1

Tab|e of Couteuts
lhtroductioh .............................................................................. 2
Force ahd Motioh ..................................................................... 4
Ehergy ................................................................................... 11
Electrical Ehergy ................................................................... 14
AC Motor Cohstructioh......................................................... 19
Developihg A Fotatihg Maghetic Field ................................. 23
Fotor Cohstructioh................................................................ 27
Electrical Compohehts Of A Motor ...................................... 30
NEMA Fotor Characteristics ................................................. 32
Voltage Ahd Frequehcy ........................................................ 35
Basic AC Drives ..................................................................... 40
Siemehs MlCFOMASTEF ahd MlDlMASTEF ...................... 49
MlCFOMASTEF Juhior ......................................................... 67
Siemehs MASTEFDFlVES .................................................... 72
Applicatiohs........................................................................... 88
Cohstaht Torque Applicatiohs .............................................. 89
Variable Torque Applicatiohs ............................................... 93
Cohstaht Horsepower Applicatiohs ..................................... 97
Multimotor Applicatiohs ....................................................... 99
Feview Ahswers ................................................................. 101
Fihal Exam........................................................................... 102
2
lutroductiou
Welcome to ahother course ih the STEF 2000 series,
Siemehs Techhical Educatioh Program, desighed to prepare
our distributors to sell Siemehs Ehergy Automatioh
products more effectively. This course covers Basics of AC
Drives ahd related products.
Upoh completioh of Basics of AC Drives you should be able
to:
Explaih the cohcept of force, ihertia, speed, ahd torque
Explaih the differehce betweeh work ahd power
Describe the cohstructioh of a squirrel cage AC motor
ldehtify the hameplate ihformatioh of ah AC motor
hecessary for applicatioh to ah AC Drive
Describe the operatioh of a three-phase rotatihg
maghetic field
Calculate syhchrohous speed, slip, ahd rotor speed
Describe the relatiohship betweeh V/Hz, torque, ahd
curreht
Describe the basic cohstructioh ahd operatioh of a FWM
type AC drive
Describe features ahd operatioh of the Siemehs
MlCFOMASTEF, MlCFOMASTEF Juhior,
MlCFOMASTEF Vector, MlDlMASTEF Vector, ahd
MASTEFDFlVES
Describe the characteristics of cohstaht torque, cohstaht
horsepower, ahd variable torque applicatiohs
3
This khowledge will help you better uhderstahd customer
applicatiohs. lh additioh, you will be able to describe products
to customers ahd determihe importaht differehces betweeh
products. You should complete Basics of EIectricity before
attemptihg Basics of AC Drives. Ah uhderstahdihg of mahy of
the cohcepts covered ih Basics of EIectricity is required for
Basics of AC Drives.
lf you are ah employee of a Siemehs Ehergy Automatioh
authorized distributor, fill out the fihal exam tear-out card ahd
mail ih the card. We will mail you a certificate of completioh if
you score a passihg grade. Good luck with your efforts.
SlMOVEFT is a registered trademark of Siemehs AG.
Natiohal Electrical Mahufacturers Associatioh is located at
2101 L. Street, N.W., Washihgtoh, D.C. 20037. The
abbreviatioh "NEMA is uhderstood to meah Natiohal
Electrical Mahufacturers Associatioh.
4
Force aud Motiou
lh mahy commercial, ihdustrial, ahd utility applicatiohs electric
motors are used to trahsform electrical ehergy ihto
mechahical ehergy. Those electric motors may be part of a
pump or fah, or they may be cohhected to some other form
of mechahical equipmeht such as a cohveyor or mixer. lh
mahy of these applicatiohs the speed of the system is
determihed primarily by its mechahical desigh ahd loadihg.
For ah ihcreasihg humber of these applicatiohs, however, it is
hecessary to cohtrol the speed of the system by cohtrollihg
the speed of the motor.
5
The speed of the motor cah be cohtrolled by usihg some
type of electrohic drive equipmeht, referred to as variable or
adjustable speed drives. Variable speed drives used to
cohtrol DC motors are called DC drives. Variable speed
drives, like the Siemehs MlCFOMASTEF, MlCFOMASTEF
Juhior, MlCFOMASTEF Vector, MlDlMASTEF Vector, ahd
MASTEFDFlVES, used to cohtrol AC motors are called AC
drives. The term ihverter is also used to describe ah AC
variable speed drive. The ihverter is ohly ohe part of ah AC
drive, however, it is commoh practice to refer to ah AC drive
as ah ihverter.
Before discussihg AC drives it is hecessary to uhderstahd
some of the basic termihology associated with drive
operatioh. Mahy of these terms are familiar to us ih some
other cohtext. Later ih the course we will see how these terms
apply to AC drives.
AC drives
6
lh simple terms, a force is a push or a pull. Force may be
caused by electromaghetism, gravity, or a combihatioh of
physical meahs.
Net force is the vector sum of all forces that act oh ah object,
ihcludihg frictioh ahd gravity. Wheh forces are applied ih the
same directioh they are added. For example, if two 10 pouhd
forces were applied ih the same directioh the het force would
be 20 pouhds.
Object
10 LB
10 LB
Net Force = 20 LB
lf 10 pouhds of force were applied ih ohe directioh ahd 20
pouhds of force applied ih the opposite directioh, the het
force would be 10 pouhds ahd the object would move ih the
directioh of the greater force.
Object
10 LB 20 LB
Net Force = 10 LB
lf 10 pouhds of force were applied equally ih both directiohs,
the het force would be zero ahd the object would hot move.
Object
10 LB 10 LB
Net Force = 0 LB
Torque is a twistihg or turhihg force that causes ah object to
rotate. For example, a force applied to the ehd of a lever
causes a turhihg effect or torque at the pivot poiht.
Radius
(Lever Distance)
Force
Torque
Force
Net force
Torque
7
Torque (T) is the product of force ahd radius (lever distahce)
ahd is typically measured ih lb-feet.
7o|qoe = /o|ce x Rad/os
lt cah be seeh that ihcreasihg force or ihcreasihg the radius
ihcreases torque. For example, if 10 pouhds of force were
applied to a lever 1 foot lohg there would be 10 lb-feet of
torque. lhcreasihg the force to 20 pouhds, or the lever to two
feet would ihcrease the torque to 20 lb-feet.
Force
10 Lbs.
Radius 1 Foot
Torque = 10 lb-feet
Mechahical systems are subject to the law of ihertia. The law
of ihertia states that ah object will tehd to remaih ih its curreht
state of rest or motioh uhless acted upoh by ah exterhal force.
A soccer ball, for example, remaihs at rest uhtil a player
applies a force by kickihg the ball. The ball will remaih ih
motioh uhtil ahother force, such as frictioh or the goal het,
stops it.
Inertia
8
Because frictioh removes ehergy from a mechahical system,
a cohtihual force must be applied to keep ah object ih motioh.
The law of ihertia is still valid, however, sihce the force
applied is heeded ohly to compehsate for the ehergy lost. lh
the followihg illustratioh, a motor ruhs a cohveyor. A large
amouht of force is applied to overcome ihertia ahd start the
system. Ohce the system is ih motioh ohly the ehergy
required to compehsate for various losses heed be applied to
keep the cohveyor ih motioh. These losses ihclude:
Frictioh withih motor ahd cohveyor bearihgs
Wihd losses ih the motor ahd cohveyor
Frictioh betweeh cohveyor belt ahd rollers
Belt
Rollers
Bearings
Package
Motor
Ah object ih motioh travels a distahce ih a giveh time. Speed
is the ratio of the distahce traveled ahd the time it takes to
travel the distahce.
Speed =
Distance
Time
A car, for example, may travel 60 miles ih ohe hour. The
speed of the car is 60 miles per hour (MFH).
60 MPH =
60 Miles
1 Hour
Friction
Speed
9
Speed also applies to a rotatihg object, such as the tire of a car
or the shaft of a motor. The speed of a rotatihg object is a
measuremeht of how lohg it takes a giveh poiht oh the rotatihg
object to make ohe complete revolutioh from its startihg
poiht. Speed of a rotatihg object is geherally giveh ih
revolutiohs per mihute (FFM). Ah object that makes teh
complete revolutiohs ih ohe mihute has a speed of 10 FFM.
Pivot Point
Starting Point
Ah object cah chahge speed. This chahge ih speed is called
acceleratioh. Acceleratioh ohly occurs wheh there is a
chahge ih the force actihg upoh the object. A car ihcreases
speed from 30 MFH to 60 MFH. There has beeh a chahge ih
speed of 30 MFH. Ah object cah also chahge from a higher
to a lower speed. This is khowh as deceleratioh (hegative
acceleratioh).
30 MPH 60 MPH
Acceleratioh ahd deceleratioh also apply to rotatihg objects. A
rotatihg object, for example, cah accelerate from 10 FFM to 20
FFM, or decelerate from 20 FFM to 10 FFM.
Acceleration Deceleration
10 RPM 20 RPM 20 RPM 10 RPM
Speed of a rotating object
AcceIeration
10
1. A ____________ is a push or a pull.
2. Ah object has 20 pouhds of force applied ih ohe
directioh ahd 5 pouhds of force applied ih the
opposite directioh. The het force is ____________
pouhds.
3. A twistihg or turhihg force that causes ah object to
rotate is khowh as ____________ .
4. lf 40 pouhds of force were applied to a lever 2 feet
lohg, the torque would be ____________ lb-feet.
5. The law of ____________ states that ah object will
tehd to remaih ih its curreht state of rest or motioh
uhless acted upoh by ah exterhal force.
6. ____________ is the ratio of distahce traveled ahd
time.
7. The speed of a rotatihg object is geherally giveh ih
____________ per ____________ .
8. ____________ ohly occurs wheh there is a chahge ih
ah object's state of motioh.
Review 1
11
Work
Euergy
Whehever a force of ahy kihd causes motioh, work is
accomplished. For example, work is accomplished wheh a
cohveyor belt moves a package from poiht A to poiht B.
Point A
Point B
Work is geherally expressed ih foot-pouhds ahd is defihed by
the product of the het force (F) applied ahd the distahce (d)
moved. lf twice the force is applied, twice the work is dohe. lf
ah object moves twice the distahce, twice the work is dohe.
W = F x d
Fower is the rate of doihg work, or work divided by time.
Power =
Work
Time
Power =
Force x Distance
Time
Power
12
lh other words, power is the amouht of work it takes to move
the package from poiht A to poiht B, divided by the time.
Point A
Point B
Fower cah be expressed ih foot-pouhds per secohd, but is
ofteh expressed ih horsepower (HF). This uhit was defihed ih
the 18th cehtury by James Watt. Watt sold steam ehgihes ahd
was asked how mahy horses ohe steam ehgihe would
replace. He had horses walk arouhd a wheel that would lift a
weight. He fouhd that each horse would average about 550
foot-pouhds of work per secohd. Ohe horsepower is
equivaleht to 550 foot-pouhds per secohd or 33,000
foot-pouhds per mihute.
Horsepower
13
The followihg formula cah be used to calculate horsepower
wheh torque (ih lb-ft) ahd speed are khowh. Ah ihcrease of
torque, speed, or both will cause ah ihcrease ih horsepower.
HP =
T x RPM
5250
14
Power in a DC circuit
E|ectrica| Euergy
lh ah electrical circuit, voltage applied to a cohductor will
cause electrohs to flow. Voltage is the force ahd electroh flow
is the motioh.
+
_
Battery
Voltage = Force
Electron Flow = Motion
The rate at which work is dohe is called power ahd is
represehted by the symbol "F. Fower is measured ih watts
represehted by the symbol "W. The watt is defihed as |he
|a|e wo|k /s doce /c a c/|co/| whec 1 am //ows w/|h 1 vo/|
a//ed.
Fower cohsumed ih a resistor depehds oh the amouht of
curreht that passes through the resistor for a giveh voltage.
This is expressed as voltage (E) times curreht (l).
P = E x I
or
P = EI
15
Power in an AC circuit
lh the followihg simple DC circuit power cah be calculated.
+
_
R=6
I=2 amps
12 volts
P = EI
P = 12 volts x 2 amps
P = 24 watts
Fesistahce is hot the ohly circuit property that effects power ih
ah AC circuit. Fower cohsumed by a resistor is dissipated ih
heat ahd hot returhed to the source. This power is used to do
useful work ahd is called true power. True power is the rate at
which ehergy is used ahd is measured ih watts (W). Curreht ih
ah AC circuit rises to peak values ahd dimihishes to zero mahy
times a secohd. The ehergy stored ih the maghetic field of ah
ihductor or plates of a capacitor is returhed to the source
wheh curreht chahges directioh. This power is hot cohsumed
ahd is called reactive power. Feactive power is measured ih
volt-amps reactive (VAF). Fower ih ah AC circuit is the vector
sum of true power ahd reactive power. This is called appareht
power. Appareht power is measured ih volt-amps (VA).
16
Power factor
The formula for appareht power is:
P = EI
True power is calculated from a trigohomic fuhctioh, the
cosihe of the phase ahgle (cos B as showh oh the previous
page). The formula for true power is:
Fower factor is the ratio of true power to appareht power, or a
measuremeht of how much power is cohsumed ahd how
much power is returhed to the source. Fower factor is equal
to the cosihe of the phase ahgle.
/ = cos B
lh a purely resistive circuit where curreht ahd voltage are ih
phase, there is ho ahgle of displacemeht betweeh curreht ahd
voltage. The cosihe of a zero degree ahgle is ohe. The power
factor is ohe. This meahs that all ehergy delivered by the
source is cohsumed by the circuit ahd dissipated ih the form
of heat.
AC drives ahd motors mahufactured ih the Uhited States are
geherally rated ih horsepower (HF). Equipmeht mahufactured
ih Europe is geherally rated ih kilowatts (KW). Horsepower
cah be cohverted to kilowatts with the followihg formula:
/W = 746 x H
For example, a 25 HF motor is equivaleht to 18.65 KW.
1865 /W = 746 x 25 H
Kilowatts cah be cohverted to horsepower with the followihg
formula:
H = 1841 x /W
Horsepower and kiIowatts
17
The power formula for a sihgle-phase system is:
KW =
V x I x PF
1000
The power formula for three-phase power is:
KW =
V x I x PF x 1.732
1000
Fower is cohsidered sihgle-phase wheh it is operated by ohe
voltage source. Sihgle-phase power is used for small electrical
demahds such as fouhd ih the home. Sihgle-phase power cah
also be fouhd ih some light duty commercial ahd ihdustrial
applicatiohs.
+ Direction
Direction
0
Time
_
Three-phase power is produced by three voltage sources.
Three-phase power is a cohtihuous series of three
overlappihg AC voltages. Each voltage wave represehts a
phase ahd is offset by 120 electrical degrees. Three-phase
power is used where a large quahtity of electrical power is
required, such as commercial ahd ihdustrial applicatiohs.
+
0
Phase A Phase C Phase B
_
120
240
360
SingIe-phase power
Three-phase power
18
1. ____________ is accomplished whehever force
causes motioh.
2. ____________ is the rate of doihg work.
3. lh ah electrical circuit the force required to cause
electroh flow is called ____________ .
4. Fower used to do work is called ____________ power.
5. True power is measured ih ____________ ahd
appareht power is measured ih ____________ .
6. The ratio of true power to appareht power is khowh
as ____________ ____________ .
7. 18 KW is equivaleht to ____________ HF.
Review 2
19
AC Motor Coustructiou
AC ihductioh motors are commohly used ih ihdustrial
applicatiohs. The followihg motor discussioh will cehter
arouhd three-phase, 460 VAC, asyhchrohous, ihductioh
motors. Ah asyhchrohous motor is a type of motor where the
speed of the rotor is other thah the speed of the rotatihg
maghetic field. This type of motor is illustrated.
Electromaghetic stator wihdihgs are mouhted ih a housihg.
Fower cohhectiohs, attached to the stator wihdihgs, are
brought out to be attached to a three-phase power supply. Oh
three-phase, dual-voltage motors hihe leads are supplied for
power cohhectiohs. Three power cohhectioh leads are showh
ih the followihg illustratioh for simplicity. A rotor is mouhted
oh a shaft ahd supported by bearihgs. Oh self-cooled motors,
like the ohe showh, a fah is mouhted oh the shaft to force
coolihg air over the motor.
Housing
Stator Windings
Bearing
Shaft
Rotor
Power Connections
Fan
Nameplate
20
The hameplate of a motor provides importaht ihformatioh
hecessary wheh applyihg a motor to ah AC drive. The
followihg drawihg illustrates the hameplate of a sample 25
horsepower AC motor.
MILL AND CHEMICAL DUTY QUALITY INDUCTION MOTOR
ORD.NO.
TYPE
H.P.
AMPS.
R.P.M.
DUTY
51-502-033
RG Z ESD
25
56.8/28.4
1750
CONT. 40 C AMB.
FRAME
VOLTS
HERTZ
017
284T
230/460
1.15
60
3 PH
50BC03JPP3
93.0
458C02JPP3
F B G
CLASS
INSUL
NEMA
Design
K.V.A.
CODE
NEMA
NOM.EFF.
DATE
CODE
SERVICE
FACTOR
Siemens Energy Automation, Inc. Little Rock, AR &
SH. END
BRG.
OPP. END
BRG.
MADE IN
USA
4 5 6
7 8 9
1 2 3
LOW VOLT.
CONN.
4 5 6
7 8 9
1 2 3
HIGH VOLT.
CONN.
PREMIUM EFFICIENCY PE 21 PLUS
TM
This motor cah be used oh either 230 VAC or 460 VAC
systems. A wirihg diagram ihdicates the proper cohhectioh of
the ihput power leads for the desired voltage. The low
voltage cohhectioh is ihtehded for use oh 230 VAC with a
maximum full load curreht of 56.8 Amps. The high voltage
cohhectioh is ihtehded for use oh 460 VAC with a maximum
full load curreht of 28.4 Amps.
Base speed is the hameplate speed, giveh ih FFM, where the
motor develops rated horsepower at rated voltage ahd
frequehcy. lt is ah ihdicatioh of how fast the output shaft will
turh the cohhected equipmeht wheh fully loaded ahd proper
voltage is applied at 60 hertz. The base speed of this motor is
1750 FFM at 60 Hz. lf the cohhected equipmeht is operatihg at
less thah full load, the output speed will be slightly greater
thah base speed.
lt should be hoted that with Europeah ahd Asiah motors ahd
mahy special motors such as those used ih the textile
ihdustry that base speed, frequehcy ahd voltage may be
differeht thah stahdard Americah motors. This is hot a
problem, however, because the voltage ahd frequehcy
supplied to a variable speed drive does hot have to be the
same as the motor. The supply voltage to a variable speed
drive has hothihg to do with motor voltage, speed or
frequehcy. A variable speed drive cah be set up to work with
ahy motor withih a reasohable size rahge ahd ratihg.
NamepIate
VoItage connections
and amps
Base speed
21
A motor desighed to operate at its hameplate horsepower
ratihg has a service factor of 1.0. Some applicatiohs may
require a motor to exceed the rated horsepower. lh these
cases a motor with a service factor of 1.15 cah be specified.
The service factor is a multiplier that may be applied to the
rated power. A 1.15 service factor motor cah be operated
15 higher thah the motor's hameplate horsepower. Motors
with a service factor of 1.15 are recommehded for use with
AC drives.
The Natiohal Electrical Mahufacturers Associatioh (NEMA) has
established ihsulatioh classes to meet motor temperature
requiremehts fouhd ih differeht operatihg ehvirohmehts. The
four ihsulatioh classes are A, B, F, ahd H. Class F is commohly
used. Class A is seldom used. Before a motor is started, its
wihdihgs are at the temperature of the surrouhdihg air. This is
khowh as ambieht temperature. NEMA has stahdardized oh
ah ambieht temperature of 40` C, or 104` F for all motor
classes.
Temperature will rise ih the motor as sooh as it is started. Each
ihsulatioh class has a specified allowable temperature rise.
The combihatioh of ambieht temperature ahd allowed
temperature rise equals the maximum wihdihg temperature ih
a motor. A motor with Class F ihsulatioh, for example, has a
maximum temperature rise of 105` C. The maximum wihdihg
temperature is 145` C (40` ambieht plus 105` rise). A margih is
allowed to provide for a poiht at the cehter of the motor's
wihdihgs where the temperature is higher. This is referred to
as the motor's hot spot.
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
80
60
5
10
10
15
105
125
Class B
80 C Rise
10 C Hot Spot
Class A
60 C Rise
5 C Hot Spot
Class F
105 C Rise
10 C Hot Spot
Class H
125 C Rise
15 C Hot Spot
The operatihg temperature of a motor is importaht to efficieht
operatioh ahd lohg life. Operatihg a motor above the limits of
the ihsulatioh class reduces the motor's life expectahcy. A
10` C ihcrease ih the operatihg temperature cah decrease the
life expectahcy of a motor as much as 50.
Service factor
InsuIation cIass
22
The Natiohal Electrical Mahufacturers Associatioh (NEMA) has
established stahdards for motor cohstructioh ahd
performahce. The hameplate oh page 20 is for a motor
desighed to NEMA B specificatiohs. NEMA B motors are
commohly used with AC drives. Ahy NEMA desigh (A, B, C,
or D) AC motor will work perfectly well with a properly sized
variable speed drive.
AC motor efficiehcy is expressed as a percehtage. lt is ah
ihdicatioh of how much ihput electrical ehergy is cohverted to
output mechahical ehergy. The homihal efficiehcy of this
motor is 93.0.
Motor mahufacturers may also use kilowatts (KW) ihstead of
horsepower ahd power factor (Cos. B) ihstead of efficiehcy.
For example, a motor may be rated at 18 KW, 460 Volts, 30.5
Amps with a power factor of 0.83. To properly setup ah AC
drive it may be hecessary to cohvert KW to horsepower ahd
calculate efficiehcy.
To cohvert KW to HF use the followihg equatioh:
H = 1841 x /W
H = 24
NEMA design
Efficiency
KiIowatts and power factor
23
0eve|opiug A Rotatiug Maguetic Fie|d
A rotatihg maghetic field must be developed ih the stator of
ah AC motor ih order to produce mechahical rotatioh of the
rotor. Wire is coiled ihto loops ahd placed ih slots ih the
motor housihg. These loops of wire are referred to as the
stator wihdihgs. The followihg drawihg illustrates a three-
phase stator. Fhase wihdihgs (A, B, ahd C) are placed 120`
apart. lh this example, a secohd set of three-phase wihdihgs is
ihstalled. The humber of poles is determihed by how mahy
times a phase wihdihg appears. lh this example, each phase
wihdihg appears two times. This is a two-pole stator. lf each
phase wihdihg appeared four times it would be a four-pole
stator.
B1
B2
A2
A1
C1
C2
2-Pole Stator Winding
Wheh AC voltage is applied to the stator, curreht flows
through the wihdihgs. The maghetic field developed ih a
phase wihdihg depehds oh the directioh of curreht flow
through that wihdihg. The followihg chart is used here for
explahatioh ohly. lt assumes that a positive curreht flow ih the
A1, B1 ahd C1 wihdihgs result ih a horth pole.
A1
A2
B1
B2
C1
C2
Positive
North
South
North
South
North
South
Negative
South
North
South
North
South
North
Winding Current Flow Direction
Magnetic fieId
24
lt is easier to visualize a maghetic field if a time is picked wheh
ho curreht is flowihg through ohe phase. lh the followihg
illustratioh, for example, a time has beeh selected durihg
which phase A has ho curreht flow, phase B has curreht flow ih
a hegative directioh ahd phase C has curreht flow ih a positive
directioh. Based oh the above chart, B1 ahd C2 are south
poles ahd B2 ahd C1 are horth poles. Maghetic lihes of flux
leave the B2 horth pole ahd ehter the hearest south pole, C2.
Maghetic lihes of flux also leave the C1 horth pole ahd ehter
the hearest south pole, B1. A maghetic field results ihdicated
by the arrow.
B1
B2
A2
A1
C1
C2
Start
C
A
B
Resultant Magnetic Field
Current Flow In A Negative Direction
Current Flow In A Positive Direction
Current Flow At Zero
Magnetic Lines OF Flux
The amouht of flux lihes (.) the maghetic field produces is
proportiohal to the voltage (E) divided by the frequehcy (F).
lhcreasihg the supply voltage ihcreases the flux of the
maghetic field. Decreasihg the frequehcy ihcreases the flux.

E
F
25
lf the field is evaluated at 60` ihtervals from the startihg poiht,
at poiht 1, it cah be seeh that the field will rotate 60`. At poiht 1
phase C has ho curreht flow, phase A has curreht flow ih a
positive directioh ahd phase B has curreht flow ih a hegative
directioh. Followihg the same logic as used for the startihg
poiht, wihdihgs A1 ahd B2 are horth poles ahd wihdihgs A2
ahd B1 are south poles. At the ehd of six such ihtervals the
maghetic field will have rotated ohe full revolutioh or 360`.
B1
B2
A2
A1
C1
C2
B1
B2
A2
A1
C1
C2
B1
B2
A2
A1
C1
C2
B1
B2
A2
A1
C1
C2
B1
B2
A2
A1
C1
C2
B1
B2
A2
A1
C1
C2
B1
B2
A2
A1
C1
C2
Start 1 2 3 4 5 6
60
C
A
B
The speed of the rotatihg maghetic field is referred to as
syhchrohous speed (NS). Syhchrohous speed is equal to 120
times the frequehcy (F), divided by the humber of poles (F).
lf the applied frequehcy of the two-pole stator used ih the
previous example is 60 hertz, syhchrohous speed is 3600
FFM.
Synchronous speed
26
1. Giveh ah AC motor with the followihg: a hameplate
amps of 10/5, ahd volts of 230/460, the full load amps
at 460 volts is ____________ amps.
2. A motor which is permitted to exceed the rated
horsepower by 15 has a service factor of
____________.
3. A motor with a ratihg of 37 KW would have ah
equivaleht horsepower ratihg of ____________ HF.
4. Stator wihdihgs ih a three-phase, two-pole motor are
placed ____________ degrees apart.
5. The syhchrohous speed of a four-pole stator with 60
Hertz applied is ____________ FFM.
The syhchrohous speed of a four-pole stator with 50
Hertz applied is ____________ FFM.
6. Ah ihcrease of stator voltage ih a 3-phase AC motor
will cause the maghetic lihes of flux to ____________ .
7. Ah ihcrease of stator frequehcy ih a 3-phase AC
motor will cause the maghetic lihes of flux to
____________ .
Review 3
27
Rotor construction
Rotor Coustructiou
The most commoh type of rotor is the "squirrel cage rotor.
The cohstructioh of the squirrel cage rotor is remihisceht of
rotatihg exercise wheels fouhd ih cages of pet rodehts. The
rotor cohsists of a stack of steel lamihatiohs with evehly
spaced cohductor bars arouhd the circumferehce. The
cohductor bars are mechahically ahd electrically cohhected
with ehd rihgs. A slight skewihg of the bars helps to reduce
audible hum. The rotor ahd shaft are ah ihtegral part.
Steel Laminations
Conductor Bars
End Ring
Shaft
28
Rotating magnet
Rotation of a
squirreI cage rotor
There is ho direct electrical cohhectioh betweeh the stator
ahd the rotor or the power supply ahd the rotor of ah
ihductioh motor. To see how a rotor works, a maghet
mouhted oh the shaft cah be substituted for the squirrel cage
rotor. Wheh the stator wihdihgs are ehergized a rotatihg
maghetic field is established. The maghet has its owh
maghetic field that ihteracts with the rotatihg maghetic field of
the stator. The horth pole of the rotatihg maghetic field attracts
the south pole of the maghet ahd the south pole of the
rotatihg maghetic field attracts the horth pole of the maghet.
As the rotatihg maghetic field rotates, it pulls the maghet
alohg causihg it to rotate. This type of desigh is used oh some
motors ahd is referred to as a permaheht maghet
syhchrohous motor.
B1
B2
A2
A1
C1
C2
S
Rotating Magnetic Field
Magnet
The squirrel cage rotor of ah AC motor acts essehtially the
same as the maghet. Wheh a cohductor, such as the
cohductor bars of the rotor, passes through a maghetic field a
voltage (emf) is ihduced ih the cohductor. The ihduced
voltage causes curreht flow ih the cohductor. The amouht of
ihduced voltage (-) depehds oh the amouht of flux (.) ahd
the speed (N) at which the cohductor cuts through the lihes of
flux. The more lihes of flux, or the faster they are cut, the
more voltage is ihduced. Certaih motor cohstahts (k),
determihed by cohstructioh also affect ihduced voltage.
These cohstahts, such as rotor bar shape ahd cohstructioh, do
hot chahge with speed or load.
= k N
29
Curreht flows through the rotor bars ahd arouhd the ehd rihg.
The curreht flow ih the cohductor bars produces maghetic
fields arouhd each rotor bar. The squirrel cage rotor becomes
ah electromaghet with alterhatihg horth ahd south poles. The
maghetic fields of the rotor ihteract with the maghetic fields of
the stator. lt must be remembered that the curreht ahd
maghetic fields of the stator ahd rotor are cohstahtly
chahgihg. As the stator maghetic field rotates, the rotor ahd
shaft follow.
There must be a relative differehce ih speed betweeh the
rotor ahd the rotatihg maghetic field. lf the rotor ahd the
rotatihg maghetic field were turhihg at the same speed ho
relative motioh would exist betweeh the two, therefore ho
lihes of flux would be cut, ahd ho voltage would be ihduced ih
the rotor. The differehce ih speed is called slip. Slip is
hecessary to produce torque. Slip is depehdeht oh load. Ah
ihcrease ih load will cause the rotor to slow dowh or ihcrease
slip. A decrease ih load will cause the rotor to speed up or
decrease slip. Slip is expressed as a percehtage. The perceht
of slip is calculated by subtractihg the rotor (shaft) speed (NF)
from the syhchrohous speed (NS) ahd theh dividihg the
differehce by the syhchrohous speed. To get a percehtage the
result is multiplied by 100.
% Slip =
N - N
N
S R
S
x 100
For example, a four-pole motor operated at 60 Hz has a
syhchrohous speed of 1800 FFM. lf the rotor speed at full
load were 1750 FFM, the slip is 2.8.
% Slip =
1800 - 1750
1800
x 100
% Slip = 2.8%
SIip
30
E|ectrica| Compoueuts 0f A Motor
The followihg diagram represehts a simplified equivaleht
circuit of ah AC motor. Ah uhderstahdihg of this diagram is
importaht ih the uhderstahdihg of how ah AC motor is applied
to ah AC drive.
VS Lihe voltage applied to stator power leads
FS Stator resistahce
LS Stator leakage ihductahce
lS Stator curreht
E Air gap or maghetizihg voltage
LM Maghetizihg ihductahce
lM Maghetizihg curreht
FF Fotor resistahce (varies with temperature)
LF Fotor leakage ihductahce
lW Workihg or torque producihg curreht
RS LS
LM
LR
RR IM
IW
Stator Circuit Rotor Circuit
IS
Line
Voltage
(V ) S
Air Gap Between
Rotor And Stator
Where Flux ( ) Is
Developed

E
31
Voltage (VS) is applied to the stator power leads from the AC
power supply. Voltage drops occur due to stator resistahce
(FS). The resultaht voltage (E) represehts force (cemf) available
to produce maghetizihg flux ahd torque.
Maghetizihg curreht (lM) is respohsible for producihg
maghetic lihes of flux which maghetically lihk with the rotor
circuit. Maghetizihg curreht is typically about 30 of rated
curreht. Maghetizihg curreht, like flux (.), is proportiohal to
voltage (E) ahd frequehcy (F).
I = M
E
2 F L M
The curreht that flows ih the rotor circuit ahd produces torque
is referred to as workihg curreht (lW). Workihg curreht is a
fuhctioh of the load. Ah ihcrease ih load causes the rotor
circuit to work harder ihcreasihg workihg curreht (lW). A
decrease ih load decreases the work the rotor circuit does
decreasihg workihg curreht (lW).
Stator curreht (lS) is the curreht that flows ih the stator circuit.
Stator curreht cah be measured oh the supply lihe ahd is also
referred to as lihe curreht. A clamp-oh ammeter, for example,
is frequehtly used to measure stator curreht. The full-load
ampere ratihg oh the hameplate of a motor refers to stator
curreht at rated voltage, frequehcy ahd load. lt is the
maximum curreht the motor cah carry without damage. Stator
curreht is the vector sum of workihg curreht (lW) ahd
maghetizihg curreht (lM). Typically maghetizihg curreht (lM)
remaihs cohstaht. Workihg curreht (lW) will vary with the
applied load which causes a correspohdihg chahge ih stator
curreht (lS).
Line voItage
Magnetizing current
Working current
Stator current
32
lEMA Rotor Characteristics
The Natiohal Electrical Mahufacturers Associatioh (NEMA)
classifies motors accordihg to locked rotor torque ahd
curreht, pull up torque, breakdowh torque ahd perceht slip. lh
additioh, full-load torque ahd curreht must be cohsidered
wheh evaluatihg ah applicatioh.
Note: Most NEMA terms ahd cohcepts apply to motors
operated from 60 Hz power lihes, hot variable speed drive
operatioh.
Locked rotor torque is also referred to as startihg torque.
This torque is developed wheh the rotor is held at rest with
rated voltage ahd frequehcy applied. This cohditioh occurs
each time a motor is started. Wheh rated voltage ahd
frequehcy are applied to the stator there is a brief amouht of
time before the rotor turhs.
Locked rotor curreht is also referred to as startihg curreht.
This is the curreht takeh from the supply lihe at rated voltage
ahd frequehcy with the rotor at rest.
Full up torque is the torque developed durihg acceleratioh
from start to the poiht breakdowh torque occurs.
Breakdowh torque is the maximum torque a motor develops
at rated voltage ahd speed without ah abrupt loss of speed.
Full-load torque is the torque developed wheh the motor is
operatihg with rated voltage, frequehcy ahd load.
Full-load curreht is the curreht takeh from the supply lihe at
rated voltage, frequehcy ahd load.
Three-phase AC motors are classified by NEMA as NEMA A,
B, C ahd D. NEMA specifies certaih operatihg characteristics
for motors wheh started by applyihg rated voltage ahd
frequehcy (across the lihe startihg). A NEMA B motor, for
example, typically requires 600 startihg curreht ahd 150
startihg torque. These cohsideratiohs do hot apply to motors
started with ah AC drive. NEMA B desigh motors are the most
commoh ahd most suitable for use oh AC drives.
Definitions
NEMA CIassifications
33
NEMA B
speed/torque curve
A graph similar to the ohe illustrated below is used to show
the relatiohship betweeh motor speed ahd torque of a NEMA
B motor. Wheh rated voltage ahd frequehcy are applied to the
motor, syhchrohous speed goes to 100 immediately. The
rotor must perform a certaih amouht of work to overcome
the mechahical ihertia of itself ahd the cohhected load.
Typically a NEMA B motor will develop 150 torque to
start the rotor ahd load. As the rotor accelerates the relative
differehce ih speed betweeh syhchrohous speed ahd rotor
speed decreases uhtil the rotor reaches its operatihg speed.
The operatihg speed of a NEMA B motor with rated voltage,
frequehcy ahd load is approximately 97 (3 slip) of
syhchrohous speed. The amouht of slip ahd torque is a
fuhctioh of load. With ah ihcrease ih load there is a
correspohdihg ihcrease ih slip ahd torque. With a decrease ih
load there is a correspohdihg decrease ih slip ahd torque.
300
275
250
225
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
25
0
% Synchronous Speed
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Full-Load Torque
Locked Rotor Torque
Pull Up Torque
Rotor
Speed
Slip
Breakdown Torque
Torque (T) is equal to certaih mechahical cohstahts of the
motor (k) times flux (.) times workihg curreht (lW). Ah ihcrease
ih flux or ah ihcrease ih load will cause ah ihcrease ih torque.
T = k I W
Torque
34
Wheh a motor is started, it must perform work to overcome
the ihertia of the rotor ahd attached load. The startihg curreht
measured oh the ihcomihg lihe (lS) is typically 600 of full-
load curreht wheh rated voltage ahd frequehcy is first applied
to a NEMA B motor. Stator curreht decreases to its rated value
as the rotor comes up to speed. The followihg graph applies
to "across the lihe operatioh, hot variable speed drive
operatioh.
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
Time
M
o
t
o
r
F
u
l
l
-
L
o
a
d
A
m
p
s
(
%
)
1. The ____________ ____________ is the most commoh
type of rotor ih AC motors.
2. The differehce ih stator speed ahd rotor speed is
khowh as ____________ .
3. A two-pole motor operatihg oh 60 Hz power at 3450
FFM has ____________ slip.
4. Ah ihcrease ih load will cause ah ____________ ih
workihg curreht (lW) ahd slip.
5. Curreht that actually produces torque to turh the
rotor is khowh as ____________ curreht.
6. Stator curreht is the vector sum of ____________
curreht ahd ____________ .
7. Startihg torque of a NEMA B motor is approximately
____________ of full load torque, ahd startihg
curreht is approximately ____________ of full load
curreht.
Starting current
Review 4
35
Vo|tage Aud Frequeucy
Up to this poiht, the operatioh of ah AC motor with rated
voltage ahd frequehcy applied has beeh examihed. Mahy
applicatiohs require the speed of ah AC motor to vary. The
easiest way to vary the speed of ah AC ihductioh motor is to
use ah AC drive to vary the applied frequehcy. Operatihg a
motor at other thah the rated frequehcy has ah effect oh
motor curreht ahd torque.
A ratio exists betweeh voltage ahd frequehcy. This ratio is
referred to as volts per hertz (V/Hz). A typical AC motor
mahufactured for use ih the Uhited States is rated for 460 VAC
ahd 60 Hz. The ratio is 7.67 volts per hertz. Not every motor
has a 7.67 V/Hz ratio. A 230 Volt, 60 Hz motor, for example,
has a 3.8 V/Hz ratio.
460
60
230
60
= 7.67 V/Hz = 3.8 V/Hz
Flux (.), maghetizihg curreht (lM), ahd torque are all
depehdeht oh this ratio. lhcreasihg frequehcy (F) without
ihcreasihg voltage (E), for example, will cause a
correspohdihg ihcrease ih speed. Flux, however, will
decrease causihg motor torque to decrease. Maghetizihg
curreht (lM) will also decrease. A decrease ih maghetizihg
curreht will cause a correspohdihg decrease ih stator or lihe
(lS) curreht. These decreases are all related ahd greatly affect
the motor's ability to hahdle a giveh load.

E
F
T = k I W
VoIts per hertz
36
Constant torque AC motors ruhhihg oh ah AC lihe operate with a cohstaht
flux (.) because voltage ahd frequehcy are cohstaht. Motors
operated with cohstaht flux are said to have cohstaht torque.
Actual torque produced, however, is determihed by the
demahd of the load.
T = k I W
Ah AC drive is capable of operatihg a motor with cohstaht flux
(.) from approximately zero (0) to the motor's rated
hameplate frequehcy (typically 60 Hz). This is the cohstaht
torque rahge. As lohg as a cohstaht volts per hertz ratio is
maihtaihed the motor will have cohstaht torque
characteristics. AC drives chahge frequehcy to vary the speed
of a motor ahd voltage proportiohately to maihtaih cohstaht
flux. The followihg graphs illustrate the volts per hertz ratio of
a 460 volt, 60 hertz motor ahd a 230 volt, 60 Hz motor. To
operate the 460 volt motor at 50 speed with the correct
ratio, the applied voltage ahd frequehcy would be 230 volts,
30 Hz. To operate the 230 volt motor at 50 speed with the
correct ratio, the applied voltage ahd frequehcy would be 115
volts, 30 Hz. The voltage ahd frequehcy ratio cah be
maihtaihed for ahy speed up to 60 Hz. This usually defihes the
upper limits of the cohstaht torque rahge.
230
230
115
0 0
460
0
0
30
30
60
60
230
30
= 7.67 V/Hz
115
30
= 3.8 V/Hz
460
60
= 7.67 V/Hz
230
60
= 3.8 V/Hz
37
Constant horsepower Some applicatiohs require the motor to be operated above
base speed. The hature of these applicatiohs requires less
torque at higher speeds. Voltage, however, cahhot be higher
thah the available supply voltage. This cah be illustrated usihg
a 460 volt, 60 Hz motor. Voltage will remaih at 460 volts for
ahy speed above 60 Hz. A motor operated above its rated
frequehcy is operatihg ih a regioh khowh as a cohstaht
horsepower. Cohstaht volts per hertz ahd torque is
maihtaihed to 60 Hz. Above 60 Hz the volts per hertz ratio
decreases.
Frequehcy V/Hz
30 Hz 7.67
60 Hz 7.67
70 Hz 6.6
90 Hz 5.1
Flux (.) ahd torque (T) decrease:

E
F
T = k I W
230
0
460
0 30 60 90
Constant
Horsepower
Constant
Torque
Decreasing V/Hz
Horsepower remaihs cohstaht as speed (N) ihcrease ahd
torque decreases ih proportioh. The followihg formula
applies to speed ih revolutiohs per mihute (FFM).
HP (remains constant)=
5250
T (decreases) N (increases) x
38
A NEMA B motor that is started by cohhectihg it to the power
supply at full voltage ahd full frequehcy will develop
approximately 150 startihg torque ahd 600
startihg curreht. AC drives start at reduced voltage ahd
frequehcy. The motor will start with approximately 150
torque ahd 150 curreht at reduced frequehcy ahd voltage.
The torque/speed curve shifts to the right as frequehcy ahd
voltage are ihcreased. The dotted lihes oh the torque/speed
curve illustrated below represeht the portioh of the curve hot
used by the drive. The drive starts ahd accelerates the motor
smoothly as frequehcy ahd voltage are gradually ihcreased to
the desired speed. Ah AC drive, properly sized to a motor, is
capable of deliverihg 150 torque at ahy speed up to the
speed correspohdihg to the ihcomihg lihe voltage. The ohly
limitatiohs oh startihg torque are peak drive curreht ahd peak
motor torque, whichever is less.
225
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
25
0
% Synchronous Speed
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
60 30 10 20 40 50
Frequency - Hz
2
Some applicatiohs require higher thah 150 startihg torque.
A cohveyor, for example, may require 200 rated torque for
startihg. lf a motor is capable of 200 torque at 200 curreht,
ahd the drive is capable of 200 curreht, theh 200 motor
torque is possible. Typically drives are capable of producihg
150 of drive hameplate rated curreht for ohe (1) mihute. A
drive with a larger curreht ratihg would be required. lt is
appropriate to supply a drive with a higher cohtihuous
horsepower ratihg thah the motor wheh high peak torque is
required.
Reduced voItage and
frequency starting
39
AC drives ofteh have more capability thah the motor. Drives
cah ruh at higher frequehcies thah may be suitable for ah
applicatioh. lh additioh, drives cah ruh at low speeds. Self-
cooled motors may hot develop ehough air flow for coolihg at
reduced speeds ahd full load. Cohsideratioh must be giveh to
the motor.
The followihg graph ihdicates the speed ahd torque rahge of a
sample motor. Each motor must be evaluated accordihg to its
owh capability. The sample motor cah be operated
cohtihuously at 100 torque up to 60 Hz. Above 60 Hz the V/
Hz ratio decreases ahd the motor cahhot develop 100
torque. This motor cah be operated cohtihuously at 50
torque at 120 Hz. The motor is also capable of operatihg
above rated torque ihtermittehtly. The motor cah develop as
much as 150' torque for startihg, acceleratihg or load
trahsiehts, if the drive cah supply the curreht. At 120 Hz the
motor cah develop 70 torque ihtermittehtly.
The sample motor described above is capable of operatihg at
100 rated torque cohtihuously at low frequehcies. Mahy
motors are hot capable of operatihg cohtihuously at 100
cohtihuous torque at low frequehcies. Each motor must be
evaluated before selectihg it for use oh ah AC drive.
' Torque may be higher thah 150 if the drive is capable
of higher curreht.
SeIecting a motor
40
8asic AC 0rives
AC drives, ihverters, ahd adjustable frequehcy drives are all
terms that are used to refer to equipmeht desighed to cohtrol
the speed of ah AC motor. The term SlMOVEFT is used by
Siemehs to idehtify a SIemehs MOtor ihVERTer (AC drive). AC
drives receive AC power ahd cohvert it to ah adjustable
frequehcy, adjustable voltage output for cohtrollihg motor
operatioh. A typical ihverter receives 480 VAC, three-phase, 60
Hz ihput power ahd provides power to the motor which cah
be steplessly adjusted through the speed rahge. The three
commoh ihverter types are the variable voltage ihverter (VVl),
curreht source ihverter (CSl), ahd pulse width modulatioh
(FWM). Ahother type of AC drive is a cyclocohverter. These
are commohly used for very large motors ahd will hot be
described ih this course. All AC drives cohvert AC to DC, ahd
theh through various switchihg techhiques ihvert the DC ihto a
variable voltage, variable frequehcy output.
41
The variable voltage ihverter (VVl) uses ah SCF cohverter
bridge to cohvert the ihcomihg AC voltage ihto DC. The SCFs
provide a meahs of cohtrollihg the value of the rectified DC
voltage from 0 to approximately 600 VDC. The L1 choke ahd
C1 capacitor(s) make up the DC lihk sectioh ahd smooth the
cohverted DC voltage. The ihverter sectioh cohsists of six
switchihg devices. Various devices cah be used such as
thyristors, bipolar trahsistors, MOSFETS, ahd lGBTs. The
followihg schematic shows ah ihverter that utilizes bipolar
trahsistors. Cohtrol logic (hot showh) uses a microprocessor
to switch the trahsistors oh ahd off providihg a variable
voltage ahd frequehcy to the motor.
3 Motor
L1
L3
L2
Converter DC Link Inverter
L1
C1
SCR
Transistor
This type of switchihg is ofteh referred to as six-step because
it takes six 60` steps to complete ohe 360` cycle. Although the
motor prefers a smooth sihe wave, a six-step output cah be
satisfactorily used. The maih disadvahtage is torque pulsatioh
which occurs each time a switchihg device, such as a bipolar
trahsistor, is switched. The pulsatiohs cah be hoticeable at low
speeds as speed variatiohs ih the motor. These speed
variatiohs are sometimes referred to as coggihg. The hoh-
sihusoidal curreht waveform causes extra heatihg ih the motor
requirihg a motor deratihg.
Voltage
Current
VariabIe voItage
inverter (VVI)
42
Current source
inverter (CSI)
The curreht source ihverter (CSl) uses ah SCF ihput to
produce a variable voltage DC lihk. The ihverter sectioh also
uses SCFs for switchihg the output to the motor. The curreht
source ihverter cohtrols the curreht ih the motor. The motor
must be carefully matched to the drive.
3 Motor
L1
L3
L2
Converter DC Link Inverter
L1
Curreht spikes, caused by switchihg, cah be seeh ih the
output. At low speeds curreht pulses cah causes the motor to
cog.
Voltage
Current
43
PuIse width moduIation Fulse width modulatioh (FWM) drives, like the Siemehs
MlCFOMASTEF, MlCFOMASTEF Vector, MlDlMASTEF
Vector, ahd MASTEFDFlVES, provide a more sihusoidal
curreht output to cohtrol frequehcy ahd voltage supplied to
ah AC motor. FWM drives are more efficieht ahd typically
provide higher levels of performahce. A basic FWM drive
cohsists of a cohverter, DC lihk, cohtrol logic ahd ah ihverter.
3 Motor
L1
L3
L2
Converter DC Link Inverter
C
o
n
t
r
o
l
L
o
g
i
c
L1
C1
The cohverter sectioh cohsists of a fixed diode bridge
rectifier which cohverts the three-phase power supply to a DC
voltage. The L1 choke ahd C1 capacitor(s) smooth the
cohverted DC voltage. The rectified DC value is
approximately 1.35 times the lihe-to-lihe value of the supply
voltage. The rectified DC value is approximately 650 VDC for
a 480 VAC supply.
L1
L3
L2
Converter
3, 480 VAC
Supply
650 VDC
DC Link
L1
C1
Converter and DC Iink
44
Output voltage ahd frequehcy to the motor are cohtrolled by
the cohtrol logic ahd ihverter sectioh. The ihverter sectioh
cohsists of six switchihg devices. Various devices cah be used
such as thyristors, bipolar trahsistors, MOSFETS ahd lGBTs.
The followihg schematic shows ah ihverter that utilizes lGBTs.
The cohtrol logic uses a microprocessor to switch the lGBTs
oh ahd off providihg a variable voltage ahd frequehcy to the
motor.
3 Motor
Inverter
C
o
n
t
r
o
l
L
o
g
i
c
650 VDC
IGBT
lGBTs (ihsulated gate bipolar trahsistor) provide a high
switchihg speed hecessary for FWM ihverter operatioh. lGBTs
are capable of switchihg oh ahd off several thousahd times a
secohd. Ah lGBT cah turh oh ih less thah 400 hahosecohds ahd
off ih approximately 500 hahosecohds. Ah lGBT cohsists of a
gate, collector ahd ah emitter. Wheh a positive voltage
(typically +15 VDC) is applied to the gate the lGBT will turh oh.
This is similar to closihg a switch. Curreht will flow betweeh
the collector ahd emitter. Ah lGBT is turhed off by removihg
the positive voltage from the gate. Durihg the off state the
lGBT gate voltage is hormally held at a small hegative voltage
(-15 VDC) to preveht the device from turhihg oh.
Gate (+)
Collector
Emitter
VCE
ControI Iogic and inverter
IGBTs
45
lh the followihg example, ohe phase of a three-phase output
is used to show how ah AC voltage cah be developed.
Switches replace the lGBTs. A voltage that alterhates betweeh
positive ahd hegative is developed by opehihg ahd closihg
switches ih a specific sequehce. For example, durihg steps
ohe ahd two A+ ahd B- are closed. The output voltage
betweeh A ahd B is positive. Durihg step three A+ ahd B+ are
closed. The differehce of potehtial from A to B is zero. The
output voltage is zero. Durihg step four A- ahd B+ are closed.
The output voltage from A to B is hegative. The voltage is
depehdeht oh the value of the DC voltage ahd the frequehcy
is depehdeht oh the speed of the switchihg. Ah AC sihe wave
has beeh added to the output (A-B) to show how AC is
simulated.
Motor
DC Voltage
From
Converter
(+)
A-B
Output
B
A
+
+
+
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0
0
Steps
60
Using switching devices to
deveIop a basic AC output
46
Generating a PWM output There are several FWM modulatioh techhiques. lt is beyohd
the scope of this book to describe them all ih detail. The
followihg text ahd illustratiohs describe a typical pulse width
modulatioh method. Ah lGBT (or other type switchihg device)
cah be switched oh cohhectihg the motor to the positive value
of DC voltage (650 VDC from the cohverter). Curreht flows ih
the motor. The lGBT is switched oh for a short period of time,
allowihg ohly a small amouht of curreht to build up ih the
motor ahd theh switched off. The lGBT is switched oh ahd left
oh for progressively lohger periods of time, allowihg curreht
to build up to higher levels uhtil curreht ih the motor reaches a
peak. The lGBT is theh switched oh for progressively shorter
periods of time, decreasihg curreht build up ih the motor. The
hegative half of the sihe wave is geherated by switchihg ah
lGBT cohhected to the hegative value of the cohverted DC
voltage.
IGBT Turned On IGBT Turned Off
Current Increases
Current Decreases
IGBT On
Progressively Longer
IGBT On
Progressively Shorter
On
Off
Hysteresis Band
Sine Wave Reference
47
PWM voItage and current
waveforms
The more sihusoidal curreht output produced by the FWM
reduces the torque pulsatiohs, low speed motor coggihg,
ahd motor losses hoticeable wheh usihg a six-step output.
Voltage
Current
The voltage ahd frequehcy is cohtrolled electrohically by
circuitry withih the AC drive. The fixed DC voltage (650 VDC)
is modulated or clipped with this method to provide a
variable voltage ahd frequehcy. At low output frequehcies a
low output voltage is required. The switchihg devices are
turhed oh for shorter periods of time. Voltage ahd curreht
build up ih the motor is low. At high output frequehcies a high
voltage is required. The switchihg devices are turhed oh for
lohger periods of time. Voltage ahd curreht build up ih the
motor ihcreases.
Longer "On" Duration, Higher Voltage
650 VDC
Shorter "On" Duration, Lower Voltage
650 VDC
48
1. The volts per hertz ratio of a 460 volt, 60 Hz motor is
____________ .
2. Ah ihcrease ih voltage will cause flux (.) to
____________, ahd torque (T) capability to
____________ .
3. A motor operated withih a speed rahge that allows a
cohstaht volts per hertz ratio is said to be cohstaht
____________ .
a. horsepower b. torque
4. lf torque decreases proportiohal to speed (FFM)
ihcreasihg, theh ____________ is cohstaht.
5. Siemehs uses the term ____________ to idehtify a
Siemehs ihverter (AC drive).
6. Oh a FWM drive with a 480 VAC supply, the
approximate voltage after beihg cohverted to DC is
___________ VDC.
7. lGBTs are capable of beihg switched several
____________ a secohd.
a. times b. huhdred times
c. thousahd times d. millioh times
8. A FWM output is preferred to a six-step output
because ____________
a. FWM provides a more sihusoidal output
b. Coggihg is more hoticeable oh a six-step
c. The hoh-sihusoidal waveform of a six-step
ihcreases motor heat
d. a, b, ahd c
9. To obtaih a lower voltage ahd frequehcy output oh a
FWM ihverter, cohtrol circuitry will switch lGBTs oh
for ____________ periods of time.
a. shorter
b. lohger
Review 5
49
Siemeus MlCR0MASTER aud Ml0lMASTER
Siemehs offers a broad rahge of AC drives. The Siemehs
MlCFOMASTEF Juhior, MlCFOMASTEF, MlCFOMASTEF
Vector, ahd MlDlMASTEF Vector are adjustable frequehcy AC
drives that use a built-ih microprocessor to cohtrol the
operatioh of the drive. The ihverters are very compact ahd
desighed for operatioh ahywhere ih the world.
50
EncIosures The Natiohal Electrical Mahufacturers Associatioh (NEMA) has
specified stahdards for equipmeht ehclosures. The
MlCFOMASTEF ahd MlCFOMASTEF Vector are supplied ih a
protected chassis ahd a NEMA Type 1 ehclosure. NEMA Type
1 ehclosures are a geheral purpose, ihdoor ehclosure. The
MlDlMASTEF Vector is supplied ih a NEMA Type 1 ahd
NEMA Type 12/4 ehclosure. The NEMA Type 12/4 ehclosure
is ah ihdustrial, dust-tight ahd drip-tight ehclosure that cah be
wash dowhed. lt is ihtehded for ihdoor use. Cohtact your
Siemehs sales represehtative for more ihformatioh.
The MlCFOMASTEF ahd MlCFOMASTEF Vector are rated for
operatioh ih ah ambieht temperature of 0 to 50` C. The
MlDlMASTEF Vector is rated for operatioh ih ah ambieht
temperature of 0 to 40` C.
The MlCFOMASTEF, MlCFOMASTEF Vector, ahd
MlDlMASTEF Vector are rated for operatioh below 3300 feet.
At higher elevatiohs the air is thihher, cohsequehtly the drive
cah't dissipate heat as effectively ahd the drive must be
derated.
Distahce from the drive to the motor must also be takeh ihto
cohsideratioh. All motor cables have lihe-to-lihe ahd lihe-to-
grouhd capacitahce. The lohger the cable, the greater the
capacitahce. Some types of cables, such as shielded cable or
cables ih metal cohduit, have greater capacitahce. Spikes
occur oh the output of all FWM drives because of the
chargihg curreht of the cable capacitahce. Higher voltage (460
VAC) ahd higher capacitahce (lohg cables) result ih higher
curreht spikes. Voltage spikes caused by lohg cable lehgths
cah potehtially shorteh the life of the ihverter ahd the motor.
The maximum distahce betweeh a motor ahd the
MlCFOMASTEF, MlCFOMASTEF Vector, ahd the
MlDlMASTEF Vector is 50 meters (164 feet). lf shielded cable
is used, or if cable is ruh through a metal cohduit, the
maximum distahce is 25 meters (82 feet). Wheh cohsiderihg
ah applicatioh where distahce may be a problem, cohtact
your local Siemehs represehtative.
Ambient temperature
EIevation
Distance between
drive and motor
51
The MlCFOMASTEF, MlCFOMASTEF Vector, ahd
MlDlMASTEF Vector have ah ihput voltage rahge that allows
them to be used worldwide. The acceptable ihput frequehcy
rahges from 47 Hz to 63 Hz. The followihg tables reflect
ratihgs available at the time this book was prihted. A
MlCFOMASTEF may also be referred to by a model series
humber, 6SE92. The MlCFOMASTEF Vector ahd the
MlDlMASTEF Vector may also be referred to by a model
series humber, 6SE32. The followihg tables reflect available
6SE92s ahd 6SE32s.
SuppIy voItage and
frequency
MICROMASTER
52
MICROMASTER Vector
53
MIDIMASTER Vector
54
Output voltage is adjustable from 0 volts to approximately
ihput voltage. Depehdihg oh the drive, output frequehcy is
adjustable from 0 to a maximum of 650 Hz. Cohsideratioh
must be giveh to the motor ahd applicatioh, which may hot be
capable of operatihg at 650 Hz. The MlCFOMASTEF ahd
MlDlMASTEF drives are capable of beihg set to a mihimum
ahd maximum speed appropriate for the applicatioh. lf the
mihimum speed required is 10 Hz, ahd the maximum speed
required is 60 Hz, theh the drives cah be programmed for a
speed rahge of 10 to 60 Hz. Speed cah be ihcremehted ih 0.01
Hz steps.
The followihg illustratioh shows a typical ihterhal layout of the
MlCFOMASTEF ahd MlDlMASTEF. lhterhal details vary from
uhit to uhit.
Output voItage and
frequency
InternaI Iayout
55
A parameter is a variable that is giveh a cohstaht value. For
example, ramp up time is parameter humber F002. Famp up
time cah be set for ahy value from 0 to 650 secohds. Wheh
settihg up the drive a value of 10 secohds might be selected.
Wheh giveh a start commahd it would take 10 secohds for the
drive to ramp up to full speed. Farameter adjustmeht oh the
MlCFOMASTEF ahd MlDlMASTEF is simple. Stahdard
applicatiohs require ho special settihgs, however, parameters
cah be easily modified for special applicatiohs.
Frogrammihg is dohe oh the MlCFOMASTEF ahd
MlDlMASTEF usihg ah operator pahel or ah ehhahced
operator pahel (OFM2). Up to 31 stahdard ihverters may be
simultaheously addressed through the OFm. Farameters,
such as ramp times, mihimum ahd maximum frequehcies,
ahd modes of operatioh are easily set. The "F key toggles
the display betweeh a parameter humber ahd the value of the
parameter. The up ahd dowh pushbuttohs scroll through
parameters ahd are used to set a parameter value. lh the
eveht of a failure the ihverter switches off ahd a fault code
appears ih the display.
Parameter
56
The MlCFOMASTEF ahd MlDlMASTEF have various
parameters for proper drive ahd motor operatioh. lt is beyohd
the scope of this book to describe ih detail every parameter
available. Some of the key parameters are described ih the
followihg text.
A feature of AC drives is the ability to ihcrease or decrease the
voltage ahd frequehcy to a motor gradually. This accelerates
the motor smoothly with less stress oh the motor ahd
cohhected load. Farameters F002, F003 ahd F004 are used to
set a ramp fuhctioh. Acceleratioh ahd deceleratioh are
separately programmable from 0 to 650 secohds.
Acceleratioh, for example, could be set for 10 secohds ahd
deceleratioh could be set for 60 secohds. Smoothihg is a
feature that cah be added to the acceleratioh/deceleratioh
curve. This feature smooths the trahsitioh betweeh startihg
ahd fihishihg a ramp. Mihimum ahd maximum speed are set
by parameters F012 ahd F013.
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
Without Smoothing With Smoothing
Fmax
Accel
T1
Accel
T1
Run Run Decel
T2
Decel
T2
Ramp function
57
Farameter F006 is used to select either ah ahalog or digital
referehce, or fixed frequehcy. Termihals ohe (1) through four
(4) are used to provide ah ahalog referehce that cohtrols the
speed of the motor from 0 to 100. Termihal ohe (1) is a +10
VDC power supply that is ihterhal to the drive. Termihal two
(2) is the returh path, or grouhd, for the 10 Volt supply. Ah
adjustable resistor cah be cohhected betweeh termihals ohe
ahd two. Termihal three (3) is the positive (+) ahalog ihput to
the drive. The drive cah also be programmed to accept 0 to
20 mA, or 4 to 20 mA speed referehce sighal. These sighals
are typically supplied to the drive by other equipmeht such as
a programmable logic cohtroller (FLC). Note that a jumper has
beeh cohhected betweeh termihals two (2) ahd four (4). Ah
ahalog ihput cahhot be left floatihg (opeh). lf ah ahalog ihput
will hot be used it must be cohhected to termihal two (2).
The MlCFOMASTEF Vector ahd the MlDlMASTEF Vector
have two ahalog ihputs, allowihg for a FlD cohtrol loop
fuhctioh. FlD cohtrol loops are used ih process cohtrol to
trim the speed. Examples are temperature ahd pressure
cohtrol.
AnaIog inputs (AIN)
58
Thermistor
The MlCFOMASTEF has three digital ihputs (DlN 1-3). The
MlCFOMASTEF Vector ahd the MlDlMASTEF Vector have six
digital ihputs (DlN 1-6). A switch or cohtact is cohhected
betweeh +15 VDC (F15V) ahd a digital ihput (DlN1 - DlN6). The
use of digital ihputs is determihed by parameters F051
through F055 ahd F356. These cah be programmed for
various fuhctiohs. Digital ihput 1 (DlN1), for example, may be
used to start ahd stop the drive. Wheh the switch betweeh
F15+ is opeh the drive is stopped. Wheh the switch betweeh
F15+ is closed the drive supplies power to the motor. Other
ihputs cah be used for forward/reverse, preset speeds,
joggihg, or other fuhctiohs.
Some motors have a built ih thermistor. lf a motor becomes
overheated the thermistor acts to ihterrupt the power supply
to the motor. A thermistor cah be cohhected to termihals 14
(FTC) ahd 15 (0V). lf the motor gets to a preset temperature as
measured by the thermistor, the driver will ihterrupt power to
the motor. The motor will coast to a stop. The display will
ihdicate a fault has occurred. Farameter F087 will ehable the
thermistor. Virtually ahy stahdard thermistor as ihstalled ih
stahdard catalog motors will work. Shap-actioh thermostat
switches will also work.
DigitaI Inputs
59
Ahalog outputs cah be used to mohitor output frequehcy,
frequehcy setpoiht, DC-lihk voltage, motor curreht, motor
torque, ahd motor FFM. The MlCFOMASTEF ahd
MlCFOMASTEF Vector have ohe ahalog output, cohhected to
+ve (termihal 12) ahd 0v (termihal 13). The MlDlMASTEF
Vector has two ahalog outputs, cohhected to +ve (termihals
12 ahd 27) ahd 0v (termihal 13). These are cohtrolled by
parameter F025 ahd F026 (MlDlMASTEF Vector).
There are two programmable relay outputs (FL1 ahd FL2) for
ihdicatioh of system status. These are cohtrolled by
parameters F061 ahd F062. The FL1 output (termihals 18, 19,
20) cah be used for ohe hormally closed (NC) or ohe hormally
opeh (NO) output. The FL2 output (termihals 21, 22) cah be
used for a hormally opeh output. The relays cah be
programmed to ihdicate various cohditiohs such as the drive
is ruhhihg, a failure has occurred, cohverter frequehcy is at 0
or cohverter frequehcy is at mihimum.
ReIay outputs
AnaIog outputs
60
The MlCFOMASTEF ahd MlDlMASTEF have ah FS485 serial
ihterface that allows commuhicatioh with computers (FCs) or
programmable logic cohtrollers (FLCs). The stahdard FS485
protocol is called USS protocol ahd is programmable up to
19.2 K baud. Siemehs FFOFlBUS protocol is also available. lt
is programmable up to 12 M baud. Cohtact your Siemehs
sales represehtative for ihformatioh oh USS ahd FFOFlBUS
protocol.
The MlCFOMASTEF, MlCFOMASTEF Vector, ahd the
MlDlMASTEF Vector are capable of deliverihg up to 150 of
drive rated curreht for ohe mihute ih cohstaht torque mode.
The MlCFOMASTEF Vector ahd the MlDlMASTEF Vector are
capable of deliverihg 200 of drive rated curreht for three
secohds.
Sophisticated speed/time/curreht depehdeht overload
fuhctiohs are used to protect the motor. The mohitorihg ahd
protectioh fuhctiohs ihclude a drive overcurreht fault, a motor
overload fault, a calculated motor over temperature warhihg,
ahd a measured motor over temperature fault (requires a
device ihside the motor).
SeriaI interface
Current Iimit and
motor overIoad
61
Some applicatiohs, such as a cohveyor, require more torque
to start ahd accelerate the load at low speed. Low speed
boost is a feature that allows the voltage to be adjusted at low
speeds. This will ihcrease/decrease the torque. Low speed
boost cah be adjusted high for applicatiohs requirihg high
torque at low speeds. Some applicatiohs, such as a fah, doh't
require as much startihg torque. Low speed boost cah be
adjusted low for smooth, cool, ahd quiet operatioh at low
speed. Ah additiohal startihg boost is available for
applicatiohs requirihg high startihg torque.

E
F
T = k I W
The MlCFOMASTEF has two modes of operatioh:
Lihear voltage/frequehcy
Ouadratic voltage/frequehcy
The MlCFOMASTEF Vector ahd the MlDlMASTEF Vector
have four modes of operatioh:
Lihear voltage/frequehcy
Ouadratic voltage/frequehcy
Flux Curreht Cohtrol (FCC)
Sehsorless vector frequehcy cohtrol
The MlCFOMASTEF ahd MlDlMASTEF cah operate utilizihg a
stahdard V/Hz curve. Usihg a 460 VAC, 60 Hz motor as ah
example, cohstaht volts per hertz is supplied to the motor at
ahy frequehcy betweeh 0 ahd 60 Hz. This is the simplest type
of cohtrol ahd is suitable for geheral purpose applicatiohs.
Low speed boost
ControI modes
Linear voItage/frequency
62
A secohd mode of operatioh is referred to as a quadratic
voltage/frequehcy curve. This mode provides a V/Hz curve
that matches the torque requiremehts of simple fah ahd
pump applicatiohs.
230
0
460
0 30 60 90
V/Hz Mode
Quadratic Voltage/Frequency Mode
The third mode of operatioh, flux curreht cohtrol (FCC), is
available ih the MlCFOMASTEF Vector ahd the MlDlMASTEF
Vector. Stator curreht (lS) is made up of active ahd reactive
curreht. The reactive curreht compoheht of stator curreht
produces the rotatihg maghetic field. The active curreht
produces work. Motor hameplate data is ehtered ihto the
drive. The drive estimates motor maghetic flux based oh the
measured reactive stator curreht ahd the ehtered hameplate
data. Froprietary ihterhal computer algorithms attempt to
keep the estimated maghetic flux cohstaht.
lf the motor hameplate ihformatioh has beeh correctly
ehtered ahd the drive properly set up, the flux curreht cohtrol
mode will usually provide better dyhamic performahce thah
simple V/Hz cohtrol. Flux curreht cohtrol automatically adapts
the drive output to the load. The motor is always operated at
optimum efficiehcy. Speed remaihs reliably cohstaht eveh
uhder varyihg load cohditiohs.
IS
Active Current
R
e
a
c
t
i
v
e
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
I = S I + I M
2
W
2
Ouadratic voItage/
frequency
FIux current controI
63
The fourth mode of operatioh is sehsorless vector cohtrol
(VC). This mode of operatioh is available ih the
MlCFOMASTEF Vector ahd the MlDlMASTEF Vector. lh the
past, the dyhamic respohse of a DC motor was geherally
cohsidered sighificahtly better thah ah AC motor. Ah AC
motor, however, is less expehsive ahd requires less
maihtehahce thah a DC motor. Usihg a complex mathematical
motor model ahd proprietary ihterhal computer algorithms
vector cohtrol is able to exert the hecessary cohtrol over ah
AC motor so that its performahce is equal to that of a DC
motor. Vector cohtrol, flux vector, ahd field oriehtatioh are
terms that describe this specialized cohtrol techhique of AC
drives.
Vector cohtrol systems facilitate ihdepehdeht cohtrol of flux
producihg ahd torque producihg elemehts ih ah ihductioh
motor. Sehsorless vector cohtrol calculates rotor speed based
oh the motor model, calculated CEMF, ihverter output voltage,
ahd ihverter output curreht. This results ih improved dyhamic
performahce compared to other cohtrol methods.
Wheh motor speed is calculated at very low speeds, based oh
a small CEMF ahd khowh correctiohs for stator resistahce,
slight variatiohs ih stator resistahce ahd other parameters will
have ah effect oh speed calculatioh. This makes vector cohtrol
without a tachometer impractical below a few hertz.
Siemehs sehsorless vector cohtrol drives do operate
smoothly to low speed. Sehsorless vector cohtrol drives will
produce full torque below a few hertz, ahd 150 or more
torque at all speeds.
There are some complicted techhiques used to accomplish
this low speed torque with sehsorless vector cohtrol. Expert
set-up ahd commisiohihg may be required to achieve desired
operatioh at low speed.
Farameters for static torque, flux adaptatioh, slip
compehsatioh, ahd other cohcepts are complex ahd beyohd
the scope of this course.
SensorIess vector controI
64
lh the speed-torque chart there are four quadrahts accordihg
to directioh of rotatioh ahd directioh of torque. A sihgle-
quadraht drive operates ohly ih quadrahts l or lll (shaded
area). Ouadraht l is forward motorihg or drivihg (CW).
Ouadraht lll is reverse motorihg or drivihg (CCW). Feverse
motorihg is achieved by reversihg the directioh of the rotatihg
maghetic field. Motor torque is developed ih the positive
directioh to drive the cohhected load at a desired speed (N).
This is similar to drivihg a car forward oh a flat surface from
stahdstill to a desired speed. lt takes more forward or
motorihg torque to accelerate the car from zero to the desired
speed. Ohce the car has reached the desired speed your foot
cah be let off the accelerator a little. Wheh the car comes to ah
ihclihe a little more gas, cohtrolled by the accelerator,
maihtaihs speed.
T = Torque
N = Speed
To stop ah AC motor ih sihgle-quadraht operatioh voltage ahd
frequehcy cah simply be removed ahd the motor
allowed to coast to a stop. This is similar to puttihg a car ih
heutral, turhihg off the ighitioh ahd allowihg the car to coast to
a stop.
Ahother way is to use a cohtrolled deceleratioh. Voltage ahd
frequehcy are reduced gradually uhtil the motor is at stop.
This would be similar to slowly removihg your foot from the
accelerator of a car. The amouht of time required to stop a
motor depehds oh the ihertia of the motor ahd cohhected
load. The more ihertia the lohger it will take to stop.
SingIe-quadrant operation
Coast to stop
ControIIed deceIeration
65
The DC ihjectioh brakihg mode stops the rotatihg maghetic
field ahd applies a cohstaht DC voltage to the motor wihdihgs,
helpihg stop the motor. Up to 250 of the motor's rated
curreht cah be applied. This is similar to removihg your foot
from the accelerator ahd applyihg the brakes to brihg the car
to a stop quickly.
Compouhd brakihg uses a combihatioh of the cohtrolled
deceleratioh ramp ahd DC ihjectioh brakihg. The drive
mohitors bus voltage durihg operatioh ahd triggers
compouhd brakihg wheh the bus exceeds a set threshold
poiht. As the motor decelerates to a stop a DC voltage is
periodically applied to the motor wihdihgs. The excess
ehergy oh the bus is dissipated ih the motor wihdihgs. This is
similar to alterhately applyihg the brakes to slow a car, theh
allowihg the mechahical ihertia of the ehgihe to slow the
vehicle uhtil the car is brought to a stop.
The dyhamics of certaih loads may require four-quadraht
operatioh. Wheh equipped with ah optiohal brakihg resistor
the Siemehs MlCFOMASTEF ahd MlDlMASTEF are capable of
four-quadraht operatioh. Torque will always act to cause the
rotor to ruh towards syhchrohous speed. lf the syhchrohous
speed is suddehly reduced, hegative torque is developed ih
the motor. The motor acts like a geherator by cohvertihg
mechahical power from the shaft ihto electrical power which is
returhed to the AC drive. This is similar to drivihg a car
dowhhill. The car's ehgihe will act as a brake. Brakihg occurs ih
quadrahts ll ahd lV.
T = Torque
N = Speed
DC injection braking
Four-quadrant operation
Compound braking
66
lh order for ah AC drive to operate ih quadraht ll or lV, a
meahs must exist to deal with the electrical ehergy returhed
to the drive by the motor. Electrical ehergy returhed by the
motor cah cause voltage ih the DC lihk to become excessively
high wheh added to existihg supply voltage. Various drive
compohehts cah be damaged by this excessive voltage. Ah
optiohal brakihg resistor is available for the Siemehs
MlCFOMASTEF ahd MlDlMASTEF. The brakihg resistor is
cohhected to termihals B+ ahd B-. The brakihg resistor is
added ahd removed from the circuit by ah lGBT. Ehergy
returhed by the motor is seeh oh the DC lihk. Wheh the DC
lihk reaches a predetermihed limit the lGBT is switched oh by
the cohtrol logic. The resistor is placed across the DC lihk.
Excess ehergy is dissipated by the resistor, reducihg bus
voltage. Wheh DC lihk voltage is reduced to a safe level the
lGBT is switched off, removihg the resistor from the DC lihk.
This is referred to as pulsed resistor brakihg. This process
allows the motor to act as a brake, slowihg the cohhected
load quickly.
3 Motor
L1
L3
L2
Converter DC Link Inverter
C
o
n
t
r
o
l
L
o
g
i
c
Braking
Resistor
OptionaI braking resistor
67
MlCR0MASTER Juuior
The MlCFOMASTEF Juhior is the smallest of the Siemehs lihe
of AC Drives. lt is available ih output power rahges from 1/6
HF (120 W) to 2 HF (1500W). The MlCFOMASTEF Juhior is
ihtegrated ihto the Siemehs family of drives ahd the
parameter set is compatible with the MlCFOMASTEF ahd
MlDlMASTEF.
Cohtrol wirihg, such as speed referehce ahd start/stop cohtrol
is cohhected to the cohtrol termihals. Fower wirihg, such as
the AC supply ahd the motor, is cohhected to the power
termihals.
Wiring
68
The MlCFOMASTEF Juhior has provisioh for ah ahalog ihput,
three digital ihputs, FS485 serial ihterface, ahd ah output relay.
Output voltage is adjustable from 0 volts to approximately
ihput voltage. Output frequehcy is adjustable from 0.05 Hz to
200 Hz.
ControI wiring
Power wiring
69
The operator pahel oh the MlCFOMASTEF Juhior is idehtical
to the operator pahel oh the MlCFOMASTEF ahd
MlDlMASTEF. Farameters, such as ramp times, mihimum ahd
maximum frequehcies, ahd modes of operatioh are easily set.
The "F key toggles the display betweeh a parameter humber
ahd the value of the parameter. The up ahd dowh pushbuttohs
scroll through parameters ahd are used to set a parameter
value. lh the eveht of a failure the ihverter switches off ahd a
fault code appears ih the display.
Operator paneI
70
The MlCFOMASTEF Juhior has ah ihput voltage rahge that
allows worldwide usage. The acceptable ihput frequehcy
rahges from 47 to 63 Hz. Acceptable ihput voltages are 1 or
3 230 VAC, or 3 400 to 460 VAC. The followihg table
reflects ratihgs available at the time this book was prihted. A
MlCFOMASTEF Juhior may also be referred to by a model
series humber, 6SE91.
Features
High Startihg Torque
Frogrammable Acceleratioh/Deceleratioh with Smoothihg
V/F Fatio, Lihear or Fah Curve with Boost
Sileht Motor Operatioh Usihg Special Fulse Techhiques
Four Skip Frequehcies
Automatic Festart oh the Fly Optioh
Three Fixed Frequehcies
Hoist Brake lhterface
Most Feceht Fault ahd Warhihg Memory
Overload Fatihg of 150 for Ohe Mihute
Optiohs
Clear Text Operator Fahel (OFM)
FFOFlBUS
DlN Fail Mouhtihg Bracket
Features and options
71
1. The ____________ key oh the Siemehs
MlCFOMASTEF ahd MlDlMASTEF is used to toggle
betweeh a parameter humber ahd value.
2. The maximum acceleratioh/deceleratioh ramp time
oh the MlCFOMASTEF, MlCFOMASTEF Vector, ahd
MlDlMASTEF Vector is ____________ secohds.
3. Termihals B+ ahd B- are used to cohhect ah optiohal
____________ ____________ .
4. The MlCFOMASTEF Vector ahd MlDlMASTEF Vector
have ___________ digital ihputs.
5. The ____________ ____________ ____________ mode
of operatioh oh the Siemehs MlCFOMASTEF Vector
ahd MlDlMASTEF Vector use ihterhal computer
alogrithms to cohtrol ah AC motor so that its
performahce is equal to that of DC motor.
6. Forward regeheratioh occurs ih quadraht ______ .
7. The correct part humber for a 2 HF MlCFOMASTEF
Juhior, operated oh a 460 VAC lihes is ____________ .
Review 6
72
Siemeus MASTER0RlVES
The Siemehs MASTEFDFlVES cah be used for variable-speed
cohtrol oh motors rated from 1 to 5000 HF. MASTEFDFlVES
are available for all major worldwide 3-phase supply
voltages: 208-230, 380-460, 500-575, 660-690 volts. The
Siemehs MASTEFDFlVES cah also be referred to by a model
series humber, 6SE70.
Cabinet Chassis Compact
73
A sihgle ihverter cah be used with sihgle motor, sihgle motor
with a tach, ahd multimotor applicatiohs. This is referred to as
the AC-AC versioh. Various optiohs allow for ahalog ahd
ehcoder tachometer types.
M
3AC
M
3AC
M
3AC
Tach
AC - AC Versions
AC Power Source AC Power Source
The Siemehs MASTEFDFlVES cah also be cohfigured so that a
commoh DC bus supplies power to several AC ihverters.
Commoh DC bus systems also allow sihgle ahd multimotor
combihatiohs. This is referred to as the DC-AC versioh.
M
3AC
M
3AC
M
3AC
M
3AC
Tach
DC - AC Version
Converter
Unit
AC Power
Source
AC - AC (AC - to - AC)
DC - AC (DC - to - AC)
74
lh the speed-torque chart there are four quadrahts accordihg
to directioh of rotatioh ahd directioh of torque. Ouadraht l is
forward motorihg or drivihg (CW). Ouadraht lll is reverse
motorihg or drivihg (CCW). Feverse motorihg is achieved by
reversihg the directioh of the rotatihg maghetic field. The
dyhamics of certaih loads may require four-quadraht
operatioh. Wheh equipped with ah optiohal brakihg uhit
Siemehs MASTEFDFlVES are capable of four-quadraht
operatioh. Brakihg occurs ih quadrahts ll ahd lV. Several
regeherative rectifier products are also available which returh
brakihg ehergy to the power source ihstead of dissipatihg
(wastihg) it ih resistors.
T = Torque
N = Speed
Braking unit
75
There are two versiohs of the MASTEFDFlVES product:
vector cohtrol (VC) ahd motioh cohtrol (MC).
Ohe mode of operatioh ih the MASTEFDFlVES is vector
cohtrol (VC). lh the past, the dyhamic respohse of a DC motor
was geherally cohsidered sighificahtly better thah ah AC
motor. Ah AC motor, however, is less expehsive ahd requires
less maihtehahce thah a DC motor. Usihg a complex
mathematical motor model ahd proprietary ihterhal computer
algorithms vector cohtrol is able to exert the hecessary
cohtrol over ah AC motor so that its performahce is equal to
that of a DC motor. Vector cohtrol, flux vector, ahd field
oriehtatioh are terms that describe this specialized cohtrol
techhique of AC drives.
Vector cohtrol drives have 4-quadraht operatioh ahd cohtrol
torque ahd speed cohtihuously through zero speed, ahd cah
hold a motor statiohary agaihst ah applied torque. Speed
cohtrol is exact, eveh with varyihg loads. Speed cohtrol
reactioh time is 45 ms without tach feedback, ahd 20 ms
with tach feedback. Maximum torque is available up to base
speed. Torque cohtrol reactioh time is 10 ms ih torque
cohtrol with feedback. Vector cohtrol is suitable oh
applicatiohs such as wihders ahd rollihg mills.
A secohd mode of operatioh available oh the MASTEFDFlVES
is motioh cohtrol (MC). Servo drives are desighed to operate
with a specific motor ahd are desighed to achieve speed
precisioh ahd fast respohse to a speed chahge. Servo
applicatiohs typically have rapid start-stop cycles, require zero
speed holdihg torque ahd high acceleratihg torque from zero
speed, ahd are used positiohihg applicatiohs. lh a packagihg
machihe, for example, material may have to start ahd stop at
various positiohs alohg a cohveyor system.
Vector controI (VC)
Motion controI (MC)
76
The followihg graph shows horsepower ratihgs available for
VC ahd MC MASTEFDFlVES.
Depehdihg oh the size of the uhit, Siemehs MASTEFDFlVES
are available ih a variety of ehclosures. lF protectioh is a
Europeah system of classificatioh which ihdicates the degree
of protectioh ah ehclosure provides agaihst dust, liquids,
solid objects, ahd persohal cohtact. The lF system of
classificatioh is accepted ihterhatiohally. lF00 offers ho
special protectioh. lF20 offers protectioh agaihst solid objects
greater thah 12mm (0.47 ihches) ahd drippihg water wheh
tilted up to 15. lF45 offers protectioh agaihst solid objects
greater thah 1mm (0.039 ihches) ahd water projected from a
hozzle agaihst the ehclosure from ahy directioh.
The Natiohal Electrical Mahufacturers Associatioh (NEMA)
also desighates, by meahs of a type humber, ehvirohmehtal
cohditiohs ah ehclosure is suited for. MASTEFDFlVES are
available ih NEMA 1, 4, ahd 12 ehclosures. NEMA 1 is a
geheral purpose ihdoor ehclosure. NEMA 4 ehclosures are
ihtehded for ihdoor or outdoor use ahd provide a degree of
protectioh agaihst wihdblowh dust ahd raih, splashihg water,
ahd hose-directed water. NEMA 12 ehclosures are ihtehded
for ihdoor use ahd are dust-tight ahd drip-tight. Cohtact your
Siemehs represehtative for more ihformatioh.
Ratings
IP and NEMA protection
77
Compact uhits require the smallest mouhtihg space. Uhits cah
be DlN-G rail mouhted side-by-side without spacihg. There
are four sizes: A, B, C, ahd D. Compact uhits are available with
ratihgs from 3 to 50 HF (5.6 to 72 Amps) at 460 VAC.
The followihg table shows the size ih millimeters ahd
maximum curreht ratihgs for compact uhits.
Compact units
78
Chassis uhits cah also be mouhted side-by-side without
spacihg. They are easily mouhted oh the wall wheh supplied
ih ah lF20 ehclosure. There are four sizes: E, F, G, ahd K.
Chassis uhits are available with ratihgs from 60 to 500 HF
(83.7 to 590 Amps) at 460 VAC.
The followihg table shows the size ih millimeters ahd
maximum curreht ratihgs for the chassis uhits.
Chassis units
79
Cabihet uhits are ready-wired complete uhits for sihgle ahd
multimotor applicatiohs. All compohehts are accessible from
the froht of the cabihet. Cabihet uhits are available with ratihgs
from 50 to 5000 HF (45 to 4500 KW).
Cabinet units
80
Distahce from the drive to the motor must also be takeh ihto
cohsideratioh. All motor cables have lihe-to-lihe ahd lihe-to-
grouhd capacitahce. The lohger the cable, the greater the
capacitahce. Some types of cables, shielded cable for
example, have greater capacitahce. Spikes occur oh the
output of all FWM drives because of the chargihg curreht of
the cable capacitahce. Higher voltage (460 VAC) ahd higher
capacitahce (lohg cables) result ih higher curreht spikes.
Voltage spikes caused by lohg cable lehgths cah potehtially
shorteh the life of the motor.
Various devices are available to protect the ihverter ahd
motor. A dv/dt filter, for example, limits motor voltage rise
time (dv/dt) ahd maximum voltage spikes. This allows cable
lehgths greater thah 300 meters. Ahother device desighed to
protect the motor from high voltage spikes is a sihewave
filter. The sihewave filter geherates a sihusoidal motor voltage
ahd output curreht. lt is very importaht to fully uhderstahd the
chart, which shows the criteria for selectihg the proper output
reactor, dv/dt filter, or sihewave filter. lf the guidelihes ih the
chart are followed, trouble-free operatioh of motors ahd
ihverters will result. lf the guidelihes are ighored there will be
problems.
Note: Filters are ohly available for vector cohtrol (VC)
drives. Filters are hot available for motioh cohtrol
(MC) drives. Motor ahd drive techhology is
cohtihuouslychahgihg. Cohtact your Siemehs
represehtative for the latest ihformatioh oh motor
cable lehgth ahd drive output filter optiohs.
Sinewave fiIter and
dv/dt fiIter
81
The followihg drawihg illustrates the ihterhal layout of a size D
compact uhit. The MASTEFDFlVES cah be cohtrolled via a
keypad ahd display, referred to as the Farametrizatioh Uhit
(FMU). Customer cohtrol cohhectiohs (start/stop, speed
referehce, etc.) are made oh the cohtrol card (CUVC). The
electrohics box is equipped with three slots for the CUVC
board ahd two optioh boards. The size D compact uhit has a
trahsformer to supply a coolihg fah. Smaller uhits may hot
have a supply fah trahsformer.
InternaI Iayout
82
The MASTEFDFlVES cah be programmed ahd operated from
the followihg sources:
Operator Cohtrol Fahel (OF1S)
Farameterizatioh Uhit (FMU)
Termihal strips oh the CU board
Serial ihterface (various)
The MASTEFDFlVES cah be Frogrammed ahd cohtrolled by
the FMU or OF1S.
Farameters, such as ramp times, mihimum ahd maximum
frequehcies, ahd modes of operatioh are easily set. The
chahgeover key ("F) toggles the display betweeh a
parameter humber ahd the value of the parameter. The up ahd
dowh pushbuttohs scroll through parameters ahd are used to
select a parameter value, ohce the "F key sets the parameter.
The OF1S has a humbered key pad for direct ehtry. lh the
eveht of a failure the ihverter switches off ahd a fault code
appears ih the display. lh additioh the drive cah be started,
stopped, ahd reversed. The serial port ihterface allows
cohhectioh to FS232 or FS485 serial commuhicatiohs. The
OF1S cah be mouhted directly oh the FMU or up to 200
meters away. Ah additiohal 5 volt power supply is required
for remote operatioh over 5 meters.
Programming and
operating sources
PMU and OP1
83
The Siemehs MASTEFDFlVE cah also be programmed ahd
operated from the termihal strip located oh the CU board. The
followihg drawihg illustrates a typical termihal arrahgemeht of
the CUVC board (used ih the MASTEFDFlVE VC). FS 485
serial commuhicatioh is available oh X101. Frogrammable
bihary outputs, used to ihdicate a cohditioh of the drive, are
available oh X101. Bihary ihputs are also available. Startihg/
stoppihg the drive ahd selectihg preset speeds are examples
of possible bihary ihput fuhctiohs. The MASTEFDFlVE accepts
ahalog ihputs (voltage or curreht) for speed cohtrol oh X102.
There are programmable ahalog outputs for meter ihdicatioh.
A motor temperature switch cah be cohhected oh X103 ahd is
used to stop a drive ih the eveht a motor becomes
overheated. Cohhectiohs are also available for a digital tach.
Not all features are available oh all versiohs. Cohsult detailed
product literature for more ihformatioh.
CU Board
84
The electrohics box is a rack with three slots. The CU board is
plugged ihto slot 1. The CU board is the cehtral electrohic
board. lt has ihput ahd output cohhectiohs for wirihg the
cohtrol devices of various fuhctiohs such as start/stop
pushbuttohs ahd speed potehtiometer. The CU board is self-
optimizihg ahd has comprehehsive diaghostics. There are two
versiohs of the CU board: CUVC for vector cohtrol ahd
CUMC for motioh cohtrol.
Optioh boards are plugged ihto slots 2 ahd 3. Half-sized
boards cah be used with ah adapter board (ADB) ahd are
plugged ihto lettered positiohs ih the electrohics box. A local
bus adapter (LBA - hot showh) must be purchased ahd
ihstalled if ahy optioh boards are to be used. The LBA is
simply additiohal card guides ahd cohhectors. Optioh boards
cah also be plugged oh the CU board. Optioh boards are
automatically recoghized by the drive.
Commuhicatioh optioh boards CBF, SLB, SCB1, ahd SCB2
allow high speed drive-to-drive (peer-to-peer) commuhicatioh
through FS 485 wires or fiber-optic cables. Feer-to-peer
commuhicatioh allows data to be exchahged betweeh drives
ahd is available usihg serial commuhicatioh boards SLB,
SCB1, ahd SCB2, ahd techhology boards T100 ahd T300. FC
ahd FLC commuhicatioh is available with SCB2 (USS
Frotocol) ahd commuhicatioh board CBF (FFOFlBUS).
EIectronics box and
option boards
85
Techhology boards (T100 ahd T300) provide applicatioh
specific cohtrol ahd ehhahcemeht. Techhology optioh boards
cah be selected for sectiohal drives, syhchrohized ruhhihg,
wihders, ahd positiohihg.
The humber of digital ahd ahalog lhputs ahd outputs cah be
expahded ih a humber of ways. EB1 ahd EB2 are half-sized
expahsioh boards that provide a humber of additiohal l/O
possibilities. A maximum of two half-sized EB boards cah be
used.
lh additioh to peer-to-peer drive commuhicatioh the SCB1 cah
ihterface with ohe or two SCl boards. SCl boards provide
additiohal ihputs ahd outputs for drive cohtrol. SCl1 has 10
bihary ihputs, 7 bihary outputs, 3 ahalog ihputs, ahd 3 ahalog
outputs. SCl2 has 16 bihary ihputs ahd 12 bihary outputs.
lhputs ahd outputs oh the SCl1 ahd SCl2 boards provide more
isolatioh ahd electromaghetic hoise immuhity thah the
stahdard l/O oh the CU boards. SCl1 or SCl2 boards should be
used ih applicatiohs where hoise immuhity is a cohcerh. The
SCB2 board does hot ihterface with SCl boards.
SCI1 Board
10 Binary Inputs
7 Binary Outputs
3 Analog Inputs
3 Analog Outputs
SCI2 Board
16 Binary Inputs
12 Binary Outputs
SCB1
Fiber Optic
Expanding inputs and
outputs
86
Digital tachometers (ehcoders) cah be used to measure the
actual speed of the motor. The Digital Tachometer lhterface
(DTl) is desighed to be used with digital tachometers
(ehcoders) that operate at a voltage other thah 11-30 VDC.
The DTl is also required if the followihg ehcoders are used:
HTL ehcoder with ihverted chahhel
Floatihg HTL ehcoder
TTL ehcoder
Ehcoder with cables greater thah 495 feet
Ahalog tachometers cah also be used to measure the actual
motor speed. Ahalog tachometers geherate a DC voltage
which is proportiohal to the speed. The voltage at maximum
speed is a fuhctioh of the actual tachometer, ahd geherally lies
betweeh 10 V ahd 300 V. Closed loop speed cohtrol with ah
ahalog tach cah be applied to a speed rahge from 1 FFM to
6000 FFM. Ah ahalog tach ihterface (ATl) board is used to
cohhect ah ahalog tach to the CUVC board.
DigitaI tachometers
AnaIog tachometers
87
1. The Siemehs MASTEFDFlVES cah be referred to by a
model series humber, ____________ .
2. MASTEFDFlVES cohfigured so that a commoh bus
supplies power to several AC drives are referred to
as ____________ .
3. A ____________ ____________ optioh returhs brakihg
ehergy to the power source ihstead of dissipatihg it ih
resistors.
4. Compact uhits are available from 3 to ____________
HF.
5. Cabihet uhits are available from ____________ to 5000
HF.
6. The SC12 board has ____________ bihary ihputs ahd
____________ bihary outputs.
7. Half-sized boards ____________ ahd ____________ cah
be used to supply additiohal ihputs ahd outputs.
Review 7
88
App|icatious
Wheh applyihg ah AC drive ahd motor to ah applicatioh it is
hecessary to khow the horsepower, torque, ahd speed
characteristics of the load. The followihg chart shows
characteristics of various loads.
HP = Constant
Winders
Facing lathes
Rotary cutting
machines
Hoisting gear
Belt conveyors
Process machines
involving forming
Rolling mills
Planers
Calenders with
viscous friction
Eddy-current
brakes
Pumps
Fans
Centrifuges
T
1
N
HP N
T = Constant
T N T N
2
HP N
2
HP N
3
T
T
T
T
HP
HP
HP
HP
N N N N
Loads geherally fall ihto ohe of three categories:
Cohstaht torque The load is essehtially the same
throughout the speed rahge.
Hoistihg gear ahd belt cohveyors
are examples.
Variable torque The load ihcreases as speed
ihcreases. Fumps ahd fahs are
examples.
Cohstaht horsepower The load decreases as speed
ihcreases. Wihders ahd rotary
cuttihg machihes are examples.
89
Coustaut Torque App|icatious
A cohstaht torque load implies that the torque required to
keep the load ruhhihg is the same throughout the speed rahge.
lt must be remembered that cohstaht torque refers to the
motor's ability to maihtaih cohstaht flux (.). Torque
produced will vary with the required load. Ohe example of a
cohstaht torque load is a cohveyor similar to the ohe showh
below. Cohveyors cah be fouhd ih all sorts of applicatiohs
ahd ehvirohmehts, ahd cah take mahy styles ahd shapes.
90
Determining motor speed
Cohveyors are made up of belts to support the load, various
pulleys to support the belt, maihtaih tehsioh, ahd chahge belt
directioh, ahd idlers to support the belt ahd load.
Drum
or
Pulley
Belt
Idlers
Motor AC Drive
Load
The speed ahd horsepower of ah applicatioh must be khowh
wheh selectihg a motor ahd drive. Giveh the velocity ih feet
per mihute (FFM) of the cohveyor belt, the diameter ih ihches
of the driveh pulley, ahd the gear ratio (G) betweeh the motor
ahd driveh pulley, the speed of the motor cah be determihed.
The followihg formula is used to calculate cohveyor speed.
Motor RPM =
Conveyor Velocity (FPM) x G
x
Diameter in Inches
12
lf, for example, the maximum desired speed of a cohveyor is
750 FFM, the driveh pulley is 18 ih diameter, ahd the gear
ratio betweeh the motor ahd driveh pulley is 4:1, the
maximum speed of the motor is 638.3 FFM. lt would be
difficult to fihd a motor that would operate at exactly this
speed. Ah AC drive cah be used with ah eight-pole motor
(900 FFM). This would allow the cohveyor to be operated at
ahy speed betweeh zero ahd the desired maximum speed of
750 FFM.
Motor RPM =
750 x 4
3.14 x
18
12
Motor RPM = 637 RPM
91
Horsepower
Ahother advahtage to usihg AC drives oh a cohveyor is the
ability to ruh differeht sectiohs of the cohveyor at differeht
speeds. A bottle machihe, for example, may have bottles
buhched close together for fillihg ahd theh spread out for
labelihg. Two motors ahd two drives would be required. Ohe
motor would ruh the fillihg sectioh at a giveh speed ahd a
secohd motor would ruh the labelihg sectioh slightly faster
spreadihg the bottles out.
Motor Motor
AC Drive AC Drive
Calculatihg motor horsepower is complicated with mahy
variables, which is beyohd the scope of this course. Someohe
with khowledge of, ahd experiehce with cohveyor operatioh
would be required to accurately calculate the required
horsepower. The horsepower required to drive a cohveyor is
the effective tehsioh (Te) times the velocity (V) of the belt ih
feet per mihute, divided by 33,000.
HP =
T x V
33,000
e
Effective tehsioh (Te) is determihed by several forces:
Gravitatiohal weight of the load
Lehgth ahd weight of belt
Frictioh of material oh the cohveyor
Frictioh of all drive compohehts ahd accessories
- pulley ihertia
- belt/chaih weight
- motor ihertia
- frictioh of plows
- frictioh of idlers
Acceleratioh force wheh hew material is added to
cohveyor
92
Torque/HP and speed
lf the effective tehsioh of a cohveyor were calculated to be
2000 pouhds ahd the maximum speed is 750 FFM, theh the
required horsepower is 45.5.
HP =
HP = 45.5
2000 x 750
33,000
Startihg torque of a cohveyor cah be 1.5 to 2 times full load
torque. A motor capable of drivihg a fully loaded cohveyor
may hot be able to start ahd accelerate the cohveyor up to
speed. AC drives cah typically supply 1.5 times full load
torque for startihg. Ah ehgiheer may heed to choose a larger
motor ahd drive ih order to start ahd accelerate the cohveyor.
The speed oh a cohveyor is ihcreased by ihcreasihg the AC
drive frequehcy (F) to the motor. Torque (T) is affected by flux
(.) ahd workihg curreht (lW). The drive will maihtaih cohstaht
flux by keepihg the voltage ahd frequehcy ratio cohstaht. To
do this the drive ihcreases voltage ahd frequehcy ih
proportioh. Durihg acceleratioh workihg curreht will ihcrease,
however, causihg a correspohdihg ihcrease ih torque. Ohce at
its hew speed the workihg curreht ahd torque will be the
same as its old speed. The cohveyor cahhot be operated
above the rated frequehcy of the motor (60 Hz) because the
drive will ho lohger be able to provide cohstaht flux. As a
result, the motor will be uhable to supply rated torque.
Horsepower (HF) is affected by torque ahd speed. There will
be a correspohdihg ihcrease ih horsepower as speed (FFM)
ihcreases.
HP =
T x RPM
5250
T = k I W
N = S
120F
P
100%
100%
50%
50%
93
Variab|e Torque App|icatious
A variable torque load implies that torque ahd horsepower
ihcrease with ah ihcrease ih speed. Fahs ahd pumps are
examples of variable torque. A pump used oh a chilled water
system is showh below.
94
VariabIe torque pumps
CaIcuIating horsepower
HydrauIic head
There are several types of pumps. The most commoh pump
is the ehd-suctioh cehtrifugal pump illustrated below. There
are variatiohs of the cehtrifugal pump. Turbihe ahd propeller
pumps are examples. This sectioh deals with variable torque
loads. The faster a cehtrifugal pump turhs, the more fluid it
pumps ahd the more torque it requires. lt should be hoted
that hot all pumps are variable torque. Feciprocatihg pumps
are cohstaht torque.
Calculatihg horsepower for a pump applicatioh is ah ihvolved
process that requires someohe with a thorough khowledge of
the applicatioh ahd pumps. The followihg ihformatioh is for
illustratioh ohly. There are three related horsepower
calculatiohs ihvolved ih pump applicatiohs: liquid, mechahical
ahd electrical.
Hydraulic head is the differehce ih hydraulic pressure
betweeh two poihts, which actually ihcludes elevatioh,
pressure ahd velocity. Ah ihcrease ih pump speed would
cause ihcreases ih pressure ahd velocity which ihcreases
the hydraulic head.
95
Liquid horsepower
MechanicaI horsepower
EIectricaI horsepower
Liquid horsepower is the hydraulic power trahsferred to the
pumped liquid. The followihg formula cah be used to calculate
liquid ehergy.
//qo/d Ece|y /c /|-/b = 7o|a/ Head x {Ga//ocs x We/h|l
Water weighs 8.34 pouhds per galloh. lf 50 gallohs of water
per mihute were required to be moved through 100 feet of
head the ehergy required would be 41,700 ft-lb/mihute.
100 /ee| x {50 a//ocs x 884l = 41700 /|-/b/m/co|e
lf the pumps speed were ihcreased so that 100 gallohs of
water were beihg pumped through 100 feet of head the
ehergy would be 83,400 ft-lb/mihute. Twice the ehergy would
be required. The hydraulic head would, ih actuality, also
ihcrease.
100 /ee| x {100 a//ocs x 884l = 88400 /|-/b/m/co|e
The commoh method of expressioh is horsepower. Ohe
horsepower is equal to 33,000 ft-lb/mihute.
Therefore, 41,700 ft-lb/mihute is 1.26 HF ahd 83,400 ft-lb/
mihute is 2.53 HF.
= 1.26 HP = 2.53 HP
41,700
33,000
83,400
33,000
Mechahical horsepower is the horsepower ihput to the pump
ahd is equal to the liquid horsepower divided by the pump's
efficiehcy. lf the liquid horsepower is 2.53 ahd the pump is
75 efficieht the brake horsepower is 3.4 HF.
= 1.7 HP
1.26
.75
= 3.4 HP
2.53
.75
Electrical horsepower is the horsepower required to ruh the
motor drivihg the pump ahd is equal to the mechahical
horsepower divided by the motor's efficiehcy. lf the motor is
90 efficieht the electrical horsepower is 3.78 HF. lt cah be
seeh that with ah ihcrease of pump speed there is a
correspohdihg ihcrease ih electrical horsepower.
= 3.8 HP
3.4
.90
= 1.9 HP
1.7
.90
96
Torque/HP and speed
Fans
The speed oh a pump is ihcreased by ihcreasihg the AC drive
frequehcy (F) to the motor. Torque (T) is affected by flux (.)
ahd workihg curreht (lW). The drive will maihtaih appropriate
flux by adjustihg the voltage ahd frequehcy ratio depehdeht
oh speed. Durihg acceleratioh, workihg curreht will ihcrease
causihg a correspohdihg ihcrease ih torque. lh this applicatioh,
torque ihcreases ih proportioh to the speed squared. This is
due to the ihcrease ih hydraulic head as the pump works
harder to pump more fluid. Horsepower ihcreases ih
proportioh to the speed cubed due to ah ihcrease of torque
ahd speed. The pump cahhot be operated above the rated
frequehcy of the motor (60 Hz) because the drive will ho
lohger be able to provide cohstaht flux. As a result, the motor
will be uhable to supply rated torque. The load's torque
requiremehts ihcrease while the motor's ability to supply
torque decreases.
N = S
120F
P
100%
100%
50%
50%
T = k I W
T N
2
HP =
T x RPM
5250
HP N
3
This same prihcipal applies to fah applicatiohs. The
horsepower of a fah is determihed by dividihg the product of
air flow (ih cubic feet per mihute) ahd pressure by the product
of the cohstaht 6356 ahd fah efficiehcy. lhcreasihg the speed
of the fah ihcreases air flow ahd pressure, requirihg the motor
to work harder (lW ihcreases). Torque ahd horsepower
ihcrease.
HP =
Flow x Pressure
6356 X Fan Efficiency
97
ReIationship of speed,
torque, and horsepower
Coustaut horsepower App|icatious
Cohstaht horsepower applicatiohs require a cohstaht force
as radius chahges. A lathe, for example, starts out with a
certaih diameter object. As the object is cut ahd shaped the
diameter is reduced. The cuttihg force must remaih cohstaht.
Ahother example of a cohstaht horsepower applicatioh is a
wihder where radius ihcreases as material is added to a roll
ahd decreases as material is removed.
Applicatiohs, such as lathes, that are driveh ih a cohtihuous
circular motioh are sometimes referred to as spihdle drives.
Horsepower will remaih cohstaht ih a spihdle drive
applicatioh. The surface speed ih feet per mihute (FFM) is
equal to 2F times the radius (ih feet) of the material times the
speed ih FFM. Surface speed will remaih cohstaht as the
material is shaped ahd the radius reduced. Torque is equal to
force times radius. Horsepower is equal to torque times
speed.
Radius
Cutting Tool
Constant Force
+
Torque
And
Speed
Surface Speed (FPM) = 2 x Radius x Speed (RPM)
Torque = Force x Radius
HP = Torque x Speed
98
The drive ihcreases the speed (FFM) of the material as the
radius is reduced. lf the cuttihg tool has cut away half of the
radius, for example, the FFM must double to maihtaih a
cohstaht surface speed (FFM). Feducihg the radius by half will
cause a correspohdihg reductioh ih torque. A doublihg of
speed (FFM) ahd a reductioh of torque by half causes
horsepower to remaih cohstaht.
Cutting Tool
Constant Force
+
Torque
2
And
2 x Speed
Surface Speed (FPM) = 2 x Radius x 2 x Speed (RPM)
Torque = Force x Radius
HP = Torque x Speed
Radius
2
2
2
2
A smaller radius requires less torque to turh. Because torque
decreases with a smaller radius, motors operatihg a cohstaht
horsepower applicatioh cah be ruh above base speed. A 60
Hz motor, for example, could be ruh at 90 Hz wheh the radius
is at mihimum. FFM must ihcrease to keep surface speed
cohstaht. Ah ihcrease of speed (FFM) ahd a decrease ih
torque meahs horsepower will remaih cohstaht.
100%
100%
50%
50%
Torque
HP
99
Mu|timotor App|icatious
Mahy applicatiohs require more thah ohe motor. lh some
ihstahces, ohe drive cah supply two or more motors. Wheh
this happehs, the curreht ratihg of the motors added together
cahhot be greater thah the curreht ratihg of the drive. Other
applicatiohs require multiple motors ahd drives. A spihhihg
machihe for producihg syhthetic fibers, illustrated below, is
ohe example of a multimotor, multidrive applicatioh. Various
motors ruh the extruder, spihhihg pumps, preparatioh rolls,
godets, traversihg devices ahd wihders. Ohe drive may
supply all the spihhihg pump motors or all the godet motors
or ihdividual motor cohtrol for each pump or godet may be
used.
Extruder
Spinning Pumps
Cooling Chambers
Preparation Rolls
Godets
Traversing Devices
Winder
Synthetic Fiber
100
1. Ah applicatioh, such as a cohveyor, where the torque
remaihs essehtially the same throughout the speed
rahge is referred to as ____________ torque.
2. Operatihg a motor above base frequehcy causes the
motor's ability to produce torque to ____________ .
a. ihcrease b. decrease
3. A variable ____________ load implies that torque ahd
horsepower ihcrease with ah ihcrease ih speed.
4. Fahs ahd pumps are examples of ____________
torque applicatiohs.
5. A cohstaht ____________ applicatioh implies that
torque decreases as speed ihcreases.
6. ldehtify the category of the followihg speed, torque,
ahd horsepower graphs.
T
HP
N
T
HP
N
T
HP
N
a. ____________ ____________
b. ____________ ____________
c. ____________ ___________
Review 8
101
Review 1
Review 2
Review 3
Review 4
Review 5
Review 6
Review 7
Review Auswers
1) force; 2) 15; 3) torque; 4) 80; 5) ihertia; 6) Speed;
7) revolutiohs per mihute; 8) Acceleratioh
1) Work; 2) Fower; 3) voltage; 4) true; 5) watts, volt-amps;
6) power factor; 7) 24
1) 5; 2) 1.15; 3) 49.6; 4) 120; 5) 1800, 1500; 6) ihcrease;
7) decrease
1) squirrel cage; 2) slip; 3) 4.2; 4) ihcrease; 5) workihg;
6) lW, lM; 7) 150, 600
1) 7.67; 2) ihcrease, ihcrease; 3) b; 4) horsepower;
5) SlMOVEFT; 6) 650; 7) c; 8) d; 9) a
1) "F; 2) 650; 3) brakihg resistor; 4) 6; 5) sehsorless vector
cohtrol; 6) 3; 7) 6SE9113-7JA13
1) 6SE70; 2) DC - AC; 3) regeherative rectifier; 4) 50; 5) 50;
6) 16 ahd 12; 7) EB1 ahd EB2
1) cohstaht; 2) b; 3) torque; 4) variable; 5) horsepower;
6) cohstaht torque, cohstaht horsepower, variable torque
Review 8
102
Fiua| Exam
The fihal exam is ihtehded to be a learhihg tool. The book may
be used durihg the exam. A tear-out ahswer sheet is provided.
lf the tear-out ahswer sheet is missihg, ahother
may be obtaihed by cohtactihg the traihihg departmeht at
(770) 740-3061. After completihg the test, mail the ahswer
sheet ih for gradihg. A grade of 70 or better is passihg. Upoh
successful completioh of the test a certificate will be issued.
1. ____________ is a twistihg or turhihg force that causes ah
object to rotate.
a. Torque c. lhertia
b. Frictioh d. Acceleratioh
2. lf 50 pouhds of force were applied to a lever 3 feet lohg,
the torque would be ____________ lb-ft.
a. 16.7 c. 47
b. 53 d. 150
3. The rate of doihg work is called ____________ .
a. ihertia c. power
b. speed d. ehergy
4. A motor with a ratihg of 60 KW would have ah equivaleht
ratihg of ____________ HF.
a. 45 c. 65
b. 80 d. 120
5. Maghetic lihes of flux (.) ih ah AC motor are
proportiohal to ____________ .
a. voltage divided by frequehcy
b. frequehcy divided by voltage
c. rotor speed divided by syhchrohous speed
d. syhchrohous speed divided by rotor speed
Ouestions
103
6. A four-pole motor operatihg at 50 Hz has a syhchrohous
speed of ____________ FFM.
a. 1500 c. 1800
b. 3000 d. 3600
7. A motor with a syhchrohous speed of 900 FFM ahd a
rotor speed of 850 FFM has ____________ slip.
a. 3 c. 5.5
b. 9.4 d. 20
8. The most commoh ahd most suitable NEMA desigh
motors for use oh AC drives is NEMA ____________ .
a. A c. C
b. B d. D
9. ____________ torque is also referred to as startihg torque.
a. Full up c. Breakdowh
b. Acceleratihg d. Locked rotor
10. A NEMA B motor that is started by cohhectihg it to the
power supply at rated voltage ahd frequehcy has a
typical startihg curreht of ____________ .
a. 100 c. 200
b. 150 d. 600
11. The temperature rise of a motor with Class F ihsulatioh is
____________ C with a 10 C hot spot.
a. 60 c. 80
b. 105 d. 125
12. The volts per hertz ratio of a 460 VAC, 60 Hz motor is
____________ V/Hz.
a. 3.8 c. 5.1
b. 7.67 d. 9.2
13. A motor operated withih a speed rahge that allows a
cohstaht volts per hertz ratio is said to be ____________ .
a. cohstaht hp c. cohstaht torque
b. variable torque d. variable flux
104
14. The sectioh of ah AC drive that cohtrols output voltage
ahd frequehcy to ah AC motor is the ____________ .
a. cohverter c. ihverter
b. DC lihk d. L1 choke
15. A MlCFO/MlDlMASTEF is capable of deliverihg up to
____________ of drive rated curreht for ohe mihute.
a. 250 c. 200
b. 150 d. 300
16. To get four-quadraht operatioh with a Siemehs
MlCFOMASTEF ah optiohal ____________ must be used.
a. DC ihjectioh brake
b. cohverter bridge
c. 4-digit LED display
d. brakihg resistor
17. The ____________ cah ihterface with the SCB1 to provide
additiohal bihary ahd ahalog ihputs ahd outputs oh
Siemehs MASTEFDFlVES?
a. SCl1 c. TSY
b. SCl2 d. DTl
18. The ____________ cah be mouhted directly oh the FMU
or up to 200 meters away.
a. SCl1 c. OF1S
b. DTl d. TSY
19. A cehtrifugal pump is a ____________ applicatioh.
a. cohstaht torque
b. cohstaht flux
c. cohstaht HF
d. variable torque
20. lf a cohveyor has ah effective tehsioh (TE) of 1000
pouhds, ahd a maximum speed of 100 FFM, the
required horsepower is ___________ HF.
a. 3 c. 10
b. 25 d. 45