Components of Earths Environment

1. 2. 3. 4. Atmosphere Geosphere Hydrosphere Biosphere

GEOSPHERE
The geosphere is considered that portion of the Earth system that includes the Earth's interior, rocks and minerals, landforms and the processes that shape the Earth's surface. It comprises of three parts starting from the outside to the centre: - Crust - Mantle - Core

The Earths Crust

There are two different types of crust: 1)Thin oceanic crust that underlies the ocean basins. Its thickness varies between 3-5 km at different points. 2) Thicker continental crust that covers the continents. Its thickness varies between 30-50 km at different points.

The Earths Mantle

Earth's mantle extends for about 3000 km and has different temperatures at different depths. The temperature is lowest immediately beneath the crust and increases with depth. This steady increase of temperature with depth is known as the geothermal gradient. The geothermal gradient is responsible for different rock behaviours and the different rock behaviours are used to divide the mantle into two different zones: i) Rocks in the upper mantle are cool and brittle, it is these rocks that break under stress causing earthquakes. ii) Rocks in the lower mantle are hot and soft (but not molten).

The Earths Core

Earth's Core is assumed to be composed mainly of an iron and nickel alloy. The core is earth's source of internal heat because it contains radioactive materials which release heat as they break down into more stable substances.

The core is divided into two different zones. - The liquid outer core - The solid inner core

Hydrosphere
All the water in its various forms, present in all the components of Earths environment together constitutes the hydrosphere. The subsystem include the oceans, frozen water in glaciers and the ice caps, and other water such as groundwater, and the water vapour in the atmosphere. Wherever water occurs may be considered water's "reservoir." Oceans hold about 97.2% of the total water while about 2.2.% is frozen in glaciers which leaves only 0.5% in other subsystems.

Components of Earths Hydrosphere

1. Oceans: Major part of water is present in the oceans of the Earth. About 1300 million cubic kilometers water is present in oceans. 2. Ice sheets: Substantial quantity of water is frozen in the ice sheets of Earth. 3. Groundwater: About 24 million cubic kilometer water is present under the ground surface at depths of upto two kilometers. 4. Lakes and rivers: On the land surface, approximately 0.18 million cubic kilometer water is present in lakes while about 0.002 million cubic kilometer water is found in rivers. 5. Atmospheric moisture: The amount of water present as water vapor in the atmosphere is about 0.013 million cubic kilometer. 6. Biological water: In addition to above categories, about 0.001 million cubic kilometer water is contained in the bodies of living organisms.

Hydrological (Water) Cycle

The total amount of water on the earth and in its atmosphere does not change but the earths water is always in movement. Oceans, rivers, clouds and rain, all of which contain water, are in a frequent state of change and the motion of rain and flowing rivers transfers water in a never-ending cycle. This circulation and conservation of earths water as it circulates from the land to the sky and back again is called the hydrological cycle or water cycle.

The stages of the cycle are: Evaporation Transport Condensation Precipitation Groundwater Run-off

BIOSPHERE
The part of the earth and its atmosphere in which living organisms exist or that is capable of supporting life is referred to as biosphere.

What is Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a community of organisms involved in a dynamic network of biological, chemical and physical interactions between themselves and with the nonliving components. There are many examples of ecosystems -- a pond, a forest, an estuary, a grassland. A major regional or global biotic community, such as a grassland or desert, characterized chiefly by the dominant forms of plant life and the prevailing climate.

Components of Ecosystem
1. a) b) c) Abiotic Components Inorganic Components Organic Components Climatic Factors

2) Biotic Components a) Producers b) Consumers (Herbivores, Carnivores, Detritivores, Decomposers)

Types of Ecosystems
Natural Artificial

Terrestrial

Aquatic

Marine

Freshwater

Types of Terrestrial Ecosystems

Terrestrial ecosystems can be broadly categorised into 7 types as follows: 1) Tropical Rainforests - High precipitation (Rainfall), greater than 250cm/year. - Very little temp. variation - Contains more species than other biomes

2) Savannas (Grasslands) - Precipitation 90-150cm/year - Open, widely spaced trees, seasonal rainfall (Parts of Africa, South America & Australia) 3) Deserts - Precipitation 20cm/year - Dry, sparce vegetation; scattered grasses (Parts of Africa, Asia, Australia, North America)

4) Temperate GrasslandsPrecipitation: 1060cm/year Rich soil; tall dense grasses Central North America; Central Asia
5) Deciduous forests Precipitation 75-250cm/year Warm summers, cool winters Europe; NE United States;Eastern Canada

5) Coniferous forest: Precipitation 20-60cm/year Short growing season, cold winters. Northern Asia;Northern North America 6) Tundra 25 cm/year Open; wind swept; dry; ground always frozen Far northern Asia; Northern North America

Types of Marine Ecosystems

1) Benthic Marine Ecosystems - Benthic organisms, attached or non-attached, live on the ocean bottom. - Substrate and Temperature are very important characteristics in determining benthic community development.

2) Coral Reef Ecosystems - Large number of animals that build cup-shaped external skeletons. - Contain single-celled algae and carry on photosynthesis. - Require warm water, thus are found only near the equator. - Most require clear, shallow water with ample sunlight penetration.

3) Mangrove Swamp Ecosystems - Occupy region near shore. - Trees tolerate high salt content. - Extensively developed roots. - Trap sediment in shallow areas. - Develop terrestrial ecosystems.

4) Estuaries Shallow, partially enclosed areas where freshwater enters the ocean. Extensive production because areas are shallow, warm, and nutrient-rich.

Food Chain, Trophic level and Food Web

A food chain shows the succession of organisms in an in an ecological continuity representing how nutrients and energy are passed from creature to creature as each consumes a lower level organism and is in turn consumed by a higher level organism. Each food chain is one possible path that energy and nutrients may take as they move through the ecosystem. Trophic Level The organisms of a food chain are classified into different trophic levels on the basis of their feeding behaviour. Thus we have plants forming the first level that of primary producers, followed by primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary consumers.

Food Web
A food web consists of all the food chains in a single ecosystem. Each living organism in an ecosystem is part of multiple food chains. All of the interconnected and overlapping food chains in an ecosystem make up a food web.

FOOD WEB
Eagle

Snakes

Rats

Frogs Insects

Small Bird

Grass,

berries and seeds

Ecological Pyramid
Charles Elton developed the concept of ecological pyramid. It is a graphical representation, in a pyramid shaped diagram, of the number of organisms, biomass and productivity at each trophic level. Ecological pyramids begin with the producers at the bottom and proceed through the different trophic levels.

Types of Ecological Pyramids 1) Pyramids of numbers 2) Pyramids of Biomass 3) Pyramids of Energy

1) Pyramids of number allow us to compare the number of organisms present in each trophic level at a particular time. The base of the pyramid always represents the numbers of primary producers and the subsequent structure on the base are represented by the number of consumers of successive levels, the top representing the number of top carnivores in the ecosystem. The pyramid may be upright or inverted depending upon the size of producers in the community.

2) Pyramid of Biomass Biomass means total dry weight of organic matter or caloric value present in the ecosystem at any one time. The pyramid of biomass means weight of organisms at different tropic level. The pyramid may be upright or inverted

3)Pyramids of Energy Pyramids of energy allow us to compare the amount of energy passing through each trophic level over a period of time. Energy enters most ecosystems in the form of sunlight. It is then converted to chemical energy by autotrophic organisms, passed to heterotrophs in the organic compounds of food, and dissipated in the form of heat. The movements of energy and matter through ecosystems are related because both occur by the transfer of substances through feeding relationships. However, because energy, unlike matter, cannot be recycled, an ecosystem must be powered by a continuous inflow of new energy from an external source (the sun). Thus, energy flows through ecosystems, while matter cycles within them. Pyramids of energy are always upright.

Ecological Succession
Ecological Succession refers to the gradual and orderly process of changes in community structure over time. Activities of organisms change their surroundings and make the environment suitable for other kinds of organisms. Thus progressive replacement of one community by another occurs until a somewhat stable climax is established.

Principles of Ecological Succession

1. The physical environment determines which communities can exist in a particular place. 2. Succession is community controlled, i.e., succession is caused by modification of the surrounding physical environment by the existing community. 3. Ecological succession is directional - and therefore predictable. 4. Succession ends in a stabilized community and ecosystem called the ecological climax. It is in equilibrium with the physical environment of that particular area and perpetuates itself. This tendency for the ecosystem to reach a stage where it stays in equilibrium is an example of Homeostasis developing and maintaining stability. 5. High diversity produces stability.

Types of Ecological Succession

Primary & Secondary Succession Autogenic & Allogenic Succession Progressive & Regressive Succession

Primary Succession
Begins with total lack of organisms on bare mineral surfaces or water. The first group of organisms establishing life are known as the pioneers, primary community or primary colonisers. In the primary succession taking place on the exposed rock surfaces, for instance, lichens appear first, followed by the mosses. These pioneers change the physical environment so that the new species of autotrophs a in the area and establish themselves.

Secondary Succession
Begins with disturbance or destruction of an existing ecosystem. This occurs much more commonly and is generally quicker. Nearby undamaged communities can serve as sources of seeds and animals.

Autogenic Succession
After the succession has begun, in most of the cases, it is the community itself, which, as a result of its reactions with the environment, modifies its own environment and thus causing its own replacement by new communities.

Allogenic Succession
In some cases, however, the replacement of the existing community is caused largely by any another external condition and not by the existing organisms! Such a course is referred to as allogenic succession.

Progressive Succession
Primary succession is a succession where the community becomes complex and contains more species and biomass over time.

Regressive Succession
Also referred to as retrogression or degeneration, it is the replacement of a community of plants of higher ecological order with a community of lower ecological order.

BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity
Biodiversity refers to the numbers, variety, and variability of living organisms and ecosystems. It includes all the terrestrial and aquatic organisms. It covers diversity within species, between species, as well as variation among ecosystems. Levels in Biodiversity Organization - Genetic Diversity - Species Diversity - Ecosystem Diversity

Factors determining the degree of biodiversity

Habitat Stress Geographical isolation Dominance by one species Availability of ecological niches Edge effect Geological history

Factors Impacting Biodiversity (Threats)

Climate change Pollution of soil, water & atmosphere Introduction of Aggressive Non-native Species Industrial agriculture & forestry Habitat loss GMOs Poaching Explosion in Human Population

Value/Importance of Biodiversity
1) Food Security 2) Nutrient Cycling 3) Fuel & Wood 4) Maintenance of Water Resources 5) Soil Formation & Fertility 6) Gene Pool 7) Medicinal Resources

Endangered Species and IUCN Categorisation

India has about 3% of the worlds threatened species Data adequate evaluated species: 1) Extinct/Extinct in the wild 2) Threatened - Critically Endangered eg. Himalayan Quail - Endangered eg. Bengal Mongoose, Great Indian Bustard, Red Sandal wood - Vulnerable eg. Indian Giant Squirrel, Nilgiri Langur, Indian Rosewood 3) Lower Risk (all examples mentioned here are endemic to India.)

Conservation of Biodiversity
Conservation means the use of all actions which are necessary to bring any endangered of threatened species to the point at which it is no longer threatened. It includes both curative and preventive measures. The efforts could focus on specific species or on habitat and ecosystems.

Conservation Measures
1) In Situ Conservation Measures Includes all those conservation measures that are taken in the natural habitat. a) Wildlife sanctuaries and national parks b) Biosphere Reserves Biosphere reserves are biota, habitats, total ecosystem including the landscape, the local people using the natural resources are all treated as one whole for any decisionmaking regarding conservation action. c) World Heritage Sites 2) Ex Situ Conservation Conservation measures taken outside ones natural habitat E.g. Zoos, botanical gardens, aquaria and seed banks.