Getting the Most from Textbook Listening Activities

Thomas Lavelle Most EFL/ESL textbooks include a listening component within each unit. It is part o an attempt to provide an integrated skills approach with separate sections devoted to speaking! listening reading and writing. It is un ortunate however that these sections are not reall" integrated but are isolated. I have alwa"s elt an odd sense o un inished business when I announce to the class! #$% that&s the end o the listening practice. 'lease turn to the conversation on the next page.# The purpose o this article is to show how almost an" listening activit" in a textbook can be expanded to include an opportunit" to work with grammar! an interactive speaking opportunit" as well as a chance to broaden lexical! collocational and idiomatic knowledge. M" overall approach to textbook listening activities consists o ive phases( ). +. -. /. 0. Top*down listening ,ottom*up listening .rammaticisation Focus on lexis 'ersonali1ation

The Listening Phase

2ccording to 3unan! 4)565a7 success ul listening involves in ormation encoded in the messages we hear combined with a broader knowledge o the world. This process involves two t"pes o listening! top*down and bottom*up. M" listening practice begins with a bottom*up phase. Learners will be listening or ke" words or phrases to ocus on as the" listen. There is a worksheet with a list o twelve or so ke" words or phrases rom the listening passage. 8hen the" hear a particular word or phrase! the" check it o on the worksheet. I the" don&t hear a particular item! the" leave it blank. These items on the worksheet should be the ke" lexical elements o the listening passage. The bottom*up phase has the e ect o reducing the cognitive load o the listeners. 3ow the" are read" to listen again or meaning. 'art + o the worksheet contains 9uestions which learners must answer based on their understanding o the whole passage. This will re9uire so* called top*down listening! or taking in the meaning rom the low o passing language. 2 ter the" have listened again! the teacher can review the answers with the class! calling on di erent students to answer the 9uestions.

The Grammaticisation Phase

The basic listening task as presented in the textbook is inished but there remains 9uite a lot o potential with the material :ust listened to b" learners. 3ext I would like to discuss how to exploit the lexis learners have :ust met through listening. I appl" a method o language production! which uses the processes o grammaticisation. ,atstone 4)55;7 proposes this method whereb" learners )

begin with lexis! which! in this case has alread" been supplied through a bottom* up portion o the listening task. Learners will take these discrete words and phrases then modi " and combine them b" appl"ing some appropriate grammar to express themselves. The usual procedure is to teach the grammar and then add lexical items but there is a strong case or reversing the process. 4.ivon! )5<57 The learners! in pairs! are now instructed to prepare the listening passage the" have :ust heard using the words and phrases the" have :ust studied as a speaking cue. The" are encouraged to make their ormulations as clear as possible but it is their choice as to how the" tr" to combine the lexical items rom the listening passage and their own knowledge o grammar. I the listening passage was based on a dialogue! a role*pla" reconstruction would be suitable. I the listening activit" was a narrative! then a brie summar" o what was listened to would be appropriate. Such a procedure widens the possibilities or students to create their own wa" o expression. ,ecause o this reedom! there are likel" to be mistakes in grammar while tr"ing to re*create the listening passage. 8hen this happens! the teacher can help re ormulate some o the learners& language. 2nother potential bene it o this exercise is that during the struggle to re*create the listening passage! a need has been created b" each learner to speak coherentl" in English and this indicates to them where there is a gap in their knowledge. 2t the end o this exercise! a public per ormance b" chosen pairs would be possible or the teacher could hand out a cop" o the transcript to let learners compare their per ormance to the native speaker on the tape and learn rom the transcript as well as rom listening to other students. This activit" is clearl" not meant to replace grammar stud" but is used to exploit the potential or increased learning through collaboration and communication with each other and the teacher. The second bene it o grammaticisation is that it orces the learners to begin using the highlighted words and lexical phrases the" have :ust encountered through listening.

The 'Focus on Lexis' Phase

=uring the bottom*up listening phase! learners encountered a series o lexical items. =uring the top*down phase! the" attempted to process meaning! and! through grammaticisation! the" began to use the new lexical items in speech. Let&s imagine that the topic o the listening passage was &work& and that one o the lexical items was &get a :ob&. This could be the per ect opportunit" to explore with the class some t"pical collocations o the word #get.# 2s Lewis 4)55-())57 sa"s! a ma:or element in being able to use a word!#...involves mastering its collocational range.# For example! a non*linear collocational pattern displa" using the word #get# which relates to the world o work might be presented s in the ollowing example. >isual displa"s like this can help students to organi1e vocabular" and graduall" master the range o a word or lexical phrase and help students to see the English language is made up o man" chunks o language rather than discrete items.

The Personalization Phase

8hat started as an ordinar" textbook listening activit" has expanded in scope and has hope ull" increased the learners listening comprehension as well as expanded awareness o new lexical items and their range o uses. The inal activit" is to tr" to consolidate the new in ormation b" making it personal. Students can be given a series o discussion 9uestions pitched at the appropriate level which will them an opportunit" to use! in a personal! meaning ul wa"! an"! all or in some cases none o the new language items which were introduced. =iscussion 9uestions on the topic o &work& in m" previous example might be! #8ith "our ma:or! can "ou get a good solid :ob?# Students can be asked to ormulate their own 9uestions based on the language points alread" discussed. It is important at this point! not to place a heav" demand on using new language. It is better to let it happen naturall"! letting students sa" what the" mean and mean what the" sa" with the new language available i the" want and need it.

Summary
This article has attempted to show how a common listening activit" ound in most modern EFL textbooks can be exploited in various wa"s to extract the most bene it to learners not onl" in terms o listening but also with grammar! lexis! and interactive! meaning ul communication. I hope the ideas presented in this article will inspire teachers to explore more creative wa"s to get the most out o the listening activities in their EFL textbooks.

eferences

,atstone! @. 4 )55/7. .rammar and the Language classroom. In .rammar and the Language Teacher ,"gate!Tonk"n and 8illiams 4eds.7 .ivon! T. 4)5<57. From discourse to s"ntax(grammar as a processing strateg" in S"ntax and Semantics! >ol )+! 2cademic 'ress! 3ew Aork Lewis! M. 4)55-7. The Lexical 2pproach( the State o ELT and a 8a" Forward Language Teaching 'ublications 3unan! =. 4)565a7. =esigning Tasks or the Bommunicative Blassroom Bambridge Cniversit" 'ress The !nternet T"SL #ournal$ %ol& %!$ 'o& (($ 'ovember )*** htt+,--itesl.&org-

/ictation /ra0ing
,rian .rover $riginall" a TESL*L Submission. =ate( Sat! )) 3ov. )550 D5(DD(+5 EST @ewritten and expanded upon b" the writer. 4=ecember! )5507 Students won&t listen to what "ou sa" in English? Students re use to speak in the target language? Eave "ou ever tried a dictation drawing? This is a good listening exercise that can be used as a warm up or descriptions. I usuall" get m" students to draw m" cat 4who has three ears! plaid ur! wears glasses etc. etc. ad absurdium.7 The innate competitiveness o most students impels them to listen ver" closel" and do a bang up :ob o creativel" rendering the verbal description. Follow "our dictation drawing up with an art show 4pre*teach the necessar" comparatives and superlatives and so on.7 3arrow the inalists down through small group committees and then :udge the inalists as a whole class. @ather than an art show place the students in pairs and get them to repeat the procedure! taking turns rendering a unn" ace. For the thrill o the moment at least the"&ll complete it in English. =ictation drawing is a great activit"F the un o it all motivates even the most obdurate students. ,ad habits die hard however and are best dealt with rom the start. ,e tough with the students. =on&t speak to them in their native language. Speak normal speed and onl" once until the students ask "ou Gcorrectl"H to slow down and repeat. 're*teach these and other such phrases 4should be part o lesson number one7 and leave them on the board or a time. 8hen students don&t correctl" use them :ust point to the phrases and wait them out. Most students are ver" uncom ortable with a sudden hush. The" will give "ou a correct response 4with a little help rom their riends.7 .raduall" **over a period o da"s ** erase parts o the target phrases until the" disappear altogether. There should be 1ero L) in the classroom. 8ith onl" one exception( Students can ask "ou #8hat does IIII mean?# #Eow do "ou sa" IIII in English?# ,ut don&t translate or them! engage them in meaning ul dialogue. Sa"! #.ee! I&m not sure.# GEven i "ou areJH #Is that a IIII#F #Bould "ou give me an example...?# etc. %eep it up until the meaning has been worked out I3 E3.LISE. =on&t worr" about wasting the other students& time( the" will be all ears***English ears. 8hen "ou are speaking in L) or the sake o e icienc"! then worr" about wasting the students& time because that is exactl" what "ou are doing. In an EFL situation! this kind o student* teacher exchange ma" be the onl" chance the" have o ever communicating directl" with a native speaker. I L) is used students will become conditioned to endure L+ explanations 4i.e. snoo1e7 while waiting or the inevitable translation. Students will come to regard L+ use 4i the" use it at all7 as part o some kind o sill" game but certainl" not or @E2L communication. 2 ter all didn&t their teacher demonstrate to them on a dail" basis that L) is what is used or the true grit o conve"ing ideas. The ver" act o using L+ or explanations on the other hand gives students a mini*listening lesson 4with ull attention7 ever" time meanings are clari ied. The" not onl" get the idea Gnot alwa"sH /

being conve"ed the" also get exposure to the rh"thms! stress! intonations o the target language. The" pick up new vocabular" and! i the" are clever and interested enough! the" can steer the instructor awa" rom the dull stu s/he had planned and on to something thing more engaging. 3ot inall"! but wh" log the obvious( =on&t launch into an explication o the arcane inner workings o the 'arliamentar" S"stem o .overnment in a class o ull beginners. Bhallenge the students with stu the" B23 assimilate I3 English. 8ait six months and then get to the good stu . Csing L) in the classroom is a disservice to the people who pa" our wages. The Internet TESL Kournal! >ol. II! 3o. )! Kanuar" )55; http(//itesl:.org/

eal Au1io to Augment eal Listening in the "SL 2lassroom

Frank Tu1i http(//www.geocities.com/2thens/$racle//55-/ Tok"o Bhristian Cniversit"! Kapan

!ntro1uction
$ne o the aster growing tools available or education and entertainment is @eal 2udio 4@27 b" 'rogressive 8orks Inc. @eal 2udio is a so tware package that allows users to listen to sounds and watch videos on or o the Internet. The @2 pla"er is ree and the pla"er/recorder is L-D.DD. 2 ter downloading this program! people can listen to radio programs like music! talk radio! and Eoll"wood interviews. There are also educational programs or distance education! amil" programs or amil" issues! children&s programs! religious programs! etc. For a complete listing o the hundreds o sites that are listed at 'rogressive 8orks! visit their site at http(//timecast-.timecast.com/index.html

3enefits for "SL

Eow can this program bene it an ESL curriculum? First o all! @eal 2udio is a program students can use to get in ormation. The selection o in ormation on the Internet is vast and varied enough to satis " the interests o almost an" student. 2llowing students to choose the in ormation the" will listen to or watch is inherentl" motivating 43unan! )55-7. Furthermore! allowing students to pick and choose increases their con idence in being independent learners. 2dditionall"! since the in ormation is recorded! the" can listen to or see it over and over again! an option the" don&t have in the real world or in broadcasted in ormation like radio or television. 2lso! the materials are not limited to one or two voices. Cnlike man" ESL tapes! students can listen to a variet" o voices and thus! improve their listening abilit". 2nother bene it is that students have the opportunit" to listen to real English! that is! English or native speakers! allowing students to en:o" the ull lavoJ r inherent in authentic English speech 4Mead! )5607. Even better than having real English is real spontaneous speech 4Cr! )56/7. Spontaneous speech! that is spoken language that is not written out or prepared in advance! is what ESL/EFL students will hear most. Since most heard speech is spontaneous! ESL students bene its b" having an abundance o impromptu speech available. Some o the radio programs on the Internet include talk shows! i.e. unprepared speech. @2 is also use ul in reading classes. Some o the sites listed at @2 have sound clips and transcripts allowing users to read and listen at the same time. ,eing able to per orm both activities increases comprehension! memori1ation and motivation. $ther sites have audio books. ,ooks like Mob" =ick and The Batcher in the @"e are dramati1ed in audio ormat. 2udio books allow students to #read# a stor" in -D minutes. 2lthough there are a variet" o bene its to using @2 in the ESL classroom! teachers and students should be aware o some potential problems. For instance! because the amount o vocabular" is so great! man" oreign language students who possess a smaller suppl" ma" eel rustrated. Thus! the ;

amount o appropriate materials ma" be limited! or the teacher ma" need to decide what materials the students use. 2nother language drawback is that some o the sound clips are length". 2 t"pical audio book is about +0 minutes long. Shorter clips are easier or ESL Students to digest. The longer students practice at one sitting! the weaker his listening skills become during that sitting 4Cr!)56/7. There ore! it is wise to select appropriate materials or beginning students. 2nother obvious limitation is the need or a computer and Internet access. 2n"one with a computer and a sound card! can use @2. This program does not re9uire direct Internet access or it to work. Eowever! in order to listen to the @eal 2udio iles users must have access to them! and the iles are on the Internet. I a teacher or school has even one computer that has Internet access! however! man" o the necessar" iles can be downloaded. Man" locations on the Internet allow users to download the @2 iles. For example! Earth and Sk"! a site dedicated to educating people about astronomical and environmental issues! allows visitors to download an" in ormation rom their site. The" have a dail" radio program that lasts about a minute and a hal . 2 teacher or administrator can easil" download do1ens o iles rom this site and then make those iles available to the rest o the school. Eaving looked at the advantages and some possible drawbacks! I would like to suggest some possible uses o @2 in the ESL Blassroom.

eal Au1io in the 2lassroom

The irst step in using @eal 2udio is to download a ree version or purchase @2 at http(//www.real.com/products/pla"er/get.html. 2 ter installing the program! begin selecting sites o interest or students. I have made a sample list or those teachers with little time to search the Internet. See Table $ne. Table ). 2 Sample list o @eal 2udio sites or ESL

Science
Earth M Sk" http(//www.earthsk".com/ Space None http(//www.space1one.com/ The =iscover" Bhannel http(//www.discover".com/

News
3'@ http(//www.realaudio.com/contentp/npr/ The ,,B $nline http(//www.bbcnc.org.uk/worldservice/,,BIEnglish/index.html The $sgood Files http(//www.cbsradio.com/osgood/

Sports
2udio 3et*Sports <

http(//www.audionet.com/sports/ ES'3 Sports None http(//espnet.sports1one.com/

Literature
2udio 3et http(//www.audionet.com/ ,ible http(//www.biblenews.com/ The $nline ,ook 'age http(//www.cs.cmu.edu/8eb/books.html

Radio
2udio 3et http(//www.audionet.com/ The Talk 3etwork http(//ttn.nai.net/ 8orld @adio 3etwork http(//www.wrn.org/audio.html There are a variet" o wa"s that @2 can enhance an ESL classroom. I the Internet is available to the entire class! students can pick and choose what the" will listen to b" going to @2 and picking a site among the thousands that the" have listed. 2 teacher with limited access to the Internet will need to download iles o interest and make those iles available to the class. $nce students and teachers choose the sound clips! the" need to be incorporated into the curriculum. Eere are some suggestions or incorporating @2 sound clips into the ESL classroom.

Proce1ures
Keeping a Journal
Eave students keep a :ournal about the sound clips that the" listen to. Students write a summar" o each sound clip the" select. The :ournal need not be on paper. The :ournal can also be on tape or could be a @2 sound clip! in which case students would record a summar" o each sound clip. In addition students can mention likes and dislikes! what things the" learned rom the sound clips and inall" record an" new vocabular" the" learned through the sound clip.

Guessing Definitions
I the teacher has downloaded some ile! the" can listen through the clip and write down an" new words that the" want the class to learn. Then the teacher puts the words on a practice sheet or students to guess the meaning. For example! imagine "our students are listening to the 2pril ))! )55; episode o Earth and Sk"! The topic is the Sound ,arrier. The students will hear( es5;D/)).ram Sound is produced b" vibrations in the air around our planet. The speed o sound is <;D miles an hour at sea level ** although this speed can var" a little under di erent conditions o altitude! temperature and wind. 8hen an airplane tries to travel aster than sound! a wave o compressed air 6

builds up ahead o the plane. That)s wh" the speed o sound proved to be a ormidable barrier to pilots. 2s the" approached it! their aircra ts& controls would #lock# or ree1e. The pilots themselves began speaking o a #sonic wall# or #sound barrier# that no one had crossed. Bhuck Aeager was the irst to break the sound barrier ** to travel aster than sound ** in the "ear )5/<. Aou ma" have heard a sonic boom rom a plane traveling aster than sound. 2 possible 9uestion might be

8hat is a sonic boom? ). Travelling aster than sound +. the sound rom a plane that travels aster than sound -. a barrier a wall o compressed air

This episode uses the word sonic boom! but does not directl" de ine it. There ore students can guess the meaning o the word b" listening to the context. Such an exercise will allow students to practice guessing the meaning through context.

Ticking off Items

For those interested in practicing with listening or speci ic in ormation! have the students tick o items rom a list. 8hile the students are listening to a clip the" tick o all the ob:ects mentioned rom a checklist o possible items. For example! i "our students are listening to the Sound ,arrier! a possible list might be(

The speed o sound changes under conditions o o altitude o location on the earth o temperature o moon o wind

Making / Identif ing !ictures and Maps

I "ou are a good artist! "ou ma" want to draw some comic strips which are in the wrong order. 8hen the students listen to the clip! the" number the pictures in the correct order. For example in Earth M Sk"&s Februar" )6! )55< episode entitled! #Kourne" into a ,lack Eole# the students will listen to the ollowing( es5<D+)6.ram 2t irst! "ou wouldn&t eel an"thing strange 4)7. Aou wouldn&t notice a ph"sical change in "our surroundings ** unless "ou tried to go back the wa" "ou came. Then no amount o energ" would be able to push "ou back out o the black hole. 2n ob:ect&s gravit" gets stronger as "ou get closer to it. I "ou were alling into a black hole! the gravitational pull on "our eet would be much greater than that on "our head 4+7 ** assuming "ou were alling eet irstJ Aou&d be stretched into an inde inite length 4-7 as "ou got closer to the hole. The hole&s gravit" would also compress "our bod" 4/7 ** it&d s9uee1e "our two shoulders together! or example ** and ultimatel" stretch and s9uee1e the ver" atoms that make up "our bod" 407J The result ** the total destruction o "our bod" on its :ourne" into a black hole. 4,lock! )55;7 5

In this example make a ive part comic strip and have the students put them in proper order. 2rtisticall" challenged teachers might want to have the students make pictures rom the account that the" are listening to.

"lo#e
2s was mentioned earlier! some sites on the Internet! like Earth and Sk"! transcribe their program allowing users to read and listen to the program at the same time. The teacher can take the transcripts and convert them to close exercises or practice or or a test. 2 close generation program is available or download at Tim Kohn&s Ball Benter. http(//sun).bham.ac.uk/:ohnst /timcall.htm! or i "ou use Microso t 8ord! check out the macro I made to create computeri1ed close exercises rom inside 8ord. =ownload this macro at http(//www.geocities.com/2thens/$racle//55-/resource.html

True or $alse
In order to create true alse 9uestions! teachers need to listen to a sound clip and generate true/ alse 9uestions which students then answer as the" listen to the clip in class or during lab time. For example! in a sound clip at Bar Talk episode entitled! #Foreign Embass" Bar 'roblem#! the students will listen to the ollowing(

Baller( 8ell the police won&t do an"thing about the securit" s"stem in this car because it is an embass" car in the Swedish embass" parking lot. ,ut that sound rom the securit" s"stem keeps the whole neighborhood awake all night. Tom( $k. Eere&s what "ou need to do. =o "ou have a tuxedo? Baller( 3o. Tom( @ent one. @a"( =o "ou have blond hair? Baller( Aes. @a"( .oodJ 4laugh7 Tom( $k sometime late in the evening! put on "our tuxedo! stand near the car and call 222. Tell them "ou want them to tow the car to the Mercedes car dealer in Mar"land.

4BarTalk! )55<7 2s the students listens to this episode! the" can answer true alse 9uestions about what the" are listening to. 'ossible true or alse 9uestions might be(

The police helped the caller and stopped the sound in the car. The police won&t help because the car is a .erman Bar. The caller has a tuxedo. The caller has blond hair.

%nswering &uestions
Breating content 9uestions re9uires that the teacher listen to a clip and generate 9uestions or that clip. For example! Bar Talk has a clips rom their weekl" radio program on the Internet. Bar Talk does not alwa"s have transcripts. So I simpl" listen to a clip and write some 9uestions like( )D

8ho called? 8hat problem did the" have? 8hat advice did the mechanics give?

The students then listen to the clips to get the answers. This t"pe o activit" will help students practice with getting the gist! and with listening or speci ic content.

Discussion
More advanced students would en:o" doing research about a particular topic and then sharing their indings with the rest o the class. For example! .ive the students the topic o Martin Luther %ing Kr. and some 9uestions to answer. 2t 2udio3et there is an audio book on the li e o Martin Luther %ing Kr. Students can listen to this book! collect in ormation about him. $ther students could go the 3ational 'ublic @adio @2 archives and listen to audio clips o =r. %ing there. Then all o the students can share their indings and discuss some o the issues surrounding his li e.

Precautions
There are some things to remember or people who develop and implement these materials. First o all! it is important to select materials appropriate to the learners. Language students can 9uickl" become atigued listening to exercises that are be"ond their abilities 4Cr!)56/7. Thus! in order to limit rustration and increase motivation! use sound clips that are within the students grasp. It is also important to provide a purpose or the listening activit". Eaving a purpose provides students with a reason to activel" listen. ," giving students a task in the listening activit"! teachers can also measure how well the students understood the sound clip. Finall"! task oriented listening activities contribute to motivation. Fun activities or success oriented activities where students win a game because the" completed a task are some possible techni9ues or increasing motivation in a listening activit". Students without a purpose or listening will exhibit less motivation or succeeding.

2onclusion
@eal 2udio is a new technolog" that is not being used in the ESL classroom currentl"! but has the possibilit" to greatl" enhance language learning. Some bene its students can en:o" include(

Listening to in ormation that interests them. Listening to sound clips over and over again. Listening to a variet" o voices which strengthens listening abilit". ,eing encouraged to become more independent learners. Listening to spontaneous speech. @eading and listening at the same time. Some bene its teachers/administrators can en:o" include(

Minimal cost i a computer and the Internet are accessible.

))

Freedom to work with those students who need individual assistance while allowing more independent learners proceed at their own pace. Increased student motivation. Increased learner independence. The abilit" to retrieve and use thousands o sound clips! not :ust the ones in the school tape librar". The abilit" to integrate @eal 2udio with other ETML based materials

@2 sound clips are intrinsicall" motivating as the materials themselves are o interest to the students. The range o materials is enormous and the range is growing ever"da". I "ou have a little time to search and develop some materials! @2 sound clips provide a use ul and interesting wa" o sharpening students listening skills. I "ou are interested in more sites or ESL students! drop b" at realaudio.com or "ou can stop b" m" home page at http(//www.geocities.com/2thens/$racle//55-/raudio.htm. I "ou are interested in getting involved in a research with @eal 2udio in ESL! please drop me a line at ltu1i GatH geocities.com

eferences

,acker! Kimm" 4)5507 Teaching .rammar 8ith Surve" $ Theoretical Literature ,lock! Koel! Kanet ,ird 4)55;7! The Sound Barrier. Earth and Sk"G8eb SiteH. ,lock! Koel! Kanet ,ird 4)55<7 Journey into a Black Hole. Earth M Sk"G8eb SiteH. Bar Talk 4)55<7 Foreign Embassy Car. Problem. Bar Talk IncG8eb SiteH. Barrier! Michael. 4)55<7. ELT Online The !ise o" the #nternet. ELT Kournal vol. 0)/-! $x ord Cniversit" 'ress. Mead! 3anc" 2.F @ubin! =onald L. 4)5607. $ssessing Listening and S%eaking Skills. E@IB =igest. E@IB Blearinghouse on @eading and Bommunication Skills! Crbana! Ill. Meloni! Bhristine 4)55<7&andering the &eb. TES$L Matters >ol.;! 3o.;! =ecember )55;/Kanuar" )55<. 3unan! =. 4)55-7. Challenges in EFL Classrooms. TES$L Matters! 2ugust/September! <. @obb! Thomas 3. 4)55<7 The &eb as a Tool "or Language Learning. %"oto Sang"o Cniversit" Scarcella! @obin B and @ebecca L. $x ord. The Ta%estry o" Language Learning. ,oston! M2( Eeinle and Eeinle 'ublishers. Cr. 'enn". 4)56/7Teaching Listening Com%rehension. Bambridge Eandbooks or Language Teachers. 3ew Aork! 3A( Bambridge Cniversit" 'ress.

The Internet TESL Kournal! >ol. I>! 3o. -! March )556 http(//itesl:.org/

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Self4!nstruction by Au1io 2assette

!ntro1uction
Man" students pro ess a desire to learn a language outside a classroom setting. Some seek this as a supplement to classroom stud"F others**o ten older students with time or mone" constraints**stud" entirel" on their own. 2t some point! most language learners at least tr" to do sel *instruction. Success! however! seems 9uite limited. These non*classroom students generall" lack an e ective stud" method! and the" lack eedback or their e orts. The learning o a language in isolation rom an" sort o supportive environment is unnaturalF onl" those extraordinaril" motivated can overcome these barriers b" developing good stud" methods b" themselves. The language teacher** or language mentor in the sense described herein**can provide assistance and material to help these students succeed. =i erent terms have been used to describe learner e orts to learn outside the classroom.

Sel"'instruction( the term used throughout this paper! describes all learner e orts outside the classroom and without the direct assistance o a classroom instructor. $utonomous learners are totall" responsible or all language learning decisions. Semi'autonomous learners are learners preparing or autonom". Learners ma" also engage in indi)iduali*ed instruction where a program is set*up outlining the learner&s goals and stud" methods 4=ickinson ))7. The in ormation in this paper can help an instructor set up such a program.

Goo1 Language Learners

8hat methods and attitudes make stud" most e ective? In Princi%les o" Language Learning and Teaching( ,rown outlined characteristics o good language learners. Six that directl" appl" sel * instruction! are listed below. .ood language learners( Find their own wa"! taking charge o their learning 2re creative! developing a # eel# or the language b" experimenting with its grammar and words. Make their own opportunities or practice in using the language inside and outside the classroom. Learn to live with uncertaint" b" not getting lustered and b" continuing to talk and listen without understanding ever" word. Cse mnemonics and other memor" strategies to recall what has been learned. Learn certain tricks that help to keep conversations going.

)-

Gui1elines for Self4!nstruction

The method and rationale that ollows are meant to assist the language instructor&s e orts to guide students towards more e ective sel *instruction! as well as reader&s individual e orts to do sel * instruction. The ollowing are general sel *instructrion principles that can be directl" applied to the use o language tapes. Stu1y every 1ay * Stud"ing one hour ever" da" is more e ective than stud"ing ever" Sunda" or seven hours. 2lso! the greater concentrated amount o time spent stud"ing a language pa"s o exponentiall". Stud"ing +D hours a week is more than twice as good as stud"ing )D hours a week. It is especiall" important to stud" ever" da"**or almost ever" da"**even i or onl" -D minutes o concentrated stud" 432SIL'7. 3ew words not spoken or used 9uickl" all out o memor". /evelo+ a high tolerance for re+etition& There are several stud" methods and ps"chological tricks that can be used to decrease boredom so material can be repeatedl" studied 4see page / #@E'E2TI3.#7. @epetition is the ke" to audio*cassette language stud" 432SIL'7. @epetition is one big advantage that tapes have over classroom stud". In a classroom! the speaker cannot be made to repeat sentences countless times. Similarl"! in class! students cannot sa" the same phrase over and over or practice sake. 8ith repetition! students are striving to internali1e structures! much the wa" one learns to pla" a musical instrument or drive a car. This repetition can provide the learner with an organic approach to language stud" 4'imsleur7. That is! grammar! vocabular" and pronunciation are concurrentl" practiced. Pre1etermine motivation$ +ur+ose$ an1 a stu1y sche1ule and commit to maintaining it. Sel *instruction learners don&t have extrinsic motivation 4instructor rewards! class grades! etc.7. Thus! motivation must be intrinsic. Students can( ponder their attitudes towards the communit" o speakers o the target languageF determine their need to learn the language or :ob or academic purposesF and consider their desire to become luent in the target language simpl" or the eeling o accomplishment 4=ickenson -)7. It would be help ul or the sel *instruction student to consider these aspects o motivation! and write her or his purpose4s7. The ver" act o setting goals can generate learner motivation 4Language Eungr" 0<7. ,arriers to sel *instruction success include disillusionment when unrealistic stud" expectations are not kept. For this reason! learners should think care ull" be orehand! and schedule sel *instruction time on a calendar 4see appendix7.

3ecome active learners& Learners ma" be overl" passive because their educational setting alwa"s treated them that wa". Learners become active b"( having a purpose or learningF inding motivationF being aware o the most e ective wa" to learnF inding a wa" to practice and use learned materialF not rel"ing on an outside source 4instructor! school! etc.7 or learning 48alters +7. /evelo+ soun1 stu1y habits& There are man" general stud" techni9ues that help students become more active. Learners increase their chances or success b" stud"ing in short spurts**stud"ing in )D minute sessions six times a da" is much better than cramming or one hour straight.

Au1io42assette Ta+e Stu1y Techni5ues

)/

Bountless tapes are available or an" language. In addition to proper motivation and concentrated e ort! students can appl" the ollowing techni9ues and tips to make the stud" o an" target language tape more e ective. $ course! these methods o sel *instruction can be selectivel" applied at the learner&s discretion. e+eating @epeat what is heard**out loud. >ocali1ing the material is essential! or internali1ing pronunciation and speaking practice. The pause button should be re9uentl" used. In Murphe"&s Language Hungry! this method is re erred as #shadowing#! and can be used with language tapes! as well as other situations. @epeating phrases brings greater ocus to it! keeping stra" thoughts awa". Learners can practice this an"time the target language is heard b" silentl" repeating phrases. I the material is spoken 9uickl" b" a native speaker! :ust the inal ew words can be repeated silentl" or aloud b" the language learner. Murphe"&s students reported positive results rom this method! not onl" in second language ac9uisition! but also when students heard lectures in their native languages. 2n e ective wa" to repeat is using the #,ackward ,uild*up# techni9ue 432SIL'7. =ivide long sentences into workable phrasesF begin practice b" reapeating the inal phrase. 2dd a phrase until the entire sentence is being repeated.

Preten1ing Learners can pretend the" are talking to a real person. The task o repeating the dialog o a textbook can seem senseless. ," imagining a real person in a real situation! one can make the words her or his own! giving the dialog meaning. $ne makes exercises important and meaning ul b" connecting new in ormation to important things 4Language Eungr" +/7. Pre1icting 2s the chapter&s material is repeated! sometimes hit the pause button be ore hearing. This is one wa" to alter the monoton" o repetition. In this case one relies on the degree to which structures were memori1ed and internali1ed. Translating 2gain! pause the tape be ore hearing a phrase. Learners read the phrase in their native language. Through memor" and translation! learners tr" to speak the phrase in the target language. A14libbing Bhange some part o the practice. Learners can devise their own trans ormation drills! repeating what is heard but changing some part o the sentence. Cse progressive verbs! past tense! in ormal language! di erent nouns! or whatever. This can be practiced in con:unction with 4+7 '@ETE3=I3. 4page 07. Imagining a real situation evokes practical usage pertinent to the learner&s li e. 2gain! in this wa" learners e ectivel" sei1e otherwise hollow statements! lending them meaning. $ne should do this a ter some degree o pro icienc" is gained with the material. Listening Sometimes break guideline 4)7 #@E'E2TI3.# and :ust listen. In this case! greater ocus can be placed on the listening. This can be best applied at times o low concentration! like when one eels atigued! or at times when the material is too challenging. Focusing Shi t the ocus rom remembering vocabular"! to particles! to smoothness! to grammar! etc. 2ll the areas o language stud" are contained within a single sentence. Focusing on certain )0

particulars will both break the monoton" o repetition! and also sharpen one&s skill in that area. ea1ing 8hen using a text and tapes! one should usuall" practice b" :ust listening! but sometimes it is advantageous to read along in the text while listening. This is especiall" use ul or di icult material! and provides reading practice as well. Mimicing Mimic the speaker. 8ith this exercise! one does not concern onesel with meaning! but instead ocuses on pronunciation! rh"thm and intonation o the target language. ,e like the child who! when complimented or his pronunciation! said! #I&m making un o them# 4Language Eungr"7. "n.oying Eave un. Take each lesson seriousl"! tr"! but don&t ret over progress 4or its apparent lack7. Cnderstand that progress comes! levels o ! climbs again! levels o **and ma"be even seems to all 48alters +7. Bhoose un methods o stud". Stud" songs rather than grammar texts i the latter is boring. Murphe" writes that the +Dth centur"&s great ph"sicists! Einstein and ,ohr! both had! #a li elong bo"ish...curiosit" and pleasure in pla".# Cltimatel"! science was a game 4Language Eungr" +<7. Learners can consciousl" shi t their thinking to approach stud" as a challenging game rather than a burdensome chore. Learners should read! think about! and practice the target language with interested e"es! with the e"es o a child.

%ocabulary #ournal
Learners can be encouraged to keep a list o new vocabular". Small pocket notebooks o the vocabular" with native language*target language translations**or! i the learner is advanced enough! target language vocabular" with target language explanations**are hand" to carr" and practice an" time! like on the train! or while waiting at stoplights. =iligent review! even or :ust ive minutes a da"! can bring ver" positive results.

2onclusion
Blassroom instructors can communicate the above ten audio*tape stud" techni9ues to students who desire to do sel *instruction in various wa"s. The instructor can simpl" hand the learner the listF in most cases the language should be simpli ied irst. The classroom instructor can appl" the techni9ues using a tape in the classroom! while pointing out the techni9ues so motivated learners are more likel" to do on their own. Students! both or sel * instruction and or classroom work! can be encouraged to do #action logs# where students write about and evaluate...activities a ter each 4lesson7# 4Murphe" )-7. Similarl"! students can write #language learning histories# where the" re lect on their experiences learning the target language. Most o the above principles can be used be"ond sel *instruction with language tapes. Ideall"! students take these ideas and develop them urther to it their needs and abilities. 8ith guidance! students can take greater control o their language learning and move towards autonom" as language learners. );

eferences

=ickenson! L. )56<. Sel"'#nstruction in Language Learning. Bambridge Cniversit" 'ress. Murphe"! T. )556. Language Hungry. MacMillan Language Eouse. Murphe"! T. 4)556! Kul"7. In and ,etween 'eople( Facilitating Metacognition and Identit" Bonstruction. The Language Teacher( )-*)0. 32SIL'. http(//in erno.asap.um.maine.edu/ acult"/march/clang/nasilp.html 'imsleur! =r. http(//www.simonsa"s.com/pimsleur/ 8alters! M. 4)55<7. Cnpublished . $ +uide to $cti)e Learning. The 3ara AMB2 International Language Benter.

The Internet TESL Kournal! >ol. >! 3o. 0! Ma" )555 http(//itesl:.org/

/ictation as a Language Learning /evice

Scott 2lkire San Kose Bit" Bollege 4San Kose! Bali ornia! CS27

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!ntro1uction
=ictation has been used in language learning or several hundred "ears! and methodologists have o ten made pedagogical claims or its value. =avis and @involucri write that #=ecoding the sounds o GEnglishH and recoding them in writing is a ma:or learning task# 4)5667 and Frodesen writes that dictation can be #an e ective wa" to address grammatical errors in writing that ma" be the result o erroneous aural perception o English.... =ictation can help students to diagnose and correct these kinds o errors as well as others.# 4)55)7 Montalvan writes that #as students develop their aural comprehension o meaning and also o the relationship among segments o language! the" are learning grammar.# 4)55D7 =espite claims such as these rom respected methodologists! dictation is not widel" used in ESL programs. Likewise! it has long been ignored in most teacher*training programs. The purpose o this paper is to re*introduce dictation as a valuable language learning device and to suggest wa"s or using it in an e ective and interesting manner.

Ty+es of /ictation
Saw"er and Silver 4)5;)7 de ine our t"pes o dictation that can be used in language learning. I will give a short de inition o each! and then expand on the one which has the widest application or ESL/EFL teaching. The irst! the %honemic item dictation( consists o the teacher presenting the individual sounds o a language 4i.e.! their I'2 coordinates7 to students or transcription. The phonemic item dictation is use ul in that it increases the students& abilit" to recogni1e the sounds o a language and their contrasts! thereb" acilitating their accurate production. This dictation is an excellent wa" to teach beginners to stop imposing the sound s"stem o their native language upon the sound s"stem o English. The second! the %honemic te,t dictation! is an extension o the phonemic item dictation. It consists o the teacher reciting a passage which students phoneticall" transcribe. The phonemic item dictation is valuable as a wa" to understand how English sounds change in connected speech. Though it goes be"ond the ob:ectives set or students in most ESL programs in the C.S.! it is commonl" used in English departments in man" oreign universities. The orthogra%hic item dictation is the dictating o individual words in isolation or transcription! similar to the traditional spelling test. It is use ul or rein orcing the correlation between the spelling s"stem and sound s"stem o a language. In English this correlation is more complex than it is in other languages 4e.g.! Spanish and man" Slavic languages7! and so it is a worthwhile ESL/EFL exercise. The dictation with the broadest learning possibilities is the orthogra%hic te,t dictation! in which students transcribe a uni ied passage. This is the classic dictation exercise all oreign language teachers are amiliar with. ,esides rein orcing the spelling/sound correlations o English! the orthographic text dictation uncovers comprehension and grammatical weaknesses in learners which the teacher can anal"1e and address in uture lessons.

)6

I will discuss the use and bene its o the orthogra%hic te,t dictation in this paper.

Selecting a /ictation
The ideal dictation comes rom a contemporar" source o clear! standard English. The sub:ect matter o the text is up to the teacherF however! a livel"! engaging text livens up the exercise considerabl". ,ecause one o the goals o dictation is to provide practice in understanding semanticall" uni ied speech! paragraph dictations are best or most drills. 2t the high*beginning level! dictations should be elementar" statements that students have alread" studied! in simple! uni ied paragraphs. 2t the intermediate level! dictations should also come rom material the students have alread" read! in longer! more developed paragraphs. 2t both o these levels! dictations help to rein orce basic sentence structures and vocabular". 2t the advanced level! the goal is to orce students to learn what the" hear and what the" do not hear. There ore! the teacher should dictate un amiliar texts! thereb" making the students& experience o listening the primar" aspect o the dictation. In all cases! dictations must be selected according to the students& abilities! and the usage and st"le should be similar to what the students are expected to produce on their own in the course! both verball" and in writing. I one is teaching college students who must become amiliar with a prose st"le common to modern essa"s! a passage rom a writer such as 8illiam Ninsser! Malcolm .ladwell! or 'hillip Lopate might be appropriate. 2 use ul source or dictations at all levels is the class textbook itsel . ," using the textbook! the teacher will avoid selecting material that is too di erent rom the language norms the students have been learning. ," the same token! the selected material will have 4or should have7 good examples o the language aspects the class is dealing with in terms o grammar! vocabular"! spelling! and punctuation.

/elivering a /ictation
2 good time to deliver a dictation is at the beginning o class. The reasons are to ocus the students on English right awa"! calm them down! and ensure punctualit". For their transcriptions! I re9uest that students use pencils and uni orm notebooks with lined paper. I also ask that the" write their transcriptions on ever" other line! so corrections can be marked between the lines i necessar". ,e ore beginning the dictation! the teacher writes on the board an" proper nouns! abbreviations 4etc.( e.g.( i.e.( and so on7! acron"ms! or oreign or speciali1ed words within the dictation that he or she has not previousl" explained. The teacher also writes on the board the chosen spelling or an" word that is commonl" spelled in more than one wa" 4e.g.! rock and roll-rock.n.roll7. To begin the exercise! the teacher reads the dictation through once! at normal speaking speed. 2s stated earlier! it is recommended that the teacher select a passage rom the class textbook with which the students are alread" amiliar 4e.g.! part o an essa"! short stor"! or article7. =uring this irst reading! the students should onl" listen. )5

The teacher then reads the dictation through a second time! at a slightl" slower speed. The students begin transcribing. The teacher stops a ter each phrase or meaning ul unit and also calls out punctuation! which the students must include in their transcriptions. $ccasionall" a student will ask or a word or phrase to be repeatedF I will generall" repeat an" word or phrase once! i re9uested. For an" words the students cannot hope to transcribe! I tell them to leave a blank and to continue with transcribing the dictation. The teacher then reads the dictation through a third time at normal speaking speed! again including punctuation. =uring this reading! the students check their work and make an" last changes. 2 ter inishing the dictation and allowing the students a minute or two or inal corrections! the teacher instructs the students to stop. The" then take out the source material or the dictation and sel *correct their transcriptions. 2lternativel"! the teacher can have the students correct each other&s dictations. 8hatever the case! the corrections should be in ink! in order to distinguish them rom the transcriptions.

"valuating Stu1ent Transcri+tions

'eriodicall" throughout the term! the teacher should collect the notebooks to evaluate the kinds o errors being made. Evaluating transcriptions will re9uire care in terms o distinguishing between comprehension errors and spelling errors. Bomprehension errors include both phonological mistakes and grammatical mistakes. 2 phonological mistake would be the spelling o the word %hysics as "y*icsF a grammatical mistake would be transcribing /esterday he 0orked as /esterday he 0ork. 8e can de ine spelling errors as those that would likel" be made b" a native speaker 4e.g.! recei)e-recie)e7 From this data the teacher can gain insight into the strengths and weaknesses o each student. Lessons can be prepared to address errors made b" a ma:orit" o the class.

2onclusion
=ictation is a valuable language learning device that has been used or centuries. 2lthough linguists have not completel" understood how it acilitates language ac9uisition**it would be extremel" di icult to isolate the language competencies that are emplo"ed**man" have attested to its pedagogical value. $ne o the +Dth centur"&s most in luential linguists! Leonard ,loom ield 4)5/+7! strongl" endorsed the use o dictation as a learning device. Toda"! man" methodologists are at least inclined to agree with Finocchiaro&s 4)5;57 summar" o its value( #G=ictationH ensures attentive listeningF it trains pupils to distinguish soundsF it helps ix concepts o punctuationF it enables pupils to learn to trans er oral sounds to written s"mbolsF it helps to develop aural comprehensionF and it assists in sel *evaluation.#

A++en1ix

+D

'enefits of Dictation

=ictation makes the students and the teacher aware o the students& comprehension errors** phonological! grammatical! or both. In English! t"pical errors include the re9uent omissions o bound morphemes such as( o The 's plural o The '.s possessive o The 's third person singular o The 'ed ending or regular past participles. =ictation shows students the kinds o spelling errors the" are prone to make. =ictation gives students practice in comprehending and transcribing clear English prose. 3ote( I ind this important because we have all encountered awkward sentences in textbooks that are not good models o English writing! or raise grammatical! s"ntactic! or semantic 9uestions that are not the point o the exercise to begin with. $ne example rom a rather amous source( #8hen "ou receive a re9uest like that! "ou cannot ail to obe" it.# This was in a textbook or a pre*intermediate class and came without a ootnote to aid the student. =ictation gives students valuable practice in notetaking. ESL college students ma" alread" be in courses in which the" must take notes o lectures delivered in English at normal speaking speed. 8hile no one should take lecture notes that are exact transcriptions! learning to write spoken language 9uickl" is an essential college skill. =ictation gives practice in correct orms o speech. 'ote, 8e have all read student compositions with grammaticall" correct sentences that are not correct "orms! or example She is a surgeon o" hearts or He is a good cooker. =ictation can help develop all our language skills in an integrative wa". =ictation helps to develop short*term memor". Students practice retaining meaning ul phrases or whole sentences be ore writing them down. =ictation can serve as an excellent review exercise. =ictation is ps"chologicall" power ul and challenging. =ictation osters unconscious thinking in the new language. I the students do well! dictation is motivating. =ictation involves the whole class! no matter how large it is. =uring and a ter the dictation! all students are active. Borrection can be done b" the students =ictation can be prepared or an" level. The students! as well as the teacher! can get instant eedback i desired. =ictation can be administered 9uite e ectivel" b" an inexperienced teacher. 8hile dictating! the teacher can 4in act should7 move about! giving individual attention. =ictation exercises can pull the class together during the valuable irst minutes o class. =ictation can provide access to interesting texts. %nowing how to take dictation is a skill with #real world# applications. Man" :obs demand accurate understanding o spoken orders 4phone agents! dispatchers! administrative assistants! etc.7. 2lso! the C.S. citi1enship exam re9uires examinees to take a dictation. =ictation can be a good indicator o overall language abilit". 4For its use in testing! the research o Kohn 8. $ller! Kr. is particularl" use ul.7

eferences
+)

,loom ield! L. )5/+. Outline guide "or the %ractical study o" languages. ,altimore( Linguistic Societ" o 2merica. =avis! '. and M. @involucri. )566. 1ictation 2e0 methods( ne0 %ossibilities. p. <. Bambridge( Bambridge Cniversit" 'ress. Finocchiaro! M. )5;5. Teaching English as a second language. rev. ed. p. )<;. 3ew Aork( Earper M @ow. Frodesen! K. )55). .rammar in writing. In Teaching English as a second or "oreign language! Ed. M. Belce*Murcia. p. +;6. ,oston( Eeinle M Eeinle 'ublishers. Montalvan! @. )55D. =ictation updated( .uidelines or teacher*training workshops. In English language %rograms( 3.S. 1e%artment o" State Ohttp(//exchanges.state.gov/education/engteaching/dictn+.htmP. Saw"er! K. $. and S. %. Silver. )5;)! )5<+. =ictation in language learning. In Teaching English as a second language! Ed. E. ,. 2llen and @. 3. Bampbell. +nd ed. pp. ++-! ++5. San Francisco( Mc.raw*Eill International ,ook Bompan". Stans ield! B. )560. 2 histor" o dictation in oreign language teaching and testing. The 4odern Language Journal! 56! ii! pp. )++?)+;. TESL Kournal! >ol. >III! 3o. -! March +DD+

The Internet http(//itesl:.org/

Focuse1 Listening 0ith Songs

Isaiah 8onEo Aoo 2merican Language Benter at CBL2 Extension 4Bali ornia! CS27

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). Learners * 2lthough this t"pe o lesson can be used with students at ever" level o pro icienc"! teachers should take into account the pro icienc" level o their students when selecting a song. Teachers should also consider the complexit" o the grammatical and phonological knowledge re9uired o the students in order or their lessons to be e ective. +. Time * It can take an"where rom )D minutes to an hour. -. 6b.ective * To provide students with a ocused listening activit" where the" have an opportunit" to use their knowledge in both grammar and phonolog" o English. The teacher can also use this activit" as a starting point or various grammar or pronunciation lessons. /. Activities * Teachers should prepare two t"pes o handouts( a clo1e activit" and a linking activit".

2 clo1e activit" can be created b" taking out a ew #grammaticall"# important or salient words in the l"rics( or instance! 3othing&s 4like7 it used to beF Impossible 4as7 it ma" seem Q #although it ma" seem impossible#F and I should 4have7 known better. 2s seen below in the procedures! one important step in the pre*listening phase o this lesson is to have students igure out the missing words in the song! using their grammatical knowledge. Eaving students predict the missing words is an imperative step in that it allows them an opportunit" to stud" the sentence structures and the meaning o the l"rics. $ne important point when creating a clo1e activit" with a song is to use blanks sparingl". 2s a general rule! each line in the l"rics should not have more than one missing word. It is also a good idea not to have an" missing words in the irst line. I learned these points the hard wa" b" watching m" students writing in the answers or the irst two blanks when the song is alread" hal wa" inished. Song l"rics also lend themselves well to linking or blending activities. $ne o the common mistakes made b" nonnative speakers is tr"ing to enunciate each and ever" word in a sentence. Spoken at a ver" slow pace! such enunciation o words would not be considered wrong. Eowever! natural speech occurs at a ver" ast pace! so it is imperative that students learn how to link or blend sounds so as not to sound chopp" in their speech. Linking usuall" occurs between a consonant and a vowel 4e.g. %ick u% and %um% it7! but it can also occur between two vowels 4e.g. do # and see us7. ,lending! on the other hand! occurs between two consecutive occurrences o the same consonant 4e.g. bus sto% and hot tea7. 2 linking or blending activit" can be created simpl" b" t"ping out the l"rics! with no blanks! on the back o the clo1e activit" handout.

0. Proce1ures

're*listening o 2s a warm*up or schema building activit"! ask students what the" know about 2merican pop culture( or instance! #8ho is the most amous 2merican movie or T> actor/actress in "our countr"?# #=o "ou have a avorite 2merican singer?# #=o "ou listen to 2merican pop songs?# #I "ou do! do "ou think listening to those songs can help improve "our English?# and #In what wa"! does it help "ou improve "our English skills?# Aou might also want to bring some pictures or B=&s o popular actors or singers to class.

+-

'ass out the clo1e activit" handout! and have students read the l"rics and igure out what the missing words might be! using their knowledge in grammar. Eave the students compare their guesses with their neighbors. 2sk or volunteers to share their guesses with the class. 8hile*listening o Students listen or the missing words. 'la" the song once! and ask students whether the" need to listen to the song again. I the" do! pla" it one more time. 'ost*listening o 2 ter the second listening! go over the answers with the class. I necessar"! repla" the parts where students had trouble understanding the words. .o over grammar points as necessar".
o

;. The linking activity can be done in the ollowing wa"( =o the irst our lines with the students to make sure that ever"one understands what to do. 2sk them to do the rest o the l"rics! predicting where linking should or might occur. Eave them compare their predictions with their neighbors. Students listen to the song to ind out whether their predictions are correct. 'la" the song one more time! i necessar". .o over the answers with the class. The Internet TESL Kournal! >ol. >III! 3o. <! Kul" +DD+ http(//itesl:.org/

Listening Activities for "ffective To+41o0n Processing

Ki Ling1hu Tai"uan 3ormal Cniversit" 4Bhina7

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!ntro1uction
$nce I pla"ed the recording o a hundred word passage on how to advertise or a kind o ver" expensive per ume to m" students in the listening class. ,e ore the" listened! all the necessar" new words like tuxedo! Leonardo da >inci etc! were given and explained care ull". The tape was pla"ed three times be ore I asked them to retell the main idea o the passage. Eal o them ailed to give the correct answer. Even some o the strong learners ailed. M" students told me the" did not know what the writer was talking about! although the" knew all the words and the grammatical rules. Suddenl" one lad" student who seldom opened her mouth in the listening class stood up! telling me that the writer was talking about how to make an advertisement or a kind o per ume. She urther explained that she was interested in reading ashion maga1ines in her spare time! and people alwa"s tried man" wa"s to advertise their products. That was reall" out o m" expectation because she was not ver" strong in listening comprehension. The text itsel was not ver" di icult linguisticall" and the students were capable o understanding it. 8hat caused the comprehension ailure? Kust like reading! in listening! there are also two simultaneous and complementar" wa"s o processing a text. In top*down processing! learners use their prior knowledge to make predictions about the text. In bottom*up processing! learners rel" on their linguistic knowledge to recogni1e linguistic elements ** vowels! consonants! words! sentences to do the construction o meaning. Teachers o ten think that the learners hear ever" sound! word or sentences be ore the" understand the general meaning o the passage. Eowever! in practice! the" o ten adopt a top*down approach to predict the probable theme and then move to the bottom*up approach to check their understanding.r2ccording to the schema theor"! the process o comprehension is guided b" the idea that input is overlaid b" the pre*existing knowledge in an attempt to ind a match. The readers must relate textual materials to their background knowledge! so that the new input rom a reading passage is mapped against some prior schema. 2ll aspects o the previousl" existing schema must be compatible with the new input rom the text. In a commercial societ" like ours! m" students do not lack the schema or advertising. Eowever the passage is not about the advertisement or the per ume! but about his thoughts on the wa"s to advertise. The students reported that the" did not think about the advertisement planning process while the" listened to the passage. The lad" student who did well reported that she had read an article on how to advertise or a amous brand o shirt. Most o the students actuall" ailed because the" were not ver" amiliar with the topic. In English listening! the content schema must be activated in order or the learners to access their prior knowledge. Bonse9uentl" it is our :ob to use some classroom activities to help them. First o all! we must assess the students& level o background knowledge on a particular topic be ore the students listen to the text. I the students lack speci ic content schema! we should provide a remedial lesson on the topic to bring their level o content schema up to the level where the" can better comprehend the text. $r we revise the teaching materials so that the" will not be too demanding or the students. Furthermore! the teachers can use the in ormation gained at this time to make speci ic lesson plans or the remainder o the listening lesson on that particular topic.

Activities to Activate Stu1ents' Prior 7no0le1ge

+0

To e ectivel" activate the students& prior knowledge! I o ten use activities in m" listening class and will introduce some o them here in this article.

(ord %ssociation Tasks

This method helps to determine what prior knowledge students bring to the new topic be ore the" listen to the passage. The" will respond to a ke" word or phrase such as #Brimes are harm ul to the societ".# The" can write down as man" words and phrases as possible in ive minutes& time related to this topic! or the" ma" write reel" on this topic. 8hile the" write! the" should not worr" about the words and sentences the" write! :ust pa" attention to the content. The whole process takes about ten minutes. The teacher can write down the main ideas on the board. Then according to the in ormation! the teacher should ad:ust his/her teaching plan. The ree association method o assessing background knowledge was originall" developed as part o a pre*reading plan. Later it was urther developed as a measure o prior knowledge. The learners are usuall" given three content words or phrases related to a topic and asked to write an"thing that comes to mind when the" hear each word or phrase. 8e can also use the semantic webbing method. In this approach! teachers graphicall" connect the various concepts and ke" words surrounding a particular topic on the blackboard! helping students to see the possible relationship between ideas discussed. Eere we are not creating new knowledge! but making students aware o the knowledge the" alread" have b" giving structure to the content in ormation. This process will enable them to connect what the" are going to learn with what the" have alread" know. This teaching process can be done as group work. Students can be divided into several groups to discuss the topic. Csuall" each group will come up with di erent ideas. 2 ter a ew minutes! the instructor can ask the group leader to report their discussion results! and help them to put their ideas into appropriate groups and label them properl". The students are encouraged to re er to a dictionar" as the" generate their ideas.

%not)er T pe of !re*listening %cti+it Is &uestioning,

Csuall" teachers ask students 9uestions a ter the" inish listening. Eere m" suggestion is giving them the 9uestions be ore the" listen to the target text. This task more closel" relates to what happens in the real world. 8e most o ten listen to the speaker to ind answers to the 9uestions in our minds! relating to a certain topic! or to con irm what we alread" thought to be true. 're*passage 9uestions induce a selective attention strateg". I we use a certain textbook! in which 9uestions alwa"s ollow a passage! we ma" ask the students to read the 9uestions irst. ," reading the 9uestions! students ma" build up their own expectations about the coming in ormation! and also b" tr"ing to ind answers to these 9uestions! their prior knowledge on the topic can be activated. The" can even have a ramework o the organi1ation o the passage to be read i the 9uestions are arranged in a well*arranged order. For instance! students are expected to answer the ollowing 9uestions a ter the" listen to a passage.

8hat are the bene its o the social recognition o marriage or children? 8hat are the three areas the speaker will deal with in this lecture? 8hat are the three possibilities or the number o mates? 8hat are the possibilities or the localit" o the marriage? 8hat are the possibilities or the trans er o wealth?

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2sk the students to read the 9uestions care ull"! the" will know the main idea o the passage is marriage customs! and the speaker will mainl" talk about the bene its o social recognition o marriage or the children! the number o mates! the localit" o marriage! and the trans er o wealth a ter the marriage. 8e can also use the student*generated 9uestions b" giving them a topic! letting them ask 9uestions about what kind o in ormation the" would like to know! and then asking their classmates to give answers to the 9uestions. ,e ore the" listen to a dialogue between a policeman and a thie ! tell them who the two speakers are! then ask what the" ma" talk about. Aou ma" also ask the learners to role pla" the dialogue. Eowever! this method ma" not be ver" appropriate or opinion*giving text or iction. It is best used or passages that provide actual in ormation. I the passage is too long! one possible solution or the teacher is divide the text into sections and implement the approach section b" section.

Making List of !ossi-ilities / Ideas / Suggestions

8hen the text contains lists! even short lists o possibilities /ideas /suggestions or whatever! it is o ten a good idea to use list making as the pre*listening activit". This wa" the students can use their lists during the listening stage. 8hile the students make the list! the" can use the words and phrases the" have alread" known! or the" can ask their partners to help. 2n" checking t"pe activit" carried out while listening can then be limited to matching with known language. This can increase the likelihood o students succeeding with the task. So it is a ver" motivating activit"! especiall" or the lower level students. The list making activit" is ver" good or pair or group work. Students can work it in a relaxed atmosphere because there is no right answer as to what should be on the list. In the beginning o the course! when the students are not ver" amiliar with the activit"! we ma" use list*making or the sub:ects about which people are ver" amiliar since the" are likel" to have a lot o ideas. For instance! #the ood people like to eat#! #things children are a raid o #! etc.

Looking at !ictures 'efore Listening

I have used this man" times with "ounger learners because the" are good at reading pictures. I "ou want to check whether the students can name some o the items in the listening text! pre* listening #looking and talking about# is an e ective wa" o reminding the students o lexis which the" ma" have orgotten or never known. It will also help them to ocus their attention on the coming topic. This is ver" good or narrative or descriptive passages.

8hy Are These Activities !m+ortant9

Listeners do make use o background knowledge or comprehension. There ore it seems logical to teach background knowledge in the second language program. In Bhina! the textbooks or listening are chosen b" the department leaders and teachers are re9uired to ollow the book closel". The texts are taken rom various resources rom English speaking countries! which put emphasis on authenticit". These materials cover a wide range o ields in the target language culture. Eowever! our students are not culturall" read" or these kind o materials. The" are orced to listen to the unknown! the remote and the bi1arre! so that the" cannot use the top*down processing strategies ver" e ectivel".There ore the" are orced to listen word b" word or even sound b" sound. Several +<

scholars recommended the use o narrowed materials! possibl" with the local materials! such as school newspapers! local novels etc 4BarrellM Eisterhold! )56-7. The" are right to a certain extent. Eowever as oreign language learners! the" cannot alwa"s stick to narrow materials! we ma" start rom narrow materials and graduall" move to authentic materials. So at the beginning o the course! students should be given a pre*test on their background knowledge. Then we ma" present listening passages in a graded order to ensure that or ever" topic the students have some prior knowledge. The passages that are learned irst would provide background or later passages. 're*listening activities usuall" have two primar" goals( a. to bring to consciousness the tools and strategies that good listeners use when listening! and b. to provide the necessar" context or that speci ic listening task. Studies show that learners comprehend more o a text i the" are amiliar with the text rom experience or the" have known something about the topic be ore or the" know in advance what the listening passage concerns. The our kinds o pre*listening activities help to activate students& prior knowledge! build up their expectations or the coming in ormation and sometimes even give them a ramework o the coming passage. In this wa" we can help our students to comprehend better.

8hat !nfluences 6ur 2hoice of To+41o0n Activities9

The choice o the activities will depend on a number o actors! such as( the time availableF the material availableF the abilit" o the classF the nature and content o the listening text itsel . The last item on the list # the nature o the listening text itsel # is ver" important when choosing activities. Some kind o activities are simpl" not appropriate to some t"pes o text! and in other instances! the text itsel ver" naturall" makes one t"pe o activit" especiall" appropriate. Listening texts which naturall" rise to certain kind o top*down activities are particularl" use ul and generall" 9uite motivating or the students. 8hen the instructor designs these kind o activities! the" should also take the time element into consideration. Aou cannot have a i teen* minute activit" or a passage which will last onl" three minutes. @emember the pre*listening process should not last longer than the actual listening activit". The learners& pro icienc" is also a actor to consider. The activities should not be too demanding! otherwise the students will lose their interests.

2onclusion
Top*down processing is ver" important in listening comprehension. In our native language! we do not listen to the speaker word b" word! and we are sometimes one step ahead o the speaker. $ur +6

students& cognitive level is 9uite high! and the" are 9uite strong in comprehension. The onl" problem is that their English is not ver" good. Csing top*down activities can 9uickl" help them to trans er their mother tongue listening strategies into English listening. 2ctivating prior knowledge is crucial in top*down processing.

eferences

Barrell! '. L.M Eisterhold!K. 4)56-7. Schema Theor" and ESL @eading 'edagog". TES$L Ruarterl"! +- 4/7! ;/<*;<6. Ee! R. etc 4)55+7 Listen to This ** +. ,ei:ing ** Foreign Language Teaching and @esearch 'ublishing Eouse. %itao! S.%.B. 4)5657. @eading! Schema Theor" and Second Language learners. Tok"oF Eichosha Sininsha Bo.! LT=. Bhia!E 4+DD)7!@eading 2ctivities or E ective top*down 'rocessing. English Teaching Forum! >ol -5 3o ). Cnderwood! M 4 )5657. Teaching listening. 3ew Aork( Longman Inc.

The !nternet T"SL #ournal$ %ol& !:$ 'o& (($ 'ovember )**; htt+,--itesl.&org-

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