) spe i+ie" in the onte4t o+ an inter ept portion o+ the +li!ht plan' This has a >a h nu#,er that is t)pi all) in the ran!e o+ 8'@' 1.1.( Nor&a" Cr!ise A" i !de The ruise altitu"e is !enerall) "i tate" ,) the ruise spee", propulsion s)ste# an" a,in pressuri/ation' An air ra+t .ith an un9pressuri/e" a,in .oul" ruise no hi!her than 1@,@@@ +eet' (ith propeller9"riven air ra+t, tur,o9 har!e" piston en!ines an #aintain a onstant horsepo.er up to an altitu"e o+ appro4i#atel) 8@,@@@ +eet' 5i!her altitu"es are possi,le .ith tur,oprop air ra+t, su h as the Piper Che)enne, .hi h have a #a4i#u# eilin! +ro# :?,@@@ to %1,@@@ +eet' The "e rease in air "ensit) .ith hi!her altitu"e lo.ers the "ra!, so that +or these air ra+t, the ruise ran!e in reases .ith altitu"e' At hi!her su,soni >a h nu#,ers, the tur,o9=et en!ine !ives the hi!her e++i ien )' For su,soni tur,o9=et air ra+t, there is an opti#u# altitu"e .here the +uel onsu#ption is a #ini#u#' This o urs at appro4i#atel) :B,@@@ +eet' There+ore, it is the ,est altitu"e +or the #ost e++i ient, lon! ran!e ruise o+ tur,o9 =et9po.ere" air ra+t' 1.1.) Range The ran!e is the +urthest "istan e the air ra+t an +l) .ithout re+uelin!' In a +li!ht plan, ran!e re+ers to the "istan e travele" "urin! the ruise phase'The hoi e o+ the ran!e is one o+ the #ost i#portant "e isions ,e ause it has a lar!e 1e4ponential2 e++e t on the air ra+t ta*e9o++ .ei!ht' An air ra+t that is inten"e" to +l) a ross the Anite" States 1Ne. Gor* to Seattle2 shoul" have a #ini#u# ran!e o+ 8?@@ nauti al #iles' A ran!e o+ :?@@ nauti al #iles .oul" ,e ne essar) +or transatlanti +li!hts +ro# East oast A'S' ities to oastal ities in (estern Europe' Shorter ran!e transports that are "esi!ne" to +l) ,et.een #a=or ities in a re!ional area 1e'!', <os An!eles to San Fran is o2 shoul" have a #ini#u# ran!e o+ ?@@ nauti al #iles' T.i e that ran!e .oul" allo. an air ra+t to +l) non9stop ,et.een #ost o+ the #a=or ities alon! either oast o+ the Anite" States' 1.1.* End!rance En"uran e is the a#ount o+ ti#e an air ra+t an +l) .ithout re+uelin!' (ith a re onnaissan e air ra+t, en"uran e is one o+ the #ain "esi!n "rivers' For a o##er ial air ra+t, a +li!ht plan .ill in lu"e an en"uran e phase to allo. +or ti#e that ni!ht is spent in a hol"in! pattern prior to lan"in!' For operation .ithin the ontinental Anite" States o##er ial air ra+t are re6uire" to ,e a,le to hol" +or %? #inutes at nor#al ruise +uel onsu#ption' For international operation, the re6uire" hol" ti#e is :@ #inutes' 1.1.+ Ta,e-off Dis ance '

Aircraft Design Project The total ta*e9o++ "istan e o+ the len!th o+ a run.a) nee"e" to a elerate, li+t o++, an" li#, to pres ri,e o,sta le hei!ht' The o,sta le hei!ht is ?@ +eet +or #ilitar) an" s#all ivil air ra+t, an" :? +eet +or o##er ial air ra+t' The ta*e9o++ "istan e that is re6uire" to a o#plish this "epen"s on "i++erent +a tors in the "esi!n su h as the thrust to .ei!ht ratio, the #a4i#u# li+t to .ei!ht ratio an" the sur+a e o+ the air +iel" that a++e ts the rollin! +ri tion o+ the lan"in!9!ear .heels' (able 1.1 (ypical ranges for )ifferent types of aircraft. Aircraf T#pe Personal7Atilit) Re!ional Tur,oprop Business Jets S#aller Jet Transports <ar!er Jet Transports Range -na! ica" &i"es. ?@@91@@@ F@@918@@ 1?@@91F@@ 8?@@9:?@@ B?@@9&8@@

Di++erent "esi!ns an +all into stan"ar" ate!ories +or ta*e9o++ an" lan"in!' A onventional ta*e9o++ an" lan"in! 1CTO<2 air ra+t has "istan e that is !reater than 1@@@ +eet' A short ta*e9o++ an" lan"in! 1STO<2 air ra+t, su h as the GC91? in +i!ure 1'8 an ta*e o++ an" lan" in un"er 1@@@ +eet' Both o+ these .oul" have a !roun" roll portion "urin! ta*e9o++ an" lan"in!' A verti al ta*e9o++ an" lan"in! 1HTO<2 air ra+t "oes not re6uire a !roun" roll'

#igure 1.2 +,%1" Personal an" !eneral aviation propeller9"riven air ra+t, .hi h are inten"e" to operate out o+ s#aller airports, nee" ta*e9o++ "istan es o+ 18@@ to 8@@@ +eet' <ar!er t.in en!ine propeller o##uter air ra+t, .hi h operate out o+ #e"iu# to lar!er si/e airports, have ta*e9o++ "istan es +ro# :@@@ to ?@@@ +eet' Business an" s#aller o##er ial =ets have ta*e9o++ "istan es o+ ?@@@ to &?@@ +eet' <ar!er o##er ial =et transport air ra+t re6uire ta*e@o++ "istan es +ro# F@@@ to 11@@@ +eet' The ta*e9o++ "istan e is a +un tion o+ the altitu"e o+ the airport, althou!h the "istan e at sea level is usuall) spe i+ie"' Ta,le 1'8 lists the altitu"e an" run.a) len!ths o+ so#e o+ the #a=or airports in A#eri a' 1.1./ 0anding Dis ance The lan"in! "istan e onsists o+ the len!th o+ the run.a) nee"e" to "es en" +ro# a spe i+ie" hei!ht o+ ?@ +eet, tou h"o.n an" ,rea* to a stop' Fa tors that a++e t the lan"in! "istan e are the #a4i#u# li+t to .ei!ht an" the sur+a e o+ the air +iel", .hi h a++e ts the lan"in!9!ear .heelsE ,ra*in! +ri tion oe++i ient' The li+t *

Aircraft Design Project to .ei!ht ratio "ire tl) a++e ts the slo.est 1stall2 spee" at .hi h the air ra+t an +l)' The lan"in! tou h"o.n spee" is ta*en to ,e a s#all per enta!e hi!her than the stall spee"' (able 1.2 Altitu)e an) runway length of -ajor airports in A-erica -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Ci # Airpor E"e1a ion -f. R!nwa# -f. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Atlanta 5arts+iel" 1@8B 11FF$ Boston <o!an 8@ 1@@F1 Chi a!o OE5are BB& 11B@@ Denver Denver ?%:1 18@@@ <os An!eles <os An!eles 18B 18@$1 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------For o##er ial air ra+t, in a .orst ase s enario, the lan"in! "istan e is "eter#ine" .ith hal+ o+ the +uel .ei!ht at ta*e9o++ re#ainin! an" .ith an a""itional t.o9thir"s "istan e to a ount +or pilot varia,ilit)' Even .ith these #easures, the lan"in! "istan es are al#ost al.a)s less than the ta*e9o++ "istan es' There+ore, .ith re!ar"s to airports .ith availa,le run.a) "istan es, the li#itin! on"itions .ill !enerall) ,e set ,) ta*e9o++' 1.1.2 P!rc3ase Cos The pur hase ost o+ an air ra+t involves the ost in urre" in the resear h, "evelop#ent, test an" evaluation 1RDTIE2 phase o+ the ne. air ra+t "esi!n, an" the a 6uisition 1A2 or pro"u tion ost o+ usto#er9or"ere" air ra+t' The ost o+ resear h an" "evelop#ent is a#orti/e" over an initial +i4e" nu#,er o+ pro"u tion air ra+t' There+ore, as the nu#,er o+ pro"u tion air ra+t use" to "istri,ute this ost in reases, the pur hase ost per air ra+t "e reases' The "e ision on the total nu#,er o+ air ra+t to ,e pro"u e" is there+ore an i#portant +a tor in esta,lishin! the pur hase pri e' In so#e ases, this pri e an" usto#er o#petition #a) ,e the +inal ar,iters that "eter#ine i+ a "esi!n is to ,e ,uilt' The ost esti#ates are ,ase" on C ost esti#atin! relationshipsD or CERs' These are si#ple #o"el e6uations that orrelate a +e. i#portant hara teristi s o+ a lar!er !roup o+ air ra+t .ith their ost' The pri#ar) hara teristi s on .hi h these are ,ase" are the .ei!ht o+ the stru ture o+ the air ra+t, .hi h is a +i4e" per enta!e o+ the ta*e9o++ .ei!ht, the #a4i#u# spee" at ,est attitu"e, an" the pro"u tion rate' Fro# these, .e e4pe t that lar!er, heavier air ra+t .ill ost #ore than s#aller, li!hter air ra+t' Si#ilarl), air ra+t .ith hi!her ruise spee"s are e4pe te" to ost #ore than slo.er air ra+t' 1.1.14 5edera" A1ia ion Reg!"a ions

Aircraft Design Project An) air ra+t "esi!n #ust onsi"er stan"ar"s an" re!ulations that are set ,) !overn#ent asso iations' Civil air ra+t "esi!ne", ,uilt an" operate" in the Anite" States #ust satis+) the provisions o+ the Fe"eral Aviation Re!ulations 1FARs2' The FARs is ontinuall) ,ein! up"ate" to in orporate a""itional re6uire#ents that o#e a,out "ue to in rease" ti#e an" e4perien e .ith e4istin! air ra+t' Ele troni listin!s o+ the FARs an ,e o,taine" throu!h a (orl" (i"e (e, lin* to the Fli!ht Stan"ar"s Servi e o+ the A'S' Fe"eral Aviation Asso iation 1FAA2' The e4a t lin* an ,e +oun" throu!h a sear h un"er the *e).or" FAA' Se tions o+ the FARs that are o+ parti ular interest to "esi!ners are Air (orthiness Stan"ar"s, General Operatin! an" Fli!ht Rules an" Operations' Air (orthiness Stan"ar"s Part 8: an" 8? in parti ular "e+ine "i++erent ate!ories o+ air ra+t 1+or e4a#ple, transport or o##uter2 ,ase" on su h hara teristi s as nu#,er o+ passen!ers an" #a4i#u# ta*e o++ .ei!ht' These ate!ories are i#portant in #a*in! o#parisons to other air ra+t .ith re!ar" to +li!ht per+or#an e, or other "esi!n "rivers' 1.2 Design Process The pro ess o+ "esi!nin! an air ra+t an" ta*in! it to the point o+ a +li!ht test arti le onsists o+ a se6uen e o+ steps, as illustrate" in +i!ure 1':' It starts ,) i"enti+)in! a nee" or apa,ilit) +or a ne. air ra+t that is ,rou!ht a,out ,) 112 a per eive" #ar*et potential an" 182 te hnolo!i al a"van es #a"e throu!h resear h an" "evelop#ent' The +or#er .ill in lu"e a #ar*et9share +ore ast, .hi h atte#pts to e4a#ine +a tors that #i!ht i#pa t +uture sales o+ a ne. "esi!n' These +a tors in lu"e the nee" +or a ne. "esi!n o+ a spe i+i si/e an" per+or#an e, the nu#,er o+ o#petin! "esi!ns, an" the o##onalit) o+ +eatures .ith e4istin! air ra+t' As a rule, a ne. "esi!n .ith o#petitive per+or#an e an" ost .ill have an e6ual share o+ ne. sales .ith e4istin! o#petitors' The nee"s an" apa,ilities o+ a ne. air ra+t that are "eter#ine" in a #ar*et surve) !o to "e+ine the #ission re6uire#ents +or a on eptual air ra+t' These are o#pile" in the +or# o+ a "esi!n proposal that in lu"es 112 the #otivation +or initiatin! a ne. "esi!n an" 182 the Cte hnolo!) rea"inessD o+ ne. te hnolo!) +or in orporation into a ne. "esi!n' It is essential that the #ission re6uire#ents ,e "e+ine" ,e+ore the "esi!n an ,e starte"' Base" on these, the #ost i#portant per+or#an e aspe ts or C"esi!n "riversD an ,e i"enti+ie" an" opti#i/e" a,ove all others' Follo.in! the "esi!n proposal, the ne4t step is to pro"u e a on eptual "esi!n' The on eptual "esi!n "evelops the +irst !eneral si/e an" on+i!uration +or a ne. air ra+t' It involves the esti#ates o+ the .ei!hts an" the hoi e o+ aero")na#i hara teristi s that .ill ,e ,est suite" to the #ission re6uire#ents state" in the "esi!n proposal' The "esi!n .ill #a*e esti#ates o+ the total "ra! an" si/e the po.er plant' It .ill "eter#ine the ,est air+ra#e to a o##o"ate the 112 pa)loa" an" 182 .in! an" en!ine pla e#ent' This on eptual "esi!n .ill lo ate prin iple .ei!ht !roups &

Aircraft Design Project in or"er to satis+) stati sta,ilit) re6uire#ents' It .ill si/e ontrol sur+a es to a hieve a "esire" "e!ree o+ #aneuvera,ilit)' Finall) the on eptual "esi!n .ill esti#ate the RDTIE an" a 6uisition osts to "evelop one or #ore test arti les'

Resear h, Develop#ent an" >ar*et Anal)sis

>ission Re6uire#ents

Con eptual Desi!n

No

Re6uire#ents satis+ie" 0

Ges

Preli#inar) Desi!n Stop Final Evaluation

Go Detaile" Desi!n Test Arti le Fa,ri ation Fli!ht Test #igure 1. Design Process flow chart 1/

Aircraft Design Project The on eptual "esi!n is "riven ,) the #ission re6uire#ents, .hi h are set in the "esi!n proposal' In so#e ases, these #a) not ,e attaina,le so that the re6uire#ent #a) nee" to ,e rela4e" in one or #ore areas' This is sho.n in the iterative loop in the +lo. hart' (hen the #ission re6uire#ents are satis+ie", the "esi!n #oves to the ne4t phase, .hi h is the preli#inar) "esi!n' DE'I6N PROPO'A0 0ON6 RAN6E-HI6H 'PEED 'U7'ONIC 7U'INE'' 8ET (e propose to "esi!n a lon! ran!e hi!h spee" su,soni ,usiness =et' It is inten"e" to have a ruise >a h nu#,er o+ @'F? an" a ruise altitu"e o+ 1:@@@ #' Its ran!e .ill ,e 1@@@@ *# .ith a +ull pa)loa" +ollo.e" ,) 1 hour loiter an" reserves e6ual to 8? J o+ re6uire" #ission +uel' Also it shoul" +l) :@@ *# to alternate "es ent' Its none4pen"a,le pa)loa" .oul" onsist o+ passen!ers an" ,a!!a!e, .ith a #a4i#u# total .ei!ht o+ $?@ *!' Depen"in! on the internal la)out, this .ill o#+orta,l) a o##o"ate +ro# %9B passen!ers 1e4 lu"in! re. #e#,ers2' The #a4i#u# ta*e o++ .ei!ht is esti#ate" :?@@@ *!' Other +eatures o+ the "esi!n in lu"e a s.ept ,a * .in! on+i!uration .ith .in!lets, split t)pe +laps .ith hi!hl) e++i ient aero")na#i .in! an" ,o") an" a ver) li!ht .ei!ht stru ture' The #ost riti al te hnolo!) rea"iness issue is the propulsion s)ste# an" the ,o") "esi!n' It shoul" have a <7D ratio o+ a,ove 1B to #eet the lon! ran!e an" the en!ine shoul" have the spe i+i +uel onsu#ption o+ @'% or ,elo.' An e4istin! en!ine that has ,een sele te" as a re+eren e en!ine +or the "esi!n is the GE9CF9:% series en!ines' Base" on the "ra! esti#ate at ruise on"itions, the air ra+t .oul" re6uire t.o o+ these en!ines' This air ra+t .oul" ,e one a#on! the lon! ran!e series .hi h has ,een #anu+a ture" ,) Bo#,ar"ier, Dassault, Boein!, Gul+ Strea#, Cessna et ' 5en e it has so #an) o#petitors' But still "ue to its uni6ue +uel onsu#ption an" li!ht .ei!ht stru ture it has to attra t the usto#er an" "evelop a !oo" #ar*et' Fi!ure 1'% sho.s an artistEs ren"ition o+ the propose" "esi!n' The hara teristi s o+ this =et are liste" in the ta,le that +ollo.s' Sin e there are so #an) e6uivalent air ra+ts are there, o#parisons an ,e #a"e to opti#i/e the values an" also +or initial "ata a 6uisition' It is evi"ent that all o+ the air ra+ts that has ,een sele te" +or the literature surve) are urrentl) in servi e' The pri#ar) "esi!n "rivers are li!ht .ei!ht, hi!h <7D an" less +uel onsu#ption' The se on"ar) "esi!n onsi"erations in lu"e #o"erate ta*e9o++ an" lan"in! "istan es .hi h are o#para,le to e4istin! hi!h spee" su,soni ,usiness =ets' An i#portant note is that #ost o+ the ontrol s)ste#s shoul" ,e o+ ,asi t)pe 1li*e split +lap et '2 in or"er to #a*e the air ra+t availa,le at a heap rate ,ut at a relia,le on"ition'

11

Aircraft Design Project

#igure 1.! ,onceptual Design The preli#inar) "esi!n is a +ine tunin! o+ the on eptual "esi!n #a"e throu!h para#etri .in" tunnel tests o+ s ale air ra+t #o"els o+ the "esi!n' So#e o+ the #ore "i++i ult aspe ts to pre"i t are teste" in this phase' This in lu"es the 112 en!ine inlet intera tion .ith the +usela!e an" .in! an" 182 .in! intera tion on ontrol sur+a es' The preli#inar) "esi!n also involves a #ore "etaile" anal)sis o+ the aero")na#i loa"s an" o#ponent .ei!hts' Base" on this, the stru tural "esi!n is +urther re+ine"' Aero elasti #otion, +ati!ue an" +lutter are onsi"ere" at this sta!e' A""itional on+ir#ation o+ esti#ates #a) re6uire ,uil"in! an" testin! so#e o+ the propose" stru tural o#ponents' At the o#pletion o+ this sta!e, the #anu+a turin! o+ the air ra+t is !iven serious onsi"eration an" the ost esti#ates are +urther re+ine"' At the en" o+ this step, the "e ision is #a"e .hether to ,uil" the air ra+t' (ith the "e ision to ,uil" the air ra+t, the "esi!n is C+ro/en'D The "etaile" "esi!n involves !eneratin! the "etaile" stru tural "esi!n o+ the air ra+t' This involves ever) "etail nee"e" to ,uil" the air ra+t' So#eti#es o#ponent #o *9ups are ,uilt to ai" in the interior la)out' 5o.ever, the present use o+ o#puter ai"e" "esi!n 1CAD2 so+t.are an su,stantiall) #ini#i/e the nee" +or #o *9ups ,) provi"in! realisti :9D vie.s' 1.3 Concep !a" Design This arti le "eals .ith the steps involve" in the on eptual "esi!n o+ an air ra+t' It is ,ro*en "o.n in to several ele#ents, .hi h are +ollo.e" in or"er' These onsist o+, 1' <iterature surve) 8' Preli#inar) "ata a 6uisition :' Esti#ation o+ air ra+t .ei!ht a' >a4i#u# ta*e9o++ .ei!ht ,' E#pt) .ei!ht o+ the air ra+t ' (ei!ht o+ the +uel "' Fuel tan* apa it) %' Esti#ation o+ riti al per+or#an e para#eters a' (in! area ,' <i+t an" "ra! oe++i ients ' (in! loa"in! "' Po.er loa"in! e' Thrust to .ei!ht ratio ?' En!ine sele tion B' Per+or#an e urves &' H9n "ia!ra# F' :9vie. "ia!ra# 12

Aircraft Design Project The "evelop#ent o+ these ele#ents is illustrate" in the up o#in! stu"ies that onsist o+ Klon! ran!e hi!h spee" su,soni ,usiness =et "e+ine" in the pre e"in! "esi!n proposal' The #ission re6uire#ents o+ this "esi!n are relativel) "i++i ult to a hieve3 there+ore, it is a !oo" e4a#ple in .hi h o#pro#ise is nee"e"'

Chapter 8
1

Aircraft Design Project

DATA A9UI'ITION

Chapter :
1!

Aircraft Design Project

CHAPTER 3 E'TI$ATION O5 AIRCRA5T :EI6HT ------------------------------------------------------------------------3.1 Ai& 3.2 E;!ip&en s and &e 3ods !sed 3.3 Proced!re 3.( 'pecifica ion C3ar 3.) $ission Profi"e 3.* 6enera" O! "ine 3.+ De ai"ed Proced!re 3./ I era ion 3.2 Conc"!sion ------------------------------------------------------------------------3.1 Ai&< To esti#ate the !ross ta*e o++ .ei!ht, +uel .ei!ht an" e#pt) .ei!ht o+ the air ra+t in the "esi!nin! pro ess throu!h various throu!h nu#eri al steps' 3.2 E;!ip&en s and &e 3ods !sed< 1' 8' :' %' Fuel +ra tion #etho" Ta,les an" harts +ro# Re+-9 ,oo*s Surve) "etails Results o+ E49@1

3.3 Proced!re< 1' Des ri,e the #ission spe i+i ation ela,oratel) in a sheet' 8' Dra. the #ission pro+ile part learl)' :' (ith the help o+ the a,ove t.o harts .or* out the rest throu!h the +uel +ra tion #etho" to a hieve the o,=e tive' 3.) $ission Profi"e<

? B % 1" &

Aircraft Design Project 1 8 : F $

Descrip ion< Phase 1 Phase 8 Phase : Phase % Phase ? Phase B Phase & Phase F Phase $ En!ine start an" .ar#9up Ta4iin! Ta*e9o++ Cli#, to ruise altitu"e an" a elerate to ruise spee" Cruise <oiter Fl)in! to alternate +iel" Des ent <an"in!, ta4iin! I shut9"o.n

1'

Aircraft Design Project

Chapter %
1*

Aircraft Design Project

CHAPTER ( E'TI$ATION O5 CRITICA0 PER5OR$ANCE PARA$ETER' -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(.1 Ai& (.2 E;!ip&en s and &e 3ods !sed (.3 $a%i&!& 0if coefficien (.( :ing 0oading (.) T3r!s o weig3 ra io (.* Engine 'e"ec ion (.+ Design Da a (./ Conc"!sion -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(.1 Ai&< To esti#ate the Criti al per+or#an e para#eters li*e, 1' 1C<2 >A; 8' <7D :' (7S %' T7( These para#eters .ill ,e "eter#ine" ,) su h aspe ts as #a4i#u# spee", ran!e, eilin!, rate o+ li#,, stallin! spee", lan"in! "istan e an" ta*e9o++ "istan e' (.2 E;!ip&en s and &e 3ods !sed< 1' 8' :' %' ?' B' Re!ulae L False >etho" Air+oil se tions re+eren es Spe i+i ation hart Jet airplane per+or#an e e6uations Graphs an" ta,les +ro# re+eren es Previous e4er ise results

Proced!re< (.3 $a%i&!& 0if Co-efficien < -C0. $A= This is the sta!e in the "esi!n pro ess .here .e #a*e an initial hoi e +or the air+oil shape +or the .in!' As +ro# the re+eren es o,taine" +ro# the literature surve) an" throu!h .e, #ost o+ the ,usiness =ets avail NACA B "i!it air+oil se tions L the la#inar +lo. series' NACA * DI6IT 'ERIE' 1.

Aircraft Design Project B : 8 18 9 9 9 9 SI;T5 SERIES <OCATION OF >IN CP in 1171@2th OF C5ORD IDEA< C< IN TENT5S >A; T5ICMNESS IN J OF C5ORD

A+ter the si49series se tions, air+oil "esi!n ,e a#e #u h #ore spe iali/e" +or the parti ular appli ation' Air+oils .ith !oo" transoni per+or#an e, !oo" #a4i#u# li+t apa,ilit), ver) thi * se tions, an" ver) lo. "ra! se tions are no. "esi!ne" +or ea h use' O+ten a .in! "esi!n ,e!ins .ith the "e+inition o+ several air+oil se tions an" then the entire !eo#etr) is #o"i+ie" ,ase" on its :9"i#ensional hara teristi s' The NACA si4 "i!it air+oils have ,een parti ularl) +avore" ,) the !eneral aviation in"ustr) in the Anite" States' Thou!h .e have intro"u e" the pri#ar) air+oil +a#ilies "evelope" in the Anite" States ,e+ore the a"vent o+ supersoni +li!ht, .e havenNt sai" an)thin! a,out their uses' So letNs ,rie+l) e4plore the a"vanta!es, "isa"vanta!es, an" appli ations o+ ea h o+ these +a#ilies' A)0antages1 1' 5i!h #a4i#u# li+t oe++i ient 8' Her) lo. "ra! over a s#all ran!e o+ operatin! on"itions :' Opti#i/e" +or hi!h spee" Disa)0antages1 1' 5i!h "ra! outsi"e o+ the opti#u# ran!e o+ operatin! on"itions 8' 5i!h pit hin! #o#ent :' Poor stall ,ehavior %' Her) sus epti,le to rou!hness Applications1 1' Piston9po.ere" +i!hters 8' Business =ets :' Jet trainers %' Supersoni =ets For #an) airplanes, in lu"in! so#e !eneral aviation air ra+t, one air+oil se tion is use" at the .in! root, an" another air+oil shape is use" at the .in! tip, .ith the air+oil se tions ,et.een the root an" tip ,ein! a linear interpolation ,et.een the root an" tip se tions' Sin e the surve) "etails +or the air+oils o+ ,usiness =ets are #aintaine" se retl), .e an hoose our o.n air+oil .hi h .ill #eet the re6uire#ents' (./ Conc"!sion< Thus a+ter per+or#in! so #an) ri!orous steps o+ #athe#ati al anal)sis .e on lu"e" that our air ra+t is havin! the a,ove "ata' An", 1&

Aircraft Design Project 99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999 9 1' >a4i#u# <i+t Coe++i ient 1C <2>A; O 8'%: 8' >a4i#u# <i+t to Dra! ratio P<7DQ>A; O 1B :' (in! <oa"in! P(7SQ O :$8'$$B *!7#8 %' Po.er <oa"in! P(7TQ O %$B'? *!7*N 99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999 9

References< 1' 8' :' %' ?' B' &' F' $' Airplane "esi!n ,) Ros*a# PTa,les I hartsQ Air ra+t Desi!n ,) Ra)#er PTa,les I hartsQ Air ra+t Per+or#an e an" "esi!n ,) John' D' An"erson Aero")na#i s, Aeronauti s an" Fli!ht >e hani s ,) > Cor#i * Surve) sheets Previous e4er ise results http-77...'h6'nasa'!ov7o++i e7pao75istor)7SP9%BF7 h1%9:'ht# http-77...'aerospa e.e,'or!76uestion7air+oils76@@%1'sht#l Theor) o+ (in! Se tions ,) A,,ott I Al,ert 99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999

2/

Aircraft Design Project

21

Aircraft Design Project

Chapter ?
CHAPTER ) PER5OR$ANCE CUR>E' ----------------------------------------------------------------).1 Ai& ).2 6rap3 ? Ca"c!"a ions a. 6rap3 @. Ca"c!"a ions c. '!&&ar# ).3 Res!" ----------------------------------------------------------------).1 Ai& To "ra. the various !raphs to esti#ate the per+or#an e para#eters o+ the air ra+t that is ,ein! "esi!ne"' ).2 6rap3 ? Ca"c!"a ions 1. T3r!s >s >e"oci # 6rap3<

22

Aircraft Design Project

2. >aria ion of 0AD >s >e"oci # 6rap3<

3. T3r!s a1ai"a@"e BTAC >s A" i !de 6rap3<

Aircraft Design Project

' 6rap3<

(. Aerod#na&ic Para&e ers 6rap3< 2!

Aircraft Design Project

). C"i&@ Hodograp3< 6rap3<

2"

Aircraft Design Project

Ca"c!"a ions<

6rap3<

2'

Aircraft Design Project

*. A" i !de >s BRAcC$A=< 6rap3<

2*

Aircraft Design Project

2.

Aircraft Design Project

Chapter B
CHAPTER * >-n DIA6RA$ --------------------------------------------------------------*.1 Ai& *.2 5or&!"a Used *.3 Diagra& *.( $ode" Ca"c!"a ion *.) Ta@"e *.* Conc"!sion --------------------------------------------------------------*.1 Ai& To "ra. the H9n "ia!ra# +or the lon! ran!e hi!h spee" su,soni ,usiness =et' *.2 5or&!"a Used 1' n =
3 ,3 6A$ 11 7 82 5 8 4 O 2 2
8n2 ,3 6A$ 4

R 8' 5 =

*.3 Diagra&

2&

Aircraft Design Project

Aircraft Design Project

Chapter &
CHAPTER + 3->IE: DIA6RA$ -----------------------------------------------------+.1 Ai& +.2 Diagra& +.3 Conc"!sion -----------------------------------------------------+.1 Ai& To "ra. the :9vie. "ia!ra# o+ the air ra+t .hi h has ,een "esi!ne"' +.2 Diagra&

+.3 Conc"!sion 1

Aircraft Design Project Thus the :9vie. "ia!ra# o+ the air ra+t that has ,een "esi!ne" to #eet the propose" re6uire#ents is "ra.n'

Aircraft Design Project

Chapter F
CHAPTER / DE'I6N 'U$$ARD -------------------------------------------------------------/.1 Ta@"e /.2 Res!" -------------------------------------------------------------(able ..1 ,o-parison ,hart '". No. CONTENT' AC9UIRED DATA 5INA0 DATA @1' @8' @:' @%' @?' @B' @&' @F'