Female Gladiators of the Ancient Roman World

STEVEN ROSS MURRAY

N September of 2000, the Museum of London announced a surpr s n! archaeo"o! ca" d sco#er$ that !arnered %or"d&% de med a attent on and subse'uent"$ spar(ed ntense debate % th n the academ c commun t$) Scho"ars re#ea"ed that the !ra#e of a purported !"ad ator, dat n! bac( to the f rst centur$ A)*), had been unearthed n the !reater London area) The museum+s scho"ars su!!ested that on"$ one other s m "ar !ra#es te, n Tr er, ,erman$, had e#er been found, - ma( n! th s a #er$ spec a" f nd ndeed) .o%e#er, t %as not the rar t$ of the f nd that captured the %or"d+s attent on nor the fact that the !ra#e %as supposed"$ that of a !"ad ator) To the surpr se of a"", the bro(en and burnt rema ns of th s !ra#e pro#ed to be those of a %oman /see 0 !) -1) Accord n!"$, the Museum of London su!!ested that these rema ns %ere the f rst e#er found of a fema"e !"ad ator) The d sco#er$ %as unprecedented, both n terms of ts ph$s ca" t$ and nterpretat on) 2"ass ca" scho"ars ha#e "on! (no%n that fema"e !"ad ators e3 sted because of se"ected references n the anc ent te3ts and nscr pt ons4 the " terar$ and ep !raph ca" e# dence s 'u te con# nc n!) .o%e#er, f the museum+s scho"ars %ere correct, the %or"d no% had the f rst human forens c e# dence support n! the e3 stence of fema"e !"ad ators) Trad t ona" te3tua" and archeo"o! ca" sources that dep ct fema"e !"ad ators are %e"" (no%n to c"ass ca" scho"ars, but these same sources ma$ be un(no%n to the t$p ca" sport scho"ar %ho s "ess schoo"ed n c"ass ca" "an!ua!es and anc ent h stor$) Sport scho"ars, therefore, %ou"d f nd t benef c a" to ha#e the pert nent nformat on d st ""ed nto one read "$&a#a "ab"e source) The purpose of th s paper s to pro# de that source b$ present n! the e# dence for the e3 stence of fema"e
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6 A #ers on of th s art c"e %as pub" shed b$ The Journal of Combative Sport at http788e9mas)com89cs89csframe)htm n :u"$ 200;) At the press conference of the open n! of the e3h b t d sp"a$ n! the contents of a purported !"ad ator+s !ra#e, :enn$ .a"", the curator of ear"$ London h stor$ at the Museum of London, stated that the on"$ other purported !"ad ators+ !ra#es of %h ch she %as a%are %ere those e3ca#ated n Tr er, ,erman$ as reported b$ the Assoc ated <ress b$ =arr, R) /2000, September -;1) >oman !"ad ator+s rema ns d sco#ered) The Charleston Gazette, p) <?2) /Note7 The stor$ %as ssued b$ the A< and pub" shed throu!hout the nat on b$ man$ ne%spapers4 the art c"e c ted here s read "$ a#a "ab"e on Le3usNe3 sTM Academ c)1

!"ad ators found n the anc ent te3ts coup"ed % th attendant scho"ast c and archaeo"o! ca" e3pos t on, surm s n! the deta "s of the r " fe n and out of the arena, and e3p"or n! %hether or not the !ra#es te e3ca#ated b$ the Museum of London s n fact one of a fema"e !"ad ator)

0 !ure -) The bro(en and burnt rema ns of the London !ra#e %ere of a %oman) @ Museum of London, used % th perm ss on)

The Evidence for Female Gladiators As pre# ous"$ ment oned, c"ass c sts ha#e "on! be" e#ed that %omen part c pated n the anc ent Roman arena) *a# d S) <otter, a "ead n! scho"ar on anc ent Roman enterta nment, states7
There %ere fema"e !"ad ators) The$ %ere re!arded as abso"ute"$ a spec a" treat) The$ %ere suff c ent"$ rare that $ou %ou"d ad#ert se them up front as someth n! spectacu"ar that $ou %ere !o n! to ha#e n the sho%) /<att$son, 20001

The con#ent ona""$ c ted h stor ca" e# dence for the e3 stence of fema"e !"ad ators s found n the %r t n!s of anc ent Roman authors) Th s %r tten e# dence s tanta" A n!"$ scarce, but con# nc n! nonethe"ess) 2ompe"" n! proof that %omen part c pated n the arena s e# denced b$ se#era" !o#ernmenta" ed cts that " m ted and e#en barred the part c pat on of %omen n the arena) 5n A)*) --, a senatus consultum forbade freeborn fema"es under the a!e of t%ent$ from appear n! on the sta!e or n the arena /as %e"" as freeborn ma"es under the a!e of t%ent$&f #e14 th s ed ct %as rep"aced, n A)*) -B, b$ the
2

senatus consultum of Lar num, %h ch p"aced add t ona" pena"t es outs de of the opprobr um of infamia to an$ man or %oman of e'uestr an or senator a" ran( %ho part c pated on the sta!e or %ho fou!ht n the arena /2o"eman, 20004 Le#r c(, -BC;4 Ves"e$, -BBC1) Spec f ca""$, th s ed ct %as nscr bed on a bronAe tab"et, no% ca""ed the Tabula Larinas, and Dproh b tEedF the !"ad ator a" recru tment of dau!hters, !randdau!hters, and !reat&!randdau!hters of senators or of (n !hts, under the a!e of Et%ent$FG /Ves"e$, -BBC, p) B-1) U"t mate"$, n A)*) 200, Emperor Sept m us Se#erus out"a%ed such fema"e demonstrat ons %hen he ssued a decree bann n! s n!"e combat b$ %omen n the arena, for DEaF recrudescence amon! some upper&c"ass %omen, and the ra ""er$ th s pro#o(ed amon! the aud enceG /,ardner, -BCH, p) 2?C1) Le!a" proc"amat ons proscr b n! act # t es are rare"$ preempt #e or presc ent) The$ most usua""$ represent a des re to curb soc a""$ unacceptab"e beha# or that has actua""$ occurred or s current"$ be n! pract ced) Thus these ed cts a!a nst fema"e !"ad ator a" e3h b t on stron!"$ su!!est %omen actua""$ part c pated n the Roman !"ad ator a" !ames, up to the t me %hen "a%ma(ers+ sens b " t es came do%n a!a nst the pract ce) 5n add t on, man$ anc ent %r ters pro# de Dnumerous passa!esI attestE n!F to fema"e ath"etes and !"ad atorsG /Ves"e$, -BBC, p) B01) 5ndeed, the$ often ! #e spec f c nstances and deta "ed accounts of the actua" combats) The Roman h stor an, * o 2ass us /trans) -B2J820001, %r tes of a fest #a" that Nero he"d n honor of h s mother that "asted for se#era" da$s and featured %omen %ho appeared as enterta ners, nc"ud n! !"ad ators)
5n honour of h s mother he ENeroF ce"ebrated a most ma!n f cent and cost"$ fest #a", the e#ents ta( n! p"ace for se#era" da$s n f #e or s 3 theatres at onceIThere %as another e3h b t on that %as at once most d s!racefu" and most shoc( n!, %hen men and %omen not on"$ of the e'uestr an but e#en of the senator a" order appeared as performers n the orchestra, n the 2 rcus, and n the hunt n!&theatre, " (e those %ho are he"d n "o%est esteemI4 the$ dro#e horses, ( ""ed % "d beasts and fou!ht as !"ad ators, some % "" n!"$ and some sore a!a nst the r % "") /H2)-K);1

* o 2ass us further descr bes a !"ad ator a" e#ent that %as sponsored b$ Nero n A)*) HH %h ch nc"uded Eth op an %omen)
Nero adm red h m ET r datesF for th s act on and enterta ned h m n man$ %a$s, espec a""$ b$ ! # n! a !"ad ator a" e3h b t on at <uteo" ) 5t %as under the d rect on of <atrob us, one of h s freedmen, %ho mana!ed to ma(e t a most br "" ant and cost"$ affa r, as ma$ be seen from the fact that on one of the da$s not a person but Eth op ansLmen, %omen, and ch "drenLappeared n the theatre) /H2);)-1 ;

Sueton us /trans) -BJK8-BK;1, the Roman b o!rapher and h stor an, te""s of e3tra#a!ant !ames ! #en b$ the Emperor *om t an n A)*) CC, %here %omen act #e"$ part c pated)
*om t an presented man$ e3tra#a!ant enterta nments n the 2o"osseum and the 2 rcus) =es des the usua" t%o&horse char ot races he sta!ed a coup"e of batt"es, one for nfantr$, the other for ca#a"r$4 a sea&f !ht n the amph theatre4 % "d&beast hunts4 !"ad ator a" sho%s b$ torch" !ht n %h ch %omen as %e"" as men too( part) /?)-1

*om t an s purported to ha#e had fema"e !"ad ators f !ht d%arfs n the arena as noted n the %r t n!s of * o 2ass us7
Often he %ou"d conduct the !ames a"so at n !ht, and somet mes he %ou"d p t d%arfs and %omen a!a nst each other) /HK)C)21

5nterest n!"$, 9ust as s the case % th sport n! e#ents toda$, the anc ents conducted the more popu"ar attract ons "ater n the da$ and usua""$ sa#ed the (e$ e#ents as a capstone for the da$+s fest # t es) Accord n!"$, ho"d n! the fema"e e#ents at n !ht nd cates that these contests %ere probab"$ not 9ust Da mere se3ua" s desho%,G but Damon! the da$+s ma n attract onsG /Mo"", 2002, p) 2K1) < tt n! d%arfs a!a nst %omen can be # e%ed as the u"t mate n mart a" sensat ona" sm, a shoc( n! 9u3tapos t on of the materna" e3pectat ons of %omen n Roman soc et$ % th the adu"at on of %arr ors and the death that accompan es them) Such d sp"a$s a"so demonstrate *om t an+s e3tremesLa D"etha" sense of humourG accompan$ n! a ra#enous hun!er for no#e"t$ /,rant, -BHK, p) ;;1) Such e3tremes %ere m rrored to some de!ree n the Roman masses, and *om t an, (no% n! that these at$p ca" e#ents %ou"d t t ""ate the popu"ace of Rome, ob# ous"$ hoped to barter spectac"e for the fu"f ""ment of h s o%n po" t ca" amb t ons, the mores of !ood soc et$ not% thstand n! /=a(er, 20001) Thou!h the %r tten record of the anc ents attests to the e3 stence of fema"e !"ad ators, that record s 'u te sparse) 5ndeed, th s scarc t$ of %r tten references Dhas "ed some scho"ars to cons der Efema"e !"ad atorsF a no#e"t$ actIG4 $et the fact that man$ of the references are made Dcasua""$G throu!hout the anc ent %r t n!s su!!ests that fema"e !"ad ators %ere Dmore % despread than d rect e# dence m !ht other% se nd cateG /Mo"", 2002, p) 2K1) 5n add t on to %r tten references, d rect archaeo"o! ca" e# dence a"so supports the e3 stence of fema"e !"ad ators) Three ma n tems e3 st7 an nscr pt on at the Roman port of Ost a4 a shard of nscr bed potter$ found n Le cester4 and a car#ed re" ef, from .a" carnassus, dep ct n! t%o fema"e !"ad ators)

The nscr pt on at Ost a about the "oca" ma! strate, .ost " anus, reads as fo""o%s7 QUI !I"US #"$%I&U" '( U!(E C#%)IT' LU)US CU" $**& #! ET "ULIE!ES $'&) FE!!U" )E)IT, %h ch trans"ates as DE.ost " anusF %as the f rst s nce the c t$ %as founded)))to set %omen f !ht n!G2 /Ves"e$, -BBC, p) B-1) The nscr pt on s be" e#ed to date from the th rd centur$ A)*), mean n! that fema"e !"ad ator a" f !hts d d not end % th Sept m us Se#erus+ ban of A)*) 2004 furthermore, the d ct on used s mportant as Dthese %ere N%omen+ /mulieres1, not N"ad es+ /feminae1G compet n! n a "e! t mate e#ent
because Dthe %ord n! does not betra$ an$ parod$G /2o"eman, 2000, p) ?BC1)

The second p ece of e# dence s a shard of red potter$ % th a ho"e dr ""ed nto t so that t cou"d poss b"$ be %orn as a nec("ace) 5t s nscr bed as fo""o%s7 +E!EC+%)' L+)I' L+CIUS GL')I'T#!, and :ac(son /20001 trans"ates th s as DVerecunda the dancer /or %oman !"ad ator1, Luc us the !"ad atorG /p) -C1) No one (no%s for sure %hat the ntended use of the tem %as, but the nscr pt on "eads one to be" e#e that Verecunda ma$ ha#e been a fema"e !"ad ator, perhaps f !ht n! % th the same troupe as Luc us) The "ast p ece of d rect ph$s ca" e# dence s a marb"e re" ef dat n! from the f rst or second centur$ A)*) /see 0 !ure 21); The re" ef, found n .a" carnassus and current"$ d sp"a$ed n the =r t sh Museum, s the most compe"" n! p ece of e# dence for the e3 stence of fema"e !"ad ators, as t spec f ca""$ dep cts t%o fema"e !"ad ators fac n! off n combat /2o"eman, 20004 E% !"eber, 20001) The combatants are sho%n c"othed and e'u pped s m "ar"$ to ma"e !"ad atorsLspec f ca""$ a provocatorL% th each %ear n! a "o n&c"oth /subli,aculum1, !rea#es, and an arm protector /manica1 e3tend n! from the %r st to the shou"der of the s%ord&% e"d n! arm) =oth %omen are armed % th a sh e"d and a s%ord4 ne ther s %ear n! a he"met nor a sh rt) The %omen are fac n!
2

Ves"e$ /-BBC1 c tes 2ebe ""ac&,er#ason , M) O Me# , 0) /-BKH1) Re# s ons et nou#eautes pour tr os nscr pt ons d+Ost e) "EF!', CC)2, H-2&H-C for the nscr pt on and states that DEaF ne%"$ found stone supp" ed m ss n! te3t from t%o pre# ous"$ (no% nscr pt ons, CIL -?)J;C- and ?H-HG /p) B-1) .e further asserts that .ost " anus %as the ed tor of the !"ad ator a" !ames for %omen n the ne !hbor n! arena and that he %as a"so the patron %ho conducted Dthe "oca" ed t on of the Iuvenalia- the !ames of the Ost a colle,ium iuvenumG /a sort of param " tar$ tra n n! or!an Aat on1, and that the fema"e combatants rece #ed the r !"ad ator a" tra n n! n the "oca" colle,ium /p) B-1) ; 2o"eman /20001 deta "s the re" ef e3tens #e"$ and states that the fema"e combatants for %hom th s re" ef %as car#ed %ere !ranted stantes missi) <otter /-BBB1, descr bes missio as the techn ca" term mean n! re"ease and e3p"a ns stantes missi as Dre"eased stand n!G and occurr n! %hen Dt%o f !hters fou!ht "on! and hard % thout e ther be n! ab"e to obta n the cond t ons for a # ctor$, the f !ht %ou"d be a dra%G /p) ;0K1)

each other % th the r names, PQPRST and PUVWWVP, nscr bed n ,ree( beneath them nd cat n! D ncontro#ert b"$ that these are both %omen because the$ are named NAmaAon+ and NAch "" a+G /Mo"", 2002, p) ;H1) These are not the r rea" names, but %ere Ds n!u"ar"$ appropr ateG noms de ,uerre for fema"e combatants /2o"eman, 2000, p) ?CK1) L sted abo#e the t%o f !hters s nscr bed PXYWZ[\]PT, %h ch trans"ates as missae sunt, mean n! the combatants rece #ed an honorab"e d schar!e /missio1 from the arena /not Dd schar!e from ser# ce as a !"ad atorG14 essent a""$, the re" ef s a monument to the #a" ant effort d sp"a$ed b$ these t%o fema"e !"ad ators, and DE tF mar(s an en!a!ement that s %orth$ of commemorat on both for the rar t$ of ts outcome and for the fact that ts prota!on sts %ere %omenG /p) ?BJ1) 0urthermore, the e3 stence of the re" ef nd cates that, at "east for these t%o combatants, fema"e !"ad ator a" combat %as ta(en ser ous"$ enou!h
to %arrant Dcommemorat on n an e3pens #e and durab"e med umG /p) ?BB1)

0 !ure 2) Marb"e re" ef from .a" carnassus dep ct n! t%o fema"e !"ad ators
@ The =r t sh Museum, used % th perm ss on

The anc ent %r tten references and ph$s ca" e# dence ans%er, rather con# nc n!"$, the 'uest on of fema"e part c pat on n !"ad ator a" combat n the anc ent Roman %or"d) E'ua""$ mportant"$, ho%e#er, s another 'uest on7 >hat %as " fe " (e for these fema"e !"ad ators^ The Life of the Female Gladiator 5n order to ans%er th s 'uest on, one must ma(e t%o assumpt ons based upon the e# dence ! #en) 0 rst"$, f %omen part c pated as !"ad ators, and dressed and fou!ht the same as the menLas the re" ef from .a" carnassus su!!estsLone must assume that fema"e !"ad ators fo""o%ed s m "ar ru"es n the arena as ma"e !"ad ators) Second"$, f %omen %ere fo""o% n! the same pract ces ns de the arena as the r ma"e counterparts, t stands to reason that the$ too m !ht tr$ to fo""o% the same " fest$"e pract ces outs de the arena, further cha""en! n! the accepted soc eta" norms of the da$) The ma9or t$ of !"ad ators n the anc ent Roman %or"d %ere s"a#es, but some %ere actua""$ #o"unteers /auctorati1 %ho % "" n!"$ too( the !"ad ator+s oath of subm ss on Dto be burnt % th f re, shac("ed % th cha ns, %h pped % th rods, and ( ""ed % th stee" /uri- uinciri- uerberariferro.ue necari1G /,rant, -BHK, p) ;-1) Essent a""$, the nd # dua"s ta( n! th s oath re" n'u shed a"" o%nersh p of the r o%n " #es, forfe t n! the r r !hts as freemen /or free%omen1 to the r ne% o%ner, %ho cou"d do % th them as he p"eased) The reasons for Roman c t Aens #o"untar "$ s%ear n! the oath to become !"ad ators %ere that Dthe$ cou"d be re"eased from debt4 the$ m !ht % n fame and fo""o% n!4 and the$ %ou"d be !uaranteed subs stenceG /2o"eman, -BBC, p) K01) =ut, n the end, t seems that man$ %ho #o"unteered d d so out of f nanc a" !a n, as the r o%ners cou"d demand h !her fees for them Dpresumab"$ because the$ sho%ed !reater enthus asmG /,rant, -BHK, p) ;-14 the !"ad ators, n turn, cou"d prof t more % th the r share of the h !her earn n!s) <otter /-BBB1 states that De#en s"a#e !"ad ators (ept a"" or port ons of the monetar$ pr Aes that the$ %on n the arenaG /p) ;-21) E3&!"ad ators %ho %ere ent ced to come bac( to the arena %ere hea# "$ pa d, as T ber us had to offer -,000 !o"d p eces to attract one freed !"ad ator bac( nto the arena /,rant, -BHK1) 5nterest n!"$, the fema"es %ho appeared n the arena %ere not a"" s"a#es or %omen of "o% soc a" status s mp"$ n need of mone$) Tac tus /trans) -BCB1 reports that %omen of cons derab"e soc a" stand n! part c pated n !"ad ator a" e#ents, e# dent"$ for e3c tement and notor et$, not mone$, s nce the$ %ere a"read$ members of the %ea"th$ c"ass)

The same $ear % tnessed sho%s of !"ad ators as ma!n f cent as those of the past) Man$ "ad es of d st nct on, ho%e#er, and senators, d s!raced themse"#es b$ appear n! n the amph theatre) /-J);21

5n fact, the number of %omen DrushE n!F to d s!race themse"#es n the amph theaterG %as so !reat, "a%s %ere enacted to pre#ent t /Mo"", 2002, p) -0;1) Thou!h the mob of the Roman arena apprec ated the efforts of fema"e !"ad ators as one of no#e"t$4 soc et$, as a %ho"e, deemed these efforts unacceptab"e) ,"ad ators %ere un 'ue n th s respect) >h "e the$ %ere cons dered Dthe superstars of the r da$, "usted after b$ both men and %omen,G at the same t me, parado3 ca""$, the$ %ere cons dered the "o%est of the "o% n the e$es of Roman soc et$ and %ere he"d n the D!reatest contemptG /=a(er, 2000, p) ;1) 5t %as one th n! for a man of h !h soc a" status to d s!race h mse"f b$ appear n! n the arena, but Dfor a nob"e%oman to do so %as utter"$ be$ond the pa"eG /p) 2C1) 5n %hat s perhaps the most condemn n! statement of fema"e !"ad ators found n the %r t n!s from anc ent Roman %or"d, :u#ena" demonstrates h s abso"ute d s!ust at these %omen and Dbrou!ht the fu"" force of h s scath n! r d cu"e to bear onG them /,rant, -BHK, p) ;?1) :u#ena" %r tes7
>ho has not seen the dumm es of %ood the$ s"ash at and batter >hether % th s%ords or % th spears, !o n! throu!h a"" the manoeu#res^ These are the ! r"s %ho b"ast on the trumpets n honour of 0"ora) Or, t ma$ be the$ ha#e deeper des !ns, and are rea""$ prepar n! 0or the arena tse"f) .o% can a %oman be decent St c( n! her head n a he"met, den$ n! the se3 she %as born % th^ Man"$ feats the$ adore, but the$ %ou"dn+t %ant to be men, <oor %ea( th n!s /the$ th n(1, ho% " tt"e the$ rea""$ en9o$ t_ >hat a !reat honour t s for a husband to see, at an auct on >here h s % fe+s effects are up for sa"e, be"ts, sh n&!uards, Arm&protectors and p"umes_ .ear her !runt and !roan as she %or(s at t, parr$ n!, thrust n!4 See her nec( bent do%n under the %e !ht of her he"met) Loo( at the ro""s of banda!e and tape, so her "e!s "oo( " (e tree&trun(s, Then ha#e a "au!h for $ourse"f, after the pract ce s o#er, Armour and %eapons put do%n, and she s'uats as she used the #esse") Ah, de!enerate ! r"s from the " ne of our praetors and consu"s, Te"" us, %hom ha#e $ou seen !ot up n an$ such fash on, <ant n! and s%eat n! " (e th s^ No !"ad ator+s %ench, No tou!h str p&tease broad %ou"d e#er so much as attempt t) /Sat re H)2?H&2HK as c ted n ,rant, -BHK, p) ;?1

L fe for the t$p ca" !"ad ator n#o"#ed " # n! n a !"ad ator a" schoo" /ludus1 that %as run b$ a lanista) The !"ad ators of the schoo"
C

formed a troupe /familia1, and rece #ed tra n n! n the art of f !ht n! b$ doctores and ma,istri, %ho n a"" probab " t$ %ere former !"ad ators /:un(e"mann, 20001) The tra n n! !enera""$ n#o"#ed %ooden %eapons Las arm n! numerous tra ned %arr ors % th sharpened meta" %eapons %as deemed to be un% se, espec a""$ after Spartacus+ famed re#o"t of K; =)2) One scho"ar su!!ests that the auctorati rece #ed the r tra n n!, not n the ludi, but throu!h Dpr #ate nstruct on or enro""ed n the colle,e iuvenumG /Mo"", 2002, p) ;;1)? Another be" e#es that some fema"es %ho entered the arena rece #ed the r tra n n! from the r fathers, %ho %ere freed !"ad ators /E#ans, -BB-1) No matter ho% the$ %ere tra ned, numerous t$pes of !"ad ators, e)!), murmillo, thrae/, retiarius, and secutor, fou!ht n the arena, each ha# n! spec a" Aed armor and %eaponr$ /,rant, -BHK4 :un(e"mann, 20004 > demann, -BB21) ,"ad ators %ere spec a" Aed combatants) Rare"$ d d nd # dua"s rece #e tra n n! n more than one !"ad ator a" st$"e, and the$ norma""$ d d not compete #er$ often, usua""$ f !ht n! on"$ t%o to three t mes a $ear, much " (e a modern&da$ bo3er /2o"eman, -BBC1) Add t ona""$, contrar$ to popu"ar op n on, !"ad ators d d not t$p ca""$ f !ht to the death4 n fact, t %as re"at #e"$ rare for a !"ad ator to be ( ""ed n the arena /<otter, -BBB1)J The rat ona" for th s s s mp"e7 ,"ad ators %ere %orth a "ot more a" #eLearn n! appearance fees n the arenaLthan dead) The e#en n! before f !ht n! n the arena, !"ad ators %ere fed at a pub" c ban'uet /cena libera1, %here the "oca" popu"ace %as adm tted) 5n a"" " (e" hood, the ban'uet ser#ed as a form of ad#ert s n! for the ne3t da$+s e#ent nstead of a s$mbo" c ! ft from the sponsor /munerarius1 of the !ames, espec a""$ s nce the condemned pr soners, %ho %ere to be e3ecuted the fo""o% n! da$, %ere nc"uded) The ne3t morn n! be!an % th a parade throu!h the amph theatre to rouse the attent on of the spectators) ,enera""$ spea( n!, the da$+s act # t es fo""o%ed a spec f c pattern7 the morn n! n#o"#ed the beast hunt /venatio14 e3ecut ons of condemned pr soners %ere conducted dur n!
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Mo"" /22021 'uotes the %or( of Ves"e$ /-BBC1 that ar stocrats sou!ht tra n n! n the Dcolle,ia iuvenum, or!an Aed soc a" c"ubs %here $oun! men and %omen cou"d pursue a"" manner of ph$s ca" act # t$, from !$mnast cs to mart a" artsG /p) ;;1) J <otter /-BBB1 states f"at"$ that, DEtFhere %as no such th n! as a mandator$ f !ht to the death bet%een !"ad atorsG /p) ;0K1) The confus on " es n the m sunderstand n! of the term sine missione, %here a c"ear # ctor$ must be present n order for a !"ad ator to earn missio) DThe phrase does not mean, as t has unfortunate"$ been ta(en to mean n man$ stud es of !"ad ators, a f !ht to the deathG /p) ;0K1) <otter /persona" commun cat on, September -C, 20021 stated that based on h s research, he est mates that on"$ J&-0 percent of !"ad ators actua""$ d ed n the arena, p"ac n! more emphas s on the "o%er number)

m dda$, !enera""$ b$ an ma"s /ad bestias14 and !"ad ator a" f !hts, the h !h" !ht of the da$+s e#ents, %ere offered dur n! the afternoon hours) The number of f !hts %ou"d depend ent re"$ on the number of pa rs of !"ad ators schedu"ed, but !enera""$ spea( n!, f !"ad ator a" combat %as to "ast the rest of the da$, bet%een ten and th rteen pa rs %ou"d f !ht, % th a s n!"e bout "ast n! around ten to f fteen m nutes /<otter, -BBB1) The bouts %ere s mp"$ hand&to&hand combat) 5n the end, !enera""$ one of the combatants %ou"d t re or become %ounded, "a$ do%n h s /or her1 sh e"d, and s !na" cap tu"at on b$ ra s n! one f n!er /ad di,itum1) At th s t me, the ump re %ou"d step n and stop the combat and defer the dec s on of the defeated !"ad ator+s fate to the munerarius4 he cou"d, % th much nf"uence from the cro%d, !rant missio, ha#e the !"ad ator s"a n, or free one or both of the !"ad ators /a"be t at a !reat f nanc a" cost, as the munerarius had on"$ rented the !"ad ators from the lanista4 free n! someone e"se+s s"a#e %ou"d cost h m hea# "$1) > th the turn of the thumb /pollice verso1Lno one (no%s for sure f the true mean n! %ere Dthumbs upG or Dthumbs do%nGLthe dec s on of the defeated !"ad ator+s fate %as ta(en) 5f the !"ad ator %ere to rece #e missio, he /or she1 returned to the ludus to f !ht another da$4 f death %ere to be the resu"t, the % nn n! !"ad ator s mp"$ de" #ered the coup de ,r0ce) The !rant n! of freedom, ho%e#er, %as more e"aborate as the munerarius %ou"d !o to the f"oor of the arena and hand de" #er a %ooden s%ord /rudis1 to the fortunate !"ad ator, s !na" n! that the !"ad ator %as no "on!er a s"a#e, but a freeman /or free%oman1 /<otter, -BBB1) The !emains of Great )over Street 1oman 5n -BBH, construct on %or(ers n London unearthed an anc ent %a""ed cemeter$ dat n! bac( to the f rst centur$ A)*) E3ca#at ons of the s te at ,reat *o#er Street n South%ar(, near the south ban( of the r #er Thames, resu"ted n the d sco#er$ of se#era" cremat on bur a"s, but one 'u c("$ !ot the attent on of archaeo"o! sts at the Museum of London) The bur a" n 'uest on %as outs de the %a""s of the cemeter$ and un 'ue n that the deceased had been cremated on an e"aborate funera" p$re /bustum1, nd cat n! the person %as he"d n h !h esteem)H More mportant"$, ho%e#er, %as the assortment of ceram c #esse"s that
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Mo"" /20021 contends that the use of a bustum %as Dusua""$ reser#ed for the death of an mportant nd # dua"G and that there are Don"$ about t%ent$ (no%n e3amp"es of th s custom from =r ta nG /p) -;1 She c tes Mac( nder, A) /20001) ' !omano* (ritish Cemeter2 on 1atlin, Street3 London7 Museum of London Archaeo"o! ca" Ser# ce)

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had been p"aced n the bur a" after the cremat on %as comp"ete4 numerous bo%"&shaped #esse"s /tazze1, be" e#ed to be used for burn n! aroma&produc n! p necones, a"on! % th e !ht o " "amps %ere found /see 0 !ure ;1) The bone fra!ments and art facts of the !ra#e %ou"d "ead the museum+s scho"ars to be" e#e the rema ns of th s bur a" be"on!ed to a fema"e !"ad ator /Mo"", 20021)

0 !ure ;) 0unerar$ tems found n the !ra#e of ,reat *o#er Street >oman nc"uded numerous tazze and e !ht o " "amps) @ Museum of London, used % th perm ss on)

The ,reat *o#er Street !ra#e %as 'u te e"aborate) E#er$th n!L from the construct on of the bustum to the contents of the !ra#eL nd cated that the funera" Dspo(e of %ea"th, po%er, and ref nementG /<r n!"e, 200-, p) J-1 A forens c e3am nat on sho%ed that cremated bone fra!ments found n the !ra#e, spec f ca""$ the pe"# s, nd cated that the occupant %as a fema"e, probab"$ n her t%ent es) Three of the "amps portra$ed the ma!e of the 9ac(a"&headed E!$pt an !od Anub s /see 0 !ure ?14 another "amp p ctured a fa""en !"ad ator /see 0 !ure J1) =ecause Anub s %as e'uated to the Roman !od Mercur$, %ho %as c"ose"$ " n(ed to !"ad ator a" sport n the anc ent Roman %or"d,K and the other "amp dep cted a !"ad ator, archeo"o! sts
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<r n!"e /200-1 c tes .ed"e$ S%a n, the head of the ear"$ h stor$ department of the Museum of London, as sa$ n!, DEAnub sF %as the E!$pt an counterpart of the Roman !od Mercur$, %ho conducted the sou" of the dead to the ne3t %or"d and

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asserted that the rema ns poss b"$ cou"d be those of a !"ad ator) Add t ona" e# dence that the %oman bur ed at ,reat *o#er Street %as a !"ad ator s the fact that % th n the !ra#e %ere the rema ns of burnt p necones be"on! n! to the stone p ne, a con fer nat #e to 5ta"$)

0 !ure ?) O " "amp dep ct n! the 9ac(a"&headed E!$pt an !od Anub s @ Museum of London, used % th perm ss on)

p"a$ed a (e$ ro"e n Rome+s amph theaters) NS"a#es dressed as Mercur$ %ou"d actua""$ be present n the !"ad ator a" r n! and remo#e the dead !"ad ators+G /p) J;1)

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0 !ure J) O " "amp dep ct n! a fa""en !"ad ator @ Museum of London, used % th perm ss on)

The stone p ne %as (no%n to !ro% on"$ n Roman London around the "oca" amph theater /an oa( structure be" e#ed to seat up to K,000 and "ocated n London+s ,u "dha"" sect on a fe% m "es from the ,reat *o#er Street !ra#e1, as the cones %ere often burnt to mas( the sme"" assoc ated % th the arena) 0 nd n! the tazze and burnt p necones n the !ra#e, " n(s, rather nterest n!"$, the deceased bac( to the amph theater and the !"ad ator a" sport that %as conducted there) 0urther, or!an c matter found n the !ra#e h nted of an e3pens #e and e"aborate funera" feast4 f !s, dates, and %h te a"monds as %e"" as the bones of a butchered
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ch c(en and poss b"$ a do#e %ere found n the !ra#e4 moreo#er, f"ec(s of !o"d, poss b"$ from a !arment, ron na "s, and mo"ten !"ass fra!ments %ere found n the !ra#e, s !na" n! that th s %as not the !ra#e of an un(no%n pauper, but rather someone %ho %as re#ered) Last"$, the !ra#e %as outs de of the %a""ed cemeter$, nd cat n! the deceased %as probab"$ an outcast of norma" soc et$) Th s e# dence "ed the scho"ars at the museum to specu"ate7 >h$ %as such an e"aborate and e3pens #e funera" he"d for a %oman %ho %as bur ed n an area des !nated for soc a" outcasts^ The r ans%er %as s mp"e) The %oman bur ed n th s !ra#e %as Drespected, $et not respectab"eG /Mo"", 2002, p) 2;-14 she %as a !"ad ator) :enn$ .a"", the curator of ear"$ London h stor$ at the museum, states t s DK0 percent probab"eG that ,reat *o#er Street >oman %as a !"ad ator /=arr, 2000, p) <?21) Not surpr s n!"$, the museum+s conc"us on shoc(ed the academ c %or"d, and se#era" scho"ars 'uest on the #a" d t$ of the announcement) `ath"een 2o"eman, the reno%ned .ar#ard Lat n professor and e3pert of Roman !"ad ator a" !ames, doubts that ,reat *o#er Street >oman %as a !"ad ator) 0 rst"$, she be" e#es that !"ad ator a" "amps %ere Dpopu"ar househo"d temsG n Roman London, and that Dthe #er$ most $ou cou"d sa$ s the presence of !"ad ator a" ma!es on some !ra#e !oods m !ht su!!est that the deceased or a member of the deceased+s fam "$ %as a !"ad ator a" fanG /<r n!"e, 200-, p) J;1) Second"$, 2o"eman has ser ous doubts that a !"ad ator %ou"d rece #e such an e"aborate bur a", D>e (no% that Roman char oteers cou"d often amass enormous fortunes, but %e don+t ha#e an$ hard e# dence for a spec f c patr mon$ assoc ated % th a !"ad atorG /p) J;1) Another scho"ar, h stor an Mart n .en !, be" e#es that the e# dence found n the !ra#e po nts to the re" ! on of the deceased, and not her profess on) The o " "amps, tazze, and p necones ma(e h m postu"ate that the !ra#e+s occupant %as a Dde#otee of 5s s,G and he asserts that the o " "amps dep ct n! Anub s, a c"ose compan on of 5s s, nd cate that ,reat *o#er Street >oman %as a member of a %e""&(no%n E!$pt an cu"t /Mo"", 2002, p) -K21) Scho"ars at the Museum of London re9ect the not on that the fa th of ,reat *o#er Street >oman d sm sses her from be n! a !"ad ator) The$ note that fo""o%ers of 5s s %ere not soc a" outcasts4 moreo#er, .a"" be" e#es that one nterpretat on does not necessar "$ ne!ate the other7
5t s poss b"e that %e ha#e here a %ea"th$ and nf"uent a" fo""o%er of the !oddess 5s s but %ho s a"so a fema"e !"ad ator) The one poss b " t$ doesn+t ru"e out the other) 5t cou"d be a comb nat on of the t%o) /as c ted n Mo"", 2002, p) -BBB1 -?

.ed"e$ S%a n, head of ear"$ h stor$ at the Museum of London, adm ts that the ,reat *o#er Street !ra#e s open to nterpretat on) .e free"$ states that t s poss b"e that ,reat *o#er Street >oman %as a de#otee of 5s s, %ho %as bur ed most ceremon ous"$ n that South%ar( !ra#e, but he a"so su!!ests that the ar!ument for her be n! a !"ad ator s so" d and bu "t on the sum of a"" the e# dence) DNo s n!"e p ece of e# dence sa$s that Eshe s a !"ad atorFG4 rather Dthere+s s mp"$ a !roup of c rcumstant a" e# dence that ma(es t an ntr !u n! deaG /<r n!"e, 200-, p) J;1) And %hat an ntr !u n! dea t s) Conclusion Are the rema ns found at ,reat *o#er Street actua""$ those of a fema"e !"ad ator^ Unfortunate"$, that s a 'uest on that % "" " (e"$ rema n unans%ered % th certa nt$) The rema ns offer an nterest n! !" mpse nto the past and pro# de amp"e mater a" for debate and n#est !at on, $et the$ mere"$ h nt at, not pro#e, that th s !ra#e s that of a %oman %ho fou!ht n the arena) Nonethe"ess, the record s c"ear7 %omen d d part c pate n the Roman !ames and " (e"$ " #ed, and d ed, as combatants) The %or"d of the anc ent Roman arena %as not the so"e doma n of men4 %omen a"so too( up the ro"e of %arr or and %ere a part of that most pecu" ar of anc ent Roman trad t onsLthat of the !"ad ator) !eferences
=a(er, A) /20001) The ,ladiator4 The secret histor2 of !ome5s 6arrior slaves) Ne% Yor(7 Thomas *unne =oo(s) =arr, R) /2000, September -;1) >oman !"ad ator+s rema ns d sco#ered) The Charleston Gazette, p) <?2) 2o"eman, `) /-BBC1) NThe conta! on of the thron!+7 absorb n! # o"ence n the Roman %or"d,G 7ermathena, -H?, HJ&CC) 2o"eman, `) /20001) "issio at .a" carnassus) 7arvard Studies in Classical hilolo,2, -00, ?CK&J00) * o 2ass us) /20001) !oman histor2 /E) 2ar$, Trans)1) 2ambr d!e7 Loeb 2"ass ca" L brar$ .ar#ard Un #ers t$ <ress) E#ans, :) `) /-BB-1) 1ar- 6omen and children in ancient !ome) London7 Rout"ed!e) E% !"eben, 2) /20001) N>hat these %omen "o#e s the s%ord+7 The performers and the r aud ences) 5n E) `ohne O 2) E% !"eben /Eds)1, The po6er of spectacle in ancient !ome4 Gladiators and Caesars /pp) -2J&-;B1) =er(e"e$7 Un #ers t$ of 2a" forn a <ress) ,ardner, :) 0) /-BCH1) 1omen in !oman la6 8 societ2) ="oom n!ton7 5nd ana Un #ers t$ <ress) ,rant, M) /-BHK1) Gladiators) Ne% Yor(7 =arnes O Nob"e =oo(s)

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:ac(son, R) /20001) ,"ad ators n Roman =r ta n) (ritish "useum "a,azine, ;C, -H&2-) :un(e"mann, M) /20001) Familia Gladiatoria4 The .eroes of the Amph theatre) 5n E) `ohne O 2) E% !"eben /Eds)1, The po6er of spectacle in ancient !ome4 Gladiators and Caesars /pp) ;-&K?1) =er(e"e$7 Un #ers t$ of 2a" forn a <ress) Le# c(, =) /-BC;1) The Senatus Consultum from Lar num) Journal of !oman Studies, K;, BK&--J) <att$son, :) /<roducer8>r ter8* rector1) /20001) Gladiator ,ames4 !oman blood sport EMot on < ctureF3 Un ted States7 *ream>or(s and Un #ersa" Stud os) <r n!"e, .) /200-1) ,"ad atr 3) )iscover, 22/-21, ?C&JJ) <otter, *) S) O Matt n!"$, *) :) /-BBB1) Life- )eath- and Entertainment in the !oman Empire) Un #ers t$ of M ch !an <ress7 Ann Arbor) Sueton us) /-BJK1) The t6elve caesars /R) ,ra#es, Trans)1) M dd"ese37 <en!u n =oo(s, Ltd) Tac tus) /-BCB1) The annals of imperial !ome /M) ,rant, Trans)1) London7 <en!u n 2"ass cs) Ves"e$, M) /-BBC1) ,"ad ator a" tra n n! for ! r"s n the colle,ia iuvenum of the Roman Emp re) Echos du "onde Classi.ue, H2/-K1, CJ&B;) > edemann, T) /-BB21) Emperors 8 ,ladiators) London7 Rout"ed!e) Mo"", A) /20021) Gladiatri/4 The true stor2 of histor25s un9no6n 6oman 6arrior) Ne% Yor(7 =er("e$ <ub" sh n! ,roup) ::::::::::::::::::
)r3 "urra2 is a professor of 9inesiolo,2 at "esa State Colle,e in Grand JunctionColorado3 7e 6ould li9e to than9 Jessica Fierber, for her assistance in researchin, this manuscript3

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