Educational Psychology

Educational Psychology
Third Edition
Kelvin Seifert and Rosemary Sutton

Copyright 2011 Kelvin Seifert For any questions about this text, please email: drexel@uga.edu
Editor-In-Chief: Kel in !eifert "sso#iate Editor: $arisa %rexel
&hird edition: Editorial "ssistant: &essa 'reenleaf !e#ond edition: Editorial "ssistants: (a#)ie !harman *roofreader: +a#hel *ugliese
&he 'lobal &ext *ro,e#t is funded by the (a#obs Foundation, -uri#h, !.it/erland
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense
"bout the authors and re ie.er Author, Kelvin Seifert

Kel in !eifert is professor of edu#ational psy#hology at the 3ni ersity of $anitoba, 4innipeg, Canada. 5e earned a 6" from !.arthmore College in 789: and a *h.%. from the 3ni ersity of $i#higan in 78:0, in a #ombined program from the !#hool of Edu#ation and the %epartment of *sy#hology. 5is resear#h interests in#lude the personal identity de elopment of tea#hers, the impa#t of peers in 1pre-ser i#e tea#her edu#ation, and the de elopment of effe#ti e strategies of blended learning. 5e is the author of four uni ersity textboo)s ;.ith 5oughton $ifflin, in traditional print format< about edu#ational psy#hology, #hild and adoles#ent de elopment, and lifespan human de elopment. 5e is also the editor of the online Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy. +e#ent publi#ations in#lude =!tudent #ohorts: !upport groups or intelle#tual #ommunities>? ;Teachers College Record) and =2earning about peers: " missed opportunity for edu#ational psy#hology? ;The Clearinghouse<. 5is professional ser i#e in#ludes ser ing as #hair of the %epartment of Edu#ational "dministration, Foundations, and *sy#hology at the 3ni ersity of $anitoba, and ser ing as president of the "meri#an Edu#ational +esear#h "sso#iation !pe#ial Interest 'roup on &ea#hing Edu#ational *sy#hology. %uring his #areer of 0@ years, he has taught introdu#tory edu#ational psy#hology o er :@ times.
Author, Rosemary Sutton

"fter four years of tea#hing high s#hool mathemati#s in Ae. -ealand, %r +osemary !utton attended graduate s#hool and earned her $! in Edu#ational *sy#hology from the 3ni ersity of Illinois and her *h.%. from *ennsyl ania !tate 3ni ersity in 5uman %e elopment. !he ,oined the Cle eland !tate 3ni ersity fa#ulty in Cle eland, Bhio in 78C0 and sin#e that time has taught pre-ser i#e and in ser i#e undergraduates and graduate students edu#ational psy#hology and edu#ational te#hnology. !he has re#ei ed se eral 3ni ersity a.ards for her tea#hing and has #ondu#ted numerous .or)shops for tea#hers in Aorth East Bhio. %r !utton has published a ariety resear#h arti#les on tea#her de elopment as .ell as equity issues in mathemati#s, te#hnology, and assessment. 5er re#ent resear#h interests ha e fo#used in t.o areas: tea#hing edu#ational psy#hology and tea#hersD emotions. +e#ent publi#ations #an be found in !o#ial *sy#hology of Edu#ation, Edu#ational *sy#hology +e ie., (ournal of &ea#her Edu#ation, and an edited olume, Emotions and Edu#ation. !in#e E11F, %r !utton has been .or)ing as an "dministrator, first as the %ire#tor of "ssessment for the 3ni ersity. &his position in ol ed #oordinating the student learning assessment for all graduate, undergraduate, and student support programs. In "ugust E11:, %r !utton .as appointed Gi#e *ro ost for 3ndergraduate !tudies and is no. responsible for o erseeing offi#es and fun#tions from a#ademi# and student ser i#e areas in order to #reate a #ampus #ulture that #oordinates student ser i#es .ith the a#ademi# mission of the 3ni ersity.
Revie er, Sandra !eemer

!andra %eemer is professor of edu#ational foundations at $illers ille 3ni ersity, in $illers ille, *". !he is also the editor of the online ,ournal #alled H&ea#hing Edu#ational *sy#hology,H and has #ontributed to the de elopment of the !pe#ial Interest 'roup on &ea#hing Edu#ational *sy#hology ;&E* !I'< sponsored by the "meri#an Edu#ational +esear#h "sso#iation. !he tea#hes #ourses in edu#ational psy#hology and edu#ational resear#hI her resear#h interests fo#us on ho. moti ational theory #an be used to #reate learning-fo#used #lassrooms.
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Revie er, "irginia #. $avarro

"sso#iate *rofessor in the %i ision of &ea#hing and 2earning at 3$-!t. 2ouis and #o-dire#tor the Career &ransitions Certifi#ation *rogram to prepare tea#hers for urban s#hools until E118, %r Aa arroJs .or) interrogates the so#ial #onstru#tion of identity, in#luding ho. s#hool dis#ourses shape #ultural understandings about gender, ra#e, and #lass. "dditionally, she resear#hes about ho. to prepare quality tea#hers #ollaborati ely .ith s#hool distri#ts and #ommunities. !he #o-edited a #olle#tion of #ase studies for the 3rban Aet.or) to Impro e &ea#her edu#ation ;3AI&E< #alled !taying Conne#ted ;E11@< that analy/es se en s#hoolKuni ersity partnerships a#ross the #ountry. 5er #hapter in %esigning 3rban *erforman#e !ystems, ;Erlbaum, E11@< explored .hy =Context $atters? .hen assessing urban s#hools. In E118 %r Aa arro taught in a graduate psy#hology department at Central China Aormal 3ni ersity in 4uhan China, and in E171 taught edu#ational psy#hology at Korea 3ni ersityJs !ummer Institute in !eoul, !outh Korea. In E177 %r Aa arro and se en do#toral students presented papers at the @th International *ostgraduate +esear#h Conferen#e at *hrana)hon +a,abhat 3ni ersity in 6ang)o), &hailand. " Chi#ago nati e and youngest of se en #hildren, %r Aa arro graduated from 2oyola 3ni ersity in English 2iterature, studying for a year in +ome, Italy. "fter re#ei ing a $asters of "rt in &ea#hing in English at 4ashington 3ni ersity !t 2ouis, she taught high s#hool English and ,ournalism at publi# and pri ate high s#hools, returning in 7887 to #omplete do#toral .or) in edu#ational psy#hology. In E118, %r Aa arro re#ei ed the 'o ernorJs ".ard for Ex#ellen#e in &ea#hing. !he .or)s extensi ely .ith graduate edu#ation students at the do#toral and masters le el as .ell as tea#hing qualitati e resear#h methods, a#tion resear#h, and so#io#ultural theory. +aising four .onderful #hildren .ith husband %i#) o er F7 years, %r Aa arro is no. en,oying the role of grandmother to three toddlers.
Table of Contents
*refa#e............................................................................................................................................................... :
7. &he #hanging tea#hing profession and you.............................................................................C

&he ,oys of tea#hing.......................................................................................................................................... C "re there also #hallenges to tea#hing>............................................................................................................ 71 &ea#hing is different from in the past............................................................................................................ 71 5o. edu#ational psy#hology #an help............................................................................................................ 79
E. &he learning pro#ess .............................................................................................................E1

&ea#hersJ perspe#ti es on learning................................................................................................................ E1 $a,or theories and models of learning.......................................................................................................... E0
0. !tudent de elopment.............................................................................................................F7
4hy de elopment matters............................................................................................................................. FE *hysi#al de elopment during the s#hool years.............................................................................................. F0 Cogniti e de elopment: the theory of (ean *iaget........................................................................................F9 !o#ial de elopment: relationships,personal moti es, and morality .............................................................@1 $oral de elopment: forming a sense of rights and responsibilities.............................................................@9 3nderstanding =the typi#al student? ersus understanding students...........................................................97
F. !tudent di ersity....................................................................................................................99
Indi idual styles of learning and thin)ing..................................................................................................... 9: $ultiple intelligen#es..................................................................................................................................... 9C 'ifted and talented students.......................................................................................................................... :1 'ender differen#es in the #lassroom.............................................................................................................. :E %ifferen#es in #ultural expe#tations and styles.............................................................................................. :@ "##ommodating di ersity in pra#ti#e............................................................................................................ C1
@. !tudents .ith spe#ial edu#ational needs..............................................................................C@

&hree people on the margins.......................................................................................................................... C@ 'ro.ing support for people .ith disabilities: legislation and its effe#ts......................................................C9 +esponsibilities of tea#hers for students .ith disabilities.............................................................................C: Categories of disabilitiesLand their ambiguities........................................................................................... 87 2earning disabilities........................................................................................................................................ 87 "ttention defi#it hypera#ti ity disorder......................................................................................................... 8F Intelle#tual disabilities................................................................................................................................... 89 6eha ioral disorders....................................................................................................................................... 88 *hysi#al disabilities and sensory impairments.............................................................................................717 &he alue of in#luding students .ith spe#ial needs.....................................................................................71F
9. !tudent moti ation..............................................................................................................718

$oti es as beha ior....................................................................................................................................... 771 $oti es as goals............................................................................................................................................. 770 $oti es as interests....................................................................................................................................... 779 $oti es related to attributions...................................................................................................................... 77C $oti ation as self-effi#a#y............................................................................................................................ 7E1 $oti ation as self-determination................................................................................................................. 7E@ Expe#tan#y x alue: effe#ts on studentsJ moti ation....................................................................................701 &"+'E&: a model for integrating ideas about moti ation...........................................................................707
:. Classroom management and the learning en ironment....................................................70C

4hy #lassroom management matters.......................................................................................................... 708 *re enting management problems by fo#using students on learning.........................................................7F1 +esponding to student misbeha ior............................................................................................................. 7@1 Keeping management issues in perspe#ti e................................................................................................. 7@@
C. &he nature of #lassroom #ommuni#ation............................................................................7@8

Communi#ation in #lassrooms s #ommuni#ation else.here.....................................................................7@8 Educational Psychology @ " 'lobal &ext
Effe#ti e erbal #ommuni#ation................................................................................................................... 79E Effe#ti e non erbal #ommuni#ation............................................................................................................. 790 !tru#tures of parti#ipation: effe#ts on #ommuni#ation................................................................................799 Communi#ation styles in the #lassroom....................................................................................................... 798 3sing #lassroom tal) to stimulate studentsJ thin)ing..................................................................................7:E &he bottom line: messages sent, messages re#onstru#ted...........................................................................7:9
8. Fa#ilitating #omplex thin)ing..............................................................................................7C0

Forms of thin)ing asso#iated .ith #lassroom learning................................................................................7CF Criti#al thin)ing............................................................................................................................................ 7C@ Creati e thin)ing .......................................................................................................................................... 7C9 *roblem-sol ing............................................................................................................................................ 7C: 6road instru#tional strategies that stimulate #omplex thin)ing..................................................................787 &ea#her-dire#ted instru#tion........................................................................................................................ 780 !tudent-#entered models of learning.......................................................................................................... E11 Inquiry learning............................................................................................................................................ E17 Cooperati e learning.................................................................................................................................... E1E Examples of #ooperati e and #ollaborati e learning...................................................................................E10 Instru#tional strategies: an abundan#e of #hoi#es.......................................................................................E1@
71. *lanning instru#tion..........................................................................................................E71

!ele#ting general learning goals................................................................................................................... E71 Formulating learning ob,e#ti es................................................................................................................... E7@ !tudents as a sour#e of instru#tional goals.................................................................................................. EE0 Enhan#ing student learning through a ariety of resour#es........................................................................EE9 Creating bridges among #urri#ulum goals and studentsJ prior experien#es...............................................EE8 *lanning for instru#tion as .ell as for learning........................................................................................... E0@
77. &ea#her-made assessment strategies................................................................................EF1

6asi# #on#epts............................................................................................................................................... EF7 "ssessment for learning: an o er ie. of the pro#ess...................................................................................EF7 !ele#ting appropriate assessment te#hniques I: high quality assessments................................................EF0 +eliability ..................................................................................................................................................... EF@ "bsen#e of bias ............................................................................................................................................ EF9 !ele#ting appropriate assessment te#hniques II: types of tea#her-made assessments..............................EF9 !ele#ted response items................................................................................................................................ EF8 Constru#ted response items ........................................................................................................................ E@F *ortfolios....................................................................................................................................................... E9F "ssessment that enhan#es moti ation and student #onfiden#e..................................................................E9: &ea#hersJ purposes and beliefs .................................................................................................................... E9: Choosing assessments ................................................................................................................................. E9C *ro iding feedba#) ...................................................................................................................................... E9C !elf and peer assessment ............................................................................................................................. E98 "d,usting instru#tion based on assessment.................................................................................................E:1 Communi#ation .ith parents and guardians............................................................................................... E:1 "#tion resear#h: studying yourself and your students.................................................................................E:7 'rading and reporting ................................................................................................................................. E:E
7E. !tandardi/ed and other formal assessments.....................................................................E::

6asi# #on#epts............................................................................................................................................... E:: 5igh-sta)es testing by states........................................................................................................................ EC0 International testing..................................................................................................................................... E87 International #omparisons .......................................................................................................................... E8E 3nderstanding test results........................................................................................................................... E8E Issues .ith standardi/ed tests ..................................................................................................................... E8C
"ppendix ": *reparing for li#ensure......................................................................................01F

9
"ppendix 6: %e#iding for yourself about the resear#h...........................................................078 "ppendix C: &he refle#ti e pra#titioner..................................................................................0@7
&ypes of resour#es for professional de elopment and learning..................................................................0@E +eading and understanding professional arti#les .......................................................................................0@@ "#tion resear#h: hearing from tea#hers about impro ing pra#ti#e.............................................................099 &he #hallenges of a#tion resear#h................................................................................................................. 0:7 6enefiting from all )inds of resear#h........................................................................................................... 0:0
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Preface 4hy publish an open-a##ess textboo) about edu#ational psy#hology>

I ha e taught edu#ational psy#hology to future tea#hers for o er 0@ years, during .hi#h I used one or another of the ma,or #ommer#ial textboo)s .ritten for this sub,e#t. In general I found all of the boo)s .ell-.ritten and thorough. 6ut I also found problems: ;7< &hough they differed in details, the ma,or textboo)s .ere surprisingly similar in o erall #o erage. &his fa#t, #oupled .ith their large o erall si/e, made it hard to tailor any of the boo)s to the parti#ular interests or needs of indi iduals or groups of students. &oo often, buying a textboo) .as li)e ha ing to buy a huge !unday ne.spaper .hen all you really .ant is to read one of its se#tions. In a similar .ay, #ommer#ial edu#ational psy#hology textboo)s usually told you more than you e er needed or .anted to )no. about the sub,e#t. "s a format, the textboo) did not allo. for indi iduali/ation. ;E< Edu#ational psy#hology textboo)s .ere al.ays Dr. Kelvin Seifert expensi e, and o er the years their #osts rose faster than inflation, espe#ially in the 3nited !tates, .here most of the boo)s ha e been produ#ed. Currently e ery ma,or text about edu#ational psy#hology sells for more than 3!% 711. "t best this #ost is a stress on studentsD budgets. "t .orst it puts edu#ational psy#hology textboo)s beyond the rea#h of many. &he problem of the #ost is e en more ob ious .hen put in .orld.ide perspe#ti eI in some #ountries the #ost of one textboo) is roughly equi alent to the a erage annual in#ome of its #iti/ens. ;0< In the #ompetition to sell #opies of edu#ational psy#hology textboo)s, authors and publishers ha e gradually added features that raise the #ost of boo)s .ithout e iden#e of adding edu#ational alue. Edu#ational psy#hology publishers in parti#ular ha e in#reased the number of illustrations and photographs, s.it#hed to full-#olor editions, in#reased the #omplexity and number of study guides and an#illary publi#ations, and #reated proprietary .ebsites usable fully only by adopters of their parti#ular boo)s. &hese features ha e sometimes been attra#ti e. $y tea#hing experien#e suggests, ho.e er, that they also distra#t students from learning )ey ideas about edu#ational psy#hology about as often as they help students to learn. 6y publishing this textboo) online .ith the 'lobal &extboo) *ro,e#t, I ha e ta)en a step to.ard resol ing these problems. Instru#tors and students #an a##ess as mu#h or as little of the textboo) as they really need and find useful. &he #ost of their doing is minimal. *edagogi#al features are a ailable, but are )ept to a minimum and rendered in formats that #an be a##essed freely and easily by anyone #onne#ted to the Internet. In the future, re isions to the boo) .ill be relati ely easy and prompt to ma)e. &hese, I belie e, are desirable out#omes for e eryoneM
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Preface
Contents of the boo)

Chapters in the text #an be assigned either from beginning to end, as .ith a #on entional printed boo), or they #an be sele#ted in some other sequen#e to meet the needs of parti#ular students or #lasses. In general the first half of the boo) fo#uses on broader questions and prin#iples ta)en from psy#hology %er se, and the se#ond half fo#uses on some.hat more pra#ti#al issues of tea#hing. 6ut the di ision bet.een =theory? and =pra#ti#e? is only approximateI all parts of the boo) dra. on resear#h, theory, and pra#ti#al .isdom .here er appropriate. Chapter E is about learning theory, and Chapter 0 is about de elopmentI but as .e point out, these topi#s o erlap .ith ea#h other as .ell as .ith the #on#erns of daily tea#hing. Chapter F is about se eral forms of student di ersity ; .hat might be #alled individual differences in another #ontext<, and Chapter @ is about one form of di ersity that has be#ome prominent in s#hools re#entlyLstudents .ith disabilities. Chapter 9 is about moti ation, a topi# that is hea ily studied by psy#hologi#al resear#hers, but that also poses perennial #hallenges to #lassroom tea#hers. Follo.ing these some.hat more basi# psy#hologi#al #hapters, .e turn to se eral lasting #hallenges of #lassroom lifeL#hallenges that seem to be an intrinsi# part of the ,ob. Chapter : offers ideas about #lassroom managementI Chapter C, ideas about #ommuni#ating .ith studentsI Chapter 8, about .ays to assist studentsD #omplex forms of thin)ingI and Chapter 71, about planning instru#tion systemati#ally. &he boo) #loses .ith t.o #hapters about assessment of learning: Chapter 77 fo#uses on tea#hersD o.n efforts to assess students, and Chapter 7E fo#uses on standardi/ed measures of assessment.
Features that #an assist learning

4e ha e organi/ed material and features in .ays that .e hope .ill allo. for a ariety of students, instru#tors, and institutions to use the boo). For instru#tors and #ourses that see) a strong fo#us on resear#h and the resear#h pro#ess, for example, .e ha e in#luded an extra =#hapter? on resear#h methodsL"ppendix C, =&he +efle#ti e *ra#titioner?Lthat dis#usses the nature of resear#h and the resear#h pro#ess. 4e ha e also in#luded a set of resear#h-related #ase studies in "ppendix 6, =%e#iding for yourself about the resear#h?, that des#ribe a number of parti#ular edu#ational resear#h programs or topi#s in detail and that in ite students to refle#t on the quality and impli#ations of the resear#h. 4hether or not a strong fo#us on resear#h is a priority in your parti#ular #ourse, there are additional features of the boo) that are intended to help students in learning about edu#ational psy#hology. In parti#ular, ea#h #hapter ends .ith a =Chapter summary?, a list of =Key terms?, and lin)s to Internet sites ;#alled =Further resour#es?< rele ant to the themes of the #hapter. Bne of the sites that is #ited frequently and that may be parti#ularly helpful to instru#tors is the teachinged%sych .i)i ;http:KKtea#hingedpsy#h..i)ispa#es.#omK<, an ar#hi e of hundreds of tea#hing and learning materials that supports the tea#hing of introdu#tory edu#ational psy#hology. Teachinged%sych is a pro,e#t of the !pe#ial Interest 'roup on the &ea#hing of Edu#ational *sy#hology ;&E* !I'<, affiliated .ith the "meri#an Edu#ational +esear#h "sso#iation. "ll in all, .e hope that you find Educational Psychology a useful and a##essible part of your edu#ation. If you are preparing to be a tea#her, good lu#) .ith your studies and your futureM If you are an instru#tor, good lu#) .ith helping your students learn about this sub,e#tM Kelvin Seifert
1. The changing teaching profession and you

A teacher named Ashley loo&ed around the classroom, en'oying a (lessed moment of )uiet after the students left at the end of the day. *Ashley, the teacher, that+s me,, she said %roudly to the em%ty room. *-ut hy am . doing this/, she as&ed herself )uietly0and reali1ed she as teaching for $adia, asn+t al ays sure of ho sat at the ta(le as the ans er. -ut then she remem(ered one reason2 she to the left, al ays smiled so teaching for #incoln, tired old #incoln, ell and al ays 3 ell, usually) tried hard. And another reason2 she
ho needed her hel% more than he reali1ed. She remem(ered as also teaching for herself, ith t enty4t o young %eo%le at once, and as teaching so she could &ee% gro ing as ideas. That+s hy she as teaching.
t enty other reasons0t enty other students. And one last reason2 she challenging herself to see if she really could &ee% u% really accom%lish something a %erson, &ee% connecting orth hile ith them. She ith others, &ee% learning ne
The joys of teaching

4hy be a tea#her> &he short ans.er is easy:
to .itness the di ersity of gro.th in young people, and their ,oy in learning to en#ourage lifelong learningLboth for yourself and for others to experien#e the #hallenge of de ising and doing interesting, ex#iting a#ti ities for the young
&here is, of #ourse, more than this to be said about the alue of tea#hing. Consider, for instan#e, the =young people? referred to abo e. In one #lass they #ould be six years oldI in another they #ould be sixteen, or e en older. &hey #ould be ri#h, poor, or some.here in bet.een. &hey #ould #ome from any ethni# ba#)ground. &heir first language #ould be English, or something else. &here are all sorts of possibilities. 6ut .hoe er the parti#ular students are, they .ill ha e potential as human beings: talents and personal qualitiesLpossibly not yet reali/edL that #an #ontribute to so#iety, .hether as leaders, experts, or supporters of others. " tea#herDs ,obLin fa#t a tea#herDs %rivilege0is to help parti#ular =young people? to reali/e their potential. Another teacher reflects2 $athan %aused for a dee% (reath (efore s%ea&ing to me. *.t+s not li&e . e5%ected it to (e,, he said. *.+ve got five &ids that. .+ve got t o, may(e three, ho s%ea& English as a second language. . didn+t e5%ect ith reading disa(ilities, and one of them has a %art4time aide. .+ve ho finish activities early.
had to learn more a(out using com%uters than . ever e5%ected0they+re a lot of curriculum materials online no , and the com%uters hel% the &ids that need more %ractice or teaching. *-ut it+s not all sur%rises. . e5%ected to (e a(le to 6light a fire+ under &ids a(out learning to read. And that has actually ha%%ened, at least sometimes ith some children7, .+m doing more screening and testing of &ids than . e5%ected, and it all ta&es time a ay from
71
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1. The changing teaching profession and you "s a tea#her, you .ill be able to do this by laying ground.or) for lifelong learning. Nou .ill not tea#h any one student fore er, of #ourse, but you .ill often .or) .ith them long enough to #on ey a #ru#ial message: that there is mu#h in life to learnLmore in fa#t than any one tea#her or s#hool #an pro ide in a lifetime. &he )no.ledge may be about s#ien#e, math, or learning to readI the s)ills may be sports, musi#, or artLanything. 4hate er you tea#h, its immensity #an be a sour#e of #uriosity, .onder and ex#itement. It #an be a reason to be optimisti# about life in general and about your students in parti#ular. 2earning, .hen properly understood, is ne er-ending, e en though it often fo#uses on short-term, immediate #on#erns. "s a tea#her, you .ill ha e an ad antage not shared by e ery member of so#iety, namely the ex#use not only to tea#h aluable )no.ledge and s)ills, but to point students (eyond .hat they .ill be able to learn from you. "s an old limeri#) put it ;before the days of gender-balan#ed language<, =&he .orld is full of su#h a plenty of things, IJm sure .e should all be as happy as )ings.? Jennifer 8uller, a third teacher reflects2 *9K,, suddenly getting (usinessli&e in her tone. *:ere+s my ty%ical day teaching tenth grade2 . get u% at ;2<=, have a )uic& (rea&fast, get to school (y >2?@ if the traffic+s not (ad. Then . chec& my email0usually there+s a little stuff from the %rinci%al or some other administrator, may(e one or t o from %arents concerned (ecause their child is doing %oorly in one of my classes, may(e one or t o from students0*.+m going to (e sic& today, As 8uller7,0that sort of thing. $o it+s B2C@ and . have t o hours (efore my first class0this term . teach only (iology, and . e all have to trou%e do n to the li(rary for a staff meeting hen . hen . only teach %eriods D, <, and @. Aay(e . have mar&ing to do (efore class, or may(e . have to get a la( demonstration ready. 9r may(e meet 3groanE). Fhatever . don+t finish in the morning, . have to finish after school. -ut that+s also try not to do it then, (ut a lot of times . have to. -ut . al ays )uit (y G2==0that+s al ays atch T" for an hour, or 'ust *vegetate , ith a (oo&.,
ith the Ecology Clu( 3.+m the faculty advisor), so . might have to finish stuff in the evening. .
4hate er you tea#h, you .ill be able to feel the satisfa#tion of designing and or#hestrating #omplex a#ti ities that #ommuni#ate ne. ideas and s)ills effe#ti ely. &he #hallenge is attra#ti e to many tea#hers, be#ause that is .here they exer#ise ,udgment and =artistry? the most freely and frequently. Nour students .ill depend on your s)ill at planning and managing, though sometimes .ithout reali/ing ho. mu#h they do so. &ea#hers .ill need you to )no. ho. to explain ideas #learly, to present ne. materials in a sensible sequen#e and at an appropriate pa#e, to point out #onne#tions bet.een their ne. learning and their prior experien#es. "lthough these s)ills really ta)e a lifetime to master, they #an be pra#ti#ed su##essfully e en by beginning tea#hers, and they do impro e steadily .ith #ontinued tea#hing o er time. +ight from the start, though, s)ill at design and #ommuni#ation of #urri#ulum is one of the ma,or =per)s? of the ,ob. &he ery #omplexity of #lassroom life irtually guarantees that tea#hing ne er needs to get boring. !omething ne and e5citing is bound to o##ur ,ust .hen you least expe#t it. " student sho.s an insight that you ne er expe#ted to seeLor fails to sho. one that you .ere sure he had. "n a#ti ity goes better than expe#tedLor .orse, or merely differently. Nou understand for the first time .hy a parti#ular student beha es as she does, and begin thin)ing of ho. to respond to the studentDs beha ior more helpfully in the future. "fter tea#hing a parti#ular learning ob,e#ti e se eral times, you reali/e that you understand it differently than the first time you taught it. "nd so on. &he ,ob ne er stays the sameI it e ol es #ontinually. "s long as you )eep tea#hing, you .ill ha e a ,ob .ith no elty.
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re there also challenges to teaching!

5ere, too, the simple ans.er is =yes?. E ery ,oy of tea#hing has a possible frustration related to it. Nou may .ish to ma)e a positi e differen#e in studentsD li es, but you may also ha e trouble rea#hing indi iduals. " student seems not to learn mu#h, or to be unmoti ated, or unfriendly, or .hate er. "nd some tea#hing problems #an be subtle: .hen you #all attention to the .onderful immensity of an area of )no.ledge, you might a##identally discourage a student by implying that the student #an ne er learn =enough?. &he #omplexity of designing and implementing instru#tion #an sometimes seem o er.helming, instead of satisfying. 3nexpe#ted e ents in your #lassroom #an be#ome #haos rather than an attra#ti e no elty. &o paraphrase a popular self-help boo), sometimes =bad things happen to good tea#hers? ;Kushner, 78C0<. 6ut as in the rest of life, the =bad things? of tea#hing do not negate the alue of the good. If anything, the undesired e ents ma)e the good, desired ones e en more satisfying, and render the .or) of tea#hing all the more aluable. "s you .ill see throughout this boo), there are resour#es for maximi/ing the good, the aluable, and the satisfying. Nou #an bring these resour#es to your .or), along .ith your gro.ing professional )no.ledge and a healthy dose of #ommon sense. In this sense you .ill not need to =go it alone? in learning to tea#h .ell. Nou ill, ho.e er, be personally responsible for be#oming and remaining the best tea#her that you #an possibly beI the only person .ho #an ma)e that happen .ill be you. $any of the resour#es for ma)ing this happen are des#ribed in this boo) in the #hapters ahead.
Teaching is different from in the past

In the past de#ade or t.o tea#hing has #hanged signifi#antly, so mu#h in fa#t that s#hools may not be .hat some of us remember from our o.n #hildhood. Changes ha e affe#ted both the opportunities and the #hallenges of tea#hing, as .ell as the attitudes, )no.ledge, and s)ills needed to prepare for a tea#hing #areer. &he #hanges ha e influen#ed mu#h of the #ontent of this boo). &o see .hat .e mean, loo) briefly at four ne. trends in edu#ation, at ho. they ha e #hanged .hat tea#hers do, and at ho. you .ill therefore need to prepare to tea#h:
increased diversity: there are more differen#es among students than there used to be. %i ersity has
made tea#hing more fulfilling as a #areer, but also made more #hallenging in #ertain respe#ts.
increased instructional technology: #lassrooms, s#hools, and students use #omputers more often
today than in the past for resear#h, .riting, #ommuni#ating, and )eeping re#ords. &e#hnology has #reated ne. .ays for students to learn ;for example, this textboo) .ould not be possible .ithout Internet te#hnologyM<. It has also altered ho. tea#hers #an tea#h most effe#ti ely, and e en raised issues about .hat #onstitutes =true? tea#hing and learning.
greater accountability in education: both the publi# and edu#ators themsel es pay more attention
than in the past to ho. to assess ;or pro ide e iden#e for< learning and good quality tea#hing. &he attention has in#reased the importan#e of edu#ation to the publi# ;a good thing< and impro ed edu#ation for some students. 6ut it has also #reated ne. #onstraints on .hat tea#hers tea#h and .hat students learn.
increased professionalism of teachers: Ao. more than e er, tea#hers are able to assess the quality of
their o.n .or) as .ell as that of #olleagues, and to ta)e steps to impro e it .hen ne#essary. *rofessionalism impro es tea#hing, but by #reating higher standards of pra#ti#e it also #reates greater .orries about .hether parti#ular tea#hers and s#hools are =good enough?.
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1. The changing teaching profession and you 5o. do these #hanges sho. up in the daily life of #lassrooms> &he ans.er depends partly on .here you tea#hI #ir#umstan#es differ among s#hools, #ities, and e en .hole so#ieties. !ome #lues about the effe#ts of the trends on #lassroom life #an be found, ho.e er, by #onsidering one parti#ular #aseLthe #hanges happening in Aorth "meri#a.
Ae. trend O7: di ersity in students

!tudents ha e, of #ourse, al.ays been di erse. 4hether in the past or in the present day, students learn at unique pa#es, sho. unique personalities, and learn in their o.n .ays. In re#ent de#ades, though, the forms and extent of di ersity ha e in#reased. Ao. more than e er, tea#hers are li)ely to ser e students from di erse language ba#)grounds, to ser e more indi iduals .ith spe#ial edu#ational needs, and to tea#h students either younger and older than in the past.
#anguage diversity
&a)e the #ase of language di ersity. In the 3nited !tates, about F1 million people, or 7F per #ent of the population are 5ispani#. "bout E1 per #ent of these spea) primarily !panish, and approximately another @1 per #ent spea) only limited English ;3nited !tates Census 6ureau, E11@<. &he edu#ators responsible for the #hildren in this group need to a##ommodate instru#tion to these students someho.. *art of the solution, of #ourse, is to arrange spe#iali/ed se#ond-language tea#hers and #lasses. 6ut ad,ustment must also happen in =regular? #lassrooms of arious grade le els and sub,e#ts. Classroom tea#hers must learn to #ommuni#ate .ith students .hose English language ba#)ground is limited, at the same time that the students themsel es are learning to use English more fluently ;*itt, E11@<. !in#e relati ely fe. tea#hers are 5ispani# or spea) fluent !panish, the ad,ustments #an sometimes be a #hallenge. &ea#hers must plan lessons and tas)s that students a#tually understand. "t the same time tea#hers must also )eep tra#) of the ma,or learning goals of the #urri#ulum. In Chapter F ;=!tudent %i ersity?< and Chapter 71 ;=*lanning Instru#tion?<, some strategies for doing so are des#ribed. "s you gain experien#e tea#hing, you .ill no doubt find additional strategies and resour#es ;'ebhard, E119<, espe#ially if se#ond-language learners be#ome an important part of your #lasses.
!iversity of s%ecial educational needs

"nother fa#tor ma)ing #lassroom in#reasingly di erse has been the in#lusion of students .ith disabilities into #lassrooms .ith non-disabled peers. In the 3nited !tates the trend began in the 78:1s, but a##elerated .ith the passage of the Indi iduals .ith %isabilities Edu#ation "#t in 78:@, and again .hen the "#t .as amended in E11F ;3nited !tates 'o ernment *rinting Bffi#e, E11@<. In Canada similar legislation .as passed in indi idual pro in#es during the same general time period. &he la.s guarantee free, appropriate edu#ation for #hildren .ith disabilities of any )indL.hether the impairment is physi#al, #ogniti e, emotional, or beha ioral. &he la.s also re#ogni/e that su#h students need spe#ial supports in order to learn or fun#tion effe#ti ely in a #lassroom .ith non-disabled peers, so they pro ide for spe#ial ser i#es ;for example, tea#hing assistants< and pro#edures for ma)ing indi iduali/ed edu#ational plans for students .ith disabilities. "s a result of these #hanges, most "meri#an and Canadian tea#hers are li)ely to ha e at least a fe. students .ith spe#ial edu#ational needs, e en if they are not trained as spe#ial edu#ation tea#hers or ha e had no prior personal experien#e .ith people .ith disabilities. Classroom tea#hers are also li)ely to .or) as part of a professional team fo#used on helping these students to learn as .ell as possible and to parti#ipate in the life of the s#hool. &he trend to.ard in#lusion is definitely ne. #ompared to #ir#umstan#es ,ust a generation or t.o ago. It raises ne. #hallenges about planning instru#tion ;su#h as ho. is a tea#her to find time to plan for indi iduals><, and philosophi#al 70
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense questions about the ery nature of edu#ation ;su#h as .hat in the #urri#ulum is truly important to learn><. &hese questions .ill #ome up again in Chapter @, .here .e dis#uss tea#hing students .ith spe#ial edu#ational needs.
#ifelong learning
&he di ersity of modern #lassrooms is not limited to language or disabilities. "nother re#ent #hange has been the broadening simply of the age range of indi iduals .ho #ount as =students?. In many nations of the .orld, half or most of all three- and four-year-olds attend some form of edu#ational program, either part-time pres#hool or fulltime #hild #are ;Aational Institute for Early Edu#ation +esear#h, E119<. In Aorth "meri#a some publi# s#hool di isions ha e mo ed to.ard in#luding nursery or pres#hool programs as a ne.er =grade le el? pre#eding )indergarten. Bthers ha e expanded the hours of )indergarten ;itself #onsidered a =ne.? program early in the E1 th #entury< to span a full-day program. &he ob ious differen#es in maturity bet.een pres#hoolers and older #hildren lead most tea#hers of the ery young to use flexible, open-ended plans and tea#hing strategies, and to de elop more personal or family-li)e relationships .ith their young =students? than typi#al .ith older students ;6rede)amp P Copple, 788:<. (ust as important, though, are the edu#ational and philosophi#al issues that early #hildhood edu#ation has brought to publi# attention. !ome edu#ational #riti#s as) .hether pres#hool and day #are programs ris) be#oming inappropriate substitutes for families. Bther edu#ators suggest, in #ontrast, that tea#hers of older students #an learn from the flexibility and open-ended approa#h #ommon in early #hildhood edu#ation. For tea#hers of any grade le el, it is a debate that #annot be a oided #ompletely or permanently. In this boo), it reappears in Chapter 0, .here I dis#uss studentsJ de elopmentLtheir ma,or long-term, #hanges in s)ills, )no.ledge, and attitudes. &he other end of the age spe#trum has also expanded. $any indi iduals ta)e #ourses .ell into adulthood e en if they do not attend formal uni ersity or #ollege. Adult education, as it is sometimes #alled, often ta)es pla#e in .or)pla#es, but it often also happens in publi# high s#hools or at lo#al #ommunity #olleges or uni ersities. !ome adult students may be #ompleting high s#hool #redentials that they missed earlier in their li es, but often the students ha e other purposes that are e en more fo#used, su#h as learning a trade-related s)ill. &he tea#hers of adult students ha e to ad,ust their instru#tional strategies and relationships .ith students so as to #hallenge and respe#t their spe#ial strengths and #onstraints as adults ;6ash, E11@<. &he studentsJ maturity often means that they ha e had life experien#es that enhan#e and moti ate their learning. 6ut it may also mean that they ha e signifi#ant personal responsibilitiesLsu#h as parenting or a full-time ,obL.hi#h #ompete for study time, and that ma)e them impatient .ith tea#hing that is irrele ant to their personal goals or needs. &hese ad antages and #onstraints also o##ur to a lesser extent among =regular? high s#hool students. E en se#ondary s#hool tea#hers must as), ho. they #an ma)e sure that instru#tion does not .aste studentsJ time, and ho. they #an ma)e it truly effi#ient, effe#ti e, and aluable. Else.here in this boo) ;espe#ially in Chapters 8 through 77, about assessment and instru#tion<, .e dis#uss these questions from a number of perspe#ti es.
Ae. trend OE: using te#hnology to support learning

For most tea#hers, =te#hnology? means using #omputers and the Internet as resour#es for tea#hing and learning. &hese tools ha e greatly in#reased the amount and range of information a ailable to students, e en if their benefits ha e sometimes been exaggerated in media reports ;Cuban, E117<. 4ith the Internet, it is no. relati ely easy to a##ess up-to-date information on pra#ti#ally any sub,e#t imaginable, often .ith pi#tures, ideo #lips, and audio to
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1. The changing teaching profession and you a##ompany them. It .ould seem not only that the Internet and its asso#iated te#hnologies ha e the potential to transform traditional s#hool-based learning, but also that they ha e in fa#t begun to do so. For a ariety of reasons, ho.e er, te#hnology has not al.ays been integrated into tea#hersJ pra#ti#es ery thoroughly ;5aertel P $eans, E110<. Bne reason is pra#ti#al: in many so#ieties and regions, #lassrooms #ontain only one or t.o #omputers at most, and many s#hools ha e at best only limited a##ess to the Internet. 4aiting for a turn on the #omputer or arranging to isit a #omputer lab or s#hool library limits ho. mu#h students use the Internet, no matter ho. aluable the Internet may be. In su#h #ases, furthermore, #omputers tend to fun#tion in relati ely traditional .ays that do not ta)e full ad antage of the Internet: as a .ord pro#essor ;a =fan#y type.riter?<, for example, or as a referen#e boo) similar to an en#y#lopedia. E en so, single-#omputer #lassrooms #reate ne. possibilities and #hallenges for tea#hers. " single #omputer #an be used, for example, to present up#oming assignments or supplementary material to students, either one at a time or small groups. In fun#tioning in this .ay, the #omputer gi es students more flexibility about .hen to finish old tas)s or to begin ne. ones. " single #omputer #an also enri#h the learning of indi idual students .ith spe#ial interests or moti ation and it #an pro ide additional re ie. to students .ho need extra help. &hese #hanges are not dramati#, but they lead to important re isions in tea#hersJ roles: they mo e tea#hers a.ay from simply deli ering information to students, and to.ard fa#ilitating studentsJ o.n #onstru#tions of )no.ledge. " shift from =full-frontal tea#hing? to =guide on the side? be#omes easier as the amount and use of #omputer and Internet te#hnologies in#reases. If a s#hool ;or better yet, a #lassroom< has numerous #omputers .ith full Internet a##ess, then studentsJ #an in prin#iple dire#t their o.n learning more independently than if #omputers are s#ar#e #ommodities. 4ith ample te#hnology a ailable, tea#hers #an fo#us mu#h more on helping indi iduals in de eloping and #arrying out learning plans, as .ell as on assisting indi iduals .ith spe#ial learning problems. In these .ays a strong shift to #omputers and the Internet #an #hange a tea#herJs role signifi#antly, and ma)e the tea#her more effe#ti e. 6ut te#hnology also brings some #hallenges, or e en #reates problems. It #osts money to equip #lassrooms and s#hools fully: often that money is s#ar#e, and may therefore mean depri ing students of other aluable resour#es, li)e additional staff or additional boo)s and supplies. Bther #hallenges are less tangible. In using the Internet, for example, students need help in sorting out trust.orthy information or .ebsites from the =fluff?, .ebsites that are unreliable or e en damaging ;!eiter, E11@<. *ro iding this help #an sometimes be #hallenging e en for experien#ed tea#hers. !ome edu#ational a#ti ities simply do not lend themsel es to #omputeri/ed learningLsports, for example, dri er edu#ation, or #horal pra#ti#e. "s a ne. tea#her, therefore, you .ill need not only to assess .hat te#hnologies are possible in your parti#ular #lassroom, but also .hat .ill a#tually be assisted by ne. te#hnologies. &hen be prepared for your de#isions to affe#t ho you tea#hLthe .ays you .or) .ith students.
Ae. trend O0: a##ountability in edu#ation

In re#ent years, the publi# and its leaders ha e in#reasingly expe#ted tea#hers and students to be accounta(le for their .or), meaning that s#hools and tea#hers are held responsible for implementing parti#ular #urri#ula and goals, and that students are held responsible for learning parti#ular )no.ledge. &he trend to.ard a##ountability has in#reased the legal requirements for be#oming and ;sometimes< remaining #ertified as a tea#her. In the 3nited !tates in parti#ular, preser i#e tea#hers need more sub,e#t-area and edu#ation-related #ourses than in the past. &hey must also spend more time pra#ti#e tea#hing than in the past, and they must pass one or more examinations
7@
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense of )no.ledge of sub,e#t matter and tea#hing strategies. &he spe#ifi#s of these requirements ary among regions, but the general trendLto.ard more numerous and =higher? le els of requirementsLhas o##urred broadly throughout the English-spea)ing .orld. &he #hanges ob iously affe#t indi idualsJ experien#es of be#oming a tea#herL espe#ially the speed and #ost of doing so. *ubli# a##ountability has led to in#reased use of high4sta&es testing, .hi#h are tests ta)en by all students in a distri#t or region that ha e important #onsequen#es for studentsD further edu#ation ;Fuhrman P Elmore, E11F<. 5igh-sta)es tests may influen#e grades that students re#ei e in #ourses or determine .hether students graduate or #ontinue to the next le el of s#hooling. &he tests are often a mixture of essay and stru#tured-response questions ;su#h as multiple-#hoi#e items<, and raise important issues about .hat tea#hers should tea#h, as .ell as ho. ;and .hether< tea#hers should help students to pass the examinations. It also raises issues about .hether high-sta)es testing is fair to all students and #onsistent .ith other ideals of publi# edu#ation, su#h as gi ing students the best possible start in life instead of disqualifying them from edu#ational opportunities. Furthermore, sin#e the results of high-sta)es tests are sometimes also used to e aluate the performan#e of tea#hers, s#hools, or s#hool distri#ts, insuring studentsJ su##ess on them be#omes an ob ious #on#ern for tea#hersLone that affe#ts instru#tional de#isions on a daily basis. For this reason .e dis#uss the purpose, nature, and effe#ts of high-sta)es tests in detail in Chapter 7E.
Ae. trend OF: in#reased professionalism of tea#hers

4hate er your rea#tions to the first three trends, it is important to reali/e that they ha e #ontributed to a fourth trend, an in#rease in %rofessionalism of tea#hers. 6y most definitions, an o##upation ;li)e medi#ine or la.Lor in this #ase tea#hing< is a profession if its members ta)e personal responsibility for the quality of their .or), hold ea#h other a##ountable for its quality, and re#ogni/e and require spe#ial training in order to pra#ti#e it. 6y this definition, tea#hing has definitely be#ome more professional than in the past ;Co#hran-!mith P Fries, E11@<. In#reased expe#tations of a#hie ement by students mean that tea#hers ha e in#reased responsibility not only for their studentsJ a#ademi# su##ess, but also for their o.n de elopment as tea#hers. 6e#oming a ne. tea#her no. requires more spe#iali/ed .or) than in the past, as refle#ted in the in#reased requirements for #ertifi#ation and li#ensing in many so#ieties and regions. &he in#reased requirements are partly a response to the #omplexities #reated by the in#reasing di ersity of students and in#reasing use of te#hnology in #lassrooms. 'reater professionalism has also been en#ouraged by initiati es from edu#ators themsel es to study and impro e their o.n pra#ti#e. Bne .ay to do so, for example, is through action research ;sometimes also #alled teacher research<, a form of in estigation #arried out by tea#hers about their o.n students or their o.n tea#hing. "#tion resear#h studies lead to #on#rete de#isions that impro e tea#hing and learning in parti#ular edu#ational #ontexts ;$ertler, E119I !tringer, E11F<. &he studies #an ta)e many forms, but here are a fe. brief examples:
5o. pre#isely do indi idual #hildren learn to read> In an a#tion resear#h study, the tea#her might obser e
and tra#) one #hildJs reading progress #arefully for an extended time. From the obser ations she #an get #lues about ho. to help not only that parti#ular #hild to read better, but also other #hildren in her #lass or e en in #olleaguesJ #lasses.
%oes it really matter if a high s#hool so#ial studies tea#her uses more, rather than fe.er, open-ended
questions> "s an a#tion of resear#h study, the tea#her might ideotape his o.n lessons, and systemati#ally #ompare studentsJ responses to his open-ended questions #ompared to their responses to more #losed
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1. The changing teaching profession and you questions ;the ones .ith more fixed ans.ers<. &he analysis might suggest .hen and ho. mu#h it is indeed desirable to use open-ended questions.
Can an art tea#her a#tually enti#e students to ta)e more #reati e ris)s .ith their dra.ings> "s an a#tion
resear#h study, the tea#her might examine the studentsJ dra.ings #arefully for signs of isual no elty and inno ation, and then see if the signs in#rease if she en#ourages no elty and inno ation expli#itly. &able 7: Examples of a#tion resear#h pro,e#t Steps in action research ro!ect *urpose of the resear#h ;as expressed by the tea#her doing the resear#h< "#ample 1$ students% use of the &nternet =In doing assignments, ho. high-quality, rele ant information>? "#ample 2$ a teacher%s helpfulness to "S' students ="m I responding to my E!2 my English-spea)ing students, and .hy or .hy not>? 4ho is doing the study> Classroom tea#her ;elementary tea#her Classroom tea#her ;senior high
su##essful are my students at finding students as fully and helpfully as to
le el< and s#hool #omputer spe#ialist le el<Lstudying selfI *ossibly #ollaborating .ith other tea#hers or .ith E!2 spe#ialist. 5o. information is gathered and re#orded "ssessing studentsJ assignmentsI Bbser ing students .hile they sear#h the Internet. Inter ie.ing students about their sear#h experien#es Gideotaping of self intera#ting during #lass dis#ussionsI (ournal diary by tea#her of experien#es .ith E!2 s other studentsI Inter ie.s .ith tea#herJs E!2 students 5o. information is analy/ed 2oo) for obsta#les and =sear#h tips? expressed by se eral studentsI 2oo) for #ommon strengths and problems .ith resear#h #ited on assignments. 2oo) for differen#es in type and amount of intera#tions .ith E!2 s other studentsI 2oo) for patterns in differen#esI &ry altering the patterns of intera#tion and obser e the result. 5o. information is reported and #ommuni#ated 4rite a brief report of results for fello. staffI 'i e a brief oral report to fello. staff about results 4rite a summary of the results in tea#herJs ,ournal diaryI !hare results .ith fello. staffI !hare results .ith tea#herJs students.
7:
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense &.o other, more #omplete examples of a#tion resear#h are summari/ed in &able 7. "lthough these examples, li)e many a#tion resear#h studies, resemble =espe#ially good tea#hing pra#ti#e?, they are planned more thoughtfully than usual, #arried out and re#orded more systemati#ally, and shared .ith fello. tea#hers more thoroughly and openly. "s su#h, they yield spe#ial benefits to tea#hers as professionals, though they also ta)e spe#ial time and effort. For no., the important point is that use of a#tion resear#h simultaneously refle#ts the in#reasing professionalism of tea#hers, but at the same time #reates higher standards for tea#hers .hen they tea#h.
"o# educational psychology can help

"ll things #onsidered, then, times ha e #hanged for tea#hers. 6ut tea#hing remains an attra#ti e, satisfying, and .orth.hile profession. &he re#ent trends mean simply that you need to prepare for tea#hing differently than you might ha e in the past, and perhaps differently than your o.n s#hool tea#hers did a generation ago. Fortunately, there are .ays to do this. $any #urrent programs in tea#her edu#ation pro ide a balan#e of experien#es in tune .ith #urrent and emerging needs of tea#hers. &hey offer more time for pra#ti#e tea#hing in s#hools, for example, and tea#her edu#ation instru#tors often ma)e deliberate efforts to #onne#t the #on#epts and ideas of edu#ation and psy#hology to #urrent best pra#ti#es of edu#ation. &hese and other features of #ontemporary tea#her edu#ation .ill ma)e it easier for you to be#ome the )ind of tea#her that you not only .ant to be, but also .ill need to be. &his boo)Labout edu#ational psy#hology and its relation to tea#hing and learningL#an be one of your supports as you get started. &o ma)e it as useful as possible, .e ha e .ritten about edu#ational psy#hology .hile )eeping in mind the #urrent state of tea#hing, as .ell as your needs as a unique future tea#her. &he text dra.s hea ily on #on#epts, resear#h and fundamental theories from edu#ational psy#hology. 6ut these are sele#ted and framed around the problems, #hallenges, and satisfa#tions fa#ed by tea#hers daily, and espe#ially as fa#ed by tea#hers ne. to the profession. 4e ha e sele#ted and emphasi/ed topi#s in proportion to t.o fa#tors: ;7< their importan#e as reported by tea#hers and other edu#ational experts, and ;E< the ability of edu#ational psy#hology to #omment on parti#ular problems, #hallenges, and satisfa#tions helpfully. &here is a lot to learn about tea#hing, and mu#h of it #omes from edu#ational psy#hology. "s a #areer, tea#hing has distin#ti e features no. that it did not ha e a generation ago. &he ne. features ma)e it more ex#iting in some .ays, as .ell as more #hallenging than in the past. &he #hanges require learning tea#hing s)ills that .ere less important in earlier times. 6ut the ne. s)ills are quite learnable. Edu#ational psy#hology, and this text, .ill get you started at that tas).
Chapter summary
&ea#hing in the t.enty-first #entury offers a number of satisfa#tionsL.itnessing and assisting the gro.th of young people, lifelong learning, the #hallenge and ex#itement of designing effe#ti e instru#tion. Four trends ha e affe#ted the .ay that these satisfa#tions are experien#ed by #lassroom tea#hers: ;7< in#reased di ersity of students, ;E< the spread of instru#tional te#hnology in s#hools and #lassrooms, ;0< in#reased expe#tations for a##ountability in edu#ation, and ;F< the de elopment of in#reased professionalism among tea#hers. Ea#h trend presents ne. opportunities to students and tea#hers, but also raises ne. issues for tea#hers. Edu#ational psy#hology, and this textboo), #an help tea#hers to ma)e #onstru#ti e use of the ne. trends as .ell as deal .ith the dilemmas that a##ompany them. It offers information, ad i#e, and useful perspe#ti es spe#ifi#ally in three areas of tea#hing: ;7< students as learners, ;E< instru#tion and assessment, and ;0< the psy#hologi#al and so#ial a.areness of tea#hers.
7C
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1. The changing teaching profession and you
Further resour#es
"t the end of ea#h #hapter of this boo) are referen#es to a large .ebsite, teachinged%sych, .hi#h has many resour#es that #an assist in learning more about edu#ational psy#hology. &he teachinged%sych .ebsite #an be used either by you, as a student preparing to be#ome a tea#her, or by your instru#tor if he or she is loo)ing for materials useful for #lass sessions related to edu#ational psy#hology. 2ater #hapters .ill #ite parti#ular pages .ithin the .ebsite. For Chapter 7, though, simply ha e a loo) at the teachinged%sych home page: teachinged%sych home page ;http:KKtea#hingedpsy#h..i)ispa#es.#om<
Key terms
"##ountability in edu#ation "#tion resear#h "ssessment %i ersity 5igh-sta)es testing Instru#tional te#hnology 2ifelong learning *rofessionalism &ea#her resear#h
+eferen#es
6ash, 2. ;Ed.<. ;E11@<. -est %ractices in adult learning. 6oston: "n)er *ubli#ations. 6rede)amp, !. P Copple, C. ;788:<. !evelo%mentally a%%ro%riate %ractice, Revised edition. 4ashington, %.C.: Aational "sso#iation for the Edu#ation of Noung Children. Co#hran-!mith, $. ;E110<. "ssessing assessment in tea#her edu#ation. Journal of Teacher Education, @?;0<, 7C:-787. Co#hran-!mith, $. P Fries, K. ;E11@<. +esear#h tea#her edu#ation in #hanging times: *oliti#s and paradigms. In $. Co#hran-!mith P K. -ei#hner ;Eds.<, Studying teacher education2 The re%ort of the AERA Panel on Research and Teacher Education, 98-771. Cuban, 2. ;E117<. 9versold and underused2 Com%uters in the classroom. Cambridge, $": 5ar ard 3ni ersity *ress. Edu#ational &esting !er i#e. ;E11F<. Study guide for Princi%les of #earning and Teaching, Dnd edition. *rin#eton, A(: "uthor. Fuhrman, !. P Elmore, +. ;E11F<. Redesigning accounta(ility systems for education. Ae. Nor): &ea#hers College *ress. 'ebhard, 2. ;E119<. Teaching English as a second or foreign language2 A teacher self4develo%ment and methodology guide, Dnd edition. "nn "rbor, $I: 3ni ersity of $i#higan *ress. 'lassford, 2. ;E11@<. &riumph of politi#s o er pedagogy> &he #ase of the Bntario &ea#her Qualifying &est. Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy, .ssue H?@. Bnline at R....umanitoba.#aKpubli#ationsK#,eapKarti#lesKglassford.htmlS. 5aertel, '. P $eans, 6. ;E110<. Evaluating educational technology2 Effective research designs for im%roving learning. Ae. Nor): &ea#hers College *ress. 5arris, %. P 5errington, C. ;E119<. "##ountability, standards, and the gro.ing a#hie ement gap: 2essons from the past half-#entury. American Journal of Education, CCD;E<, 790-E1C. 5ar ard Edu#ational +e ie.. ;E11@<. Inter ie.: 3nited !tates !e#retary of Edu#ation $argaret !pellings. :arvard Educational Revie , >@;F<, 09F-0CE. Kushner, 5. ;78C0<. Fhen (ad things ha%%en to good %eo%le. Ae. Nor): !#ho#)en 6oo)s. 78
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense 2ubiens)i, C. ;E11@<. *ubli# s#hools in mar)eti/ed en ironments: !hifting in#enti es and unintended #onsequen#es of #ompetition-based edu#ational reforms. American Journal of Education, CCC;F<, F9FFC9. $ertler, C. ;E119<. Action research2 Teachers as researchers in the classroom. &housand Ba)s, C": !age. Aational Institute for Early Edu#ation +esear#h. ;E119<. Percent of %o%ulation age < and ? Aeil, $. ;E110<. &he dangers of testing. Educational #eadershi%, ;=;@<, F0-F9. *itt, K. ;E11@<. !e(ates in ES# teaching and learning2 Culture, communities, and classrooms. 2ondon, 3K: +outledge. +udale ige, ". ;E11@, "ugust<. +eform or sTan#e> !ee)ing the =spirit? of the Ao Child 2eft 6ehind. Teachers College Record. Bnline at R....t#re#ord.orgS, I%O 7E77E. !eiter, E. ;E11@<. The .$TER$ET %layground2 Children+s access, entertainment, and miseducation. Ae. Nor): *eter 2ang. !tringer, E. ;E11F<. Action research in education. 3pper !addle +i er, A(: *earson Edu#ation. !utton, +. ;E11F<. &ea#hing under high-sta)es testing: %ilemmas and de#isions of a tea#her edu#ator. Journal of Teacher Education, @@;@<, F90-F:@. 3nited !tates Census 6ureau. ;E11@<. The :is%anic %o%ulation in the Inited States2 D==?. +etrie ed on $ar#h E7, E119 from Rhttp:KK....#ensus.go KpopulationK...Kso#demoKhispani#K#psE11F.htmlS. 3nited !tates 'o ernment *rinting Bffi#e. ;E11E<. $o Child #eft -ehind Act2 A des&to% reference. 4ashington, %.C.: "uthor. Federal +egistry. ;E11@, (une E7<. Assistance To States for the Education of Children 3nited !tates 'o ernment *rinting Bffi#e: "uthor. Golante, 2. ;E11F<. &ea#hing to the test: 4hat e ery edu#ator and poli#y-ma)er should )no.. Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy, .ssue H<@. Bnline at R....umanitoba.#aKpubli#ationsK#,eapKarti#lesK olante.htmlS. ith !isa(ilities. ho are enrolled in school2 Census D===. +etrie ed on $ar#h E7, E119 from R....nieer.orgKresour#esKfa#tsS.
E1
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$. The learning process

Fhen my son Aichael one tas& . %oured as old enough to tal&, and (eing an eager (ut naJve dad, . decided to (ring children learn,. .n hich according to ide glass %ie %late, than it hether it Aichael to my educational %sychology class to demonstrate to my students *ho ater from a tall drin&ing glass to a ater0there as less no Aichael changed the *amount, of that, on the contrary, the amount of as in the %ie %late. . told him as in the glass or the %ie ater had stayed the same
%late. :e loo&ed at me a (it strangely, (ut com%lied original %osition2 there as less ater, he said,
ith my %oint of vie 0agreeing at first that, as %oured into the %ie %late com%ared to 3Kelvin Seifert)
yes, the amount had stayed the same. -ut (y the end of the class session he had reverted to his hen it (eing %oured into the drin&ing glass. So much for demonstrating *learning,7 #earning is generally defined as relati ely permanent #hanges in beha ior, s)ills, )no.ledge, or attitudes resulting from identifiable psy#hologi#al or so#ial experien#es. " )ey feature is permanen#e: #hanges do not #ount as learning if they are temporaryLli)e $i#haelDs beliefs about =amount? des#ribed abo e. Nou do not learn a phone number if you forget it the minute after you dial the numberI you do not =learn? to li)e egetables if you only eat them .hen for#ed. &he #hange has to last. Aoti#e, though, that learning #an be physi#al, so#ial, or emotional as .ell as #ogniti e. Nou do not =learn? to snee/e by #at#hing #old, but you do learn many s)ills and beha iors that are physi#ally based, su#h as riding a bi#y#le or thro.ing a ball. Nou #an also learn to li)e ;or disli)e< a person, e en though this #hange may not happen deliberately. Each year after that first visit to my students, along ha%%ily, (ut hile Aichael as still a %reschooler, . returned ith ould as him to my ed4%sych class to do the same *learning demonstrations,. And each year Aichael came ould again fail the tas& a(out the drin&ing glass and the %ie %late. :e ater stayed the same no matter hich ay it ould still assert that the amount had changed. :e com%ly (riefly if . *suggested, that the amount of %oured, (ut in the end he
as not learning this
(it of conventional &no ledge, in s%ite of my re%eated efforts. -ut the year he turned si5, things changed. Fhen . told him it and %ie %late again/, . said yes, . res%onded, *(ecause . &no as time to visit my ed4%sych class ater in the drin&ing glass ant again, he readily agreed and as&ed2 *Are you going to as& me a(out the
as indeed %lanning to do that tas& again. *That+s good,, he
that the amount stays the same even after you %our it. -ut do you
me to fa&e it this time/ 8or your students+ sa&e/, !o e entually $i#hael learned an adult #on#ept of =amount?, but apparently he did it on his o.n, .ithout mu#h dire#t tea#hing from anyone. 2earning, it seemed, .as not the same as tea#hingM &he distin#tion bet.een learning and tea#hing is espe#ially important for tea#hers to rememberI an o##upational ha/ard of .hat .e do is to #onfuse our efforts ;i.e. our tea#hing< .ith .hat students get from our efforts ;i.e. their learning<.
E7
" 'lobal &ext
2. The learning process &his #hapter helps to #larify this distin#tion by explaining se eral ma,or theories of learning. 4e begin by explaining ho. the ery #ir#umstan#es of tea#hing #an influen#e tea#hersD per#eptions of learning, and therefore also influen#e ho. they tea#h. &hen .e des#ribe o%erant conditioning, a theory of learning based in a philosophi#al point of ie. #alled (ehaviorism, a perspe#ti e that emphasi/es the lin)s that #an often be obser ed among o ert beha iors and the #ir#umstan#es of the beha iors. &he ariety of beha iorism #alled operant #onditioning has been used by a number of edu#ators to explain and organi/e management strategies for #ertain students, espe#ially those .ith beha ior problems. "fter dis#ussing operant #onditioning .e dis#uss learning theories that emphasi/e that =inner? thoughts of learners, a ie.point often #alled constructivism. "s .e point out, there are arieties of #onstru#ti ism. 4e des#ribe t.o: one ;#alled cognitive constructivism) that emphasi/es the independen#e of learnersD thin)ing and another ;#alled social constructivism) that emphasi/es learnersD need for so#ial #onne#tions .hile learning.
Teachers% perspectives on learning

For tea#hers, learning usually refers to things that happen in s#hools or #lassrooms, e en though e ery tea#her #an of #ourse des#ribe examples of learning that happen outside of these pla#es. E en $i#hael, at age 9, had begun reali/ing that .hat #ounted as =learning? in his dadJs edu#ator-type mind .as something that happened in a #lassroom, under the super ision of a tea#her ;me<. For me, as for many edu#ators, the term has a more spe#ifi# meaning than for many people less in ol ed in s#hools. In parti#ular, tea#hersJ perspe#ti es on learning often emphasi/e three ideas, and sometimes e en ta)e them for granted: ;7< #urri#ulum #ontent and a#ademi# a#hie ement, ;E< sequen#ing and readiness, and ;0< the importan#e of transferring learning to ne. or future situations.
Gie.ing learning as dependent on #urri#ulum

4hen tea#hers spea) of learning, they tend to emphasi/e .hate er is taught in s#hools deliberately, in#luding both the offi#ial #urri#ulum and the arious beha iors and routines that ma)e #lassrooms run smoothly. In pra#ti#e, defining learning in this .ay often means that tea#hers equate learning .ith the ma,or forms of a#ademi# a#hie ementLespe#ially language and mathemati#sLand to a lesser extent musi#al s)ill, physi#al #oordination, or so#ial sensiti ity ;'ardner, 7888, E119<. &he imbalan#e o##urs not be#ause the goals of publi# edu#ation ma)e tea#hers responsible for #ertain #ontent and a#ti ities ;li)e boo)s and reading< and the s)ills .hi#h these a#ti ities require ;li)e ans.ering tea#hersJ questions and .riting essays<. It does happen not ;than)fullyM< be#ause tea#hers are biased, insensiti e, or una.are that students often learn a lot outside of s#hool. " side effe#t of thin)ing of learning as related only to #urri#ulum or a#ademi#s is that #lassroom so#ial intera#tions and beha iors be#ome issues for tea#hersLbe#ome things that they need to manage. In parti#ular, ha ing do/ens of students in one room ma)es it more li)ely that I, as a tea#her, thin) of =learning? as something that either ta)es #on#entration ;to a oid being distra#ted by others< or that benefits from #ollaboration ;to ta)e ad antage of their presen#e<. In the small spa#e of a #lassroom, no other ie.point about so#ial intera#tion ma)es sense. Net in the .ider .orld outside of s#hool, learning often does happen in#identally, =a##identally? and .ithout #ons#ious interferen#e or input from others: I =learn? .hat a friendJs personality is li)e, for example, .ithout either of us deliberately trying to ma)e this happen. "s tea#hers, .e sometimes see in#idental learning in #lassrooms as .ell, and often .el#ome itI but our responsibility for #urri#ulum goals more often fo#uses our efforts on .hat
EE
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense students #an learn through #ons#ious, deliberate effort. In a #lassroom, unli)e in many other human settings, it is al.ays ne#essary to as) .hether #lassmates are helping or hindering indi idual studentsJ learning. Fo#using learning on #hanges in #lassrooms has se eral other effe#ts. Bne, for example, is that it #an tempt tea#hers to thin) that .hat is taught is equi alent to .hat is learnedLe en though most tea#hers )no. that doing so is a mista)e, and that tea#hing and learning #an be quite different. If I assign a reading to my students about the +ussian +e olution, it .ould be ni#e to assume not only that they ha e read the same .ords, but also learned the same #ontent. 6ut that assumption is not usually the reality. !ome students may ha e read and learned all of .hat I assignedI others may ha e read e erything but misunderstood the material or remembered only some of itI and still others, unfortunately, may ha e neither read nor learned mu#h of anything. Chan#es are that my students .ould #onfirm this pi#ture, if as)ed #onfidentially. &here are .ays, of #ourse, to deal helpfully .ith su#h di ersity of out#omesI for suggestions, see espe#ially Chapter 71 =*lanning instru#tion? and Chapter 77 =&ea#her-made assessment strategies?. 6ut .hate er instru#tional strategies I adopt, they #annot in#lude assuming that .hat I tea#h is the same as .hat students understand or retain of .hat I tea#h.
Gie.ing learning as dependent on sequen#ing and readiness

&he distin#tion bet.een tea#hing and learning #reates a se#ondary issue for tea#hers, that of edu#ational readiness. &raditionally the #on#ept referred to studentsJ preparedness to #ope .ith or profit from the a#ti ities and expe#tations of s#hool. " )indergarten #hild .as =ready? to start s#hool, for example, if he or she .as in good health, sho.ed moderately good so#ial s)ills, #ould ta)e #are of personal physi#al needs ;li)e eating lun#h or going to the bathroom unsuper ised<, #ould use a pen#il to ma)e simple dra.ings, and so on. &able E sho.s a similar set of #riteria for determining .hether a #hild is =ready? to learn to read ;Copple P 6rede)amp, E119<. "t older ages ;su#h as in high s#hool or uni ersity<, the term readiness is often repla#ed by a more spe#ifi# term, prerequisites. &o ta)e a #ourse in physi#s, for example, a student must first ha e #ertain prerequisite experien#es, su#h as studying ad an#ed algebra or #al#ulus. &o begin .or) as a publi# s#hool tea#her, a person must first engage in pra#ti#e tea#hing for a period of time ;not to mention also studying edu#ational psy#hologyM<. &able E: +eading readiness in students s in tea#hers Signs of readiness in the child or student
produ#ti e ;spea)ing< o#abulary of @,111-
Signs of readiness to teach reading

tea#her ans.ers #hildrenJs questions .hen
C,111 .ords
#hild understands and uses #omplete senten#es #hildJs questions tend to be rele ant to the tas)
possible
tea#her en#ourages #hild to find out more
through other means in addition to as)ing tea#her

tea#her as)s questions designed to elaborate or
at hand
#hildJs #orre#tly using most #ommon
expand #hildJs thin)ing

tea#her highlights letters and sounds in the
grammati#al #onstru#tions
#hild #an mat#h some letters to some sounds #hild #an string a fe. letters together to ma)e a
#lassroom
tea#her pro ides lots of paper and mar)ing
fe. simple .ords
tools
tea#her assists #hild .ith initial .riting of
E0
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2. The learning process

#hild #an tell and retell stories, poems, and
letters
tea#her en#ourages #hildren to ena#t stories,
songs
poems, and songs Source2 Copple P 6rede)amp, E119.
Aote that this traditional meaning, of readiness as preparedness, fo#uses attention on studentsJ ad,ustment to s#hool and a.ay from the re erse: the possibility that s#hools and tea#hers also ha e a responsibility for ad,usting to students. 6ut the latter idea is in fa#t a legitimate, se#ond meaning for readiness$ If @-year-old #hildren normally need to play a lot and )eep a#ti e, then it is fair to say that their )indergarten tea#her needs to be =ready? for this beha ior by planning for a program that allo.s a lot of play and physi#al a#ti ity. If she #annot or .ill not do so ;.hate er the reason may be<, then in a ery real sense this failure is not the #hildrenJs responsibility. "mong older students, the se#ond, tea#her-oriented meaning of readiness ma)es sense as .ell. If a tea#her has a student .ith a disability ;for example, the student is isually impaired<, then the tea#her has to ad,ust her approa#h in appropriate .aysLnot simply expe#t a isually impaired #hild to =sin) or s.im?. "s you might expe#t, this sense of readiness is ery important for spe#ial edu#ation, so I dis#uss it further in Chapter @ =!tudents .ith spe#ial edu#ational needs?. 6ut the issue of readiness also figures importantly .hene er students are di erse ;.hi#h is most of the time<, so it also #omes up in Chapter F =!tudent di ersity?.
Gie.ing transfer as a #ru#ial out#ome of learning

!till another result of fo#using the #on#ept of learning on #lassrooms is that it raises issues of usefulness or transfer, .hi#h is the ability to use )no.ledge or s)ill in situations beyond the ones in .hi#h they are a#quired. 2earning to read and learning to sol e arithmeti# problems, for example, are ma,or goals of the elementary s#hool #urri#ulum be#ause those s)ills are meant to be used not only inside the #lassroom, but outside as .ell. 4e tea#hers intend, that is, for reading and arithmeti# s)ills to =transfer?, e en though .e also do our best to ma)e the s)ills en,oyable .hile they are still being learned. In the .orld inhabited by tea#hers, e en more than in other .orlds, ma)ing learning fun is #ertainly a good thing to do, but ma)ing learning useful as .ell as fun is e en better. Combining en,oyment and usefulness, in fa#t, is a =gold standard? of tea#hing: .e generally see) it for students, e en though .e may not su##eed at pro iding it all of the time.
&ajor theories and models of learning

!e eral ideas and priorities, then, affe#t ho. .e tea#hers thin) about learning, in#luding the #urri#ulum, the differen#e bet.een tea#hing and learning, sequen#ing, readiness, and transfer. &he ideas form a =s#reen? through .hi#h to understand and e aluate .hate er psy#hology has to offer edu#ation. "s it turns out, many theories, #on#epts, and ideas from edu#ational psy#hology do ma)e it through the =s#reen? of edu#ation, meaning that they are #onsistent .ith the professional priorities of tea#hers and helpful in sol ing important problems of #lassroom tea#hing. In the #ase of issues about #lassroom learning, for example, edu#ational psy#hologists ha e de eloped a number of theories and #on#epts that are rele ant to #lassrooms, in that they des#ribe at least some of .hat usually happens there and offer guidan#e for assisting learning. It is helpful to group the theories a##ording to .hether they fo#us on #hanges in beha ior or in thin)ing. &he distin#tion is rough and inexa#t, but a good pla#e to begin. For starters, therefore, #onsider t.o perspe#ti es about learning, #alled beha iorism ;learning as #hanges in o ert EF
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense beha ior< and #onstru#ti ism, ;learning as #hanges in thin)ing<. &he se#ond #ategory #an be further di ided into psy#hologi#al #onstru#ti ism ;#hanges in thin)ing resulting from indi idual experien#es<, and so#ial #onstru#ti ism, ;#hanges in thin)ing due to assistan#e from others<. &he rest of this #hapter des#ribes )ey ideas from ea#h of these ie.points. "s I hope you .ill see, ea#h des#ribes some aspe#ts of learning not ,ust in general, but as it happens in #lassrooms in parti#ular. !o ea#h perspe#ti e suggests things that you might do in your #lassroom to ma)e studentsJ learning more produ#ti e.
6eha iorism: #hanges in .hat students do

(ehaviorism is a perspe#ti e on learning that fo#uses on #hanges in indi idualsJ obser able beha iorsL #hanges in .hat people say or do. "t some point .e all use this perspe#ti e, .hether .e #all it =beha iorism? or something else. &he first time that I dro e a #ar, for example, I .as #on#erned primarily .ith .hether I #ould a#tually do the dri ing, not .ith .hether I #ould des#ribe or explain ho. to dri e. For another example: .hen I rea#hed the point in life .here I began #oo)ing meals for myself, I .as more fo#used on .hether I #ould a#tually produ#e edible food in a )it#hen than .ith .hether I #ould explain my re#ipes and #oo)ing pro#edures to others. "nd still another exampleLone often rele ant to ne. tea#hers: .hen I began my first year of tea#hing, I .as more fo#used on doing the ,ob of tea#hingLon day-to-day sur i alLthan on pausing to refle#t on .hat I .as doing. Aote that in all of these examples, fo#using attention on beha ior instead of on =thoughts? may ha e been desirable at that moment, but not ne#essarily desirable indefinitely or all of the time. E en as a beginner, there are times .hen it is more important to be able to des#ribe ho. to dri e or to #oo) than to a#tually do these things. "nd there definitely are many times .hen refle#ting on and thin)ing about tea#hing #an impro e tea#hing itself. ;"s a tea#her-friend on#e said to me: =%onJt ,ust do somethingI stand thereM?< 6ut neither is fo#using on beha ior .hi#h is not ne#essarily less desirable than fo#using on studentsJ =inner? #hanges, su#h as gains in their )no.ledge or their personal attitudes. If you are tea#hing, you .ill need to attend to all forms of learning in students, .hether inner or out.ard. In #lassrooms, beha iorism is most useful for identifying relationships bet.een spe#ifi# a#tions by a student and the immediate pre#ursors and #onsequen#es of the a#tions. It is less useful for understanding #hanges in studentsJ thin)ingI for this purpose .e need theories that are more cognitive ;or thin)ing-oriented< or so#ial, li)e the ones des#ribed later in this #hapter. &his fa#t is not a #riti#ism of beha iorism as a perspe#ti e, but ,ust a #larifi#ation of its parti#ular strength or usefulness, .hi#h is to highlight obser able relationships among a#tions, pre#ursors and #onsequen#es. 6eha iorists use parti#ular terms ;or =lingo?, some might say< for these relationships. Bne ariety of beha iorism that has pro ed espe#ially useful to edu#ators is o%erant conditioning, des#ribed in the next se#tion.
9%erant conditioning2 ne
(ehaviors (ecause of ne
conse)uences
)perant conditioning fo#uses on ho. the #onsequen#es of a beha ior affe#t the beha ior o er time. It begins .ith the idea that #ertain #onsequen#es tend to ma)e #ertain beha iors happen more frequently. If I #ompliment a student for a good #omment made during dis#ussion, there is more of a #han#e that I .ill hear further #omments from the student in the future ;and hopefully they too .ill be good onesM<. If a student tells a ,o)e to #lassmates and they laugh at it, then the student is li)ely to tell more ,o)es in the future and so on. &he original resear#h about this model of learning .as not done .ith people, but .ith animals. Bne of the pioneers in the field .as a 5ar ard professor named 6. F. !)inner, .ho published numerous boo)s and arti#les about the details of the pro#ess and .ho pointed out many parallels bet.een operant #onditioning in animals and Educational Psychology E@ " 'lobal &ext
2. The learning process operant #onditioning in humans ;780C, 78FC, 78CC<. !)inner obser ed the beha ior of rather tame laboratory rats ;not the unpleasant )ind that sometimes li e in garbage dumps<. 5e or his assistants .ould put them in a #age that #ontained little ex#ept a le er and a small tray ,ust big enough to hold a small amount of food. ;Exhibit 7 sho.s the basi# set-up, .hi#h is sometimes ni#)named a =!)inner box?.< "t first the rat .ould sniff and =putter around? the #age at random, but sooner or later it .ould happen upon the le er and e entually happen to press it. *restoM &he le er released a small pellet of food, .hi#h the rat .ould promptly eat. 'radually the rat .ould spend more time near the le er and press the le er more frequently, getting food more frequently. E entually it .ould spend most of its time at the le er and eating its fill of food. &he rat had =dis#o ered? that the #onsequen#e of pressing the le el .as to re#ei e food. !)inner #alled the #hanges in the ratJs beha ior an example of operant conditioning* and ga e spe#ial names to the different parts of the pro#ess. 5e #alled the food pellets the reinforcement and the le er-pressing the operant ;be#ause it =operated? on the ratJs en ironment<. !ee belo..
)perant
+einforcement
*ress le er Food pellet
Exhibit 7: Bperant #onditioning .ith a laboratory rat !)inner and other beha ioral psy#hologists experimented .ith using arious reinfor#ers and operants. &hey also experimented .ith arious patterns of reinfor#ement ;or schedules of reinforcement<, as .ell as .ith arious cues or signals to the animal about .hen reinfor#ement .as a ailable . It turned out that all of these fa#torsLthe operant, the reinfor#ement, the s#hedule, and the #uesLaffe#ted ho. easily and thoroughly operant #onditioning o##urred. For example, reinfor#ement .as more effe#ti e if it #ame immediately after the #ru#ial operant beha ior, rather than being delayed, and reinfor#ements that happened intermittently ;only part of the time< #aused learning to ta)e longer, but also #aused it to last longer. )perant conditioning and students% learning$ !in#e the original resear#h about operant #onditioning used animals, it is important to as) .hether operant #onditioning also des#ribes learning in human beings, and espe#ially in students in #lassrooms. Bn this point the ans.er seems to be #learly =yes?. &here are #ountless #lassroom examples of #onsequen#es affe#ting studentsJ beha ior in .ays that resemble operant #onditioning, although the pro#ess #ertainly does not a##ount for all forms of student learning ;"lberto P &routman, E11@<. Consider the follo.ing examples. In most of them the operant beha ior tends to be#ome more frequent on repeated o##asions:
E9

" se enth-grade boy ma)es a silly fa#e ;the operant< at the girl sitting next to him. Classmates sitting around
them giggle in response ;the reinfor#ement<.

" )indergarten #hild raises her hand in response to the tea#herJs question about a story ;the operant<. &he
tea#her #alls on her and she ma)es her #omment ;the reinfor#ement<.
"nother )indergarten #hild blurts out her #omment .ithout being #alled on ;the operant<. &he tea#her fro.ns,
ignores this beha ior, but before the tea#her #alls on a different student, #lassmates are listening attenti ely ;the reinfor#ement< to the student e en though he did not raise his hand as he should ha e.
" t.elfth-grade studentLa member of the tra#) teamLruns one mile during pra#ti#e ;the operant<. 5e notes
the time it ta)es him as .ell as his in#rease in speed sin#e ,oining the team ;the reinfor#ement<.
" #hild .ho is usually
ery restless sits for fi e minutes doing an assignment ;the operant<. &he tea#hing
assistant #ompliments him for .or)ing hard ;the reinfor#ement<.

" sixth-grader ta)es home a boo) from the #lassroom library to read o ernight ;the operant<. 4hen she
returns the boo) the next morning, her tea#her puts a gold star by her name on a #hart posted in the room ;the reinfor#ement<. &hese examples are enough to ma)e se eral points about operant #onditioning. First, the pro#ess is .idespread in #lassroomsLprobably more .idespread than tea#hers reali/e. &his fa#t ma)es sense, gi en the nature of publi# edu#ation: to a large extent, tea#hing is about ma)ing #ertain #onsequen#es ;li)e praise or mar)s< depend on studentsJ engaging in #ertain a#ti ities ;li)e reading #ertain material or doing assignments<. !e#ond, learning by operant #onditioning is not #onfined to any parti#ular grade, sub,e#t area, or style of tea#hing, but by nature happens in e ery imaginable #lassroom. &hird, tea#hers are not the only persons #ontrolling reinfor#ements. !ometimes they are #ontrolled by the a#ti ity itself ;as in the tra#) team example<, or by #lassmates ;as in the =giggling? example<. &his leads to the fourth point: that multiple examples of operant #onditioning often happen at the same time. " #ase study in "ppendix " of this boo) 3The decline and fall of Jane Kladstone < suggests ho. this happened to someone #ompleting student tea#hing. 6e#ause operant #onditioning happens so .idely, its effe#ts on moti ation are a bit #omplex. Bperant #onditioning #an en#ourage intrinsic motivation* to the extent that the reinfor#ement for an a#ti ity is the a#ti ity itself. 4hen a student reads a boo) for the sheer en,oyment of reading, for example, he is reinfor#ed by the reading itself, and .e .e #an say that his reading is =intrinsi#ally moti ated?. $ore often, ho.e er, operant #onditioning stimulates (oth intrinsi# and extrinsi# moti ation at the same time. &he #ombining of both is noti#eable in the examples in the pre ious paragraph. In ea#h example, it is reasonable to assume that the student felt intrinsi#ally moti ated to some partial extent, e en .hen re.ard #ame from outside the student as .ell. &his .as be#ause %art of .hat reinfor#ed their beha ior .as the beha ior itselfL.hether it .as ma)ing fa#es, running a mile, or #ontributing to a dis#ussion. "t the same time, though, note that ea#h student probably .as also e#trinsically motivated* meaning that another part of the reinfor#ement #ame from #onsequen#es or experien#es not inherently part of the a#ti ity or beha ior itself. &he boy .ho made a fa#e .as reinfor#ed not only by the pleasure of ma)ing a fa#e, for example, but also by the giggles of #lassmates. &he tra#) student .as reinfor#ed not only by the pleasure of running itself, but also by )no.ledge of his impro ed times and speeds. E en the usually restless #hild sitting still for fi e minutes may ha e been reinfor#ed partly by this brief experien#e of unusually fo#used a#ti ity, e en if he .as also reinfor#ed by the tea#her aideJs #ompliment. Aote that the extrinsi# part of the reinfor#ement may sometimes be more easily obser ed or noti#ed than the intrinsi# part, .hi#h by Educational Psychology E: " 'lobal &ext
2. The learning process definition may sometimes only be experien#ed .ithin the indi idual and not also displayed out.ardly. &his latter fa#t may #ontribute to an impression that sometimes o##urs, that operant #onditioning is really ,ust =bribery in disguise?, that only the e5ternal reinfor#ements operate on studentsJ beha ior. It is true that external reinfor#ement may sometimes alter the nature or strength of internal ;or intrinsi#< reinfor#ement, but this is not the same as saying that it destroys or repla#es intrinsi# reinfor#ement. 6ut more about this issue laterM ;!ee the #hapter on =!tudent moti ation?.< Key concepts about operant conditioning$ Bperant #onditioning is made more #ompli#ated, but also more realisti#, by se eral additional ideas. &hey #an be #onfusing be#ause the ideas ha e names that sound rather ordinary, but that ha e spe#ial meanings .ith the frame.or) of operant theory. "mong the most important #on#epts to understand are the follo.ing:

extin#tion generali/ation dis#rimination s#hedules of reinfor#ement #ues
&he paragraphs belo. explain ea#h of these briefly, as .ell as their rele an#e to #lassroom tea#hing and learning. "#tinction refers to the disappearan#e of an o%erant (ehavior be#ause of la#) of reinfor#ement. " student .ho sto%s re#ei ing gold stars or #ompliments for prolifi# reading of library boo)s, for example, may extinguish ;i.e. de#rease or stop< boo)-reading beha ior. " student .ho used to be reinfor#ed for a#ting li)e a #lo.n in #lass may stop #lo.ning on#e #lassmates stop paying attention to the anti#s. ,enerali-ation refers to the in#idental #onditioning of beha iors similar to an original o%erant. If a student gets gold stars for reading library boo)s, then .e may find her reading more of other material as .ellLne.spapers, #omi#s, et#.Ue en if the a#ti ity is not reinfor#ed dire#tly. &he =spread? of the ne. beha ior to similar beha iors is #alled generali/ation. 'enerali/ation is a lot li)e the #on#ept of transfer dis#ussed early in this #hapter, in that it is about extending prior learning to ne. situations or #ontexts. From the perspe#ti e of operant #onditioning, though, .hat is being extended ;or =transferred? or generali/ed< is a beha ior, not )no.ledge or s)ill. Discrimination means learning not to generali/e. In operant #onditioning, .hat is not o ergenerali/ed ;i.e. .hat is dis#riminated< is the operant beha ior. If I am a student .ho is being #omplimented ;reinfor#ed< for #ontributing to dis#ussions, I must also learn to dis#riminate .hen to ma)e erbal #ontributions from .hen not to ma)e themLsu#h as .hen #lassmates or the tea#her are busy .ith other tas)s. %is#rimination learning usually results from the #ombined effe#ts of reinfor#ement of the target beha ior and extin#tion of similar generali/ed beha iors. In a #lassroom, for example, a tea#her might praise a student for spea)ing during dis#ussion, but ignore him for ma)ing ery similar remar)s out of turn. In operant #onditioning, the schedule of reinforcement refers to the pattern or frequen#y by .hi#h reinfor#ement is lin)ed .ith the operant. If a tea#her praises me for my .or), does she do it e ery time, or only sometimes> Frequently or only on#e in a.hile> In respondent #onditioning, ho.e er, the s#hedule in question is the pattern by .hi#h the #onditioned stimulus is paired .ith the un#onditioned stimulus. If I am student .ith $r 5orrible as my tea#her, does he s#o.l e ery time he is in the #lassroom, or only sometimes> Frequently or rarely> 6eha ioral psy#hologists ha e studied s#hedules of reinfor#ement extensi ely ;for example, Ferster, et al., 788:I $a/ur, E11@<, and found a number of interesting effe#ts of different s#hedules. For tea#hers, ho.e er, the most EC
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense important finding may be this: partial or intermittent s#hedules of reinfor#ement generally #ause learning to ta)e longer, but also #ause extin#tion of learning to ta)e longer. &his dual prin#iple is important for tea#hers be#ause so mu#h of the reinfor#ement .e gi e is partial or intermittent. &ypi#ally, if I am tea#hing, I #an #ompliment a student a lot of the time, for example, but there .ill ine itably be o##asions .hen I #annot do so be#ause I am busy else.here in the #lassroom. For tea#hers #on#erned both about moti ating students and about minimi/ing inappropriate beha iors, this is both good ne.s and bad. &he good ne.s is that the benefits of my praising studentsJ #onstru#ti e beha ior .ill be more lasting, be#ause they .ill not extinguish their #onstru#ti e beha iors immediately if I fail to support them e ery single time they happen. &he bad ne.s is that studentsJ negati e beha iors may ta)e longer to extinguish as .ell, be#ause those too may ha e de eloped through partial reinfor#ement. " student .ho #lo.ns around inappropriately in #lass, for example, may not be =supported? by #lassmatesJ laughter e ery time it happens, but only some of the time. Bn#e the inappropriate beha ior is learned, though, it .ill ta)e some.hat longer to disappear e en if e eryoneLboth tea#her and #lassmatesLma)e a #on#erted effort to ignore ;or extinguish< it. Finally, beha ioral psy#hologists ha e studied the effe#ts of cues. In operant #onditioning, a #ue is a stimulus that happens ,ust prior to the operant beha ior and that signals that performing the beha ior may lead to reinfor#ement. In the original #onditioning experiments, !)innerJs rats .ere sometimes #ued by the presen#e or absen#e of a small ele#tri# light in their #age. +einfor#ement .as asso#iated .ith pressing a le er .hen, and only .hen, the light .as on. In #lassrooms, #ues are sometimes pro ided by the tea#her deliberately, and sometimes simply by the established routines of the #lass. Calling on a student to spea), for example, #an be a #ue that if the student does say something at that moment, then he or she may be reinfor#ed .ith praise or a#)no.ledgment. 6ut if that #ue does not o##urLif the student is not #alled onLspea)ing may not be re.arded. In more e eryday, nonbeha iorist terms, the #ue allo.s the student to learn .hen it is a##eptable to spea), and .hen it is not.
Constru#ti ism: #hanges in ho. students thin)

6eha iorist models of learning may be helpful in understanding and influen#ing .hat students do, but tea#hers usually also .ant to )no. .hat students are thin&ing, and ho. to enri#h .hat students are thin)ing. For this goal of tea#hing, some of the best help #omes from constructivism* .hi#h is a perspe#ti e on learning fo#used on ho. students a#ti ely #reate ;or =#onstru#t?< )no.ledge out of experien#es. Constru#ti ist models of learning differ about ho. mu#h a learner #onstru#ts )no.ledge independently, #ompared to ho. mu#h he or she ta)es #ues from people .ho may be more of an expert and .ho help the learnerDs efforts ;Fosnot, E11@I +o#)more, E11@<. For #on enien#e these are #alled psychological constructivism and social constructivism ;or sometimes socio. cultural theory/. "s explained in the next se#tion, both fo#us on indi idualsD thin)ing rather than their beha ior, but they ha e distin#tly different impli#ations for tea#hing.
Psychological constructivism2 the inde%endent investigator

&he main idea of psy#hologi#al #onstru#ti ism is that a person learns by mentally organi/ing and reorgani/ing ne. information or experien#es. &he organi/ation happens partly by relating ne. experien#es to prior )no.ledge that is already meaningful and .ell understood. !tated in this general form, indi idual #onstru#ti ism is sometimes asso#iated .ith a .ell-)no.n edu#ational philosopher of the early t.entieth #entury, 0ohn De1ey ;780C-788C<. "lthough %e.ey himself did not use the term #onstru#ti ism in most of his .riting, his point of ie. amounted to a type of #onstru#ti ism, and he dis#ussed in detail its impli#ations for edu#ators. 5e argued, for example, that if Educational Psychology E8 " 'lobal &ext
2. The learning process students indeed learn primarily by building their o.n )no.ledge, then tea#hers should ad,ust the #urri#ulum to fit studentsJ prior )no.ledge and interests as fully as possible. 5e also argued that a #urri#ulum #ould only be ,ustified if it related as fully as possible to the a#ti ities and responsibilities that students .ill probably ha e later, after lea ing s#hool. &o many edu#ators these days, his ideas may seem merely li)e good #ommon sense, but they .ere indeed inno ati e and progressi e at the beginning of the t.entieth #entury. "nother re#ent example of psy#hologi#al #onstru#ti ism is the #ogniti e theory of 0ean iaget ;*iaget, E117I 'ruber P Gone#he, 788@<. *iaget des#ribed learning as interplay bet.een t.o mental a#ti ities that he #alled assimilation and accommodation. 2ssimilation is the interpretation of ne. information in terms of pre-existing #on#epts, information or ideas. " pres#hool #hild .ho already understands the #on#ept of (ird, for example, might initially label any flying ob,e#t .ith this termLe en butterflies or mosquitoes. "ssimilation is therefore a bit li)e the idea of generali1ation in operant #onditioning, or the idea of transfer des#ribed at the beginning of this #hapter. In *iagetJs ie.point, though, .hat is being transferred to a ne. setting is not simply a beha ior ;!)innerDs =operant? in operant #onditioning<, but a mental representation for an ob,e#t or experien#e. "ssimilation operates ,ointly .ith accommodation* .hi#h is the re ision or modifi#ation of pre-existing #on#epts in terms of ne. information or experien#e. &he pres#hooler .ho initially generali/es the #on#ept of (ird to in#lude any flying ob,e#t, for example, e entually re ises the #on#ept to in#lude only parti#ular )inds of flying ob,e#ts, su#h as robins and sparro.s, and not others, li)e mosquitoes or airplanes. For *iaget, assimilation and a##ommodation .or) together to enri#h a #hildJs thin)ing and to #reate .hat *iaget #alled cognitive e3uilibrium, .hi#h is a balan#e bet.een relian#e on prior information and openness to ne. information. "t any gi en time, #ogniti e equilibrium #onsists of an e er-gro.ing repertoire of mental representations for ob,e#ts and experien#es. *iaget #alled ea#h mental representation a schema ;all of them togetherLthe pluralL.ere #alled schemata<. " s#hema .as not merely a #on#ept, but an elaborated mixture of o#abulary, a#tions, and experien#e related to the #on#ept. " #hildJs s#hema for (ird, for example, in#ludes not only the rele ant erbal )no.ledge ;li)e )no.ing ho. to define the .ord =bird?<, but also the #hildJs experien#es .ith birds, pi#tures of birds, and #on ersations about birds. "s assimilation and a##ommodation about birds and other flying ob,e#ts operate together o er time, the #hild does not ,ust re ise and add to his o#abulary ;su#h as a#quiring a ne. .ord, =butterfly?<, but also adds and remembers rele ant ne. experien#es and a#tions. From these #olle#ti e re isions and additions the #hild gradually #onstru#ts .hole ne. s#hemata about birds, butterflies, and other flying ob,e#ts. In more e eryday ;but also less pre#ise< terms, *iaget might then say that =the #hild has learned more about birds?. &he upper part of Exhibit E diagrams the relationships among the *iagetian ersion of psy#hologi#al #onstru#ti ist learning. ;4e .ill explain the lo.er part of Exhibit E shortly, in the next se#tion.< Aote that the model of learning in the Exhibit is rather =indi idualisti#?, in the sense that it does not say mu#h about ho. other people in ol ed .ith the learner might assist in assimilating or a##ommodating information. *arents and tea#hers, it .ould seem, are left lingering on the sidelines, .ith fe. signifi#ant responsibilities for helping learners to #onstru#t )no.ledge. 6ut the *iagetian pi#ture does nonetheless imply a role for helpful others: someone, after all, has to tell or model the o#abulary needed to tal) about and #ompare birds from airplanes and butterfliesM *iaget did re#ogni/e the importan#e of helpful others in his .ritings and theori/ing, #alling the pro#ess of support or assistan#e social transmission. 6ut he did not emphasi/e this aspe#t of #onstru#ti ism. *iaget .as more interested in .hat #hildren and youth #ould figure out on their o.n, so to spea), than in ho. tea#hers or parents might be able to help the young figure out ;!al)ind, E11F<. *artly for this reason, his theory is often #onsidered less about 01
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense learning and more about develo%ment, or long-term #hange in a person resulting from multiple experien#es that may not be planned deliberately. For the same reason, edu#ators ha e often found *iagetJs ideas espe#ially helpful for thin)ing about studentsJ readiness to learn, another one of the lasting edu#ational issues dis#ussed at the beginning of this #hapter. 4e .ill therefore return to *iaget later to dis#uss de elopment and its importan#e for tea#hing in more detail. 'earning 2ccording to iaget$ "ssimilation V "##ommodation Equilibrium !#hemata 'earning 2ccording to 4ygots5y$ Ao i#e -one of *roximal %e elopment ;-*%< Expert
Exhibit E: Constru#ti ist models of learning
Social Constructivism2 assisted %erformance

3nli)e *iagetJs orientation to indi idualsD thin)ing in his ersion of #onstru#ti ism, some psy#hologists and edu#ators ha e expli#itly fo#used on the relationships and intera#tions bet.een a learner and other indi iduals .ho are more )no.ledgeable or experien#ed. &his frame.or) often is #alled social constructivism or socio. cultural theory. "n early expression of this ie.point #ame from the "meri#an psy#hologist 0erome (runer ;7891, 7899, 7889<, .ho be#ame #on in#ed that students #ould usually learn more than had been traditionally expe#ted as long as they .ere gi en appropriate guidan#e and resour#es. 5e #alled su#h support instructional scaffoldingLliterally meaning a temporary frame.or) li)e the ones used to #onstru#t buildings and that allo. a mu#h stronger stru#ture to be built .ithin it. In a #omment that has been quoted .idely ;and sometimes disputed<, 6runer .rote: =4e W#onstru#ti ist edu#atorsX begin .ith the hypothesis that any sub,e#t #an be taught effe#ti ely in some intelle#tually honest form to any #hild at any stage of de elopment.? ;7891, p. 00<. &he reason for su#h a bold assertion .as 6runerJs belief in s#affoldingLhis belief in the importan#e of pro iding guidan#e in the right .ay and at the right time. 4hen s#affolding is pro ided, students seem more #ompetent and =intelligent?, and they learn more. !imilar ideas .ere independently proposed by the +ussian psy#hologist 'ev 4ygots5y ;78:C<, .hose .riting fo#used on ho. a #hildJs or no i#eJs thin)ing is influen#ed by relationshi%s .ith others .ho are more #apable, )no.ledgeable, or expert than the learner. Gygots)y made the reasonable proposal that .hen a #hild ;or no i#e< is learning a ne. s)ill or sol ing a ne. problem, he or she #an perform (etter if a##ompanied and helped by an expert than if performing aloneLthough still not as .ell as the expert. !omeone .ho has played ery little #hess, for example, .ill probably #ompete against an opponent better if helped by an expert #hess player than if #ompeting against the opponent alone. Gygots)y #alled the differen#e bet.een solo performan#e and assisted performan#e the -one of pro#imal development ;or 6 D for short<Lmeaning, figurati ely spea)ing, the pla#e or area of immediate #hange. From this so#ial #onstru#ti ist perspe#ti e, learning is li)e assisted %erformance ;&harp P 'allimore, 7887<. %uring learning, )no.ledge or s)ill is found initially =in? the expert helper. If the expert is s)illed and moti ated to help, then the expert arranges experien#es that let the no i#e to pra#ti#e #ru#ial s)ills or to
07
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2. The learning process #onstru#t ne. )no.ledge. In this regard the expert is a bit li)e the #oa#h of an athleteLoffering help and suggesting .ays of pra#ti#ing, but ne er doing the a#tual athleti# .or) himself or herself. 'radually, by pro iding #ontinued experien#es mat#hed to the no i#e learnerJs emerging #ompeten#ies, the expert-#oa#h ma)es it possible for the no i#e or apprenti#e to appropriate ;or ma)e his or her o.n< the s)ills or )no.ledge that originally resided only .ith the expert. &hese relationships are diagrammed in the lo.er part of Exhibit E. In both the psy#hologi#al and so#ial ersions of #onstru#ti ist learning, the no i#e is not really =taught? so mu#h as simply allo.ed to learn. 6ut #ompared to psy#hologi#al #onstru#ti ism, so#ial #onstru#ti ism highlights a more dire#t responsibility of the expert for ma)ing learning possible. 5e or she must not only ha e )no.ledge and s)ill, but also )no. ho. to arrange experien#es that ma)e it easy and safe for learners to gain )no.ledge and s)ill themsel es. &hese requirements sound, of #ourse, a lot li)e the requirements for #lassroom tea#hing. In addition to )no.ing .hat is to be learned, the expert ;i.e. the tea#her< also has to organi/e the #ontent into manageable parts, offer the parts in a sensible sequen#e, pro ide for suitable and su##essful pra#ti#e, bring the parts ba#) together again at the end, and someho. relate the entire experien#e to )no.ledge and s)ills meaningful to the learner already. 6ut of #ourse, no one said that tea#hing is easyM
&he tea#herDs role in *sy#hologi#al and !o#ial Constru#ti ism

"s some of the #omments abo e indi#ate, psy#hologi#al and so#ial #onstru#ti ism ha e differen#es that suggest different .ays for tea#hers to tea#h most effe#ti ely. &he theoreti#al differen#es are related to three ideas in parti#ular: the relationship of learning and long-term de elopment, the role or meaning of generali/ations and abstra#tions during de elopment, and the me#hanism by .hi#h de elopment o##urs.
The relationshi% of learning and long4term develo%ment of the child

In general psy#hologi#al #onstru#ti ism su#h as *iaget emphasi/e the .ays that long-term de elopment determines a #hildDs ability to learn, rather than the other .ay around. "s explained more fully in the next #hapter ; =!tudent de elopment?<, the earliest stages of a #hildDs life are thought to be rather self-#entered and to be dependent on the #hildDs sensory and motor intera#tions .ith the en ironment. 4hen a#ting or rea#ting to his or her surroundings, the #hild has relati ely little language s)ill initially. &his #ir#umstan#e limits the #hildDs ability to learn in the usual, s#hool-li)e sense of the term. "s de elopment pro#eeds, of #ourse, language s)ills impro e and hen#e the #hild be#omes progressi ely more =tea#hable? and in this sense more able to learn. 6ut .hate er the #hildDs age, ability to learn .aits or depends upon the #hildDs stage of de elopment. From this point of ie., therefore, a primary responsibility of tea#hers is to pro ide a ery ri#h #lassroom en ironment, so that #hildren #an intera#t .ith it independently and gradually ma)e themsel es ready for sophisti#ated. !o#ial #onstru#ti ists su#h as Gygots)y, on the other hand, emphasi/e the importan#e of so#ial intera#tion in stimulating the de elopment of the #hild. 2anguage and dialogue therefore are primary, and de elopment is seen as happening as a resultLthe #on erse of the sequen#e pi#tured by *iaget. Bb iously a #hild does not begin life .ith a lot of initial language s)ill, but this fa#t is .hy intera#tions need to be s#affolded .ith more experien#ed expertsL people #apable of #reating a /one of proximal de elopment in their #on ersations and other intera#tions. In the pres#hool years the experts are usually parentsI after the s#hool years begin, the experts broaden to in#lude tea#hers. " tea#herDs primary responsibility is therefore to pro ide ery ri#h opportunities for dialogue, both among #hildren and bet.een indi idual #hildren and the tea#her. erbal learning that is in#reasingly
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The role of generali1ations and a(stractions during develo%ment

Consistent .ith the ideas abo e, psy#hologi#al #onstru#ti ism tends to see a relati ely limited role for abstra#t or hypotheti#al reasoning in the life of #hildrenLand e en in the reasoning of youth and many adults. !u#h reasoning is regarded as an outgro.th of years of intera#ting .ith the en ironment ery #on#retely. "s explained more fully in the next #hapter ;=!tudent de elopment?<, elementary-age students #an reason, but they are thought to reason only about immediate, #on#rete ob,e#ts and e ents. E en older youth are thought to reason in this .ay mu#h, or e en all of the time. From this perspe#ti e a tea#her should limit the amount of thin)ing about abstra#t ideas that she expe#ts from students. &he idea of =demo#ra#y?, for example, may be experien#ed simply as an empty #on#ept. "t most it might be mis#onstrued as an o ersimplified, o erly #on#rete ideaLas =,ust? about ta)ing otes in #lass, for instan#e. "bstra#t thin)ing is possible, a##ording to psy#hologi#al #onstru#ti ism, but it emerges relati ely slo.ly and relati ely late in de elopment, after a person a##umulates #onsiderable #on#rete experien#e. !o#ial #onstru#ti ism sees abstra#t thin)ing emerging from dialogue bet.een a relati e no i#e ;a #hild or youth< and a more experien#ed expert ;a parent or tea#her<. From this point of ie., the more su#h dialogue o##urs, then the more the #hild #an a#quire fa#ility .ith it. &he dialogue must, of #ourse, honor a #hildDs need for intelle#tual s#affolding or a /one of proximal de elopment. " tea#herDs responsibility #an therefore in#lude engaging the #hild in dialogue that uses potentially abstra#t reasoning, but .ithout expe#ting the #hild to understand the abstra#tions fully at first. Noung #hildren, for example, #an not only engage in s#ien#e experiments li)e #reating a = ol#ano? out of ba)ing soda and .ater, but also dis#uss and spe#ulate about their obser ations of the experiment. &hey may not understand the experiment as an adult .ould, but the dis#ussion #an begin mo ing them to.ard adult-li)e understandings.
:o
develo%ment occurs
In psy#hologi#al #onstru#ti ism, as explained earlier, de elopment is thought to happen be#ause of the interplay bet.een assimilation and accommodation0bet.een .hen a #hild or youth #an already understand or #on#ei e of, and the #hange required of that understanding by ne. experien#es. "#ting together, assimilation and a##ommodation #ontinually #reate ne. states of #ogniti e e)uili(rium. " tea#her #an therefore stimulate de elopment by pro o)ing #ogniti e dissonan#e deliberately: by #onfronting a student .ith sights, a#tions, or ideas that do not fit .ith the studentDs existing experien#es and ideas. In pra#ti#e the dissonan#e is often #ommuni#ated erbally, by posing questions or ideas that are ne. or that students may ha e misunderstood in the past. 6ut it #an also be pro o)ed through pi#tures or a#ti ities that are unfamiliar to studentsLby engaging students in a #ommunity ser i#e pro,e#t, for example, that brings them in #onta#t .ith people .ho they had pre iously #onsidered =strange? or different from themsel es. In so#ial #onstru#ti ism, as also explained earlier, de elopment is thought to happen largely be#ause of s#affolded dialogue in a /one of proximal de elopment. !u#h dialogue is by impli#ation less li)e =disturbing? studentsD thin)ing than li)e =stret#hing? it beyond its former limits. &he image of the tea#her therefore is more one of #ollaborating .ith studentsD ideas rather than #hallenging their ideas or experien#es. In pra#ti#e, ho.e er, the a#tual beha ior of tea#hers and students may be quite similar in both forms of #onstru#ti ism. "ny signifi#ant ne. learning requires setting aside, gi ing up, or re ising former learning, and this step ine itably therefore =disturbs? thin)ing, if only in the short term and only in a relati ely minor .ay.
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2. The learning process
Impli#ations of #onstru#ti ism for tea#hing

4hether you thin) of yourself as a psy#hologi#al #onstru#ti ist or a so#ial #onstru#ti ist, there are strategies for helping students help in de elop their thin)ingLin fa#t the strategies #onstitute a ma,or portion of this boo), and are a ma,or theme throughout the entire preser i#e tea#her edu#ation programs. For no., loo) briefly at ,ust t.o. Bne strategy that tea#hers often find helpful is to organi/e the #ontent to be learned as systemati#ally as possible, be#ause doing this allo.s the tea#her to sele#t and de ise learning a#ti ities that are better tailored to studentsD #ogniti e abilities, or that promote better dialogue, or both. Bne of the most .idely used frame.or)s for organi/ing #ontent, for example, is a #lassifi#ation s#heme proposed by the edu#ator 6en,amin 6loom, published .ith the some.hat imposing title of Ta5onomy of Educational 9('ectives2 :and(oo& HC2 Cognitive !omain ;6loom, et al., 78@9I "nderson P Krath.ohl, E117<. (loom%s ta#onomy, as it is usually #alled, des#ribes six )inds of learning goals that tea#hers #an in prin#iple expe#t from students, ranging from simple re#all of )no.ledge to #omplex e aluation of )no.ledge. ;&he le els are defined briefly in Error: +eferen#e sour#e not found .ith examples from Koldiloc&s and the Three -ears.< 6loomJs taxonomy ma)es useful distin#tions among possible )inds of )no.ledge needed by students, and therefore potentially helps in sele#ting a#ti ities that truly target studentsJ 1ones of %ro5imal develo%ment in the sense meant by Gygots)y. " student .ho )no.s fe. terms for the spe#ies studied in biology unit ;a problem at 6loomJs &no ledge and com%rehension le els<, for example, may initially need support at remembering and defining the terms before he or she #an ma)e useful #omparisons among spe#ies ;6loomJs analysis le el<. *inpointing the most appropriate learning a#ti ities to a##omplish this ob,e#ti e remains the ,ob of the tea#herexpert ;thatJs you<, but the learning itself has to be a##omplished by the student. *ut in more so#ial #onstru#ti ist terms, the tea#her arranges a /one of proximal de elopment that allo.s the student to #ompare spe#ies su##essfully, but the student still has to #onstru#t or appropriate the #omparisons for him or herself. &able 0: 6loomJs taxonomy of edu#ational ob,e#ti es: #ogniti e domain Category or type of thin5ing Definition "#ample 71ith apologies to ,oldiloc5s and her bear friends8/ Kno.ledge +emembering or re#alling fa#ts, information, or pro#edures Comprehension 3nderstanding fa#ts, interpreting information "ppli#ation 3sing #on#epts in ne. situations, sol ing parti#ular problems 2ist three things 'oldilo#)s did in the three bearsJ house. Explain .hy 'oldilo#)s li)ed the little bearJs #hair the best. *redi#t some of the things that 'oldilo#)s might ha e used if she had entered your house. "nalysis %istinguish parts of information, a #on#ept, or a pro#edure !ele#t the part of the story .here 'oldilo#)s seemed most #omfortable.
0F
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense !ynthesis Combining elements or parts into a ne. &ell ho. the story .ould ha e been ob,e#t, idea, or pro#edure different if it had been about three fishes. E aluation "ssessing and ,udging the alue or ideas, ob,e#ts, or materials in a parti#ular situation %e#ide .hether 'oldilo#)s .as a bad girl, and ,ustify your position.
" se#ond strategy may be #oupled .ith the first. "s students gain experien#e as students, they be#ome able to thin) about ho. they themselves learn best, and you ;as the tea#her< #an en#ourage su#h self-refle#tion as one of your goals for their learning. &hese #hanges allo. you to transfer some of your responsibilities for arranging learning to the students themsel es. For the biology student mentioned abo e, for example, you may be able not only to plan a#ti ities that support #omparing spe#ies, but also to de ise .ays for the student to thin) about ho. he or she might learn the same information independently. &he resulting self-assessment and self-dire#tion of learning often goes by the name of metacognitionLan ability to thin) about and regulate oneJs o.n thin)ing ;Israel, E11@<. $eta#ognition #an sometimes be diffi#ult for students to a#hie e, but it is an important goal for so#ial #onstru#ti ist learning be#ause it gradually frees learners from dependen#e on expert tea#hers to guide their learning. +efle#ti e learners, you might say, be#ome their o.n expert guides. 2i)e .ith using 6loomJs taxonomy, though, promoting meta#ognition and self-dire#ted learning is important enough that I .ill #ome ba#) to it later in more detail ;in the #hapter on =Fa#ilitating #omplex thin)ing?<. 6y assigning a more a#ti e role to expert helpersL.hi#h by impli#ation in#ludes tea#hersLthan does the psy#hologi#al #onstru#ti ism, so#ial #onstru#ti ism may be more #omplete as a des#ription of .hat tea#hers usually do .hen a#tually busy in #lassrooms, and of .hat they usually hope students .ill experien#e there. "s .e .ill see in the next #hapter, ho.e er, there are more uses for a theory than its des#ription of moment-to-moment intera#tions bet.een tea#her and students. "s explained there, some theories #an be helpful for planning instru#tion rather than for doing it. It turns out that this is the #ase for psy#hologi#al #onstru#ti ism, .hi#h offers important ideas about the appropriate se)uencing of learning and de elopment. &his fa#t ma)es the psy#hologi#al #onstru#ti ism aluable in its o.n .ay, e en though it ;and a fe. other learning theories as .ell< may seem to omit mentioning tea#hers, parents, or experts in detail. !o do not ma)e up your mind about the relati e merits of different learning theories yetM
Chapter summary
"lthough the term learning has many possible meanings, the term as used by tea#hers emphasi/es its relationship to #urri#ulum, to tea#hing, and to the issues of sequen#ing, readiness, and transfer. Gie.ed in this light, the t.o ma,or psy#hologi#al perspe#ti es of learningLbeha iorist and #onstru#ti istLha e important ideas to offer edu#ators. 4ithin the beha iorist perspe#ti e one of the most rele ant theories is operant #onditioning, .hi#h des#ribes ho. the #onsequen#es and #ues for a beha ior #an #ause the beha ior to be#ome more frequent. Bperant #onditioning is espe#ially rele ant for understanding mu#h of .hat students doL it offers less help in understanding ho. they thin).
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2. The learning process &he other ma,or psy#hologi#al perspe#ti eL#onstru#ti ismLdes#ribes ho. indi iduals build or =#onstru#t? )no.ledge by engaging a#ti ely .ith their experien#es. *sy#hologi#al #onstru#ti ism emphasi/es the learnersJ indi idual responses to experien#eLtheir tenden#y both to assimilate it and to a##ommodate to it. !o#ial #onstru#ti ism ;or so#io#ultural theory< emphasi/es ho. other, more expert indi iduals #an #reate opportunities for the learner to #onstru#t ne. )no.ledge. !o#ial #onstru#ti ism suggests that a tea#herJs role must in#lude deliberate, s#affolded dialogue. It also needs to in#lude deliberate instru#tional planning, su#h as fa#ilitated by 6loomJs taxonomy of learning ob,e#ti es. 6oth of these strategies #an promote studentsD meta#ognition, or ability to monitor their o.n learning. *sy#hologi#al emphasi/es the tea#herDs responsibility for arranging a ri#h learning en ironment and for emphasi/ing ri#h sensory, motor, and #on#rete experien#es .here er possible.
Further resour#es
-ehavioral Theory and Practical #earning .ssues Rhttp:KKtea#hingedpsy#h..i)ispa#es.#omK&heoriesVofVlearningS &his page lists se eral materials and lin)s about se eral forms of beha ioral theory ;not only operant #onditioning<, as .ell as a#ti ities and lin)s related to fostering study s)ills. Aore a(out :o Constructivism For&s Rhttp:KKtea#hingedpsy#h..i)ispa#es.#omK&hin)ingVandV#ognitionS &his page lists a#ti ities that illustrate typi#al features of thin)ing as interpreted from a %sychological #onstru#ti ist perspe#ti e. &here is less here about so#ial #onstru#ti ism than about psy#hologi#al #onstru#ti ism.
Key terms
"ppropriate ;as a erb< 6eha iorism 6loomJs taxonomy Classi#al #onditioning Constru#ti ism *sy#hologi#al #onstru#ti ism (ohn %e.ey (ean *iaget "ssimilation "##ommodation Equilibrium !#hema !o#ial #onstru#ti ism (erome 6runer Instru#tional s#affolding 2e Gygots)y -one of proximal de elopment %is#rimination Extin#tion Extrinsi# moti ation 'enerali/ation 2earning Intrinsi# moti ation $eta#ognition Bperant #onditioning Cue Bperant +einfor#ement !#hedule of reinfor#ement I an *a lo +eadiness 6. F. !)inner &ransfer
+eferen#es
"lberto, *. P &routman, ". ;E11@<. A%%lied (ehavior analysis for teachers, >th edition. 3pper !addle +i er, A(: *renti#e 5all. "nderson, 2. P Krath.ohl, %. ;Eds.<. ;E117<. A ta5onomy for learning, teaching, and assessing2 A revision of -loom+s ta5onomy of educational o('ectives. Ae. Nor): 2ongman. 6runer, (. ;7891<. The %rocess of education. Cambridge, $": 5ar ard 3ni ersity *ress. 6runer, (. ;7899<. To ard a theory of instruction. Cambridge, $": 5ar ard 3ni ersity *ress. 09
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense 6runer, (. ;7889<. The culture of education. Cambridge, $": 5ar ard 3ni ersity *ress. Copple, C. P 6rede)amp, !. ;E119<. -asics of develo%mentally a%%ro%riate %ractice. 4ashington, %.C.: Aational "sso#iation for the Edu#ation of Noung Children. %e.ey, (. ;780CK788C<. :o *ublishing 'roup. Fosnot, C. ;Ed.<. ;E11@<. Constructivism2 Theory, %ers%ectives, and %ractice, Dnd edition. Ae. Nor): &ea#hers College *ress. 'ardner, 5. ;7888<. .ntelligence reframed2 Aulti%le intelligences for the DC st century. Ae. Nor): 6asi# 6oo)s. 'ardner, 5. ;E119<. The develo%ment and education of the mind. Ae. Nor): +outledge. 'oldman, (. ;E119<. 4eb-based designed a#ti ities for young people in health edu#ation: " #onstru#ti ist approa#h. :ealth Education Journal ;@;7<, 7F-E:. 'ruber, 5. P Gone#he, (. ;Eds.<. ;788@<. The essential Piaget. Ae. Nor): 6asi# 6oo)s. Israel, !. ;Ed.<. ;E11@<. Aetacognition in literacy learning. $ah.ah, A(: Erlbaum. 2a ond, %. P !teinmet/, (. ;E110<. :and(oo& of classical conditioning. 6oston: Klu.er "#ademi# *ublishing. $a/ur, (. ;E11@<. #earning and (ehavior, ;th edition. 3pper !addle +i er, A(: *renti#e 5all. Bnslo., $., $en/ies, +., P *a#)man, ". ;E117<. "n operant inter ention for early stuttering. -ehavior modification D@;7<, 779-708. *a lo , I. ;78E:<. Conditioned refle5es. 2ondon, 3K: Bxford 3ni ersity *ress. *iaget, (. ;E117<. The %sychology of intelligence. 2ondon, 3K: +outledge. +o#)more, &. ;E11@<. 9n constructivist e%istemology. 2anham, $%: +o.man P 2ittlefield *ublishers. !al)ind, A. ;E11F<. An introduction to theories of human develo%ment. &housand Ba)s, C": !age *ubli#ations. !)inner, 6. F. ;780C<. The (ehavior of organisms. Ae. Nor): "ppleton-Century-Crofts. !)inner, 6. F. ;78FC<. Falden T o. Ae. Nor): $a#millan. !)inner, 6. F. ;78CC<. The selection of (ehavior2 The o%erant (ehaviorism of -. 8. S&inner. Ae. Nor): Cambridge 3ni ersity *ress. &harp, +. P 'allimore, +. ;7887<. Rousing minds to life2 Teaching, learning, and schooling in social conte5t. Cambridge, 3K: Cambridge 3ni ersity *ress. Gygots)y, 2. ;78:C<. Aind in society2 The develo%ment of higher %sychological %rocesses. Cambridge, $": 5ar ard 3ni ersity *ress. e thin&. 6oston: 5oughton $ifflin. Ferster, C., !)inner, 6. F., Cheney, C., $orse, 4., P %e.s, %. Schedules of reinforcement. Ae. Nor): Copley
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'. Student development

Fhen one of our authors 3Kelvin Seifert) %ractice as gro ing u%, he as %rovided ith %iano lessons. !aily as deli(erately &e%t )uiet ith only occasional as a sta%le of childhood0<;@ days a year, and in a home that to facilitate %ractice. Ausic0es%ecially the %iano0defined a ma'or %art of his emerging self4identity. Altogether he studied %iano for C< years, from age ? to the end of high school, interru%tions. At any one time, Kelvin itnessed small changes in his s&ills. :e %erformed a sim%le %iece a (it ee&, or he %layed more of it from memory. There ould have stated ere direct, (etter than he had the %revious then, if you had as&ed him that they ere (ecause he
o(vious connections (et een his s&ills at one moment and at the moment 'ust (efore or after. -ac& hat accounted for the changes, he as *learning, s%ecific %iano %ieces. ere more dramatic. Kelvin learned ith as even listening to ithout hesitation
Across (roader s%ans of time, ho ever, he noticed changes that
much more com%le5 %ieces than he had several years earlier, for e5am%le. :e also %layed significantly more *finesse,, sensitivity and %olish than as a young child. :e
classical music on the radio some of the time7 KelvinMs musical talent (ecame transformed over the long term, and in some sense he did not have the *same, talent that he had had as a (eginner. .f you had as&ed ans ering than hat accounted for these longer4term changes, he ould have had a harder time ould hen as&ed a(out the short4term changes. :e might have said sim%ly and a (it and gradual, and idely s&illed
vaguely2 *. have (een getting (etter at %iano., .f you as& the same )uestion no , ho ever, he say that his music s&ills had developed, that their develo%ment had (een slo a(out music in general. that the changes resulted not 'ust from sim%le %ractice, (ut also from (ecoming more
Development refers to long-term personal #hanges that ha e multiple sour#es and multiple effe#ts. It is li)e the differen#e bet.een Kel inDs musi# at age fifteen #ompared to his musi# at age fi e, rather than the differen#e bet.een his musi# one .ee) and his musi# the next. !ome human de elopments are espe#ially broad and ta)e years to unfold fullyI a personDs e er-e ol ing ability to =read? otherDs moods, for example, may ta)e a lifetime to de elop fully. Bther de elopments are faster and more fo#used, li)e a personDs in#reasing s)ill at sol ing #ross.ord pu//les. &he faster and simpler is the #hange, the more li)ely .e are to #all the #hange =learning? instead of de elopment. &he differen#e bet.een learning and develo%ment is a matter of degree. 4hen a #hild learns to name the planets of the solar system, for example, the #hild may not need a lot of time, nor does the learning in ol e a multitude of experien#es. !o it is probably better to thin) of that parti#ular experien#eLlearning to name the planetsLas an example of learning rather than of develo%ment ;!al)ind, E11FI 2e.is, 788:<.
(hy development matters

!tudentsJ de elopment matters for tea#hers, but the ay it matters depends partly on ho. s#hooling is organi/ed. In tea#hing a single, =self-#ontained? grade-le el, the benefits of )no.ing about de elopment .ill be less
0C
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3. Student development expli#it, but ,ust as real, as if you tea#h many grade le els. 4or)ing ex#lusi ely .ith a single grade ;li)e, say, a thirdgrade #lassroom< highlights differences among students that happen in s%ite of their similar ages, and obs#ures similarities that happen (ecause of ha ing similar ages. 3nder these #onditions it is still easy to noti#e studentsJ di ersity, but harder to )no. ho. mu#h of it #omes from differen#es in long-term de elopment, #ompared to differen#es in short-term experien#es. Kno.ledge about long term #hanges is still useful, ho.e er, in planning appropriate a#ti ities and in holding appropriate expe#tations about students. 4hat #hanges in students #an you expe#t relati ely soon simply from your #urrent program of a#ti ities, and .hi#h ones may ta)e a year or more to sho. up> &his is a question that de elopmental psy#hology #an help to ans.er. If you tea#h multiple grade le els, as often is true of spe#ialists or tea#hers in middle s#hool or high s#hool, then your need for de elopmental )no.ledge .ill be more ob ious be#ause you .ill #onfront .ide age differen#es on a daily basis. "s a physi#al edu#ation tea#her, for example, you may tea#h )indergarten #hildren at one time during the day, but sixth-graders at another time, or tea#h se enth-graders at one time but t.elfth-graders at another. !tudents .ill differ more ob iously be#ause of age, in addition to differing be#ause of other fa#tors li)e their s)ills or )no.ledge learned re#ently. Aonetheless, the instru#tional #hallenge .ill be the same as the one fa#ed by tea#hers of single-grade #lasses: you .ill .ant to )no. .hat a#ti ities and expe#tations are appropriate for your students. &o ans.er this question, you .ill need to )no. something not only about ho. your students are unique, but also about general trends of de elopment during #hildhood and adoles#en#e. Aote that de elopmental trends ary in t.o important .ays. &he first, as indi#ated already, is in their generality. !ome theories or models of de elopment boldly assert that #ertain #hanges happen to irtually e ery person on the planet, and often at relati ely predi#table points in life. For example, a theory might assert that irtually every toddler a#quires a spo)en language, or that every teenager forms a sense of personal identity. Indi iduals .ho do not experien#e these de elopments .ould be rare, though not ne#essarily disabled as a result. Bther theories propose de elopmental #hanges that are more limited, #laiming only that the #hanges happen to some people or only under #ertain #onditions. %e eloping a female gender role, for example, does not happen to e eryone, but only to the females in a population, and the details ary a##ording to the family, #ommunity, or so#iety in .hi#h a #hild li es. &he se#ond .ay that de elopmental trends ary is in ho. stri#tly they are sequen#ed and hierar#hi#al. In some ie.s of de elopment, #hanges are thought to happen in a spe#ifi# order and to build on ea#h otherLsort of a =stair#ase? model of de elopment ;Case, 7887, 7889<. For example, a de elopmental psy#hologist ;and many of the rest of us< might argue that young people must ha e tangible, hands-on experien#e .ith ne. materials before they #an reason about the materials in the abstra#t. &he order #annot be re ersed. In other ie.s of de elopment, #hange happens, but not .ith a sequen#e or end point that is uniform. &his sort of #hange is more li)e a =)aleidos#ope? than a stair#ase ;2e inson, 7881I 2e.is, 788:I 5arris, E119<. " person .ho be#omes permanently disabled, for example, may experien#e #omplex long-term #hanges in personal alues and priorities that are different both in timing and #ontent from most peopleDs de elopmental path.ay. 4hen addressing tea#hers and other edu#ators, edu#ational psy#hologists ha e tended to emphasi/e explanations of de elopment that are relati ely general, uni ersal and sequential, rather than spe#ifi# to parti#ular #ultures or that are not sequen#ed or )aleidos#opi# ;see, for example, 4oolfol), E119, Chapter 0I or !la in, E11@, Chapters C and 8<. !u#h models ;sometimes #alled =grand theories?< ha e the ad antage of #on#isely integrating many features of de elopment, .hile also des#ribing the )ind of people #hildren or adoles#ents usually end up to 08
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense be. &he preferen#e for integrati e perspe#ti es ma)es sense gi en edu#atorsJ need to .or) .ith and tea#h large numbers of di erse students both effi#iently and effe#ti ely. 6ut the approa#h also ris)s overgenerali/ing or oversimplifying the experien#es of parti#ular #hildren and youth. It #an also #onfuse .hat does happen as #ertain #hildren ;li)e the middle-#lass ones< de elop .ith .hat should happen to #hildren. &o understand this point, imagine t.o #hildren of about the same age .ho ha e dramati#ally ery different #hildhood experien#esLfor example, one .ho gro.s up in po erty and another .ho gro.s up finan#ially .ell-off. In .hat sense #an .e say that these t.o #hildren experien#e the same underlying de elopmental #hanges as they gro. up> "nd ho. mu#h should they e en be expe#ted to do so> %e elopmental psy#hology, and espe#ially the broad theories of de elopmental psy#hology, highlight the =sameness? or #ommon ground bet.een these t.o #hildren. "s su#h, it ser es as #ounterpoint to )no.ledge of their ob ious uniqueness, and pla#es their uniqueness in broader perspe#ti e. In this #hapter .e dis#uss de elopment in four ma,or domains. &he first is physi#al de elopment. 4e begin by des#ribing the physi#al #hanges that typi#ally happen to #hildren a#ross the s#hool yearsL#hanges in si/e, the effe#ts of puberty, the gro.th in motor s)ills, and health trends a#ross #hildhood and adoles#en#e. *hysi#al de elopment is not a #entral #on#ern for most tea#hers, but as .e point out, it does affe#t studentsD s#hool experien#es indire#tly. 4e then mo e to #ogniti e de elopment, and spe#ifi#ally to the #ogniti e theory of (ean *iaget, .hose ideas ha e influen#ed many areas of edu#ation. &he third se#tion of the #hapter dis#usses so#ial de elopment, .ith attention espe#ially to the theories of Eri) Eri)son and "braham $aslo.. &he fourth and final se#tion dis#usses moral de elopment, a domain that spans both #ogniti e and so#ial de elopment. 4e loo) in parti#ular at the theoreti#al frame.or)s of 2a.ren#e Kohlberg and Carol 'illigan, and end .ith suggestions for ho. their ideas #an be translated into useful strategies for en#ouraging the moral de elopment of students.
Physical development during the school years

"lthough it may be tempting to thin) that physi#al de elopment is the #on#ern of physi#al edu#ation tea#hers only, it is a#tually a foundation for many a#ademi# tas)s. In first grade, for example, it is important to )no. .hether #hildren #an su##essfully manipulate a pen#il. In later grades, it is important to )no. ho. long students #an be expe#ted to sit still .ithout dis#omfortLa real physi#al #hallenge. In all grades, it is important to ha e a sense of studentsJ health needs related to their age or maturity, if only to )no. .ho may be#ome ill, and .ith .hat illness, and to )no. .hat physi#al a#ti ities are reasonable and needed.
&rends in height and .eight

&ypi#al height and .eight for .ell-nourished, healthy students are sho.n in &able :. &he figure sho.s a erages for se eral ages from pres#hool through the end of high s#hool. 6ut the table does not sho. the di ersity among #hildren. "t age 9, for example, .hen #hildren begin s#hool, the a erage boy or girl is about 77@ #entimeters tall, but some are 718 and others are 7E@ #entimeters. " erage .eight at age 9 is about E1 )ilograms, but ranges bet.een about 79 and EF )ilogramsLabout E1Y ariation in either dire#tion. &able F: " erage height and .eight of .ell-nourished #hildren 2ge E 9 9eight 7cm/ C@ 77@ :eight 75g/ :.1 E1.1
F1
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3. Student development 71 7F 7C 70@ 79E 798 07.1 @E.1 91.@
&here are other points to )eep in mind about a erage height and .eight that are not e ident from &able :. &he first is that boys and girls, on a erage, are quite similar in height and .eight during #hildhood, but di erge in the early teenage years, .hen they rea#h puberty. For a time ;approximately age 71-7F<, the a erage girl is taller, but not mu#h hea ier, than the a erage boy. "fter that the a erage boy be#omes both taller and hea ier than the a erage girlLthough there remain indi idual ex#eptions ;$alina, et al., E11F<. &he pre-teen differen#e #an therefore be a.).ard for some #hildren and youth, at least among those .ho aspire to loo)ing li)e older teenagers or young adults. For young teens less #on#erned .ith =image?, though, the fa#t that girls are taller may not be espe#ially important, or e en noti#ed ;Friedman, E111<. " se#ond point is that as #hildren get older, indi idual differen#es in .eight di erge more radi#ally than differen#es in height. "mong 7C-year-olds, the hea iest youngsters .eigh almost t.i#e as mu#h as the lightest, but the tallest ones are only about 71 per #ent taller than the shortest. Aonetheless, both height and .eight #an be sensiti e issues for some teenagers. $ost modern so#ieties ;and the teenagers in them< tend to fa or relati ely short .omen and tall men, as .ell as a some.hat thin body build, espe#ially for girls and .omen. Net neither =so#ially #orre#t? height nor thinness is the destiny for many indi iduals. 6eing o er.eight, in parti#ular, has be#ome a #ommon, serious problem in modern so#iety ;&artamella, et al., E11F< due to the pre alen#e of diets high in fat and lifestyles lo. in a#ti ity. &he edu#ational system has unfortunately #ontributed to the problem as .ell, by gradually restri#ting the number of physi#al edu#ation #ourses and #lasses in the past t.o de#ades. &he third point to )eep in mind is that a erage height and .eight is related some.hat to ra#ial and ethni# ba#)ground. In general, #hildren of "sian ba#)ground tend to be slightly shorter than #hildren of European and Aorth "meri#an ba#)ground. &he latter in turn tend to be shorter than #hildren from "fri#an so#ieties ;E eleth P &anner, 7881<. 6ody shape differs slightly as .ell, though the differen#es are not al.ays isible until after puberty. "sian youth tend to ha e arms and legs that are a bit short relati e to their torsos, and "fri#an youth tend to ha e relati ely long arms and legs. &he differen#es are only averagesL there are large indi idual differen#es as .ell, and these tend to be more rele ant for tea#hers to )no. about than broad group differen#es.
*uberty and its effe#ts on students

" uni ersal physi#al de elopment in students is puberty* .hi#h is the set of #hanges in early adoles#en#e that bring about sexual maturity. "long .ith internal #hanges in reprodu#ti e organs are out.ard #hanges su#h as gro.th of breasts in girls and the penis in boys, as .ell as relati ely sudden in#reases in height and .eight. 6y about age 71 or 77, most #hildren experien#e in#reased sexual attra#tion to others ;usually heterosexual, though not al.ays< that affe#ts so#ial life both in s#hool and out ;$#Clinto#) P 5erdt, 7889<. 6y the end of high s#hool, more than half of boys and girls report ha ing experien#ed sexual inter#ourse at least on#eLthough it is hard to be #ertain of the proportion be#ause of the sensiti ity and pri a#y of the information. ;Center for %isease Control, E11FbI +osenbaum, E119<.
F7
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense "t about the same time that puberty a##entuates gender, role differen#es also a##entuate for at least some teenagers. !ome girls .ho ex#elled at math or s#ien#e in elementary s#hool may #urb their enthusiasm and displays of su##ess at these sub,e#ts for fear of limiting their popularity or attra#ti eness as girls ;&aylor P 'illigan, 788@I !ad)er, E11F<. !ome boys .ho .ere not espe#ially interested in sports pre iously may begin dedi#ating themsel es to athleti#s to affirm their mas#ulinity in the eyes of others. !ome boys and girls .ho on#e .or)ed together su##essfully on #lass pro,e#ts may no longer feel #omfortable doing soLor alternati ely may no. see) to be .or)ing partners, but for so#ial rather than a#ademi# reasons. !u#h #hanges do not affe#t all youngsters equally, nor affe#t any one youngster equally on all o##asions. "n indi idual student may a#t li)e a young adult on one day, but more li)e a #hild the next. 4hen tea#hing #hildren .ho are experien#ing puberty, , tea#hers need to respond flexibly and supporti ely.
%e elopment of motor s)ills

!tudentsJ fundamental motor s)ills are already de eloping .hen they begin )indergarten, but are not yet perfe#tly #oordinated. Fi e-year-olds generally #an .al) satisfa#torily for most s#hool-related purposes ;if they #ould not, s#hools .ould ha e to be organi/ed ery differentlyM<. For some fi es, running still loo)s a bit li)e a hurried .al), but usually it be#omes more #oordinated .ithin a year or t.o. !imilarly .ith ,umping, thro.ing, and #at#hing: most #hildren #an do these things, though often #lumsily, by the time they start s#hool, but impro e their s)ills noti#eably during the early elementary years ;*ayne P Isaa#s, E11@<. "ssisting su#h de elopments is usually the ,ob either of physi#al edu#ation tea#hers, .here they exist, or else of #lassroom tea#hers during designated physi#al edu#ation a#ti ities. 4hoe er is responsible, it is important to noti#e if a #hild does not )eep more-or-less to the usual de elopmental timetable, and to arrange for spe#ial assessment or supports if appropriate. Common pro#edures for arranging for help are des#ribed in the #hapter on =!pe#ial edu#ation?. E en if physi#al s)ills are not a spe#ial fo#us of a #lassroom tea#her,, they #an be quite important to students themsel es. 4hate er their grade le el, students .ho are #lumsy are a.are of that fa#t and ho. it #ould potentially negati ely effe#t respe#t from their peers. In the long term, self-#ons#iousness and poor self-esteem #an de elop for a #hild .ho is #lumsy, espe#ially if peers ;or tea#hers and parents< pla#e high alue on su##ess in athleti#s. Bne resear#h study found, for example, .hat tea#hers and #oa#hes sometimes suspe#t: that losers in athleti# #ompetitions tend to be#ome less so#iable and are more apt to miss subsequent athleti# pra#ti#es than .inners ;*etli#h)off, 7889<.
5ealth and illness

6y .orld standards, #hildren and youth in e#onomi#ally de eloped so#ieties tend, on a erage, to be remar)ably healthy. E en so, mu#h depends on pre#isely ho. .ell-off families are and on ho. mu#h health #are is a ailable to them. Children from higher-in#ome families experien#e far fe.er serious or life-threatening illnesses than #hildren from lo.er-in#ome families. 4hate er their in#ome le el, parents and tea#hers often rightly note that #hildrenL espe#ially the youngest onesLget far more illnesses than do adults. In E11F, for example, a go ernment sur ey estimated that #hildren get an a erage of 9-71 #olds per year, but adults get only about E-F per year ;Aational Institute of "llergies and Infe#tious %iseases, E11F<. &he differen#e probably exists be#ause #hildrenJs immune systems are not as fully formed as adultsJ, and be#ause #hildren at s#hool are #ontinually exposed to other #hildren, many of .hom may be #ontagious themsel es. "n indire#t result of #hildrenJs frequent illnesses is that tea#hers ;along .ith airline flight attendants, in#identallyM< also report more frequent minor illnesses than do adults in Educational Psychology FE " 'lobal &ext
3. Student development generalLabout fi e #olds per year, for example, instead of ,ust E-F ;4helen, et al., E11@<. &he =simple? illnesses are not life threatening, but they are responsible for many lost days of s#hool, both for students and for tea#hers, as .ell as days .hen a student may be present physi#ally, but fun#tions belo. par .hile simultaneously infe#ting #lassmates. In these .ays, learning and tea#hing often suffer be#ause health is suffering. &he problem is not only the pre alen#e of illness as su#h ;in .inter, e en in the 3nited !tates, approximately one person gets infe#ted .ith a minor illness e ery fe. seconds), but the fa#t that illnesses are not distributed uniformly among students, s#hools, or #ommunities. 4hether it is a simple #old or something more serious, illness is parti#ularly #ommon .here li ing #onditions are #ro.ded, .here health #are is s#ar#e or unaffordable, and .here indi iduals li e .ith frequent stresses of any )ind. Bften, but not al.ays, these are the #ir#umstan#es of po erty. &able @ summari/es these effe#ts for a ariety of health problems, not ,ust for #olds or flu. &able @: 5ealth effe#ts of #hildrenDs e#onomi# le el 9ealth program %elayed immuni/ations "sthma 2ead poisoning %eaths in #hildhood from a##idents %eaths in #hildhood from disease 5a ing a #ondition that limits s#hool a#ti ity %ays si#) in bed !eriously impaired ision !e ere iron-defi#ien#y ;anemia< Comparison$ poor vs non.poor 0 times higher !ome.hat higher 0 times higher E-0 times higher 0-F times higher E-0 times higher F1 per #ent higher E-0 times higher E times higher
Source: +i#hardson, (S ;E11@<. The Cost of -eing Poor. Ae. Nor): *raeger. !pen#er, A. ;E111<. Poverty and Child :ealth, End edition. "bington, 3K: +ad#liffe $edi#al *ress. "llender, (. ;E11@<. Community :ealth $ursing. *hiladelphia: 2ippinsott, 4illiams P 4il)ins.
"s students get older, illnesses be#ome less frequent, but other health ris)s emerge. &he most .idespread is the #onsumption of al#ohol and the smo)ing of #igarettes. "s of E11F, about :@ per #ent of teenagers reported drin)ing an al#oholi# be erage at least o##asionally, and EE per #ent reported smo)ing #igarettes ;Center for %isease Control, E11Fa<. &he good ne.s is that these proportions sho. a small, but steady decline in the frequen#ies o er the past 71 years or so. &he bad ne.s is that teenagers also sho. increases in the abuse of some pres#ription drugs, su#h as inhalants, that a#t as stimulants ;(ohnston, et al., E119<. "s .ith the pre alen#e of illnesses, the pre alen#e of drug use is not uniform, .ith a relati ely small fra#tion of indi iduals a##ounting for a disproportionate proportion of usage. Bne sur ey, for example, found that a teenager .as 0-@ times more li)ely to smo)e or to use al#ohol, smo)e mari,uana, or use drugs if he or she has a si(ling .ho has also indulged these habits ;Fagan P Aa,man, E11@<. !iblings, it seems, are more influential in this #ase than parents. F0
Cognitive development) the theory of *ean Piaget

Cognition refers to thin)ing and memory pro#esses, and cognitive development refers to long-term #hanges in these pro#esses. Bne of the most .idely )no.n perspe#ti es about #ogniti e de elopment is the #ogniti e stage theory of a !.iss psy#hologist named 0ean iaget. *iaget #reated and studied an a##ount of ho. #hildren and youth gradually be#ome able to thin) logi#ally and s#ientifi#ally. 6e#ause his theory is espe#ially popular among edu#ators, .e fo#us on it in this #hapter. 4e .ill loo) at other #ogniti e perspe#ti esLones that are not as fully =de elopmental?, in later #hapters, espe#ially Chapter 8 ;=Fa#ilitating #omplex thin)ing?<. In brief #omments in Chapter E ;see =*sy#hologi#al #onstru#ti ism?< about ho. *iaget explained learning, .e des#ribed *iaget as a %sychological constructivist2 in his ie., learning pro#eeded by the interplay of assimilation ;ad,usting ne. experien#es to fit prior #on#epts< and a##ommodation ;ad,usting #on#epts to fit ne. experien#es<. &he to-and-fro of these t.o pro#esses leads not only to short-term learning, as pointed out in Chapter 7, but also to long-term develo%mental change. &he long-term de elopments are really the main fo#us of *iagetJs #ogniti e theory. "fter obser ing #hildren #losely, *iaget proposed that #ognition de eloped through distin#t stages from birth through the end of adoles#en#e. 6y stages he meant a sequen#e of thin)ing patterns .ith four )ey features: 7. &hey al.ays happen in the same order. E. Ao stage is e er s)ipped. 0. Ea#h stage is a signifi#ant transformation of the stage before it. F. Ea#h later stage in#orporated the earlier stages into itself. 6asi#ally this is the =stair#ase? model of de elopment mentioned at the beginning of this #hapter. *iaget proposed four ma,or stages of #ogniti e de elopment, and #alled them ;7< sensorimotor intelligen#e, ;E< preoperational thin)ing, ;0< #on#rete operational thin)ing, and ;F< formal operational thin)ing. Ea#h stage is #orrelated .ith an age period of #hildhood, but only approximately.
&he sensorimotor stage: birth to age E

In *iagetJs theory, the sensorimotor stage is first, and is defined as the period .hen infants =thin)? by means of their senses and motor a#tions. "s e ery ne. parent .ill attest, infants #ontinually tou#h, manipulate, loo), listen to, and e en bite and #he. ob,e#ts. "##ording to *iaget, these a#tions allo. them to learn about the .orld and are #ru#ial to their early #ogniti e de elopment. &he infantJs a#tions allo. the #hild to represent ;or #onstru#t simple #on#epts of< ob,e#ts and e ents. " toy animal may be ,ust a #onfusing array of sensations at first, but by loo)ing, feeling, and manipulating it repeatedly, the #hild gradually organi/es her sensations and a#tions into a stable #on#ept, toy animal. &he representation a#quires a permanen#e la#)ing in the indi idual experien#es of the ob,e#t, .hi#h are #onstantly #hanging. 6e#ause the representation is stable, the #hild =)no.s?, or at least belie es, that toy animal exists e en if the a#tual toy animal is temporarily out of sight. *iaget #alled this sense of stability ob!ect permanence* a belief that ob,e#ts exist .hether or not they are a#tually present. It is a ma,or a#hie ement of sensorimotor de elopment, and mar)s a qualitati e transformation in ho. older infants ;EF months< thin) about experien#e #ompared to younger infants ;9 months<. %uring mu#h of infan#y, of #ourse, a #hild #an only barely tal), so sensorimotor de elopment initially happens .ithout the support of language. It might therefore seem hard to )no. .hat infants are thin)ing, but *iaget de ised
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3. Student development se eral simple, but #le er experiments to get around their la#) of language, and that suggest that infants do indeed represent ob,e#ts e en .ithout being able to tal) ;*iaget, 78@E<. In one, for example, he simply hid an ob,e#t ;li)e a toy animal< under a blan)et. 5e found that doing so #onsistently prompts older infants ;7C-EF months< to sear#h for the ob,e#t, but fails to prompt younger infants ;less than six months< to do so. ;Nou #an try this experiment yourself if you happen to ha e a##ess to young infant.< =!omething? moti ates the sear#h by the older infant e en .ithout the benefit of mu#h language, and the =something? is presumed to be a permanent #on#ept or representation of the ob,e#t.
&he preoperational stage: age E to :

In the preoperational stage* #hildren use their ne. ability to represent ob,e#ts in a .ide ariety of a#ti ities, but they do not yet do it in .ays that are organi/ed or fully logi#al. Bne of the most ob ious examples of this )ind of #ognition is dramatic play* the impro ised ma)e-belie e of pres#hool #hildren. If you ha e e er had responsibility for #hildren of this age, you ha e li)ely .itnessed su#h play. "shley holds a plasti# banana to her ear and says: =5ello, $om> Can you be sure to bring me my baby doll> BKM? &hen she hangs up the banana and pours tea for (eremy into an in isible #up. (eremy giggles at the sight of all of this and ex#laims: =+innngM Bh "shley, the phone is ringing againM Nou better ans.er it.? "nd on it goes. In a .ay, #hildren immersed in ma)e-belie e seem =mentally insane?, in that they do not thin) realisti#ally. 6ut they are not truly insane be#ause they ha e not really ta)en lea e of their senses. "t some le el, "shley and (eremy al.ays )no. that the banana is still a banana and not really a telephoneI they are merely re%resenting it as a telephone. &hey are thin)ing on t.o le els at on#eLone imaginati e and the other realisti#. &his dual pro#essing of experien#e ma)es dramati# play an early example of metacognition* or refle#ting on and monitoring of thin)ing itself. "s .e explained in Chapter E, meta#ognition is a highly desirable s)ill for su##ess in s#hool, one that tea#hers often en#ourage ;6rede)amp P Copple, 788:I *aley, E11@<. *artly for this reason, tea#hers of young #hildren ;pres#hool, )indergarten, and e en first or se#ond grade< often ma)e time and spa#e in their #lassrooms for dramati# play, and sometimes e en parti#ipate in it themsel es to help de elop the play further.
&he #on#rete operational stage: age : to 77

"s #hildren #ontinue into elementary s#hool, they be#ome able to represent ideas and e ents more flexibly and logi#ally. &heir rules of thin)ing still seem ery basi# by adult standards and usually operate un#ons#iously, but they allo. #hildren to sol e problems more systemati#ally than before, and therefore to be su##essful .ith many a#ademi# tas)s. In the #on#rete operational stage, for example, a #hild may un#ons#iously follo. the rule: =If nothing is added or ta)en a.ay, then the amount of something stays the same.? &his simple prin#iple helps #hildren to understand #ertain arithmeti# tas)s, su#h as in adding or subtra#ting /ero from a number, as .ell as to do #ertain #lassroom s#ien#e experiments, su#h as ones in ol ing ,udgments of the amounts of liquids .hen mixed. *iaget #alled this period the concrete operational stage be#ause #hildren mentally =operate? on #on#rete ob,e#ts and e ents. &hey are not yet able, ho.e er, to operate ;or thin)< systemati#ally about re%resentations of ob,e#ts or e ents. $anipulating representations is a more abstra#t s)ill that de elops later, during adoles#en#e. Con#rete operational thin)ing differs from preoperational thin)ing in t.o .ays, ea#h of .hi#h renders #hildren more s)illed as students. Bne differen#e is reversibility* or the ability to thin) about the steps of a pro#ess in any order. Imagine a simple s#ien#e experiment, for example, su#h as one that explores .hy ob,e#ts sin) or float by ha ing a #hild pla#e an assortment of ob,e#ts in a basin of .ater. 6oth the preoperational and #on#rete operational F@
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense #hild #an re#all and des#ribe the steps in this experiment, but only the #on#rete operational #hild #an re#all them in any order. &his s)ill is ery helpful on any tas) in ol ing multiple stepsLa #ommon feature of tas)s in the #lassroom. In tea#hing ne. o#abulary from a story, for another example, a tea#her might tell students: =First ma)e a list of .ords in the story that you do not )no., then find and .rite do.n their definitions, and finally get a friend to test you on your list?. &hese dire#tions in ol e repeatedly remembering to mo e ba#) and forth bet.een a se#ond step and a firstLa tas) that #on#rete operational studentsLand most adultsLfind easy, but that preoperational #hildren often forget to do or find #onfusing. If the younger #hildren are to do this tas) reliably, they may need external prompts, su#h as ha ing the tea#her remind them periodi#ally to go ba#) to the story to loo) for more un)no.n .ords. &he other ne. feature of thin)ing during the #on#rete operational stage is the #hildJs ability to decenter* or fo#us on more than one feature of a problem at a time. &here are hints of de#entration in pres#hool #hildrenJs dramati# play, .hi#h requires being a.are on t.o le els at on#eL)no.ing that a banana #an be both a banana and a =telephone?. 6ut the de#entration of the #on#rete operational stage is more deliberate and #ons#ious than pres#hoolersJ ma)e-belie e. Ao. the #hild #an attend to t.o things at on#e quite purposely. !uppose you gi e students a sheet .ith an assortment of subtra#tion problems on it, and as) them to do this: =Find all of the problems that in ol e t.o-digit subtra#tion and that in ol e borro.ingJ from the next #olumn. Cir#le and sol e only those problems.? Follo.ing these instru#tions is quite possible for a #on#rete operational student ;as long as they ha e been listeningM< be#ause the student #an attend to the t.o subtas)s simultaneouslyLfinding the t.o-digit problems and identifying .hi#h a#tually in ol e borro.ing. ;4hether the student a#tually )no.s ho. to =borro.? ho.e er, is a separate question.< In real #lassroom tas)s, re ersibility and de#entration often happen together. " .ell-)no.n example of ,oint presen#e is *iagetJs experiments .ith conservation* the belief that an amount or quantity stays the same e en if it #hanges apparent si/e or shape ;*iaget, E117I $atthe.s, 788C<. Imagine t.o identi#al balls made of #lay. "ny #hild, .hether preoperational or #on#rete operational, .ill agree that the t.o indeed ha e the same amount of #lay in them simply be#ause they loo) the same. 6ut if you no. squish one ball into a long, thin =hot dog?, the preoperational #hild is li)ely to say that the amount of that ball has #hangedLeither be#ause it is longer or be#ause it is thinner, but at any rate be#ause it no. loo)s different. &he #on#rete operational #hild .ill not ma)e this mista)e, than)s to ne. #ogniti e s)ills of re ersibility and de#entration: for him or her, the amount is the same be#ause =you #ould squish it ba#) into a ball again? ;re ersibility< and be#ause =it may be longer, but it is also thinner? ;de#entration<. *iaget .ould say the #on#rete operational #hild =has #onser ation of quantity?. &he #lassroom examples des#ribed abo e also in ol e re ersibility and de#entration. "s already mentioned, the o#abulary a#ti ity des#ribed earlier requires re ersibility ;going ba#) and forth bet.een identifying .ords and loo)ing up their meanings<I but it #an also be #onstrued as an example of de#entration ;)eeping in mind t.o tas)s at on#eL.ord identifi#ation and di#tionary sear#h<. "nd as mentioned, the arithmeti# a#ti ity requires de#entration ;loo)ing for problems that meet t.o #riteria and also sol ing them<, but it #an also be #onstrued as an example of re ersibility ;going ba#) and forth bet.een subtas)s, as .ith the o#abulary a#ti ity<. Either .ay, the de elopment of #on#rete operational s)ills support students in doing many basi# a#ademi# tas)sI in a sense they ma)e ordinary s#hool.or) possible.
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3. Student development
&he formal operational stage: age 77 and beyond

In the last of the *iagetian stages, the #hild be#omes able to reason not only about tangible ob,e#ts and e ents, but also about hypotheti#al or abstra#t ones. 5en#e it has the name formal operational stageLthe period .hen the indi idual #an =operate? on =forms? or representations. 4ith students at this le el, the tea#her #an pose hypotheti#al ;or #ontrary-to-fa#t< problems: =4hat if the .orld had ne er dis#o ered oil>? or =4hat if the first European explorers had settled first in California instead of on the East Coast of the 3nited !tates>? &o ans.er su#h questions, students must use hypothetical reasoning* meaning that they must manipulate ideas that ary in se eral .ays at on#e, and do so entirely in their minds. &he hypotheti#al reasoning that #on#erned *iaget primarily in ol ed s#ientifi# problems. 5is studies of formal operational thin)ing therefore often loo) li)e problems that middle or high s#hool tea#hers pose in s#ien#e #lasses. In one problem, for example, a young person is presented .ith a simple pendulum, to .hi#h different amounts of .eight #an be hung ;Inhelder P *iaget, 78@C<. &he experimenter as)s: =4hat determines ho. fast the pendulum s.ings: the length of the string holding it, the .eight atta#hed to it, or the distan#e that it is pulled to the side>? &he young person is not allo.ed to sol e this problem by trial-and-error .ith the materials themsel es, but must reason a .ay to the solution mentally. &o do so systemati#ally, he or she must imagine arying ea#h fa#tor separately, .hile also imagining the other fa#tors that are held #onstant. &his )ind of thin)ing requires fa#ility at manipulating mental representations of the rele ant ob,e#ts and a#tionsLpre#isely the s)ill that defines formal operations. "s you might suspe#t, students .ith an ability to thin) hypotheti#ally ha e an ad antage in many )inds of s#hool .or): by definition, they require relati ely fe. =props? to sol e problems. In this sense they #an in prin#iple be more self-dire#ted than students .ho rely only on #on#rete operationsL#ertainly a desirable quality in the opinion of most tea#hers. Aote, though, that formal operational thin)ing is desirable but not sufficient for s#hool su##ess, and that it is far from being the only .ay that students a#hie e edu#ational su##ess. Formal thin)ing s)ills do not insure that a student is moti ated or .ell-beha ed, for example, nor does it guarantee other desirable s)ills, su#h as ability at sports, musi#, or art. &he fourth stage in *iagetJs theory is really about a parti#ular )ind of formal thin)ing, the )ind needed to sol e s#ientifi# problems and de ise s#ientifi# experiments. !in#e many people do not normally deal .ith su#h problems in the normal #ourse of their li es, it should be no surprise that resear#h finds that many people ne er a#hie e or use formal thin)ing fully or #onsistently, or that they use it only in sele#ted areas .ith .hi#h they are ery familiar ;Case P B)omato, 7889<. For tea#hers, the limitations of *iagetDs ideas suggest a need for additional theories about de elopmentLones that fo#us more dire#tly on the so#ial and interpersonal issues of #hildhood and adoles#en#e. &he next se#tions des#ribe some of these.
Social development) relationships+personal motives+ and morality

Social development refers to the long-term #hanges in relationships and intera#tions in ol ing self, peers, and family. It in#ludes both positi e #hanges, su#h as ho. friendships de elop, and negati e #hanges, su#h as aggression or bullying. &he so#ial de elopments that are the most ob iously rele ant to #lassroom life fall into three main areas: ;7< #hanges in self-#on#ept and in relationships among students and tea#hers, ;E< #hanges in basi# needs or personal moti es, and ;0< #hanges in sense of rights and responsibilities. "s .ith #ogniti e de elopment, ea#h of these areas has a broad, .ell-)no.n theory ;and theorist< that pro ides a frame.or) for thin)ing about ho. the area relates to tea#hing. For de elopment of self-#on#ept and relationships, it is the theory of "ri5 "ri5son; for de elopment of personal moti es, it is the theory of 2braham <aslo1; and for de elopment of ethi#al
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&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense )no.ledge and beliefs, it is the .or) of 'a1rence Kohlberg and his #riti#, Carol ,illigan. &heir theories are definitely not the only ones related to so#ial de elopment of students, and their ideas are often debated by other resear#hers. 6ut their a##ounts do explain mu#h about so#ial de elopment that is rele ant to tea#hing and edu#ation.
Eri) Eri)son: eight psy#hoso#ial #rises of de elopment

2i)e *iaget, Eri) Eri)son de eloped a theory of so#ial de elopment that relies on stages, ex#ept that Eri)son thought of stages as a series of psy#hologi#al or so#ial ;or psychosocial< crisesLturning points in a personJs relationships and feelings about himself or herself ;Eri)son, 7890, 78C1<. Ea#h #risis #onsists of a dilemma or #hoi#e that #arries both ad antages and ris)s, but in .hi#h one #hoi#e or alternati e is normally #onsidered more desirable or =healthy?. 5o. one #risis is resol ed affe#ts ho. later #rises are resol ed. &he resolution also helps to #reate an indi idualJs de eloping personality. Eri)son proposed eight #rises that extend from birth through old ageI they are summari/ed in &able 9. Four of the stages o##ur during the s#hool years, so .e gi e these spe#ial attention here, but it is helpful also to )no. .hat #rises are thought to #ome both before and after those in the s#hool years. &able 9: Eight psy#hoso#ial #rises a##ording to Eri)son sychosocial crisis &rust and mistrust "utonomy and shame Initiati e and guilt Industry and inferiority 2ppro#imate age Description 6irth to one year "ge 7-0 "ge 0-9 "ge 9-7E %e elopment of trust bet.een #aregi er and #hild %e elopment of #ontrol o er bodily fun#tions and a#ti ities &esting limits of self-assertion and purposefulness %e elopment of sense of mastery and #ompeten#e %e elopment of identity and a#)no.ledge of identity by others Formation of intimate relationships and #ommitments %e elopment of #reati e or produ#ti e a#ti ities that #ontribute to future generations "ge @1V "##eptan#e of personal life history and forgi eness of self and others
Identity and role #onfusion "ge 7E-78 Intima#y and isolation 'enerati ity and stagnation Integrity and despair "ge 78-E@V "ge E@-@1V
Crises of infants and %reschoolers2 trust, autonomy, and initiative

"lmost from the day they are born, infants fa#e a #risis ;in Eri)sonJs sense< about trust and mistrust. &hey are happiest if they #an eat, sleep, and ex#rete a##ording to their o.n physiologi#al s#hedules, regardless of .hether their s#hedules are #on enient for the #aregi er ;often the mother<. 3nfortunately, though, a young infant is in no position to #ontrol or influen#e a motherJs #are gi ing or s#heduling needsI so the baby fa#es a dilemma about ho. mu#h to trust or mistrust the motherJs helpfulness. It is as if the baby as)s, =If I demand food ;or sleep or a #lean diaper< no , .ill my mother a#tually be able to help me meet this need>? 5opefully, bet.een the t.o of them, mother and #hild resol e this #hoi#e in fa or of the babyDs trust: the mother pro es herself at least =good enough? in her attenti eness, and the baby ris)s trusting motherDs moti ation and s)ill at #are gi ing.
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" 'lobal &ext
3. Student development "lmost as soon as this #risis is resol ed, ho.e er, a ne. one de elops o er the issue of autonomy and shame. &he #hild ;.ho is no. a toddler< may no. trust his or her #aregi er ;mother<, but the ery trust #ontributes to a desire to assert autonomy by ta)ing #are of basi# personal needs, su#h as feeding, toileting, or dressing. 'i en the #hildJs la#) of experien#e in these a#ti ities, ho.e er, self-#are is ris)y at firstLthe toddler may feed ;or toilet or dress< #lumsily and ineffe#ti ely. &he #hildJs #aregi er, for her part, ris)s o erprote#ting the #hild and #riti#i/ing his early efforts unne#essarily and thus #ausing the #hild to feel shame for e en trying. 5opefully, as .ith the earlier #risis of trust, the ne. #risis gets resol ed in fa or of autonomy through the #ombined efforts of the #hild to exer#ise autonomy and of the #aregi er to support the #hildJs efforts. E entually, about the time a #hild is of pres#hool age, the autonomy exer#ised during the pre ious period be#omes more elaborate, extended, and fo#used on ob,e#ts and people other than the #hild and basi# physi#al needs. &he #hild at a day #are #enter may no. underta)e, for example, to build the =biggest #ity in the .orld? out of all a ailable unit blo#)sLe en if other #hildren .ant some of the blo#)s for themsel es. &he #hildJs pro,e#ts and desires #reate a ne. #risis of initiative and guilt* be#ause the #hild soon reali/es that a#ting on impulses or desires #an sometimes ha e negati e effe#ts on othersLmore blo#)s for the #hild may mean fe.er for someone else. "s .ith the #risis o er autonomy, #aregi ers ha e to support the #hildJs initiati es .here possible, but also not ma)e the #hild feel guilty ,ust for desiring to ha e or to do something that affe#ts othersD .elfare. 6y limiting beha ior .here ne#essary but not limiting internal feelings, the #hild #an de elop a lasting ability to ta)e initiati e. Expressed in Eri)sonJs terms, the #risis is then resol ed in fa or of initiati e. E en though only the last of these three #rises o erlaps .ith the s#hool years, all three relate to issues fa#ed by students of any age, and e en by their tea#hers. " #hild or youth .ho is fundamentally mistrustful, for example, has a serious problem in #oping .ith s#hool life. If you are a student, it is essential for your long-term sur i al to belie e that tea#hers and s#hool offi#ials ha e your best interests at heart, and that they are not imposing assignments or ma)ing rules, for example, =,ust for the he#) of it.? E en though students are not infants any more, tea#hers fun#tion li)e Eri)sonJs #aregi ing parents in that they need to pro e .orthy of studentsJ trust through their initial flexibility and attenti eness. *arallels from the #lassroom also exist for the #rises of autonomy and of initiati e. &o learn effe#ti ely, students need to ma)e #hoi#es and underta)e a#ademi# initiati es at least some of the time, e en though not e ery #hoi#e or initiati e may be pra#ti#al or desirable. &ea#hers, for their part, need to ma)e true #hoi#es and initiati es possible, and refrain from #riti#i/ing, e en a##identally, a #hoi#e or intention behind an initiati e e en if the tea#her pri ately belie es that it is =bound to fail?. !upport for #hoi#es and initiati e should be fo#used on pro iding resour#es and on guiding the studentJs efforts to.ard more li)ely su##ess. In these .ays tea#hers fun#tion li)e parents of toddlers and pres#hoolers in Eri)sonJs theory of de elopment, regardless of the age of their students.
The crisis of childhood2 industry and inferiority

Bn#e into elementary s#hool, the #hild is fa#ed for the first time .ith be#oming #ompetent and .orthy in the eyes of the .orld at large, or more pre#isely in the eyes of #lassmates and tea#hers. &o a#hie e their esteem, he or she must de elop s)ills that require effort that is sustained and some.hat fo#used. &he #hallenge #reates the #risis of industry and inferiority. &o be respe#ted by tea#hers, for example, the #hild must learn to read and to beha e li)e a =true student?. &o be respe#ted by peers, he or she must learn to #ooperate and to be friendly, among other things. &here are ris)s in ol ed in .or)ing on these s)ills and qualities, be#ause there #an be no guarantee of
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&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense su##ess .ith them in ad an#e. If the #hild does su##eed, therefore, he or she experien#es the satisfa#tion of a ,ob .ell done and of s)ills .ell learnedLa feeling that Eri)s1n #alled industry. If not, ho.e er, the #hild ris)s feeling lasting inferiority #ompared to others. &ea#hers therefore ha e a dire#t, expli#it role in helping students to resol e this #risis in fa or of industry or su##ess. &hey #an set realisti# a#ademi# goals for studentsLones that tend to lead to su##essLand then pro ide materials and assistan#e for students to rea#h their goals. &ea#hers #an also express their #onfiden#e that students #an in fa#t meet their goals if and .hen the students get dis#ouraged, and a oid hinting ;e en a##identally< that a student is simply a =loser?. *aradoxi#ally, these strategies .ill .or) best if the tea#her is also tolerant of less-than-perfe#t performan#e by students. &oo mu#h emphasis on perfe#tion #an undermine some studentsJ #onfiden#eLfoster Eri)sonJs inferiorityLby ma)ing a#ademi# goals seem beyond rea#h.
The crisis of adolescence2 identity and role confusion

"s the #hild de elops lasting talents and attitudes as a result of the #risis of industry, he begins to fa#e a ne. question: .hat do all the talents and attitudes add up to be> 4ho is the =me? embedded in this profile of qualities> &hese questions are the #risis of identity and role confusion. %efining identity is ris)ier than it may appear for a person simply be#ause some talents and attitudes may be poorly de eloped, and some e en may be undesirable in the eyes of others. ;If you are poor at math, ho. do you li e .ith family and friends if they thin) you should be good at this s)ill>< !till others may be aluable but fail to be noti#ed by other people. &he result is that .ho a person .ants to be may not be the same as .ho he or she is in a#tual fa#t , nor the same as .ho other people .ant the person to be. In Eri)sonDs terms, role confusion is the result. &ea#hers #an minimi/e role #onfusion in a number of .ays. Bne is to offer students lots of di erse role modelsL by identifying models in studentsJ reading materials, for example, or by in iting di erse guests to s#hool. &he point of these strategies .ould be to express a )ey idea: that there are many .ays to be respe#ted, su##essful, and satisfied .ith life. "nother .ay to support studentsJ identity de elopment is to be alert to studentsJ #onfusions about their futures, and refer them to #ounselors or other ser i#es outside s#hool that #an help sort these out. !till another strategy is to tolerate #hanges in studentsJ goals and prioritiesLsudden #hanges in extra-#urri#ular a#ti ities or in personal plans after graduation. !in#e students are still trying roles out, dis#ouraging experimentation may not be in studentsJ best interests.
The crises of adulthood2 intimacy, generativity, and integrity

6eyond the s#hool years, a##ording to Eri)son, indi iduals #ontinue psy#hoso#ial de elopment by fa#ing additional #rises. Noung adults, for example, fa#e a #risis of intimacy and isolation. &his #risis is about the ris) of establishing #lose relationships .ith a sele#t number of others. 4hether the relationships are heterosexual, homosexual, or not sexual at all, their defining qualities are depth and sustainability. 4ithout them, an indi idual ris)s feeling isolated. "ssuming that a person resol es this #risis in fa or of intima#y, ho.e er, he or she then fa#es a #risis about generativity and stagnation. &his #risis is #hara#teristi# of most of adulthood, and not surprisingly therefore is about #aring for or ma)ing a #ontribution to so#iety, and espe#ially to its younger generation. 'enerati ity is about ma)ing life produ#ti e and #reati e so that it matters to others. Bne ob ious .ay for some to a#hie e this feeling is by raising #hildren, but there are also many other .ays to #ontribute to the .elfare of others. &he final #risis is about integrity and despair* and is #hara#teristi#ally felt during the final years of life. "t the end of life, a person is li)ely to re ie. the past and to as) .hether it has been li ed as .ell as possible, e en if it .as #learly not li ed perfe#tly. !in#e personal history #an no longer be altered at the end of life, it Educational Psychology @1 " 'lobal &ext
3. Student development is important to ma)e pea#e .ith .hat a#tually happened and to forgi e oneself and others for mista)es that may ha e been made. &he alternati e is des%air, or depression from belie ing not only that oneJs life .as li ed badly, but also that there is no longer any hope of #orre#ting past mista)es. E en though Eri)son #on#ei es of these #rises as primarily #on#erns of adulthood, there are pre#ursors of them during the s#hool years. Intima#y, for example, is a #on#ern of many #hildren and youth in that they often desire, but do not al.ays find, lasting relationships .ith others ;6eidel, E11@I -imbardo P +adl, 7888<. *ersonal isolation is a parti#ular ris) for students .ith disabilities, as .ell as for students .hose #ultural or ra#ial ba#)grounds differ from #lassmatesJ or the tea#herJs. 'enerati ityLfeeling helpful to others and to the youngLis needed not only by many adults, but also by many #hildren and youthI .hen gi en the opportunity as part of their s#hool program, they frequently .el#ome a #han#e to be of authenti# ser i#e to others as part of their s#hool programs ;Eyler P 'iles, 7888I Kay, E110<. IntegrityLta)ing responsibility for your personal past, =.arts and all?, is often a felt need for anyone, young or old, .ho has li ed long enough to ha e a past on .hi#h to loo). E en #hildren and youth ha e a past in this sense, though their pasts are of #ourse shorter than persons .ho are older.
"braham $aslo.: a hierar#hy of moti es and needs

"braham $aslo.Ds theory frames personal needs or moti es as a hierar#hy, meaning that basi# or =lo.er-le el? needs ha e to be satisfied before higher-le el needs be#ome important or moti ating ;78:9, 78C:<. Compared to the stage models of *iaget and Eri)son, $aslo.Js hierar#hy is only loosely =de elopmental?, in that $aslo. .as not #on#erned .ith tra#)ing uni ersal, irre ersible #hanges a#ross the lifespan. $aslo.Ds stages are uni ersal, but they are not irre ersibleI earlier stages sometimes reappear later in life, in .hi#h #ase they must be satisfied again before later stages #an rede elop. 2i)e the theories of *iaget and Eri)son, $aslo.Js is a rather broad =story?, one that has less to say about the effe#ts of a personJs #ulture, language, or e#onomi# le el, than about .hat .e all ha e in #ommon. In its original ersion, $aslo.Js theory distinguishes t.o types of needs, #alled deficit needs and being needs ;or sometimes deficiency needs and gro th needs). &able F summari/es the t.o le els and their suble els. %efi#it needs are prior to being needs, not in the sense of happening earlier in life, but in that defi#it needs must be satisfied (efore being needs #an be addressed. "s pointed out, defi#it needs #an reappear at any age, depending on #ir#umstan#es. If that happens, they must be satisfied again before a personJs attention #an shift ba#) to =higher? needs. "mong students, in fa#t, defi#it needs are li)ely to return #hroni#ally to those .hose families la#) e#onomi# or so#ial resour#es or .ho li e .ith the stresses asso#iated .ith po erty ;*ayne, E11@<. &able :: $aslo.Ds hierar#hy of moti es and needs *hysiologi#al needs %efi#it Aeeds !afety and se#urity needs 2o e and belonging needs Cogniti e needs 6eing Aeeds "estheti# needs !elf-a#tuali/ation needs
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!eficit needs2 getting the (asic necessities of life

%efi#it needs are the basi# requirements of physi#al and emotional .ell-being. First are %hysiological needsL food, sleep, #lothing, and the li)e. 4ithout these, nothing else matters, and espe#ially nothing ery =ele ated? or self-fulfilling. " student .ho is not getting enough to eat is not going to feel mu#h interest in learningM Bn#e physiologi#al needs are met, ho.e er, safety and security needs be#ome important. &he person loo)s for stability and prote#tion, and .el#omes a bit of stru#ture and limits if they pro ide these #onditions. " #hild from an abusi e family, for example, may be getting enough to eat, but may .orry #hroni#ally about personal safety. In s#hool, the student may appre#iate a .ell-organi/ed #lassroom .ith rules that insures personal safety and predi#tability, .hether or not the #lassroom pro ides mu#h in the .ay of real learning. "fter physiologi#al and safety needs are met, love and (elonging needs emerge. &he person turns attention to ma)ing friends, being a friend, and #ulti ating positi e personal relationships in general. In the #lassroom, a student moti ated at this le el may ma)e appro al from peers or tea#hers into a top priority. 5e or she may be pro ided for materially and find the #lassroom and family life safe enough, but still miss a )ey ingredient in lifeL lo e. If su#h a student ;or anyone else< e entually does find lo e and belonging, ho.e er, then his or her moti ation shifts again, this time to esteem needs. Ao. the #on#ern is .ith gaining re#ognition and respe#tLand e en more importantly, gaining self-respe#t. " student at this le el may be unusually #on#erned .ith a#hie ement, for example, though only if the a#hie ement is isible or publi# enough to earn publi# re#ognition.
-eing needs2 (ecoming the (est that you can (e

(eing needs are desires to be#ome fulfilled as a person, or to be the best person that you #an possibly be. &hey in#lude cognitive needs ;a desire for )no.ledge and understanding<, aesthetic needs ;an appre#iation of beauty and order<, and most importantly, self4actuali1ation needs ;a desire for fulfillment of oneJs potential<. 6eing needs emerge only after all of a personJs defi#it needs ha e been largely met. 3nli)e defi#it needs, being needs beget more being needsI they do not disappear on#e they are met, but #reate a desire for e en more satisfa#tion of the same type. " thirst for )no.ledge, for example, leads to further thirst for )no.ledge, and aestheti# appre#iation leads to more aestheti# appre#iation. *artly be#ause being needs are lasting and permanent on#e they appear, $aslo. sometimes treated them as less hierar#hi#al than defi#it needs, and instead grouped #ogniti e, aestheti#, and selfa#tuali/ation needs into the single #ategory self4actuali1ation needs. *eople .ho are moti ated by self-a#tuali/ation ha e a ariety of positi e qualities, .hi#h $aslo. .ent to some lengths to identify and des#ribe ;$aslo., 78:9<. !elf-a#tuali/ing indi iduals, he argued, alue deep personal relationships .ith others, but also alue solitudeI they ha e a sense of humor, but do not use it against othersI they a##ept themsel es as .ell as othersI they are spontaneous, humble, #reati e, and ethi#al. In short, the selfa#tuali/ing person has ,ust about e ery good quality imaginableM Aot surprisingly, therefore, $aslo. felt that true self-a#tuali/ation is rare. It is espe#ially unusual among young people, .ho ha e not yet li ed long enough to satisfy earlier, defi#it-based needs. In a .ay this last point is dis#ouraging ne.s for tea#hers, .ho apparently must spend their li es pro iding as best they #an for indi idualsLstudentsLstill immersed in defi#it needs. &ea#hers, it seems, ha e little hope of e er meeting a student .ith fully fledged being needs. &a)en less literally, though, $aslo.Js hierar#hy is still useful for thin)ing about studentsJ moti es. $ost tea#hers .ould argue that studentsLyoung though they areL can display positi e qualities similar to the ones des#ribed in $aslo.Js self-a#tuali/ing person. 5o.e er annoying students may
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" 'lobal &ext
3. Student development sometimes be, there are also moments .hen they sho. #are and respe#t for others, for example, and moments .hen they sho. spontaneity, humility, or a sound ethi#al sense. !elf-a#tuali/ation is an appropriate .ay to thin) about these momentsLthe times .hen students are at their best. "t the same time, of #ourse, students sometimes also ha e defi#it needs. Keeping in mind the entire hierar#hy outlined by $aslo. #an therefore deepen tea#hersD understanding of the full humanity of students.
&oral development) forming a sense of rights and responsibilities

<orality is a system of beliefs about .hat is right and good #ompared to .hat is .rong or bad. <oral development refers to #hanges in moral beliefs as a person gro.s older and gains maturity. $oral beliefs are related to, but not identi#al .ith, moral (ehavior2 it is possible to )no. the right thing to do, but not a#tually do it. It is also not the same as )no.ledge of social conventions, .hi#h are arbitrary #ustoms needed for the smooth operation of so#iety. !o#ial #on entions may ha e a moral element, but they ha e a primarily pra#ti#al purpose. Con entionally, for example, motor ehi#les all )eep to the same side of the street ;to the right in the 3nited !tates, to the left in 'reat 6ritain<. &he #on ention allo.s for smooth, a##ident-free flo. of traffi#. 6ut follo.ing the #on ention also has a moral element, be#ause an indi idual .ho #hooses to dri e on the .rong side of the street #an #ause in,uries or e en death. In this sense, #hoosing the .rong side of the street is .rong morally, though the #hoi#e is also un#on entional. 4hen it #omes to s#hooling and tea#hing, moral #hoi#es are not restri#ted to o##asional dramati# in#idents, but are .o en into almost e ery aspe#t of #lassroom life. Imagine this simple example. !uppose that you are tea#hing, reading to a small group of se#ond-graders, and the students are ta)ing turns reading a story out loud. !hould you gi e e ery student the same amount of time to read, e en though some might benefit from ha ing additional time> Br should you gi e more time to the students .ho need extra help, e en if doing so bores #lassmates and depri es others of equal shares of =floor time?> 4hi#h option is more fair, and .hi#h is more #onsiderate> !imple dilemmas li)e this happen e ery day at all grade le els simply be#ause students are di erse, and be#ause #lass time and a tea#herJs energy are finite. Embedded in this rather ordinary example are moral themes about fairness or ,usti#e, on the one hand, and about #onsideration or #are on the other. It is important to )eep both themes in mind .hen thin)ing about ho. students de elop beliefs about right or .rong. " morality of !ustice is about human rightsLor more spe#ifi#ally, about respe#t for fairness, impartiality, equality, and indi idualsJ independen#e. " morality of care, on the other hand, is about human responsibilitiesLmore spe#ifi#ally, about #aring for others, sho.ing #onsideration for indi idualsJ needs, and interdependen#e among indi iduals. !tudents and tea#hers need both forms of morality. In the next se#tions therefore .e explain a ma,or example of ea#h type of de elopmental theory, beginning .ith the morality of ,usti#e.
KohlbergJs morality of ,usti#e

Bne of the best-)no.n explanations of ho. morality of ,usti#e de elops .as de eloped by 2a.ren#e Kohlberg and his asso#iates ;Kohlberg, 2e ine, P 5e.er, 78C0I *o.er, 5iggins, P Kohlberg, 7887<. 3sing a stage model similar to *iagetJs, Kohlberg proposed six stages of moral de elopment, grouped into three le els. Indi iduals experien#e the stages uni ersally and in sequen#e as they form beliefs about ,usti#e. 5e named the le els simply pre#on entional, #on entional, and ;you guessed it< post#on entional. &he le els and stages are summari/ed in &able C. @0
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense &able C: $oral stages a##ording to Kohlberg <oral stage *re#on entional 2e el: !tage 7: Bbedien#e and punishment !tage E: $ar)et ex#hange Con entional 2e el: !tage 0: *eer opinion !tage F: 2a. and order *ost#on entional 2e el: !tage @: !o#ial #ontra#t !tage 9: 3ni ersal prin#iples "#tion that follo.s so#ial a##epted .ays of ma)ing de#isions "#tion that is #onsistent .ith self-#hosen, general prin#iples "#tion that .ins appro al from friends or peers "#tion that #onforms to #ommunity #ustoms or la.s "#tion that is re.arded and not punished "#tion that is agreeable to the #hild and #hildDs partner Definition of 1hat is =good>
Preconventional 'ustice2 o(edience and mutual advantage

&he %reconventional le el of moral de elopment #oin#ides approximately .ith the pres#hool period of life and .ith *iagetJs preoperational period of thin)ing. "t this age the #hild is still relati ely self-#entered and insensiti e to the moral effe#ts of a#tions on others. &he result is a some.hat short-sighted orientation to morality. Initially ;KohlbergJs !tage 7<, the #hild adopts an ethics of obedience and punishment La sort of =morality of )eeping out of trouble?. &he rightness and .rongness of a#tions is determined by .hether a#tions are re.arded or punished by authorities su#h as parents or tea#hers. If helping yourself to a #oo)ie brings affe#tionate smiles from adults, then ta)ing the #oo)ie is #onsidered morally =good?. If it brings s#olding instead, then it is morally =bad?. &he #hild does not thin) about .hy an a#tion might be praised or s#oldedI in fa#t, says Kohlberg, he .ould be in#apable at !tage 7 of #onsidering the reasons e en if adults offered them. E entually the #hild learns not only to respond to positi e #onsequen#es, but also learns ho. to %roduce them by ex#hanging fa ors .ith others. &he ne. ability #reates !tage E, an ethics of mar5et e#change. "t this stage the morally =good? a#tion is one that fa ors not only the #hild, but another person dire#tly in ol ed. " =bad? a#tion is one that la#)s this re#ipro#ity. If trading the sand.i#h from your lun#h for the #oo)ies in your friendJs lun#h is mutually agreeable, then the trade is morally goodI other.ise it is not. &his perspe#ti e introdu#es a type of fairness into the #hildJs thin)ing for the first time. 6ut it still ignores the larger #ontext of a#tionsLthe effe#ts on people not present or dire#tly in ol ed. In !tage E, for example, it .ould also be #onsidered morally =good? to pay a #lassmate to do another studentDs home.or)Lor e en to a oid bullying or to pro ide sexual fa orsLpro ided that both parties regard the arrangement as being fair.
Conventional 'ustice2 conformity to %eers and society

"s #hildren mo e into the s#hool years, their li es expand to in#lude a larger number and range of peers and ;e entually< of the #ommunity as a .hole. &he #hange leads to conventional morality, .hi#h are beliefs based on .hat this larger array of people agree onLhen#e KohlbergJs use of the term =#on entional?. "t first, in !tage 0, the #hildJs referen#e group are immediate peers, so !tage 0 is sometimes #alled the ethics of peer opinion. If peers Educational Psychology @F " 'lobal &ext
3. Student development belie e, for example, that it is morally good to beha e politely .ith as many people as possible, then the #hild is li)ely to agree .ith the group and to regard politeness as not merely an arbitrary so#ial #on ention, but a moral =good?. &his approa#h to moral belief is a bit more stable than the approa#h in !tage E, be#ause the #hild is ta)ing into a##ount the rea#tions not ,ust of one other person, but of many. 6ut it #an still lead astray if the group settles on beliefs that adults #onsider morally .rong, li)e =!hop lifting for #andy bars is fun and desirable.? E entually, as the #hild be#omes a youth and the so#ial .orld expands e en more, he or she a#quires e en larger numbers of peers and friends. 5e or she is therefore more li)ely to en#ounter disagreements about ethi#al issues and beliefs. +esol ing the #omplexities lead to !tage F, the ethics of la1 and order* in .hi#h the young person in#reasingly frames moral beliefs in terms of .hat the ma,ority of so#iety belie es. Ao., an a#tion is morally good if it is legal or at least #ustomarily appro ed by most people, in#luding people .hom the youth does not )no. personally. &his attitude leads to an e en more stable set of prin#iples than in the pre ious stage, though it is still not immune from ethi#al mista)es. " #ommunity or so#iety may agree, for example, that people of a #ertain ra#e should be treated .ith deliberate disrespe#t, or that a fa#tory o.ner is entitled to dump .aste .ater into a #ommonly shared la)e or ri er. &o de elop ethi#al prin#iples that reliably a oid mista)es li)e these require further stages of moral de elopment.
Postconventional 'ustice2 social contract and universal %rinci%les

"s a person be#omes able to thin) abstra#tly ;or =formally?, in *iagetJs sense<, ethi#al beliefs shift from a##eptan#e of .hat the #ommunity does belie e to the %rocess by .hi#h #ommunity beliefs are formed. &he ne. fo#us #onstitutes !tage @, the ethics of social contract. Ao. an a#tion, belief, or pra#ti#e is morally good if it has been #reated through fair, demo#rati# pro#esses that respe#t the rights of the people affe#ted. Consider, for example, the la.s in some areas that require motor#y#lists to .ear helmets. In .hat sense are the la.s about this beha ior ethi#al> 4as it #reated by #onsulting .ith and gaining the #onsent of the rele ant people> 4ere #y#lists #onsulted and did they gi e #onsent> Br ho. about do#tors or the #y#listsD families> +easonable, thoughtful indi iduals disagree about ho. thoroughly and fairly these consultation pro#esses should be. In fo#using on the pro#esses by .hi#h the la. .as #reated, ho.e er, indi iduals are thin)ing a##ording to !tage @, the ethi#s of so#ial #ontra#t, regardless of the position they ta)e about .earing helmets. In this sense, beliefs on both sides of a debate about an issue #an sometimes be morally sound e en if they #ontradi#t ea#h other. *aying attention to due pro#ess #ertainly seems li)e it should help to a oid mindless #onformity to #on entional moral beliefs. "s an ethi#al strategy, though, it too #an sometimes fail. &he problem is that an ethi#s of so#ial #ontra#t pla#es more faith in demo#rati# pro#ess than the pro#ess sometimes deser es, and does not pay enough attention to the #ontent of .hat gets de#ided. In prin#iple ;and o##asionally in pra#ti#e<, a so#iety #ould de#ide demo#rati#ally to )ill off e ery member of a ra#ial minority, for example, but .ould de#iding this by due pro#ess ma)e it ethi#al> &he reali/ation that ethi#al means #an sometimes ser e unethi#al ends leads some indi iduals to.ard !tage 9, the ethics of self.chosen* universal principles. "t this final stage, the morally good a#tion is based on personally held prin#iples that apply both to the personJs immediate life as .ell as to the larger #ommunity and so#iety. &he uni ersal prin#iples may in#lude a belief in demo#rati# due pro#ess ;!tage @ ethi#s<, but also other prin#iples, su#h as a belief in the dignity of all human life or the sa#redness of the natural en ironment. "t !tage 9, the uni ersal prin#iples .ill guide a personJs beliefs e en if the prin#iples mean disagreeing o##asionally .ith .hat is #ustomary ;!tage F< or e en .ith .hat is legal ;!tage @<.
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'illiganJs morality of #are

"s logi#al as they sound, KohlbergJs stages of moral ,usti#e are not suffi#ient for understanding the de elopment of moral beliefs. &o see .hy, suppose that you ha e a student .ho as)s for an extension of the deadline for an assignment. &he ,usti#e orientation of KohlbergJs theory .ould prompt you to #onsider issues of .hether granting the request is fair. 4ould the late student be able to put more effort into the assignment than other students> 4ould the extension pla#e a diffi#ult demand on you, sin#e you .ould ha e less time to mar) the assignments> &hese are important #onsiderations related to the rights of students and the tea#her. In addition to these, ho.e er, are #onsiderations ha ing to do .ith the responsibilities that you and the requesting student ha e for ea#h other and for others. %oes the student ha e a alid personal reason ;illness, death in the family, et#.< for the assignment being late> 4ill the assignment lose its edu#ational alue if the student has to turn it in prematurely> &hese latter questions ha e less to do .ith fairness and rights, and more to do .ith ta)ing #are of and responsibility for students. &hey require a frame.or) different from KohlbergJs to be understood fully. Bne su#h frame.or) has been de eloped by Carol 'illigan, .hose ideas #enter on a morality of care* or system of beliefs about human responsibilities, #are, and #onsideration for others. 'illigan proposed three moral positions that represent different extents or breadth of ethi#al #are. 3nli)e Kohlberg, *iaget, or Eri)son, she does not #laim that the positions form a stri#tly de elopmental sequen#e, but only that they #an be ran)ed hierar#hi#ally a##ording to their depth or subtlety. In this respe#t her theory is =semi-de elopmental? in a .ay similar to $aslo.Js theory of moti ation ;6ro.n P 'illigan, 788EI &aylor, 'illigan, P !ulli an, 788@<. &able 8 summari/es the three moral positions from 'illiganJs theory &able 8: *ositions of moral de elopment a##ording to 'illigan <oral position *osition 7: !ur i al orientation *osition E: Con entional #are *osition 0: Integrated #are "#tion that attempts to #oordinate oneDs o.n personal needs .ith those of others "#tion that #onsiders othersD needs or preferen#es, but not oneDs o.n Definition of 1hat is morally good "#tion that #onsiders oneDs personal needs only
Position C2 caring as survival

&he most basi# )ind of #aring is a survival orientation* in .hi#h a person is #on#erned primarily .ith his or her o.n .elfare. If a teenage girl .ith this ethi#al position is .ondering .hether to get an abortion, for example, she .ill be #on#erned entirely .ith the effe#ts of the abortion on herself. &he morally good #hoi#e .ill be .hate er #reates the least stress for herself and that disrupts her o.n life the least. +esponsibilities to others ;the baby, the father, or her family< play little or no part in her thin)ing. "s a moral position, a sur i al orientation is ob iously not satisfa#tory for #lassrooms on a .idespread s#ale. If e ery student only loo)ed out for himself or herself, #lassroom life might be#ome rather unpleasantM Aonetheless, there are situations in .hi#h fo#using primarily on yourself is both a sign of good mental health and rele ant to tea#hers. For a #hild .ho has been bullied at s#hool or sexually abused at home, for example, it is both healthy and Educational Psychology @9 " 'lobal &ext
3. Student development morally desirable to spea) out about ho. bullying or abuse has affe#ted the i#tim. %oing so means essentially loo)ing out for the i#timJs o.n needs at the expense of othersJ needs, in#luding the bullyJs or abuserJs. !pea)ing out, in this #ase, requires a sur i al orientation and is healthy be#ause the #hild is ta)ing #aring of herself.
Position D2 conventional caring

" more subtle moral position is caring for others* in .hi#h a person is #on#erned about othersJ happiness and .elfare, and about re#on#iling or integrating othersJ needs .here they #onfli#t .ith ea#h other. In #onsidering an abortion, for example, the teenager at this position .ould thin) primarily about .hat other people prefer. %o the father, her parents, andKor her do#tor .ant her to )eep the #hild> &he morally good #hoi#e be#omes .hate er .ill please others the best. &his position is more demanding than *osition 7, ethi#ally and intelle#tually, be#ause it requires #oordinating se eral personsJ needs and alues. 6ut it is often morally insuffi#ient be#ause it ignores one #ru#ial person: the self. In #lassrooms, students .ho operate from *osition E #an be ery desirable in some .aysI they #an be eager to please, #onsiderate, and good at fitting in and at .or)ing #ooperati ely .ith others. 6e#ause these qualities are usually .el#ome in a busy #lassroom, tea#hers #an be tempted to re.ard students for de eloping and using them. &he problem .ith re.arding *osition E ethi#s, ho.e er, is that doing so negle#ts the studentJs de elopmentLhis or her o.n a#ademi# and personal goals or alues. !ooner or later, personal goals, alues, and identity need attention and #are, and edu#ators ha e a responsibility for assisting students to dis#o er and #larify them.
Position <2 integrated caring

&he most de eloped form of moral #aring in 'illiganJs model is integrated caring* the #oordination of personal needs and alues .ith those of others. Ao. the morally good #hoi#e ta)es a##ount of e eryone including yourself, not e eryone e5ce%t yourself. In #onsidering an abortion, a .oman at *osition 0 .ould thin) not only about the #onsequen#es for the father, the unborn #hild, and her family, but also about the #onsequen#es for herself. 5o. .ould bearing a #hild affe#t her o.n needs, alues, and plans> &his perspe#ti e leads to moral beliefs that are more #omprehensi e, but ironi#ally are also more prone to dilemmas be#ause the .idest possible range of indi iduals are being #onsidered. In #lassrooms, integrated #aring is most li)ely to surfa#e .hene er tea#hers gi e students .ide, sustained freedom to ma)e #hoi#es. If students ha e little flexibility about their a#tions, there is little room for #onsidering anyone+s needs or alues, .hether their o.n or othersJ. If the tea#her says simply: =%o the home.or) on page @1 and turn it in tomorro. morning?, then the main issue be#omes #omplian#e, not moral #hoi#e. 6ut suppose instead that she says something li)e this: =B er the next t.o months, figure out an inquiry pro,e#t about the use of .ater resour#es in our to.n. Brgani/e it any .ay you .antLtal) to people, read .idely about it, and share it .ith the #lass in a .ay that all of us, in#luding yourself, .ill find meaningful.? "n assignment li)e this poses moral #hallenges that are not only edu#ational, but also moral, sin#e it requires students to ma)e alue ,udgments. 4hy> For one thing, students must de#ide .hat aspe#t of the topi# really matters to them. !u#h a de#ision is partly a matter of personal alues. For another thing, students ha e to #onsider ho. to ma)e the topi# meaningful or important to others in the #lass. &hird, be#ause the time line for #ompletion is relati ely far in the future, students may ha e to .eigh personal priorities ;li)e spending time .ith friends or family< against edu#ational priorities ;.or)ing on the assignment a bit more on the .ee)end<. "s you might suspe#t, some students might ha e trouble ma)ing good #hoi#es .hen gi en this sort of freedomLand their tea#hers might therefore be #autious about gi ing su#h an assignment. 6ut the @:
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense diffi#ulties in ma)ing #hoi#es are part of 'illiganJs point: integrated #aring is indeed more demanding than the #aring based only on sur i al or on #onsideration of others. Aot all students may be ready for it.
Character develo%ment2 .ntegrating ethical understanding, care, and action

&he theories des#ribed so far all offer frame.or)s for understanding ho. #hildren gro. into youth and adults. &hose by $aslo., Kohlberg, and 'illigan are more spe#ifi# than the one by Eri)son in that they fo#us on the de elopment of understanding about ethi#s. From a tea#herDs point of ie., though, the theories are all limited in t.o .ays. Bne problem is that they fo#us primarily on #ognitionLon .hat #hildren thin& about ethi#al issuesL more than on emotions and a#tions. &he other is that they say little about ho. to en#ourage ethi#al de elopment. En#ouragement is part of tea#hersD ,obs, and doing it .ell requires understanding not only .hat students )no. about ethi#s, but also ho. they feel about it and .hat ethi#al a#tions they are a#tually prepared to ta)e. $any edu#ators ha e re#ogni/ed these edu#ational needs, and a number of them ha e therefore de eloped pra#ti#al programs that integrate ethi#al understanding, #are, and a#tion. "s a group the programs are often #alled character education* though indi idual programs ha e a ariety of spe#ifi# names ;for example, moral dilemma education, integrative ethical education, social com%etence education, and many more<. %etails of the programs ary, but they all #ombine a fo#us on ethi#al )no.ledge .ith attention to ethi#al feelings and a#tions ;El)ind P !.eet, E11FI 6er)o.it/ P 6ier, E119I Aar ae/, E171<. Chara#ter edu#ation programs goes .ell beyond ,ust tea#hing students to obey ethi#al rules, su#h as ="l.ays tell the .hole truth? or ="l.ays do .hat the tea#her tells you to do.? !u#h rules require ery little thin)ing on the part of the student, and there are usually o##asions in .hi#h a rule that is supposedly uni ersal needs to be modified, =bent,? or e en disobeyed. ;For example, if telling the .hole truth might hurt someoneDs feelings, it might sometimes be more #onsiderateLand thus more ethi#alLto soften the truth a bit, or e en to say nothing at all.< Instead, #hara#ter edu#ation is about in iting students to thin) about the broad questions of his or her life, su#h as =4hat )ind of person should I be>? or =5o. should I li e my life>? &houghtful ans.ers to su#h broad questions help to ans.er a host of more spe#ifi# questions that ha e ethi#al impli#ations, su#h as =!hould I listen to the tea#her right no., e en if she is a bit boring, or ,ust tune out>? or =!hould I offer to help my friend .ith the home.or) she is struggling .ith, or hold ba#) so that learns to do it herself>? $ost of the time, there is not enough time to reason about questions li)e these deliberately or #ons#iously. +esponses ha e to be#ome intuiti e, automati#, and em(odied0meaning that they ha e to be based in fairly immediate emotional responses ;Aar ae/, E118<. &he goal of #hara#ter edu#ation is to de elop studentsD #apa#ities to respond to daily ethi#al #hoi#es not only #ons#iously and #ogniti ely, but also intuiti ely and emotionally. &o the extent that this goal is met, students #an indeed li e a good, ethi#ally responsible life.
School ide %rograms of character education

In the most #omprehensi e approa#hes to #hara#ter edu#ation, an entire s#hool #ommits itself to de eloping studentsD ethi#al #hara#ter, despite the immense di ersity among students ;$ino., !#h.eder, P $ar)us, E11C<. "ll members of the staffLnot ,ust tea#hers and administrators, but also #ustodians, and edu#ational assistantsLfo#us on de eloping positi e relationships .ith students. &he underlying theme that de elops is one of #ooperation and mutual #are, not #ompetition. Fairness, respe#t and honesty per ade #lass and s#hool a#ti itiesI dis#ipline, for example, fo#uses on sol ing #onfli#ts bet.een students and bet.een students and tea#hers, rather than on
@C
" 'lobal &ext
3. Student development re.arding obedian#e or punishing .rong-doers. &he approa#h requires signifi#ant relian#e on demo#rati# meetings and dis#ussions, both in #lassrooms and .here er else groups .or) together in s#hool.
Classroom programs of #hara#ter edu#ation

E en if a tea#her is tea#hing #hara#ter edu#ation simply .ithin her o.n #lassroom, there are many strategies a ailable. &he goal in this #ase is to establish the #lassroom as a pla#e .here e eryone feels in#luded, and .here e eryone treats e eryone else .ith #i ility and respe#t. Confli#ts and disagreements may still o##ur, but in a #aring #ommunity they #an be resol ed .ithout undue anger or hostility. 5ere are a fe. .ays to .or) to.ard this sort of #lassroom:
3se #lass meetings to de#ide on as many important matters as possibleLsu#h as the expe#ted rules of
beha ior, important #lassroom a#ti ities, or ongoing disagreements. ;$ore about the pros and #ons of demo#rati# #lass meetings are dis#ussed in the #hapter on =Classroom management and the learning en ironment?.<
&ry arranging for students to #ollaborate on signifi#ant pro,e#ts and tas)s. ;'uidelines for ma)ing
#ooperati e tas)s effe#ti e are dis#ussed in detail in =Fa#ilitating #omplex thin)ing?.<

"rrange a =6uddies? program in .hi#h students of different grade le els .or) together on a signifi#ant tas).
Blder students #an sometimes assist younger students by reading to them, by listening to them read, or both. If an older student is ha ing trouble .ith reading himself or herself, furthermore, a reading buddies program #an sometimes also be helpful to the older student.
Familiari/e students .ith #onfli#t resolution strategies, and pra#ti#e using them .hen needed. " #onfli#t
resolution approa#h is des#ribed in detail in the #hapter on =Classroom management and the learning en ironment?.
$any areas of #urri#ulum lend themsel es to dis#ussions about ethi#al issues. Bb ious examples are #ertain
no els, short stories, and histori#al e ents. 6ut ethi#al issues lur) else.here as .ell. &ea#hing nutrition, for example, #an raise issues about the humane treatment of animals that .ill be slaughtered for food, and about the ethi#al a##eptability of using large amount of grains to feed animals e en though many people in the .orld do not ha e enough to eat.
!er i#e learning pro,e#ts #an be ery helpful in highlighting issues of so#ial ,usti#e. *lanning, .or)ing at
and refle#ting about a lo#al soup )it#hen, tutoring students from lo.-in#ome families, performing simple repairs on homes in need: pro,e#ts li)e these broaden )no.ledge of so#iety and of the needs of its #iti/ens. "dditional ideas about ser i#e learning are dis#ussed in the #hapter on =*lanning Instru#tion?.
,nderstanding -the typical student. versus understanding students

In this #hapter, in )eeping .ith the general nature of de elopmental theory, .e ha e often spo)en of students in a generali/ed .ay, referring to =the? #hild, student, or youngster, as if a single typi#al or a erage indi idual exists and de elops through single, predi#table path.ays. "s e ery tea#her )no.s, ho.e er, de elopment is not that simple. " #lass of E@ or 01 students .ill #ontain E@ or 01 indi iduals ea#h learning and de eloping along distin#t path.ays. 4hy then study de elopmental patterns at all> 6e#ause underlying their ob ious di ersity, students indeed sho. important similarities. &his #hapter has indi#ated some of the similarities and ho. they relate to the ,ob of tea#hing. Bur referen#es to =the? student should not be understood, therefore, as supporting simple-minded stereotypesI they refer instead to #ommon tenden#ies of real, li e #hildren and youth. *ointing to de elopmental @8
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense #hanges is li)e pointing to a flo#) of birds in flight: the flo#) has a general lo#ation, but indi idual birds also ha e their o.n lo#ations and ta)e indi idual flight paths. %e elopment and di ersity therefore ha e to be understood ,ointly, not separately. &here are indeed similarities .o en among the differen#es in students, but also differen#es .o en among studentsJ #ommonalities. 4e re#ommend therefore that you read this #hapter on de elopment together .ith the next one, .hi#h loo)s expli#itly at student di ersity.
Chapter summary
3nderstanding de elopment, or the long-term #hanges in gro.th, beha ior, and )no.ledge, helps tea#hers to hold appropriate expe#tations for students as .ell as to )eep studentsJ indi idual di ersity in perspe#ti e. From )indergarten through the end of high s#hool, students double their height, triple their .eight, experien#e the so#ial and hormonal effe#ts of puberty, and impro e basi# motor s)ills. &heir health is generally good, though illnesses are affe#ted signifi#antly by studentsJ e#onomi# and so#ial #ir#umstan#es. Cogniti ely, students de elop ma,or ne. abilities to thin) logi#ally and abstra#tly, based on a foundation of sensory and motor experien#es .ith the ob,e#ts and people around them. (ean *iaget has one .ell-)no.n theory detailing ho. these #hanges unfold. !o#ially, students fa#e and resol e a number of issuesLespe#ially the issue of industry ;dedi#ated, sustained .or)< during #hildhood and the issue of identity during adoles#en#e. Eri) Eri)son has des#ribed these #rises in detail, as .ell as so#ial #rises that pre#ede and follo. the s#hool years. !tudents are moti ated both by basi# human needs ;food, safety, belonging, esteem< and by needs to enhan#e themsel es psy#hologi#ally ;self-a#tuali/ation<. "braham $aslo. has des#ribed these moti ations and ho. they relate to ea#h other. $orally, students de elop both a sense of ,usti#e and of #are for others, and their thin)ing in ea#h of these realms undergoes important #hanges as they mature. 2a.ren#e Kohlberg has des#ribed #hanges in #hildren and youthJs beliefs about ,usti#e, and Carol 'illigan has des#ribed #hanges in their beliefs about #are. Chara#ter edu#ation goes beyond des#ribing studentsD beliefs about ethi#sI it is a group of edu#ational programs and tea#hing strategies that #ombines attention to moral belief .ith attention to studentsD ethi#al feelings and ethi#al a#tions,
Further resour#es
&he follo.ing se#tions of the teachinged%sych .i)i ;http:KKtea#hingedpsy#h..i)ispa#es.#om< may be helpful for understanding the topi#s in this #hapter: "ssorted materials and a#ti ities about human de elopment ;http:KKtea#hingedpsy#h..i)ispa#es.#omK5umanVde elopment< "ssorted materials and a#ti ities about so#ial relationships ;http:KKtea#hingedpsy#h..i)ispa#es.#omK!o#ialVrelationships< "ssorted materials and a#ti ities about thin)ing and #ognition ;http:KKtea#hingedpsy#h..i)ispa#es.#omK&hin)ingVandV#ognition<
Key terms
%e elopment *uberty Cognition Cogniti e stages (ean *iaget !ensorimotor stage Educational Psychology 91 Bb,e#t permanen#e *reoperational stage %ramati# play Con#rete operational stage %e#enter Conser ation " 'lobal &ext
3. Student development Formal operational stage 5ypotheti#al reasoning !o#ial de elopment Eri) Eri)son "braham $aslo. 2a.ren#e Kohlberg Carol 'illigan *sy#hoso#ial #rises &rust, autonomy, and initiati e Industry Identity Intima#y, generati ity, and integrity $aslo.Js hierar#hy of needs %efi#it needs 6eing needs !elf-a#tuali/ation $oral de elopment 2a.ren#e Kohlberg Carol 'illigan $orality of ,usti#e *re#on entional ,usti#e Ethi#s of obedien#e Ethi#s of mutual ad antage Con entional ,usti#e Ethi#s of peer opinion Ethi#s of la. and order *ost#on entional ,usti#e Ethi#s of so#ial #ontra#t Ethi#s of uni ersal prin#iples $orality of #are !ur i al Brientation Con entional #are Integrated #are Chara#ter edu#ation embodied learning ser i#e learning
+eferen#es
"llender, (. ;E11@<. Community health nursing, ;th edition. *hiladelphia: 2ippin#ott, 4illiams, P 4il)ins. 6a.a, !. ;E11@<. &he role of the #onsumption of be erages in the obesity epidemi#. Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of :ealth, CD@;0<, 7EF-7EC. 6eidel, 6. ;E11@<. Childhood an5iety disorders. Bxford, 3K: 6runner-+outledge. 6er)o.it/, $. P 6ier, $. ;E119<. Fhat or&s in character education2 A research4driven guide for educators. !t. 2ouis, $B: Center for Chara#ter and Citi/enship. 6rede)amp, !. P Copple, C. ;788:<. !evelo%mentally a%%ro%riate %ractice, Revised edition. 4ashington, %.C.: Aational "sso#iation for the Edu#ation of Noung Children. 6ro.n, 2. P 'illigan, C. ;788E<. Aeeting at the crossroads2 Fomen+s %sychology and girls+ develo%ment. Cambridge, $": 5ar ard 3ni ersity *ress. Case, +. ;7887<. The mind+s staircase2 E5%loring the conce%tual under%innings of children+s thought and &no ledge. 5illsdale, A(: Erlbaum. Case, +. P B)amoto, N. ;7889<. The role of central conce%tual structures in children+s thought. Chi#ago: !o#iety for +esear#h on Child %e elopment. Center for %isease Control. ;E11Fa<. $ational survey on drug use and health. 6ethesda, $%: %epartment of 5ealth and 5uman !er i#es. Center for %isease Control ;E11Fb<. Trends in the %revalence of se5ual (ehaviors, CGGC4D==<. 6ethesda, $%: "uthor. El)ind, %. P !.eet, F. ;E119<. 5o. to do #hara#ter edu#ation. "##essed February 7, E177 at http:KK....good#hara#ter.#omK"rti#leZF.html . E eleth, *. P &anner, (. ;7881<. Forld ide variation in human gro th ;End edition<. Ae. Nor): Cambridge 3ni ersity *ress. Eyler, (. P 'iles, %. ;7888<. Fhere+s the learning in service learning/ !an Fran#is#o: (ossey-6ass.
97
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense Fagan, ". P Aa,man, (. ;E11@<. &he relati e #ontribution of parental and sibling substan#e use to adoles#ent al#ohol, toba##o, and other drug use. Journal of !rug .ssues, 0@, C98-CC0. Friedman, !. ;E111<. Fhen girls feel fat2 :el%ing girls through adolescence. &oronto: Firefly 6oo)s. 5arris, (. ;E119<. $o t o ali&e2 :uman nature and human individuality. Ae. Nor): Aorton. Inhelder, 6. P *iaget, (. ;78@C<. The gro th of logical thin&ing from childhood to adolescence2 An essay on the gro th of formal o%erational structures. Ae. Nor): 6asi# 6oo)s. (ohnston, 2., BJ$alley, *., 6a#hman, (., P !#hulenberg, (. ;E119<. Aonitoring the future2 $ational results on adolescent drug use2 9vervie "buse. Kay, C. ;E110<. The com%lete guide to service learning. Ae. Nor): Free !pirit *ublishing. Kohlberg, 2., 2e ine, C., P 5e.er, ". ;78C0<. Aoral stages2 A current formulation and a res%onse to critics. 6asel: !. Karger. 2e.is, $. ;788:<. Altering fate2 Fhy the %ast does not %redict the future. Ae. Nor): 'uilford *ress. $alina, +., 6ou#hard, C., P 6ar-Br B. ;E11F<. Kro th, maturation, and %hysical activity. Champaign, I2: 5uman Kineti#s *ress. $aslo., ". ;78C:<. Aotivation and %ersonality, <rd edition. Ae. Nor): 5arper P +o.. $aslo., ". ;78:9<. The 8arther Reaches of :uman $ature, Dnd edition. Ae. Nor): *enguin 6oo)s. $atthe.s, '. ;788C<. The %hiloso%hy of childhood. Cambridge, $": 5ar ard 3ni ersity *ress. $#Clinto#), $. P 5erdt, '. ;7889<. +ethin)ing puberty: &he de elopment of sexual attra#tion. Current !irections in Psychological Science, @, 7:C-7C0. $ino., $., !h.eder, +., P $ar)us, 5. ;Eds.<. ;E11C<. Just schools2 Pursuing e)uality in societies of difference. Ae. Nor): +ussell !age Foundation. Aarayan, K., 6oyle, (., &hompson, &., !orensen, !., P 4illiamson, %. ;E110<. 2ifetime ris) for diabetes mellitus in the 3nited !tates. Journal of the American Aedical Association, DG=;7F<, 7CCF-7C81. Aational Institute of "llergies and Infe#tious %iseases. ;E11@<. The common cold. 6ethesda, $%: "uthor. "lso a ailable at Rhttp:KK....niaid.nih.go Kfa#tsK#old.htmS. Aar ae/, %. ;E118<. 6uilding )no.ledge by o er#oming the dualisti# mind set in edu#ation. African Technology !evelo%ment 8orum, ;;7-E<, 79-E@. Aar ae/, %. ;E171<. $oral #omplexity: &he fatal attra#tion of truthiness and the importan#e of mature moral fun#tioning. Pers%ectives on %sychological science, @;E<, 79E-7C7. Bgden, C., Flega, K., Carroll, $. P (ohnson, C. ;E11E<. *re alen#e and trends in o er.eight among 3.!. #hildren and adoles#ents, 7888-E111. Journal of the American Aedical Association, DBB;7F<, 7:EC-7:0E. *aley, G. ;E11@<. A child+s or&2 The im%ortance of fantasy %lay. Chi#ago: 3ni ersity of Chi#ago *ress. *ayne, +. ;E11@<. A frame or& for understanding %overty. 5ighlands, &[: ahaM*ro#ess, In#. *ayne, G. P Isaa#s, 2. ;E11@<. :uman motor develo%ment2 A lifes%an a%%roach, ;th edition. 6oston: $#'ra.-5ill. *iaget, (. ;78@E<. The origins of intelligence in children. Ae. Nor): International 3ni ersities *ress. *iaget, (. ;78C0<. *iagetJs theory. In *. $ussen ;Ed.<, :and(oo& of child %sychology, volume C. Ae. Nor): 4iley. *iaget, (. ;E117<. The %sychology of intelligence. Bxford, 3K: +outledge. Educational Psychology 9E " 'lobal &ext of &ey findings, D==@. 6ethesda, $%: Aational Institute on %rug
3. Student development *etli#h)off, 2. ;7889<. &he drop-out dilemma in youth sports. In B. 6ar-Br ;Ed.<, The child and adolescent athlete ;pp. F7C-F0E<. Bxford, 3K: 6la#).ell. *o.er, F., 5iggins, "., P Kohlberg, 2. ;7887<. #a rence Kohl(erg+s a%%roach to moral education. Ae. Nor): Columbia 3ni ersity *ress. +i#hardson, (. ;E11@<. The cost of (eing %oor. 4estport, CA: *raeger. +osenbaum, (. ;E119<. +eborn a Girgin: "doles#entsD +etra#ting of Girginity *ledges and !exual 5istories. American Journal of Pu(lic :ealth, G;;9<, xxx-yyy. !ad)er, $. ;E11F<. 'ender equity in the #lassroom: &he unfinished agenda. In $. Kimmel ;Ed.<, The gendered society reader, Dnd edition. Ae. Nor): Bxford 3ni ersity *ress. !al)ind, A. ;E11F<. An introduction to theories of human develo%ment. &housand Ba)s, C": !age *ubli#ations. !la in, +. ;E11@<. Educational %sychology, >th edition. 6oston: "llyn P 6a#on. !pen#er, A. ;E111<. Poverty and child health, Dnd edition. "bingdon, 3K: +ad#liffe $edi#al *ress. &artamella, 2., 5ers#her, E., 4oolston, C. ;E11F<. Keneration e5tra large2 Rescuing our children from the o(esity e%idemic. Ae. Nor): 6asi# 6oo)s. &aylor, (. P 'illigan, C., P !ulli an, ". ;788@<. -et een voice and silence2 Fomen and girls, race and relationshi%. Cambridge, $": 5ar ard 3ni ersity *ress. 3nited !tates 'o ernment *rinting Bffi#e. ;E11E<. $o Child #eft -ehind Act2 A des&to% reference. 4ashington, %.C.: "uthor. 4helen, E., 2a.son, C., 'ra,e.s)i, 6., *etersen, $., *in)erton, 2., 4ard, E., P !#hnorr, &. ;E110<. *re alen#e of respiratory symptoms among female flight attendants and tea#hers. 9ccu%ational and Environmental Aedicine, ;=, 8E8-80F. 4oolfol), ". ;E119<. Educational %sychology, C=th edition. 6oston: "llyn P 6a#on. Nin, -., 5anes, (., $oore, (., 5umbles, *., 6arbeau, P 'utin, 6. ;E11@<. "n after-s#hool physi#al a#ti ity program for obesity pre ention in #hildren. Evaluation and the :ealth Professions, DB;7<, 9:-C8. -imbardo, *. P +adl, !. ;7888<. The shy child2 9vercoming and %reventing shyness from (irth to adulthood. Cambridge, $": $alor 6oo)s.
90
/. Student diversity
.+ll tell you this2 There are some %eo%le, and then there are others7 3Anna :arris) Anna :arris as Kelvin SeifertMs grandmother as ell as a schoolteacher from a(out CGC= to CG<=. She used to ma&e comments, li&e the one a(ove, that sounded odd (ut that also contained a grain of isdom. .n this case her remar& ma&es a good theme for this cha%ter0and even for teaching in general. Students do differ in a multitude of ays, (oth individually and (ecause of mem(ershi%s in families, communities or cultural grou%s. Sometimes the differences can ma&e classroom4style teaching more challenging, (ut other times, as Anna :arris im%lied, they sim%ly enrich classroom life. To teach students themselves, and ell, e need to understand the im%ortant ays that they differ among hen or ho the differences really matter for their education. This cha%ter offers you might use it in order to ma&e learning effective
some of that understanding and suggests ho and en'oya(le for everyone, including yourself. 8or convenience e
ill ma&e a ma'or distinction (et een differences among individuals and
differences among grou%s of students. As the term im%lies, individual differences are )ualities that are uni)ueL 'ust one %erson has them at a time. "ariation in hair color, for e5am%le, is an individual differenceL even though some %eo%le have nearly the same hair color, no t o %eo%le are e5actly the same. Group differences are )ualities shared (y mem(ers of an identifia(le grou% or community, (ut not shared (y everyone in society. An e5am%le is gender role2 for (etter or for orse, one %ortion of society 3the males) is %erceived differently and e5%ected to (ehave a (it differently than another %ortion of society 3the females). $otice that distinguishing (et een individual and grou% differences is convenient, (ut a (it ar(itrary. .ndividuals lot of individual diversity ith similar, (ut nonetheless uni)ue )ualities sometimes grou% themselves together for certain %ur%oses, and grou%s unusually contain a ithin them. .f you ha%%en to en'oy %laying soccer and have some talent for it 3an individual )uality), for e5am%le, you may end u% as a mem(er of a soccer team or clu( 3a grou% defined (y mem(ers+ common desire and a(ility to %lay soccer). -ut though everyone on the team fits a *soccer %layer+s %rofile, at some level, individual mem(ers To (egin, then, ill %ro(a(ly vary in level of s&ill and motivation. The grou%, (y its very nature, may o(scure these signs of individuality. e loo& at several differences normally considered to (e individually rather than ill necessarily (e incom%lete sim%ly (ecause individual differences are ith three im%ortant forms of grou% diversity2 gender differences, grou% (ased. This discussion sections of this cha%ter deal
so numerous and im%ortant in teaching that some of them are also discussed in later cha%ters. #ater cultural differences, and language differences.
9F
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4. Student diversity
0ndividual styles of learning and thin1ing

"ll of us, in#luding our students, ha e preferred .ays of learning. &ea#hers often refer to these differen#es as learning styles* though this term may imply that students are more #onsistent a#ross situations than is really the #ase. Bne student may li)e to ma)e diagrams to help remember a reading assignment, .hereas another student may prefer to .rite a s)et#hy outline instead. Net in many #ases, the students #ould in prin#iple re erse the strategies and still learn the material: if #oaxed ;or perhaps required<, the diagram-ma)er #ould ta)e notes for a #hange and the note-ta)er #ould dra. diagrams. 6oth .ould still learn, though neither might feel as #omfortable as .hen using the strategies that they prefer. &his reality suggests that a balan#ed, middle-of-the-road approa#h may be a tea#herJs best response to studentsJ learning styles. Br put another .ay, it is good to support studentsJ preferred learning strategies .here possible and appropriate, but neither ne#essary nor desirable to do so all of the time ;2oo, E11FI !tahl, E11E<. $ost of all, it is neither ne#essary nor possible to #lassify or label students a##ording to seemingly fixed learning styles and then allo. them to learn only a##ording to those styles. " student may prefer to hear ne. material rather than see itI he may prefer for you to explain something orally, for example, rather than to see it demonstrated in a ideo. 6ut he may nonetheless tolerate or sometimes e en prefer to see it demonstrated. In the long run, in fa#t, he may learn it best by en#ountering the material in both .ays, regardless of his habitual preferen#es. &hat said, there is e iden#e that indi iduals, in#luding students, do differ in ho. they habitually thin). &hese differen#es are more spe#ifi# than learning styles or preferen#es, and psy#hologists sometimes #all them cognitive styles* meaning typi#al .ays of per#ei ing and remembering information, and typi#al .ays of sol ing problems and ma)ing de#isions ;-hang P !ternberg, E119<. In a style of thin)ing #alled field dependence* for example, indi iduals per#ei e patterns as a .hole rather than fo#us on the parts of the pattern separately. In a #omplementary tenden#y, #alled field independence* indi iduals are more in#lined to analy/e o erall patterns into their parts. Cogniti e resear#h from the 78F1s to the present has found field dependen#eKindependen#e differen#es to be some.hat stable for any gi en person a#ross situations, though not #ompletely so ;4it)in, $oore, 'oodenough, P Cox, 78::I -hang P !ternberg, E11@<. !omeone .ho is field dependent ;per#ei es globally or =.holisti#ally?< in one situation, tends to a modest extent to per#ei e things globally or .holisti#ally in other situations. Field dependen#e and independen#e #an be important in understanding students be#ause the styles affe#t studentsJ beha iors and preferen#es in s#hool and #lassrooms. Field dependent persons tend to .or) better in groups, it seems, and to prefer =open-ended? fields of study li)e literature and history. Field independent persons, on the other hand, tend to .or) better alone and to prefer highly analyti# studies li)e math and s#ien#e. &he differen#es are only a tenden#y, ho.e er, and there are a lot of students .ho #ontradi#t the trends. "s .ith the broader notion of learning styles, the #ogniti e styles of field dependen#e and independen#e are useful for tailoring instru#tion to parti#ular students, but their guidan#e is only approximate. &hey neither #an nor should be used to =lo#)? students to parti#ular modes of learning or to repla#e studentsJ o.n expressed preferen#es and #hoi#es about #urri#ulum. "nother #ogniti e style is impulsivity as #ompared to reflectivity. "s the names imply, an im%ulsive #ogniti e style is one in .hi#h a person rea#ts qui#)ly, but as a result ma)es #omparati ely more errors. " reflective style is the opposite: the person rea#ts more slo.ly and therefore ma)es fe.er errors. "s you might expe#t, the refle#ti e style .ould seem better suited to many a#ademi# demands of s#hool. +esear#h has found that this is indeed the #ase for a#ademi# s)ills that #learly benefit from refle#tion, su#h as mathemati#al problem sol ing or #ertain 9@
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense reading tas)s ;E ans, E11F<. !ome #lassroom or s#hool-related s)ills, ho.e er, may a#tually de elop better if a student is relati ely impulsi e. 6eing a good partner in a #ooperati e learning group, for example, may depend partly on responding spontaneously ;i.e. ,ust a bit =impulsi ely?< to othersJ suggestionsI and being an effe#ti e member of an athleti# team may depend on not ta)ing time to refle#t #arefully on e ery mo e that you or your team mates ma)e. &here are t.o ma,or .ays to use )no.ledge of studentsJ #ogniti e styles ;*rit#hard, E11@<. &he first and the more ob ious is to build on studentsJ existing style strengths and preferen#es. " student .ho is field independent and refle#ti e, for example, #an be en#ouraged to explore tas)s and a#ti ities that are relati ely analyti# and that require relati ely independent .or). Bne .ho is field dependent and impulsi e, on the other hand, #an be en#ouraged and supported to try tas)s and a#ti ities that are more so#ial or spontaneous. 6ut a se#ond, less ob ious .ay to use )no.ledge of #ogniti e styles is to en#ourage more balan#e in #ogniti e styles for students .ho need it. " student .ho lac&s field independen#e, for example, may need expli#it help in organi/ing and analy/ing )ey a#ademi# tas)s ;li)e organi/ing a lab report in a s#ien#e #lass<. Bne .ho is already highly refle#ti e may need en#ouragement to try ideas spontaneously, as in a #reati e .riting lesson.
&ultiple intelligences
For nearly a #entury, edu#ators and psy#hologists ha e debated the nature of intelligen#e, and more spe#ifi#ally .hether intelligen#e is ,ust one broad ability or #an ta)e more than one form. $any #lassi#al definitions of the #on#ept ha e tended to define intelligence as a single broad ability that allo.s a person to sol e or #omplete many sorts of tas)s, or at least many a#ademi# tas)s li)e reading, )no.ledge of o#abulary, and the sol ing of logi#al problems ;'arli#), E11E<. &here is resear#h e iden#e of su#h a global ability, and the idea of general intelligen#e often fits .ith so#ietyJs e eryday beliefs about intelligen#e. *artly for these reasons, an entire mini-industry has gro.n up around publishing tests of intelligen#e, a#ademi# ability, and a#ademi# a#hie ement. !in#e these tests affe#t the .or) of tea#hers, I return to dis#ussing them later in this boo). 6ut there are also problems .ith defining intelligen#e as one general ability. Bne .ay of summing up the problems is to say that #on#ei ing of intelligen#e as something general tends to put it beyond tea#hersJ influen#e. 4hen ie.ed as a single, all-purpose ability, students either ha e a lot of intelligen#e or they do not, and strengthening their intelligen#e be#omes a ma,or #hallenge, or perhaps e en an impossible one ;'ottfredson, E11FI 2ubins)i, E11F<. &his #on#lusion is troubling to some edu#ators, espe#ially in re#ent years as testing s#hool a#hie ements ha e be#ome more #ommon and as students ha e be#ome more di erse. 6ut alternate ie.s of intelligen#e also exist that portray intelligen#e as ha ing multiple forms, .hether the forms are subparts of a single broader ability or are multiple =intelligen#es? in their o.n right. For arious reasons su#h this perspe#ti e has gained in popularity among tea#hers in re#ent years, probably be#ause it refle#ts many tea#hersJ beliefs that students #annot simply be rated along a single s#ale of ability, but are fundamentally di erse ;Kohn, E11F<. Bne of the most prominent of these models is 9o1ard ,ardner%s theory of multiple intelligences ;'ardner, 78C0, E110<. 'ardner proposes that there are eight different forms of intelligen#e, ea#h of .hi#h fun#tions independently of the others. ;&he eight intelligen#es are summari/ed in &able 71. Ea#h person has a mix of all eight abilitiesLmore of one and less of anotherLthat helps to #onstitute that personJs indi idual #ogniti e profile. !in#e most tas)sLin#luding most tas)s in #lassroomsLrequire se eral forms of intelligen#e and #an be
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4. Student diversity #ompleted in more than one .ay, it is possible for people .ith arious profiles of talents to su##eed on a tas) equally .ell. In .riting an essay, for example, a student .ith high interpersonal intelligen#e but rather a erage erbal intelligen#e might use his or her interpersonal strength to get a lot of help and ad i#e from #lassmates and the tea#her. " student .ith the opposite profile might .or) .ell alone, but .ithout the benefit of help from others. 6oth students might end up .ith essays that are good, but good for different reasons. &able 71: $ultiple intelligen#es a##ording to 5o.ard 'ardner ?orm of intelligence 2inguisti#: erbal s)illI ability to use language .ell "#amples of activities using the intelligence
erbal persuasion
.riting a term paper s)illfully
$usi#al: ability to #reate and understand musi#
singing, playing a musi#al instrument #omposing a tune
2ogi#al: $athemati#al: logi#al s)illI ability to reason, often using mathemati#s
sol ing mathemati#al problems easily and
a##urately
de eloping and testing hypotheses
!patial: ability to imagine and manipulate the arrangement of ob,e#ts in the en ironment 6odily: )inestheti#: sense of balan#eI #oordination in use of oneDs body Interpersonal: ability to dis#ern othersD non erbal feelings and thoughts
#ompleting a diffi#ult ,igsa. pu//le assembling a #omplex applian#e ;e.g. a bi#y#le< dan#ing gymnasti#s sensing .hen to be ta#tful sensing a =subtext? or implied message in a
personDs statements Intrapersonal: sensiti ity to oneDs o.n thoughts and feelings
noti#ing #omplex of ambi alent feelings in
oneself
identifying true moti es for an a#tion in oneself
Aaturalist: sensiti ity to subtle differen#es and patterns found in the natural en ironment
identifying examples of spe#ies of plants or
animals
noti#ing relationships among spe#ies and
natural pro#esses in the en ironment Source: 'ardner, 78C0, E110
"s e iden#e for the possibility of multiple intelligen#es, 'ardner #ites des#riptions of indi iduals .ith ex#eptional talent in one form of intelligen#e ;for example, in playing the piano< but .ho are neither abo e nor belo. a erage in other areas. 5e also #ites des#riptions of indi iduals .ith brain damage, some of .hom lose one 9:
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense parti#ular form of intelligen#e ;li)e the ability to tal)< but retain other forms. In the opinion of many psy#hologists, ho.e er, the e iden#e for multiple intelligen#es is not strong enough to gi e up the =#lassi#al? ie. of general intelligen#e. *art of the problem is that the e iden#e for multiple intelligen#es relies primarily on ane#dotesL examples or des#riptions of parti#ular indi iduals .ho illustrate the modelLrather than on more .idespread information or data ;Eisner, E11F<. Aonetheless, .hate er the status of the resear#h e iden#e, the model itself #an be useful as a .ay for tea#hers to thin) about their .or). $ultiple intelligen#es suggest the importan#e of di ersifying instru#tion in order to honor and to respond to di ersity in studentsJ talents and abilities. Gie.ed li)e this, .hether 'ardnerJs #lassifi#ation s#heme is a#tually a##urate is probably less important than the fa#t there is ;or may be< more than one .ay to be =smart?. In the end, as .ith #ogniti e and learning styles, it may not be important to label studentsJ talents or intelle#tual strengths. It may be more important simply to pro ide important learning and )no.ledge in se eral modes or styles, .ays that dra. on more than one possible form of intelligen#e or s)ill. " good example of this prin#iple is your o.n de elopment in learning to tea#h. It is .ell and good to read boo)s about tea#hing ;li)e this one, perhaps<, but it is e en better to read boo)s and tal) .ith #lassmates and edu#ators about tea#hing and getting a#tual experien#e in #lassrooms. &he #ombination both in ites and requires a .ide range of your talents and usually pro es more effe#ti e than any single type of a#ti ity, .hate er your profile of #ogniti e styles or intelle#tual abilities happens to be.
2ifted and talented students

&he idea of multiple intelligen#es leads to ne. .ays of thin)ing about students .ho ha e spe#ial gifts and talents. &raditionally, the term gifted referred only to students .ith unusually high erbal s)ills. &heir s)ills .ere demonstrated espe#ially .ell, for example, on standardi/ed tests of general ability or of s#hool a#hie ement, li)e those des#ribed in Chapter 7E ;=!tandardi/ed and other formal assessments?<. $ore re#ently, ho.e er, the meaning of gifted has broadened to in#lude unusual talents in a range of a#ti ities, su#h as musi#, #reati e .riting, or the arts ;'. %a is P +imm, E11F<. &o indi#ate the #hange, edu#ators often use the dual term gifted and talented.
Qualities of the gifted and talented

4hat are students .ho are gifted and talented li)e> 'enerally they sho. some #ombination of the follo.ing qualities:
&hey learn more qui#)ly and independently than most students their o.n age. &hey often ha e .ell-de eloped o#abulary, as .ell as ad an#ed reading and .riting s)ills. &hey are ery moti ated, espe#ially on tas)s that are #hallenging or diffi#ult. &hey hold themsel es to higher than usual standards of a#hie ement.
Contrary to a #ommon impression, students .ho are gifted or talented are not ne#essarily a.).ard so#ially, less healthy, or narro. in their interestsLin fa#t, quite the #ontrary ;!teiner P Carr, E110<. &hey also #ome from all e#onomi# and #ultural groups. Ironi#ally, in spite of their ob ious strengths as learners, su#h students often languish in s#hool unless tea#hers #an pro ide them .ith more than the #hallenges of the usual #urri#ulum. " )indergarten #hild .ho is pre#o#iously ad an#ed in reading, for example, may ma)e little further progress at reading if her tea#hers do not re#ogni/e and de elop her s)illI her talent may effe#ti ely disappear from ie. as her peers gradually #at#h up to her initial le el.
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4. Student diversity 4ithout a##ommodation to their unusual le el of s)ill or )no.ledge, students .ho are gifted or talented #an be#ome bored by s#hool, and e entually the boredom #an e en turn into beha ior problems. *artly for these reasons, students .ho are gifted or talented ha e sometimes been regarded as the responsibility of spe#ial edu#ation, along .ith students .ith other sorts of disabilities. Bften their needs are dis#ussed, for example, in textboo)s about spe#ial edu#ation, alongside dis#ussions of students .ith intelle#tual disabilities, physi#al impairments, or ma,or beha ior disorders ;Friend, E11C<. &here is some logi# to this .ay of thin)ing about their needsI after all, they are quite ex#eptional, and they do require modifi#ations of the usual s#hool programs in order to rea#h their full potential. 6ut it is also misleading to ignore ob ious differen#es bet.een ex#eptional giftedness and ex#eptional disabilities of other )inds. &he )ey differen#e is in studentsD potential. 6y definition, students .ith gifts or talents are #apable of #reati e, #ommitted .or) at le els that often approa#h talented adults. Bther studentsLin#luding students .ith disabilitiesLmay rea#h these le els, but not as soon and not as frequently. $any edu#ators therefore thin) of the gifted and talented not as examples of students .ith disabilities, but as examples of di ersity. "s su#h they are not so mu#h the responsibility of spe#ial edu#ation spe#ialists, as the responsibility of all tea#hers to differentiate their instru#tion.
!upporting students .ho are gifted and talented

!upporting the gifted and talented usually in ol es a mixture of acceleration and enrichment of the usual #urri#ulum ;!#hie er P $a)er, E110<. 2cceleration in ol es either a #hildDs s)ipping a grade, or else the tea#herDs redesigning the #urri#ulum .ithin a parti#ular grade or #lassroom so that more material is #o ered faster. Either strategy .or)s, but only up to a point: #hildren .ho ha e s)ipped a grade usually fun#tion .ell in the higher grade, both a#ademi#ally and so#ially. 3nfortunately s)ipping grades #annot happen repeatedly unless tea#her, parents, and the students themsel es are prepared to li e .ith large age and maturity differen#es .ithin single #lassrooms. In itself, too, there is no guarantee that instru#tion in the ne., higher-grade #lassroom .ill be any more stimulating than it .as in the former, lo.er-grade #lassroom. +edesigning the #urri#ulum is also benefi#ial to the student, but impra#ti#al to do on a .idespread basisI e en if tea#hers had the time to redesign their programs, many non-gifted students .ould be left behind as a result. Enri#hment in ol es pro iding additional or different instru#tion added on to the usual #urri#ulum goals and a#ti ities. Instead of boo)s at more ad an#ed reading le els, for example, a student might read a .ider ariety of types of literature at the studentDs #urrent reading le el, or try .riting additional types of literature himself. Instead of mo ing ahead to more diffi#ult )inds of math programs, the student might .or) on unusual logi# problems not assigned to the rest of the #lass. 2i)e a##eleration, enri#hment .or)s .ell up to a point. Enri#hment #urri#ula exist to help #lassroom tea#hers .or)ing .ith gifted students ;and sa e tea#hers the time and .or) of #reating enri#hment materials themsel es<. !in#e enri#hment is not part of the normal, offi#ially san#tioned #urri#ulum, ho.e er, there is a ris) that it .ill be per#ei ed as busy.or) rather than as intelle#tual stimulation, parti#ularly if the tea#her herself is not familiar .ith the enri#hment material or is other.ise unable to in ol e herself in the material fully. Bb iously a##eleration and enri#hment #an sometimes be #ombined. " student #an s)ip a grade and also be introdu#ed to interesting =extra? material at the ne. grade le el. " tea#her #an mo e a student to the next unit of study faster than she mo es the rest of the #lass, .hile at the same time offering additional a#ti ities not related to the unit of study dire#tly. For a tea#her .ith a student .ho is gifted or talented, ho.e er, the real #hallenge is not
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&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense simply to #hoose bet.een a##eleration and enri#hment, but to obser e the student, get to )no. him or her as a unique indi idual, and offer a#ti ities and supports based on that )no.ledge. &his is essentially the #hallenge of differentiating instruction, something needed not ,ust by the gifted and talented, but by students of all sorts. "s you might suspe#t, differentiating instru#tion poses #hallenges about managing instru#tionI .e dis#uss it again in more detail in Chapter 8 ;=Fa#ilitating #omplex thin)ing?< and Chapter 71 ;=Instru#tional planning?<.
2ender differences in the classroom

,ender roles are the patterns of beha iors, attitudes, and expe#tations asso#iated .ith a parti#ular sexL.ith being either male or female. For #larity, psy#hologists sometimes distinguish gender differences, .hi#h are related to so#ial roles, from se5 differences, .hi#h are related only to physiology and anatomy. 3sing this terminology, gender matters in tea#hing more than sex ;in spite of any ,o)es told about the latterM<. "lthough there are many ex#eptions, boys and girls do differ on a erage in .ays that parallel #on entional gender stereotypes and that affe#t ho. the sexes beha e at s#hool and in #lass. &he differen#es ha e to do .ith physi#al beha iors, styles of so#ial intera#tion, a#ademi# moti ations, beha iors, and #hoi#es. &hey ha e a ariety of sour#esLprimarily parents, peers, and the media. &ea#hers are #ertainly not the primary #ause of gender role differen#es, but sometimes tea#hers influen#e them by their responses to and #hoi#es made on behalf of students.
*hysi#al differen#es in gender roles

*hysi#ally, boys tend to be more a#ti e than girls, and by the same to)en more restless if they ha e to sit for long periods. &hey are also more prone than girls to rely on physi#al aggression if they are frustrated ;Espelage P !.earer, E11F<. 6oth tenden#ies are in#onsistent .ith the usual demands of #lassroom life, of #ourse, and ma)e it a little more li)ely that s#hool .ill be a diffi#ult experien#e for boys, e en for boys .ho ne er a#tually get in trouble for being restless or aggressi e. %uring the first t.o or three years of elementary s#hool, gross motor s)ills de elop at almost the same a erage rate for boys and girls. "s a grou%, both sexes #an run, ,ump, thro. a ball, and the li)e .ith about equal ease, though there are of #ourse .ide signifi#ant differen#es among individuals of both sexes. &o.ard the end of elementary s#hool, ho.e er, boys pull ahead of girls at these s)ills e en though neither sex has begun yet to experien#e puberty. &he most li)ely reason is that boys parti#ipate more a#ti ely in formal and informal sports be#ause of expe#tations and support from parents, peers, and so#iety ;6raddo#), !o)ol-Kat/, 'reene, P 6asingerFleis#hman, E11@I $essner, %un#an, P Coo)y, E110<. *uberty e entually adds to this ad antage by ma)ing boys taller and stronger than girls, on a erage, and therefore more suited at least for sports that rely on height and strength. In thin)ing about these differen#es, )eep in mind that they refer to a erage trends and that there are numerous indi idual ex#eptions. E ery tea#her )no.s of indi idual boys .ho are not athleti#, for example, or of parti#ular girls .ho are espe#ially restless in #lass. &he indi idual differen#es mean, among other things, that it is hard to ,ustify pro iding different le els of support or resour#es to boys than to girls for sports, athleti#s, or physi#al edu#ation. &he differen#es also suggest, though, that indi idual students .ho contradict gender stereotypes about physi#al abilities may benefit from emotional support or affirmation from tea#hers, simply be#ause they may be less li)ely than usual to get su#h affirmation from else.here.
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4. Student diversity
!o#ial differen#es in gender roles

4hen relaxing so#ially, boys more often gra itate to large groups. 4hether on the playground, in a s#hool hall.ay, or on the street, boysJ so#ial groups tend literally to fill up a lot of spa#e, and often in#lude signifi#ant amounts of roughhousing as .ell as organi/ed and =semi-organi/ed? #ompetiti e games or sports ;$a##oby, E11E<. 'irls, for their part, are more li)ely to see) and maintain one or t.o #lose friends and to share more intimate information and feelings .ith these indi iduals. &o the extent that these gender differen#es o##ur, they #an ma)e girls less isible or noti#eable than boys, at least in leisure play situations .here #hildren or youth #hoose their #ompanions freely. "s .ith physi#al differen#es, ho.e er, )eep in mind that differen#es in so#ial intera#tions do not o##ur uniformly for all boys and girls. &here are boys .ith #lose friends, #ontradi#ting the general trend, and girls .ho play primarily in large groups. %ifferen#es in so#ial intera#tion styles happen in the #lassroom as .ell. 6oys, on a erage, are more li)ely to spea) up during a #lass dis#ussionLsometimes e en if not #alled on, or e en if they do not )no. as mu#h about the topi# as others in the #lass ;!ad)er, E11E<. 4hen .or)ing on a pro,e#t in a small #o-ed group, furthermore they ha e a tenden#y to ignore girlsJ #omments and #ontributions to the group. In this respe#t #o-ed student groups parallel intera#tion patterns in many parts of so#iety, .here men also ha e a tenden#y to ignore .omenJs #omments and #ontributions ;&annen, E117<.
"#ademi# and #ogniti e differen#es in gender

Bn a erage, girls are more moti ated than boys to perform .ell in s#hool, at least during elementary s#hool. 6y the time girls rea#h high s#hool, ho.e er, some may try to do.n play their o.n a#ademi# ability in order ma)e themsel es more li)eable by both sexes ;%a ies, E11@<. E en if this o##urs, though, it does not affe#t their grades: from )indergarten through t.elfth grade, girls earn slightly higher a erage grades than boys ;Freeman, E11F<. &his fa#t does not lead to similar a#hie ement, ho.e er, be#ause as youngsters mo e into high s#hool, they tend to #hoose #ourses or sub,e#ts #on entionally asso#iated .ith their genderLmath and s#ien#e for boys, in parti#ular, and literature and the arts for girls. 6y the end of high s#hool, this differen#e in #ourse sele#tion ma)es a measurable differen#e in boysJ and girlsJ a#ademi# performan#e in these sub,e#ts. 6ut again, #onsider my #aution about stereotyping: there are indi iduals of both sexes .hose beha iors and #hoi#es run #ounter to the group trends. ;I ha e made this point as .ell in =*reparing for 2i#ensure: Interpreting 'ender-+elated 6eha ior? by deliberately #on#ealing the gender of a student des#ribed.< %ifferen#es .ithin ea#h gender group generally are far larger than any differen#es bet.een the groups. " good example is the =differen#e? in #ogniti e ability of boys and girls. $any studies ha e found none at all. " fe. others ha e found small differen#es, .ith boys slightly better at math and girls slightly better at reading and literature. !till other studies ha e found the differen#es not only are small, but ha e been getting smaller in re#ent years #ompared to earlier studies. Colle#ti ely the findings about #ogniti e abilities are irtually =non-findings?, and it is .orth as)ing .hy gender differen#es ha e therefore been studied and dis#ussed so mu#h for so many years ;5yde, E11@<. 5o. tea#hers influen#e gender roles> &ea#hers often intend to intera#t .ith both sexes equally, and frequently su##eed at doing so. +esear#h has found, though, that they do sometimes respond to boys and girls differently, perhaps .ithout reali/ing it. &hree )inds of differen#es ha e been noti#ed. &he first is the o erall amount of attention paid to ea#h sexI the se#ond is
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&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense the isibility or =publi#ity? of #on ersationsI and the third is the type of beha ior that prompts tea#hers to support or #riti#i/e students.
Attention %aid
In general, tea#hers intera#t .ith boys more often than .ith girls by a margin of 71 to 01 per#ent, depending on the grade le el of the students and the personality of the tea#her ;$easor P !y)es, 788E<. Bne possible reason for the differen#e is related to the greater asserti eness of boys that I already notedI if boys are spea)ing up more frequently in dis#ussions or at other times, then a tea#her may be =for#ed? to pay more attention to them. "nother possibility is that some tea#hers may feel that boys are espe#ially prone to getting into mis#hief, so they may intera#t .ith them more frequently to )eep them fo#used on the tas) at hand ;Erden P 4olfgang, E11F<. !till another possibility is that boys, #ompared to girls, may intera#t in a .ider ariety of styles and situations, so there may simply be ri#her opportunities to intera#t .ith them. &his last possibility is partially supported by another gender differen#e in #lassroom intera#tion, the amount of publi# ersus pri ate tal).
Pu(lic tal& versus %rivate tal&

&ea#hers ha e a tenden#y to tal) to boys from a greater physi#al distan#e than .hen they tal) to girls ;4il)inson P $arrett, 78C@<. &he differen#e may be both a #ause and an effe#t of general gender expe#tations, expressi e nurturing is expe#ted more often of girls and .omen, and a businessli)e tas) orientation is expe#ted more often of boys and men, parti#ularly in mixed-sex groups ;6aso. P +ubenfeld, E110I $yas)o s)y, 3ni)el, P %e., E11@<. 4hate er the reason, the effe#t is to gi e intera#tions .ith boys more =publi#ity?. 4hen t.o people #on erse .ith ea#h other from a#ross the #lassroom, many others #an o erhear themI .hen they are at ea#h otherJs elbo.s, though, fe. others #an o erhear.
!istri(uting %raise and criticism

In spite of most tea#hersJ desire to be fair to all students, it turns out that they sometimes distribute praise and #riti#ism differently to boys and girls. &he differen#es are summari/ed in &able F.E. &he tenden#y is to praise boys more than girls for displaying )no.ledge correctly, but to #riti#i/e girls more than boys for displaying )no.ledge incorrectly ;'olombo) P Fi ush, 788FI %elamont, 7889<. "nother .ay of stating this differen#e is by .hat tea#hers tend to o erloo): .ith boys, they tend to o erloo) rong ans.ers, but .ith girls, they tend to o erloo) right ans.ers. &he result ;.hi#h is probably unintended< is a tenden#y to ma)e boysJ )no.ledge seem more important and boys themsel es more #ompetent. " se#ond result is the other side of this #oin: a tenden#y to ma)e girlsJ )no.ledge less isible and girls themsel es less #ompetent. &able 77: 'ender differen#es in ho. tea#hers praise and #riti#i/e students @ype of response from teacher *raises B erloo)s or ignores Corre#t )no.ledge ='ood? or #ompliant beha iorI in#orre#t )no.ledge Criti#i/es Aisbeha ior .n#orre#t )no.ledge ='ood? or #ompliant beha ior Aisbeha iorI #orre#t )no.ledge (oys ,irls
:E
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4. Student diversity 'ender differen#es also o##ur in the realm of #lassroom beha ior. &ea#hers tend to praise girls for =good? beha ior, regardless of its rele an#e to #ontent or to the lesson at hand, and tend to #riti#i/e boys for =bad? or inappropriate beha ior ;'olombo) P Fi ush, 788F<. &his differen#e #an also be stated in terms of .hat tea#hers o erloo): .ith girls, they tend to o erloo) beha ior that is not appropriate, but .ith boys they tend to o erloo) beha ior that is appropriate. &he net result in this #ase is to ma)e girlsJ seem more good than they may really be, and also to ma)e their =goodness? seem more important than their a#ademi# #ompeten#e. 6y the same to)en, the tea#herJs patterns of response imply that boys are more =bad? than they may really be. "t first glan#e, the gender differen#es in intera#tion #an seem dis#ouraging and #riti#al of tea#hers be#ause they imply that tea#hers as a group are biased about gender. 6ut this #on#lusion is too simplisti# for a #ouple of reasons. Bne is that li)e all differen#es bet.een groups, intera#tion patterns are trends, and as su#h they hide a lot of ariation .ithin them. &he other is that the trends suggest .hat often tends in fa#t to happen, not .hat #an in fa#t happen if a tea#her #ons#iously sets about to a oid intera#tion patterns li)e the ones I ha e des#ribed. Fortunately for us all, tea#hing does not need to be unthin)ingI .e ha e #hoi#es that .e #an ma)e, e en during a busy #lassM
3ifferences in cultural e4pectations and styles

" #ulture is the system of attitudes, beliefs, and beha iors that #onstitute the distin#ti e .ay of life of a people. "lthough sometimes the term is also used to refer spe#ifi#ally to the artisti#, intelle#tual and other =high-bro.? aspe#ts of life, I use it here more broadly to refer to e erything that #hara#teri/es a .ay of lifeLbaseball games as .ell as symphony #on#erts, and $#%onaldJs as .ell as expensi e restaurants. In this broad sense #ulture is nearly synonymous .ith ethni#ity, .hi#h refers to the #ommon language, history, and future experien#ed by a group .ithin so#iety. Culture has elements that are ob ious, li)e unique holidays or #ustoms, but also features that are subtle or easy for outsiders to o erloo), li)e beliefs about the nature of intelligen#e or about the proper .ay to tell a story. 4hen a #lassroom dra.s students from many #ultures or ethni# groups, therefore, the students bring to it #onsiderable di ersity. &ea#hers need to understand that di ersityLunderstand ho. studentsJ habitual attitudes, beliefs, and beha iors differ from ea#h other, and espe#ially ho. they differ from the tea#herJs. 6ut this )ind of understanding #an get #ompli#ated. &o organi/e the topi#, therefore, I .ill dis#uss aspe#ts of #ultural di ersity a##ording to ho. dire#tly they relate to language differen#es #ompared to differen#es in other so#ial and psy#hologi#al features of #ulture. &he distin#tion is #on enient, but it is also a bit arbitrary be#ause, as you .ill see, the features of a #ulture o erlap and influen#e ea#h other.
6ilingualism: language differen#es in the #lassroom

"lthough monolingual spea)ers often do not reali/e it, the ma,ority of #hildren around the .orld are bilingual, meaning that they understand and use t.o languages ;$eyers-!#otton, E11@<. E en in the 3nited !tates, .hi#h is a relati ely monolingual so#iety, more than F: million people spea) a language other than English at home, and about 71 million of these people .ere #hildren or youths in publi# s#hools ;3nited !tates %epartment of Commer#e, E110<. &he large ma,ority of bilingual students ;:@ per #ent< are 5ispani#, but the rest represent more than a hundred different language groups from around the .orld. In larger #ommunities throughout the 3nited !tates, it is therefore #ommon for a single #lassroom to #ontain students from se eral language ba#)grounds at on#e. In #lassrooms as in other so#ial settings, bilingualism exists in different forms and degrees. "t one extreme are students .ho spea) both English and another language fluentlyI at the other extreme are those .ho spea) only limited ersions of both languages. In bet.een are students .ho spea) their home ;or heritage< language mu#h :0
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense better than English, as .ell as others .ho ha e partially lost their heritage language in the pro#ess of learning English ;&se, E117<. Commonly, too, a student may spea) a language satisfa#torily, but be #hallenged by reading or .riting itLthough e en this pattern has indi idual ex#eptions. 4hate er the #ase, ea#h bilingual student poses unique #hallenges to tea#hers.
-alanced or fluent (ilingualism

&he student .ho spea)s both languages fluently has a definite #ogniti e ad antage. "s you might suspe#t and as resear#h has #onfirmed, a fully fluent bilingual student is in a better position than usual to express #on#epts or ideas in more than one .ay, and to be a.are of doing so ;(imene/, et al. 788@I Fran#is, E119<. &he question: =4hat if a dog .ere #alled a #at>? is less li)ely to #onfuse e en a ery young bilingual #hild. Aor .ill the follo.-up question: =Could the \#atJ meo.>? #onfuse them. !u#h s)ill in refle#ting on language is a form of metacognition, .hi#h I dis#ussed in Chapter E and defined as using language as an o('ect of thought. $eta#ognition #an be helpful for a ariety of a#ademi# purposes, su#h as .riting stories and essays, or interpreting #omplex text materials.
In(alanced (ilingualism
3nfortunately, the bilingualism of many students is =unbalan#ed? in the sense that they are either still learning English, or else they ha e lost some earlier ability to use their original, heritage languageLor o##asionally a bit of both. &he first sort of studentLsometimes #alled an English language learner 7"''/ or limited English learner 7'"'/has re#ei ed the greatest attention and #on#ern from edu#ators, sin#e English is the dominant language of instru#tion and s)ill and ob iously helps prepare a student for life in "meri#an so#iety. E22 students essentially present tea#hers .ith this dilemma: ho. to respe#t the original language and #ulture of the student .hile also helping the student to ,oin more fully in the mainstreamLi.e. English-spea)ingL#ulture> *rograms to address this question ha e ranged from total immersion in English from a young age ;the =sin) or s.im? approa#h< to phasing in English o er a period of se eral years ;sometimes #alled an additive approa#h to bilingual edu#ation<. In general, e aluations of bilingual programs ha e fa ored the more additi e approa#hes ;6ey)ont, E11E<. 6oth languages are de eloped and supported, and students ideally be#ome able to use either language permanently, though often for different situations or purposes. " student may end up using English in the #lassroom or at .or), for example, but #ontinue using !panish at home or .ith friends, e en though he or she is perfe#tly #apable of spea)ing English .ith them.
#anguage loss
4hat about the other )ind of imbalan#e, in .hi#h a student is a#quiring English but losing ability .ith the studentJs home or heritage language> &his sort of bilingualism is quite #ommon in the 3nited !tates and other nations .ith immigrant populations ;&se, E117<. Imagine this situation: First-generation immigrants arri e, and they soon learn ,ust enough English to manage their .or) and daily needs, but #ontinue using their original language at home .ith family and friends from their former #ountry. &heir #hildren, ho.e er, experien#e strong expe#tations and pressure to learn and use English, and this #ir#umstan#e dilutes the #hildrenJs experien#e .ith the heritage language. 6y the time the #hildren be#ome adults, they are li)ely to spea) and .rite English better than their heritage language, and may e en be unable or un.illing to use the heritage language .ith their o.n #hildren ;the grand#hildren of the original immigrants<. &his situation might not at first seem li)e a problem for .hi#h .e, as tea#hers, need to ta)e responsibility, sin#e the #hildren immigrants, as students, are a#quiring the dominant language of instru#tion. In fa#t, ho.e er, things Educational Psychology :F " 'lobal &ext
4. Student diversity are not that simple. +esear#h finds that language loss limits studentsJ ability to learn English as .ell or as qui#)ly as they other.ise #an do. 5a ing a large o#abulary in a first language, for example, has been sho.n to sa e time in learning o#abulary in a se#ond language ;5ansen, 3meda P $#Kinney, E11E<. 6ut students #an only reali/e the sa ings if their first language is preser ed. *reser ing the first language is also important if a student has impaired s)ill in all languages and therefore needs inter ention or help from a spee#h-language spe#ialist. +esear#h has found, in su#h #ases, that the spe#ialist #an be more effe#ti e if the spe#ialist spea)s and uses the first language as .ell as English ;Kohnert, et al., E11@<. 'enerally, though also more indire#tly, minimi/ing language loss helps all bilingual studentsJ edu#ation be#ause preser ation tends to enri#h studentsJ and parentsJ ability to #ommuni#ate .ith ea#h other. 4ith t.o languages to .or) .ith, parents #an stay =in the loop? better about their #hildrenJs edu#ations and support the tea#herJs .or)Lfor example, by assisting more effe#ti ely .ith home.or) ;Ebert, E11@<. Aote that in the early years of s#hooling, language loss #an be minimi/ed to some extent by the additi e or parallel-tra#) bilingual programs that I mentioned abo e. For a fe. years, though not fore er, young students are en#ouraged to use (oth of their languages. In high s#hool, in addition, some #on entional foreign language #lassesL notably in !panishL#an be ad,usted to in#lude and support students .ho are already nati e spea)ers of the language alongside students .ho are learning it for the first time ;&se, E117<. 6ut for heritage languages not normally offered as =foreign? languages in s#hool, of #ourse, this approa#h .ill not .or). !u#h languages are espe#ially at ris) for being lost.
Cultural differen#es in language use

Cultures and ethni# groups differ not only in languages, but also in ho. languages are used. !in#e some of the patterns differ from those typi#al of modern #lassrooms, they #an #reate misunderstandings bet.een tea#hers and students ;Ca/den, E117I +ogers, et al., E11@<. Consider these examples: In some #ultures, it is #onsidered polite or e en intelligent not to spea) unless you ha e something truly important to say. =Chit#hat?, or tal) that simply affirms a personal tie bet.een people, is #onsidered immature or intrusi e ;$inami, E11E<. In a #lassroom, this habit #an ma)e it easier for a #hild to learn not to interrupt others, but it #an also ma)e the #hild seem unfriendly.
Eye contact aries by #ulture. In many "fri#an "meri#an and 2atin "meri#an #ommunities, it is #onsidered
appropriate and respe#tful for a #hild not to loo) dire#tly at an adult .ho is spea)ing to them ;&orres'u/man, 788C<. In #lassrooms, ho.e er, tea#hers often expe#t a lot of eye #onta#t ;as in =I .ant all eyes on meM?< and may be tempted to #onstrue la#) of eye #onta#t as a sign of indifferen#e or disrespe#t.
Social distance aries by #ulture. In some #ultures, it is #ommon to stand relati ely #lose .hen ha ing a
#on ersationI in others, it is more #ustomary to stand relati ely far apart ;6eaulieu, E11F<. *roblems may happen .hen a tea#her and a student prefer different so#ial distan#es. " student .ho expe#ts a #loser distan#e than does the tea#her may seem o erly familiar or intrusi e, .hereas one .ho expe#ts a longer distan#e may seem o erly formal or hesitant.
Fait time aries by #ulture. 4ait time is the gap bet.een the end of one personJs #omment or question and
the next personJs reply or ans.er. In some #ultures .ait time is relati ely longLas long as three or four se#onds ;&harp P 'allimore, 78C8<. In others it is a =negati e? gap, meaning that it is a##eptable, e en expe#ted, for a person to interrupt before the end of the pre ious #omment. In #lassrooms the .ait time is #ustomarily about one se#ondI after that, the tea#her is li)ely to mo e on to another question or to another
:@
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense student. " student .ho habitually expe#ts a .ait time long than one se#ond may seem hesitant, and not be gi en many #han#es to spea). " student .ho expe#ts a =negati e? .ait time, on the other hand, may seem o ereager or e en rude.
In most non-"nglo #ultures, )uestions are intended to gain information, and it is assumed that a person
as)ing the question truly does not ha e the information requested ;+ogoff, E110<. In most #lassrooms, ho.e er, tea#hers regularly as) test )uestions, .hi#h are questions to .hi#h the tea#her already )no.s the ans.er and that simply assess .hether a student )no.s the ans.er as .ell ;$a#beth, E110<. &he question: *:o much is D N D/, for example, is a test question. If the student is not a.are of this purpose, he or she may be#ome #onfused, or thin) that the tea#her is surprisingly ignorantM 4orse yet, the student may feel that the tea#her is trying deliberately to shame the student by re ealing the studentJs ignoran#e or in#ompeten#e to others.
Cultural differen#es in attitudes and beliefs

In addition to differen#es in language and in pra#ti#es related to language, #ultural groups tend to differ in arious other attitudes and beliefs. Complete des#riptions of the details of the differen#es ha e filled entire boo)s and en#y#lopedias ;see, for example, 6irx, E11@<. For tea#hers, ho.e er, one of the most important differen#es #enters on personal beliefs about identityUthe sense of self or of =.ho you are?. " number of other #ultural beliefs and pra#ti#es #an be understood as resulting from ho. members of a #ulture thin) about personal identity. In .hite, middle-#lass "meri#an #ulture, the self tends to be thought of as unique and independentLa unitary, li ing sour#e of de#isions, #hoi#es, and a#tions that stands ;or should e entually stand< by itself ;'reenfield, et al., E110I +ogoff, E110<. &his ie. of the self is assumed by edu#ators, for example, .hen students are expe#ted to ta)e responsibility for their o.n su##esses or failures, or .hen students are e aluated indi idually rather than as a group or team. "s tea#hers, most of us subs#ribe to the idea that all students are unique, and therefore ta)e steps to indi iduali/e or differentiate instru#tion. "#ross a independent self. Net many non-.hite #ultures tend to belie e in something #loser to an interdependent self* or a belief that it is relationships and responsibilities, and not uniqueness and autonomy, that defines a person ;'reenfield, 788FI 'reenfield, et al., E110<. From this perspe#ti e the most .orthy person is not the one .ho is unusual or .ho stands out in a #ro.d. !u#h a person might a#tually be regarded as lonely or isolated. &he .orthy person is instead the one .ho gets along .ell .ith family and friends, and .ho meets obligations to them reliably and s)illfully. "t some le el, of #ourse, .e all alue interpersonal s)ill and to this extent thin) of oursel es as interdependent. "nd indi iduals ithin any gi en so#iety .ill ary in their attitudes about personal identity. &he #ultural differen#e bet.een indi idual and interdependent self is one of a erage tenden#y or emphasis, .ith many non-.hite #ultures emphasi/ing interdependen#e signifi#antly more than .hite middle-#lass so#iety does, on a erage, and more than many s#hools in parti#ular. &here #an be #onsequen#es of the differen#e in ho. the students respond to s#hool. 5ere are some of the possibilitiesLthough )eep in mind that there are also differen#es among students as indi iduals, .hate er their ba#)ground. &he follo.ing are tenden#ies, not simple predi#tions:
Preference for activities that are coo%erative rather than com%etitive2 $any a#ti ities in s#hool are
ariety of #ir#umstan#es, tea#hers tend to belie e in an
#ompetiti e, e en .hen tea#hers try to de-emphasi/e the #ompetition. Bn#e past the first year or se#ond
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4. Student diversity year of s#hool, students often be#ome attenti e to .ho re#ei es the highest mar)s on an assignment, for example, or .ho is the best athlete at arious sports or .hose #ontributions to #lass dis#ussion the most erbal re#ognition from the tea#her ;(ohnson P (ohnson, 788C< . !uppose, in addition, that a tea#her deliberately organi/es important a#ti ities or assignments #ompetiti ely ;as in =2etJs see .ho finishes the math sheet first.?<. Classroom life #an then be#ome expli#itly #ompetiti e, and the #ompetiti e atmosphere #an interfere .ith #ulti ating supporti e relationships among students or bet.een students and the tea#her ;Cohen, E11F<. For students .ho gi e priority to these relationships, #ompetition #an seem #onfusing at best and threatening at .orst. 4hat sort of sharing or helping .ith ans.ers, the student may as), is truly legitimate> If the tea#her ans.ers this question more narro.ly than does the student, then .hat the student ie.s as #ooperati e sharing may be seen by the tea#her as la/iness, =freeloading?, or e en #heating.
Avoidance of standing out %u(licly2 E en .hen .e, as tea#hers, a oid ob ious forms of #ompetition, .e
may still intera#t frequently .ith students one at a time .hile allo.ing or in iting many others to obser e the #on ersation. "n espe#ially #ommon pattern for su#h #on ersations is sometimes #alled the &+" #y#le, an abbre iation for the tea#her initiating, a student res%onding, and the tea#her then evaluating the response ;$ehan, 78:8<. 4hat is sometimes ta)en for granted is ho. often I+E #y#les are .itnessed publi#ly, and ho. mu#h the publi#ity #an be stressful or embarrassing for students .ho do not alue standing out in a group but .ho do alue belonging to the group. &he embarrassment #an be espe#ially a#ute if they feel unsure about .hether they ha e #orre#t )no.ledge or s)ill to display. &o )eep su#h students from =#lamming up? #ompletely, therefore, tea#hers should #onsider limiting I+E #y#les to times .hen they are truly produ#ti e. I+E #on ersations may often .or) best .hen tal)ing .ith a student pri ately, or .hen #onfirming )no.ledge that the student is li)ely to be able to display #ompetently already, or .hen =#horal? spea)ing ;responding together in unison< is appropriate.
.nter%ersonal time versus cloc& time2 In order to fun#tion, all s#hools rely on fairly pre#ise units of time as
measured on #lo#)s. &ea#hers typi#ally allot a fixed number of minutes to one lesson or #lass, another fixed number of minutes for the next, another for re#ess or lun#h time, and so on. In more .ays than one, therefore, being on time be#omes espe#ially alued in s#hools, as it is in many parts of so#iety. *un#tuality is not al.ays #ondu#i e, ho.e er, to strong personal relationships, .hi#h de elop best .hen indi iduals do not end ,oint a#ti ities unilaterally or arbitrarily, but allo. a#ti ities to =finish themsel es?, so to spea)Lto finish naturally. If personal relationships are a broad, important priority for a student, therefore, it may ta)e effort and pra#ti#e by the student to learn the extent to .hi#h s#hools and tea#hers expe#t pun#tuality. *un#tuality in#ludes the ob ious, li)e sho.ing up for s#hool .hen s#hool is a#tually s#heduled to begin. 6ut it also in#ludes subtleties, li)e starting and finishing tas)s .hen the tea#her tells students to do so, or ans.ering a question promptly at the time it is as)ed rather than sometime later .hen dis#ussion has already mo ed on.
5ppositional cultural identity

In some #ases dominant #ultural attitudes #an oppress or alienate parti#ular students to the point .here they feel they ha e no #hoi#e but to put themsel es on the margins of mainstream a#ti ity. !u#h students may de elop an oppositional cultural identity* meaning that they define themsel es not by .ho they are, but by ho. they differ from or oppose mainstream #ulture ;Bgbu P %a is, E110I Carter, E119<. Instead of aspiring to do .ell in s#hool,
::
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense for example, or to get along .ell .ith tea#hers, the students may aspire not to do .ell and not to be li)ed by tea#hers. Bb iously this sort of attitude poses problems for tea#hers .ho try to moti ate the students, it also poses problems for the studentsD long-term su##ess in life. Bppositional identity is espe#ially li)ely in so-#alled involuntary minoritiesgroups that emigrated to or ,oined a so#iety against their .ill and .ho may ha e been gi en fe. resour#es .ith .hi#h to parti#ipate in so#iety. In the 3nited !tates, for example, "fri#an-"meri#ans and "meri#an Indians may ha e been in oluntary minorities originally, although many present-day indi iduals from these groups may no. feel ery mu#h a part of "meri#an #ulture. "s #ultural groups, ho.e er, their experien#es ha e been quite different than so-#alled voluntary minoritiesgroups that #hose to emigrate to a so#iety in order to #reate better li es for themsel es. &he latter groups are more li)ely to .or) a#ti ely to fit in to their ne.found #ultur. 2earning to fit in to a ne. #ulture is a #hallenging tas) itself, but on the .hole it is an easier tas) for tea#hers to .or) .ith than oppositional moti ation.
ccommodating cultural diversity in practice

"s the #omments in the pre ious se#tion imply, a##ommodating to #ultural di ersity in ol es more than adding #ultural #ontent to the #urri#ulumLmore than #elebrating $exi#an holidays in an "meri#an so#ial studies #lass, for example, and more than dis#ussing the history of sla ery of "fri#an-"meri#ans. &hese are useful a#tions, but they are only a starting point for truly multicultural edu#ation ;6an)s, E118<. In addition it is important to engage students in exploring the #ulturally based assumptions of .hate er sub,e#t they are studying. In studying the =4est.ard $o ement? ;the settlement of the "meri#an .est<, for example, it is important to point out that this mo ement .as =.est.ard? only from the point of ie. of the .hite "meri#ans li ing in the eastern 3nited !tates. &o the indigenous "meri#an Indians, the =.est? .as the #enter of their .orldI to the $exi#ans, it .as =north?I to the "sian laborers li ing in California, it .as =east.? (ames 6an)s has proposed fi e features of a fully multi#ultural edu#ational program ;E118<. &he first t.o of these .ere mentioned in the paragraph abo e, but not the next three:
Integrating cultural content into the #urri#ulum .here er possible. !timulating &no ledge construction to help students understand #ultural assumptions. 8le5i(le teaching strategies that gi e all students a##ess and su##ess .ith learning. If some students prefer
to learn #ooperati ely rather than independently, for example, then tea#hers should ma)e pro isions for #ooperati e learning a#ti ities. ;$ore on ho. to fa#ilitate #ooperati e learning is found in Chapter 8, =Fa#ilitating Complex &hin)ing.?<
Encourage %re'udice reduction among all students. &his #an and should happen e en in #lasses that do not
seem #ulturally di erse on the surfa#e. !u#h #lasses al.ays ha e di ersity, e en if it is not isible immediately: studentsD families .ill ary in their finan#ial #ir#umstan#es, students themsel es .ill ary in their gender preferen#es, and students .ill ary in their attitudes about religion, politi#s, and many other issues.
Encourage the entire school to (e a are of #ultural di ersity and its effe#ts. 4hat is the ra#ial #omposition
of the s#hool staff> 4hat are their attitudes> 4hat s#hool poli#ies fa or parti#ular students unfairly> Bf all of these strategies, the most important is the third: being flexible about the #hoi#e of tea#hing strategies. 6y allo.ing for arious styles of learning, tea#hers #an a##ommodate a .ide range of students, .hate er their #ultural ba#)grounds, and .hate er #ultural ba#)ground the tea#her herself may ha e. "nd flexibility has an added
:C
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4. Student diversity ad antage: by honoring studentsD indi iduality, it a oids the danger of stereotyping studentsD learning needs on the basis of their #ultural ba#)ground.
Chapter summary
!tudents differ in a multitude of .ays, both indi idually and as groups. Indi idually, for example, students ha e a preferred learning style as .ell as preferred #ogniti e or thin)ing styles. &hey also ha e unique profiles or intelligen#e or #ompeten#e that affe#t ho. and .hat they learn most su##essfully. In addition to indi idual di ersity, students tend to differ a##ording to their gender, although there are numerous indi idual ex#eptions. $otor abilities as .ell as moti ation and experien#e .ith athleti#s gradually differentiate boys and girls, espe#ially .hen they rea#h and begin high s#hool. !o#ially, boys tend to adopt relationships that are more a#ti e and .ide-ranging than do girls. "#ademi#ally, girls tend to be a bit more moti ated to re#ei e slightly higher mar)s in s#hool. &ea#hers sometimes #ontribute to gender role differen#esL perhaps .ithout intendingLby paying attention to boys more frequently and more publi#ly in #lass, and by distributing praise and #riti#ism in .ays differentiated by sex. !tudents also differ a##ording to #ultures, language, and ethni# groups of their families. $any students are bilingual, .ith edu#ational #onsequen#es that depend on their fluen#y in ea#h of their t.o languages. If they ha e more diffi#ulty .ith English, then programs that add their first language together .ith English ha e pro ed to be helpful. If they ha e more diffi#ulty .ith their first language, they are ris) for language loss, and the #onsequen#es are also negati e e en if more hidden from tea#hersJ ie.s. In addition to language differen#es as su#h, students differ a##ording to #ulture in ho. language is used or pra#ti#edLin ta)ing turns at spea)ing, in eye #onta#t, so#ial distan#e, .ait time, and the use of questions. !ome of these differen#es in pra#ti#e stem from #ultural differen#es in attitudes about self-identity, .ith non-"nglo #ulturally tending to support a more interdependent ie. of the self than "nglo #ulture or the s#hools. %ifferen#es in attitudes and in use of language ha e se eral #onsequen#es for tea#hers. In parti#ularL.here appropriateLthey should #onsider using #ooperati e a#ti ities, a oid highlighting indi idualsJ a##omplishments or failures, and be patient about studentsJ learning to be pun#tual. !tudents .ith an oppositional identity may pro e hard to rea#h, but flexibility in tea#hing strategies #an be ery helpful in rea#hing a .ide range of students, regardless of their #ultural ba#)grounds.
Further resour#es
Information and a#ti ities about student di ersity are distributed throughout the teachinged%sych .i)i, but see espe#ially the page #alled Social relationshi%s ;http:KKtea#hingedpsy#h..i)ispa#es.#omK!o#ialVrelationships<. !ome of the issues about #ultural di ersity are dealt .ith as .ell on the page #alled Assessment of K4CD #earning ;http:KKtea#hingedpsy#h..i)ispa#es.#omK"ssessmentVofVK-7EVlearning<, though in the #ontext of the thorny issues of testing and e aluating learning.
Key terms
"fri#an-"meri#an English 6alan#ed bilingualism 6ilingual Cogniti e styles Culture %iale#t :8 Eboni#s English language learner ;E22< Ethni#ity Eye #onta#t Field dependen#e Field independen#e
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense 'ender roles 'roup differen#es Identity Impulsi ity Independent self Indi idual differen#es Interdependent self In oluntary minority Goluntary minority I+E #y#le 2anguage loss 2earning styles 2imited English learner ;2E2< $eta#ognition $ulti#ultural edu#ation $ultiple intelligen#es Bppositional #ultural identity +efle#ti ity !o#ial distan#e &est questions 3nbalan#ed bilingualism 4ait time
+eferen#es
6an)s, (. ;E118<. Teaching strategies for ethnic studies, Bth edition. 6oston: *earson Edu#ation. 6aso., !. P +ubenfeld, K. ;E110<. =&roubles tal)?: Effe#ts of gender and gender-typing. Se5 Roles, ?B;0KF<, 7C0-7CC. 6ey)ont, -. ;Ed.<. ;E11E<. The %o er of culture2 Teaching across language difference. Cambridge, $": 5ar ard Edu#ation *ublishing 'roup. 6eaulieu, C. ;E11F<. Inter#ultural study of personal spa#e: " #ase study. Journal of A%%lied Social Psychology, <?;F<, :8F-C1@. 6irx, 5. (. ;E11@<. Encyclo%edia of human anthro%ology. &housand Ba)s, C": !age *ubli#ations. 6ohn, ". ;E110<. Familiar oi#es: 3sing Eboni#s #ommuni#ation te#hniques in the primary #lassroom. Ir(an Education, <B;9<, 9CC-:1:. 6raddo#), (., !o)ol-Kat/, (., 'reene, "., P 6asinger-Fleis#hman, 2. ;E11@<. 3ne en playing fields: !tate ariations in boysJ and girlsJ a##ess to and parti#ipation in high s#hool inters#holasti# sports. Sociological S%ectrum, E@;E<, E07-E@1. Cater, *. ;E11@<. Kee%inM it real2 School success (eyond (lac& and
nd
hite. Ae. Nor): Bxford 3ni ersity *ress.
Ca/den, C. ;E117<. Classroom discourse, D edition. *ortsmouth, A5: 5eineman *ublishers. Cohen, E. ;E11F<. Teaching coo%erative learning2 The challenge for teacher education. "lbany, AN: !tate 3ni ersity of Ae. Nor) *ress. %a ies, (. ;E11@<. Expressions of gender: "n analysis of pupilsJ gendered dis#ourse styles in small group #lassroom dis#ussions. !iscourse and Society, C?;E<, 77@-70E. %a is, '. P +imm, !. ;E11F<. Education of the gifted and talented, @ th edition. 6oston: "llyn P 6a#on. %elamont, !. ;7889<. Fomen+s %lace in education. 6roo)field, $": " ebury *ublishers. Ebert, (. ;E11@<. 2inguisti#s: &ongue tied. $ature, ?<B, 7FC-7F8. Erden, F. P 4olfgang, C. ;E11F<. "n exploration of the differen#es in tea#hersJ beliefs related to dis#ipline .hen dealing .ith male and female students. Early Child !evelo%ment and Care, C>?;7<, 0-77. Eisner, E. ;E11F<. $ultiple intelligen#es: Its tensions and possibilities. Teachers College Record, C=;;7<, 07. Espelage, %. P !.earer, !. ;E11F<. -ullying in American schools2 A socio4ecological %ers%ective on %revention and intervention. $ah.ah, A(: Erlbaum. E ans, C. ;E11F<. Exploring the relationship bet.een #ogniti e style and tea#hing style. Educational %sychology, D?;F<, @18-@01.
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4. Student diversity Fran#is, A. ;E119<. &he de elopment of se#ondary dis#ourse ability and metalinguisti# a.areness in se#ond language learners. .nternational Journal of A%%lied #inguistics, C;, 0:-F:. Freeman, %. ;E11F<. Trends in educational e)uity of girls and omen. 4ashington, %.C.: 3nited !tates %epartment of Edu#ation, Aational Center for Edu#ational !tatisti#s. Friend, $. ;E11:<. S%ecial education2 Contem%orary %ers%ectives for school %rofessionals, D nd edition. 6oston: "llyn P 6a#on. 'ardner, 5. ;78C0<. 8rames of mind2 The theory of multi%le intelligences. Ae. Nor): 6asi# 6oo)s. 'ardner, 5. ;E110, "pril E7<. Aulti%le intelligences after t enty years. *aper presented at the "meri#an Edu#ational +esear#h "sso#iation, Chi#ago, I2. 'arli#), K. ;E11E<. 3nderstanding the nature of the general fa#tor of intelligen#e. Psychological revie , C=G;7<, 779-709. 'olombo), !. P Fi ush, +. ;788F<. Kender develo%ment. Ae. Nor): Cambridge 3ni ersity *ress. 'reenfield, *. ;788F<. Independen#e and interdependen#e as #ultural s#ripts. In *. 'reenfield P +. Co#)ing ;Eds.<, Cross4cultural roots of minority child develo%ment, pp. 7-F1. $ah.ah, A(: Erlbaum. 'reenfield, *., Keller, 5., Fuligni, "., P $aynard, ". ;E110<. Cultural path.ays through uni ersal de elopment. Annual Revie of Psychology, @?, F97-F81. 'ottfredson, 2. ;E11F<. Intelligen#e: Is it the epidemiologistsJ elusi e =fundamental #ause? of so#ial #lass inequalities in health> Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, B;;7<, 7:F-788. 5ansen, 2., 3meda, N., P $#Kinney, $. ;E11E<. !a ings in the relearning of se#ond language o#abulary: &he effe#ts of time and profi#ien#y. #anguage #earning, @D, 9@0-990. 5yde, (. ;E11@<. &he gender similarities hypothesis. American Psychologist, ;=;9<, @C7-@8E. (imene/, +., 'ar#ia, '., P *earson. %. ;788@<. &hree #hildren, t.o languages, and strategi# reading: Case studies in bilingualKmonolingual reading. American Educational Research Journal, <D;7<, 9:-8:. (ohnson, %. P (ohnson, +. ;788C<. #earning together and alone2 Coo%erative, com%etitive, and individualistic learning, @th edition. 6oston: "llyn P 6a#on. Kohn, ". ;E11F<. &est today, pri ati/e tomorro.. Phi !elta Ka%%an, B@;C<, @9C-@::. Kohnert, K., Nim, %., Aett, K., Kan, *., P %uran, 2. ;E11@<. Inter ention .ith linguisti#ally di erse pres#hool #hildren. #anguage, S%eech, and :earing Services in Schools, <;, E@7-E90. 2oo, +. ;E11F<. KolbJs learning styles and learning preferen#es: Is there a lin)age> Educational %sychology, D?;7<, 88-71C. 2ubins)i, %. ;E11F<. 711 years after !pearmanJs =\'eneral Intelligen#e,J Bb,e#ti ely %etermined and $easured?. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, B;;7<, 89-777. $a#beth, %. ;E110<. 5ugh $ehanJs =2earning 2essons? re#onsidered: Bn the differen#es bet.een naturalisti# and #riti#al analysis of #lassroom dis#ourse. American Educational Research Journal, ?=;7<, E08-EC1. $a##oby, E. ;E11E<. Kender and social e5change2 A develo%mental %ers%ective. !an Fran#is#o: (ossey-6ass. $artine/-+oldan, C. P $ala e, '. ;E11F<. 2anguage ideologies mediating litera#y and identity in bilingual #ontexts. Journal of early childhood literacy, ?;E<, 7@@-7C1. $easor, 2. P !y)es, *. ;788E<. Kender and schools. Ae. Nor): Cassell.
C7
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense $ehan, 5. ;78:8<. #earning lessons2 social organi1ation in the classroom. Cambridge, $": 5ar ard 3ni ersity *ress. $essner, $., %un#a, $., P Coo)y, C. ;E110<. !ilen#e, sports bras, and .restling porn. Journal of S%ort and Social .ssues, D>;7<, 0C-@7. $eyers-!utton, C. ;E11@<. Aulti%le voices2 An introduction to (ilingualism. $alden, $": 6la#).ell *ublishers. $inami, $. ;E11E<. Culture4s%ecific language styles2 The develo%ment of oral narrative and literacy. Cle edon, 3K: $ultilingual $atters. $yas)o s)y, 2, 3ni)el, E., P %e., $. ;E11@<. Effe#ts of gender di ersity on performan#e and interpersonal beha ior in small .or) groups. Se5 Roles, @D;8K71<, 9F@-9@:. Bgbu, (. P %a is, ". ;E110<. -lac& American students in an affluent su(ur(2 A study of academic disengagement. $ah.ah, A(: Erlbaum. *rit#hard, ". ;E11@<. Fays of learning2 #earning theories and learning styles in the classroom. 2ondon, 3K: %a id Fulton. +ogers, +., $alan#haru il-6er)es, E., $osely, $., 5ui, %., P BJ'arro, '. ;E11@<. Criti#al dis#ourse analysis in edu#ation: " re ie. of the literature. Revie of Educational Research, >@;0<, 09@-F79. +ogoff, 6. ;E110<. The culture of human develo%ment. Ae. Nor): Bxford 3ni ersity *ress. !ad)er, %. ;E11E<. "n edu#atorJs primer on the gender .ar. Phi !elta Ka%%an, B?;0<, E0@-EF1. !hie er, !. P $a)er, C. ;E110<. Ae. dire#tions in enri#hment and a##eleration. In A. Colangelo P '. %a is ;Eds.<, :and(oo& fo gifted education, <rd edition ;pp. 790-7:0<. 6oston: "llyn P 6a#on. !tahl, !. ;E11E<. %ifferent stro)es for different fol)s> In 2. "bbeduto ;Ed.<, Ta&ing sides2 Clashing on controversial issue sin educational %sychology ;pp. 8C-71:<. 'uilford, C&: $#'ra. 5ill. !teiner, 5. P Carr, $. ;E110<. Cogniti e de elopment in gifted #hildren: &o.ard a more pre#ise understanding of emerging differen#es in intelligen#e. Educational Psychology Revie , C@, E7@-EF9. &annen, %. ;E117<. Oou 'ust don+t understand2 Aen and omen in conversation. Ae. Nor): Quill. &harp, +. P 'allimore, +. ;78C8<. Rousing minds to life. Ae. Nor): Cambridge 3ni ersity *ress. &orres-'u/man, $. ;788C<. 2anguage #ulture, and litera#y in *uerto +i#an #ommunities. In 6. *ere/ ;Ed.<, Sociocultural conte5ts of language and literacy. $ah.ah, A(: Erlbaum. &se, 2. ;E117<. Fhy don+t they learn English/ Ae. Nor): &ea#hersJ College *ress. 3nited !tates %epartment of Commer#e, 6ureau of the Census. ;E110<. American community survey. 4ashington, %.C.: "uthor. 4il)inson, 2. P $arrett, C. ;Eds.<. ;78C@<. Kender influences in classroom interaction. Brlando, F2: "#ademi# *ress. -hang, 2. P !ternberg, +. ;E11@<. &hree-fold model of intelle#tual styles. Educational %sychology revie , C>;7<. -hang, 2. P !ternberg, +. ;E119<. &he nature of intelle#tual styles. $ah.ah, A(: Erlbaum
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6. Students #ith special educational needs

2oo) at these three people from the past. "ll .ere assigned marginal status in so#iety be#ause of beliefs about disabilities: Phillis Wheatley: .n C>;C a si54year4old girl C>, Phillis had taught herself to read and %oetry. :er o ner fe as a as ca%tured from Fest Africa, given the name as Phillis Fheatley, and sold into slavery in the City of -oston in Colonial America. -y the time she rite and had develo%ed a s%ecial love and talent for ealthy (usinessman and sought to im%rove his re%utation (y %u(lishing
an anthology of her %oems. Infortunately he encountered stiff resistance from %u(lishers (ecause %eo%le at that time (elieved Africans to (e ca%a(le of the thought and imagination needed to rite %oetry. Peo%le ho heard of her %oetry ere s&e%tical and inclined to thin& that it as fa&ed.
Eventually, to save his o n re%utation, the o ner assem(led a tri(unal of CB %rominent 'udges0 including the governor of Aassachusetts and John :ancoc&, one of the signers of the !eclaration of .nde%endence0to assess the young finally decided that As Fheatley oman+s mental ca%acity. After cross4e5amining her, the 'udges riting %oetry 3Ro(inson, CGBD). as, after all, ca%a(le of
Helen Keller: A century later, a child named :elen Keller lost her sight and hearing as a result of illness during infancy. .n s%ite of this misfortune, though, :elen devised a language of gestural signs for communicating ten, she ith a tutor, and as soon also using -raille to study (oth 8rench and #atin. At rote and %u(lished a short story. Oet li&e As Fheatley, As Keller also faced su(stantial, ithout understanding them 3Keller, CG@?L -ogdan, as assem(led0though this time the mem(ers hether As Keller ere as in fact ca%a(le of
chronic s&e%ticism a(out her ca%acities. Prominent educators accused her of %lagiari1ing others+ ritings and merely *%arroting, others+ ideas D==;). Eventually, as riting ith Fheatley, a %anel
%rofessional e5%erts a(out disa(ilities0to determine hat she %u(lished. The %anel decided that she as (orn margin 3five 'udges vs four). Sue Robin: .n CG>B, Sue Ru(in
as indeed ca%a(le, though only (y a slim
ith a disa(ility that limited her s%eech to disordered as la(eled autistic (ecause of ithout assistance. She
(ursts of sound and occasionally echoing %hrases of other %eo%le. She
her sym%toms, and assumed to (e %rofoundly retarded. Fith su%%ort and encouragement from her mother and others, ho ever, Sue eventually learned to ty%e on a &ey(oard learned to communicate effectively hen she as a(out C< and as a(le to go to school. Since then
she has made many %resentations a(out autism at conferences and recently co4edited a (oo& a(out autism, titled Autism2 The Ayth of the Person Alone 3-ogdan, et al., D==@). "lthough one of these people ;*hillis 4heatley< experien#ed ra#ial dis#rimination and the other t.o experien#ed physi#al disabilities, noti#e something they had in #ommon: all three .ere defined by so#iety as disabled intelle#tually. Initially, their a#hie ements .ere dismissed C0 be#ause of .idespread stereotypes and
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5. Students with special educational needs assumptionsabout their inherent in#ompeten#e. "s a result, all three had to .or) harder than usual, not only to a#quire litera#y itself, but also to pro e that their litera#y .as genuine and .orthy of respe#t. !in#e the time of *hillis 4heatley, Aorth "meri#an so#iety has eliminated sla ery and made some progress at redu#ing #ertain forms of ra#ism, though mu#h remains to be done. In 78@F, for example, the 3nited !tates !upreme Court ruled that publi# s#hools #ould not be segregated by ra#e, and in doing so re#ogni/ed, at least legally, the intelle#tual #ompeten#e of "fri#an-"meri#ans as .ell as the moral obligation of so#iety to pro ide all #iti/ens .ith the best possible edu#ation. It has ta)en longer to re#ogni/e the legal rights and #ompeten#es of persons .ith disabilities, but e ents and trends beginning in the 78:1s are beginning to #reate su#h re#ognition. 4e begin this #hapter by explaining some of these trends and ho. they ha e altered the .or) of tea#hers. &hen .e loo) at the ma,or )inds of disabilities en#ountered by tea#hers, and at ho. tea#hers #an help students .ith su#h disabilities.
2ro#ing support for people #ith disabilities) legislation and its effects
!in#e the 78:1s politi#al and so#ial attitudes ha e mo ed in#reasingly to.ard in#luding people .ith disabilities into a .ide ariety of =regular? a#ti ities. In the 3nited !tates, the shift is illustrated #learly in the Federal legislation that .as ena#ted during this time. &he legislation partly stimulated the #hange in attitudes, but at the same time they partly resulted from the #hange. &hree ma,or la.s .ere passed that guaranteed the rights of persons .ith disabilities, and of #hildren and students .ith disabilities in parti#ular. "lthough the first t.o affe#ted tea#hersJ .or) in the #lassroom, the third has had the biggest impa#t on edu#ation.
+ehabilitation "#t of 78:0, !e#tion @1F

&his la.Lthe first of its )indLrequired that indi iduals .ith disabilities be a##ommodated in any program or a#ti ity that re#ei es Federal funding ;*2 80-77E, 78:0<. "lthough this la. .as not intended spe#ifi#ally for edu#ation, in pra#ti#e it has prote#ted studentsJ rights in some extra-#urri#ular a#ti ities ;for older students< and in some #hild #are or after-s#hool #are programs ;for younger students<. If those programs re#ei e Federal funding of any )ind, the programs are not allo.ed to ex#lude #hildren or youths .ith disabilities, and they ha e to find reasonable .ays to a##ommodate the indi idualsJ disabilities.
"meri#ans .ith %isabilities "#t of 7881 ;or "%"<.

&his legislation also prohibited dis#rimination on the basis of disability, ,ust as !e#tion @1F of the +ehabilitation "#t had done ;*2 717-009, 7881<. "lthough the "%" also applies to all people ;not ,ust to students<, its pro isions are more spe#ifi# and =stronger? than those of !e#tion @1F. In parti#ular, "%" extends to all employment and ,obs, not ,ust those re#ei ing Federal funding. It also spe#ifi#ally requires a##ommodations to be made in publi# fa#ilities su#h as .ith buses, restrooms, and telephones. "%" legislation is therefore responsible for some of the =minor? reno ations in s#hools that you may ha e noti#ed in re#ent years, li)e .heel#hair-a##essible doors, ramps, and restrooms, and publi# telephones .ith olume #ontrols.
CF
Indi iduals .ith %isabilities Edu#ation "#t ;or I%E"<

"s its name implied this legislation .as more fo#used on edu#ation than either !e#tion @1F or "%". It .as first passed in 78:@ and has been amended se eral times sin#e, in#luding most re#ently in E11F ;*2 71C-FF9, E11F<. In its #urrent form, the la. guarantees the follo.ing rights related to edu#ation for anyone .ith a disability from birth to age E7. &he first t.o influen#e s#hooling in general, but the last three affe#t the .or) of #lassroom tea#hers rather dire#tly:
8ree, a%%ro%riate education2 "n indi idual or an indi idualJs family should not ha e to pay for edu#ation
simply be#ause the indi idual has a disability, and the edu#ational program should be truly edu#ational ;i.e. not merely #are-ta)ing or =babysitting? of the person<.
!ue %rocess2 In #ase of disagreements bet.een an indi idual .ith a disability and the s#hools or other
professionals, there must be pro#edures for resol ing the disagreements that are fair and a##essible to all partiesLin#luding the person himself or herself or the personJs representati e.
8air evaluation of %erformance in s%ite of disa(ility2 &ests or other e aluations should not assume test-
ta)ing s)ills that a person .ith a disability #annot reasonably be expe#ted to ha e, su#h as holding a pen#il, hearing or seeing questions, .or)ing qui#)ly, or understanding and spea)ing orally. E aluation pro#edures should be modified to allo. for these differen#es. &his pro ision of the la. applies (oth to e aluations made by tea#hers and to s#hool-.ide or =high-sta)es? testing programs.
Education in the *least restrictive environment,2 Edu#ation for someone .ith a disability should pro ide as
many edu#ational opportunities and options for the person as possible, both in the short term and in the long term. In pra#ti#e this requirement has meant in#luding students in regular #lassrooms and s#hool a#ti ities as mu#h as possible, though often not totally.
An individuali1ed educational %rogram2 'i en that e ery disability is unique, instru#tional planning for a
person .ith a disability should be unique or indi iduali/ed as .ell. In pra#ti#e this pro ision has led to #lassroom tea#hers planning indi iduali/ed programs ,ointly .ith other professionals ;li)e reading spe#ialists, psy#hologists, or medi#al personnel< as part of a team. Considered together, these pro isions are both a #ause and an effe#t of basi# demo#rati# philosophy. &he legislation says, in effe#t, that all indi iduals should ha e a##ess to so#iety in general and to edu#ation in parti#ular. "lthough tea#hers #ertainly support this philosophy in broad terms, and many ha e .el#omed the I%E" legislation, others ha e found the prospe#t of applying it in #lassrooms leads to a number of questions and #on#erns. !ome as), for example, .hether a student .ith a disability .ill disrupt the #lassI others, .hether the student .ill interfere .ith #o ering the #urri#ulumI still others, .hether the student might be teased by #lassmates. !in#e these are legitimate #on#erns, I .ill return to them at the end of this #hapter. First, ho.e er, let me #larify exa#tly ho. the I%E" legislation affe#ts the .or) of tea#hers, and then des#ribe in more detail the ma,or disabilities that you are li)ely to en#ounter in students.
Responsibilities of teachers for students #ith disabilities

&he I%E" legislation has affe#ted the .or) of tea#hers by #reating three ne. expe#tations. &he first expe#tation is to pro ide alternati e methods of assessment for students .ith disabilitiesI the se#ond is to arrange a learning en ironment that is as normal or as =least restri#ti e? as possibleI and the third is to parti#ipate in #reating indi idual edu#ational plans for students .ith disabilities.
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5. Students with special educational needs
"lternati e assessments
In the #ontext of students .ith disabilities, assessment refers to gathering information about a student in order both to identify the strengths of the student, and to de#ide .hat spe#ial edu#ational support, if any, the student needs. In prin#iple, of #ourse, these are tas)s that tea#hers ha e for all students: assessment is a ma,or reason .hy .e gi e tests and assignments, for example, and .hy .e listen #arefully to the quality of studentsJ #omments during #lass dis#ussions. For students .ith disabilities, ho.e er, su#h traditional or #on entional strategies of assessment often seriously underestimate the studentsJ #ompeten#e ;Koret/ P 6arton, E110KE11FI *ullin, E11@<. %epending on the disability, a student may ha e trouble .ith ;a< holding a pen#il, ;b< hearing a question #learly, ;#< fo#using on a pi#ture, ;d< mar)ing an ans.er in time e en .hen he or she )no.s the ans.er, ;e< #on#entrating on a tas) in the presen#e of other people, or ;f< ans.ering a question at the pa#e needed by the rest of the #lass. &raditionally, tea#hers ha e assumed that all students either ha e these s)ills or #an learn them .ith ,ust modest amounts of #oa#hing, en#ouragement, and .ill po.er. For many other students, for example, it may be enough to say something li)e: =+emember to listen to the question #arefullyM? For students .ith disabilities, ho.e er, a #omment li)e this may not .or) and may e en be insensiti e. " student .ith isual impairment does not need be reminded to =loo) #losely at .hat I am .riting on the board?I doing so .ill not #ause the student to see the #hal)board more #learlyLthough the reminder might in#rease the studentJs anxiety and self-#ons#iousness. &here are a number of strategies for modifying assessments in .ays that attempt to be fair and that at the same time re#ogni/e ho. busy tea#hers usually are. Bne is to #onsider supplementing #on entional assignments or tests .ith portfolios, .hi#h are #olle#tions of a studentJs .or) that demonstrate a studentJs de elopment o er time, and .hi#h usually in#lude some sort of refle#ti e or e aluati e #omments from the student, the tea#her, or both ;Carothers P &aylor, E110I 4esson P King, 7889<. "nother is to de ise a system for obser ing the student regularly, e en if briefly, and informally re#ording notes about the obser ations for later #onsideration and assessment. " third strategy is to re#ruit help from tea#her assistants, .ho are sometimes present to help a student .ith a disabilityI an assistant #an often #ondu#t a brief test or a#ti ity .ith the student, and later report on and dis#uss the results .ith you. If you refle#t on these strategies, you may reali/e that they may sometimes #reate issues about fairness. If a student .ith a disability demonstrates #ompeten#e one .ay but other students demonstrate it another, should they be gi en similar #redit> Bn the other hand, is it fair for one student to get a lo.er mar) be#ause the student la#)s an abilityLsu#h as normal hearingLthat tea#hers #annot, in prin#iple, e er tea#h> &hese ethi#al issues are legitimate and important, and I therefore return to them in Chapters 77 and 7E, .hi#h dis#uss assessment in mu#h more detail.
2east restri#ti e en ironment

&he I%E" legislation #alls for pla#ing students .ith disabilities in the least restrictive environment ;or '+"<, defined as the #ombination of settings that in ol e the student .ith regular #lassrooms and s#hool programs as mu#h as possible. &he pre#ise #ombination is determined by the #ir#umstan#es of a parti#ular s#hool and of the student. " )indergarten #hild .ith a mild #ogniti e disability, for example, may spend the ma,ority of time in a regular )indergarten #lass, .or)ing alongside and playing .ith non-disabled #lassmates and relying on a tea#her assistant for help .here needed. "n indi idual .ith a similar disability in high s#hool, ho.e er, might be assigned primarily to #lasses spe#ially intended for slo. learners, but nonetheless parti#ipate in some s#hool-.ide a#ti ities
C9
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense alongside non-disabled students. &he differen#e in 2+Es might refle#t tea#hersJ per#eptions of ho. diffi#ult it is to modify the #urri#ulum in ea#h #aseI rightly or .rongly, tea#hers are apt to regard adaptation as more #hallenging at =higher? grade le els. 6y the same to)en, a student .ith a disability that is stri#tly physi#al might spend irtually all his or her time in regular #lasses throughout the studentJs s#hool #areerI in this #ase, ad,ustment of the #urri#ulum .ould not be an issue. For you, the poli#y fa oring the least restri#ti e en ironment means that if you #ontinue tea#hing long enough, you .ill ery li)ely en#ounter a student .ith a disability in one or more of your #lasses, or at least ha e one in a s#hool-related a#ti ity for .hi#h you are responsible. It also means that the spe#ial edu#ational needs of these students .ill most often be the =mildest?. !tatisti#ally, the most frequent forms of spe#ial needs are learning disa(ilities, .hi#h are impairments in spe#ifi# aspe#ts of learning, and espe#ially of reading. 2earning disabilities a##ount for about half of all spe#ial edu#ational needsLas mu#h as all other types put together. !ome.hat less #ommon are s%eech and language disorders, cognitive disa(ilities, and attention deficit hy%eractivity disorders ;or A!:!). 6e#ause of their frequen#y and of the li)elihood that you .ill meet students for .hom these labels ha e been #onsidered, I des#ribe them more fully later in this #hapter, along .ith other disability #onditions that you .ill en#ounter mu#h less frequently.
Indi idual edu#ational plan

&he third .ay that I%E" legislation and #urrent edu#ational approa#hes affe#t tea#hers is by requiring tea#hers and other professional staff to de elop an annual individual educational plan ;or &" < for ea#h student .ith a disability. &he plan is #reated by a team of indi iduals .ho )no. the studentJs strengths and needsI at a minimum it in#ludes one or more #lassroom tea#hers, a =resour#e? or spe#ial edu#ation tea#her, and the studentJs parents or guardians. !ometimes, too, the team in#ludes a s#hool administrator ;li)e a i#e-prin#ipal< or other professionals from outside the s#hool ;li)e a psy#hologist or physi#ian<, depending on the nature of the #hildJs disability. "n IE* #an ta)e many forms, but it al.ays des#ribes a studentJs #urrent so#ial and a#ademi# strengths as .ell as the studentJs so#ial or a#ademi# needs. It also spe#ifies edu#ational goals or ob,e#ti es for the #oming year, lists spe#ial ser i#es to be pro ided, and des#ribes ho. progress to.ard the goals .ill be assessed at the end of the year. Exhibit 0 sho.s a simple, imaginary IE*. ;6ut )eep in mind that the a#tual isual formats of IE* plans ary .idely among states, pro in#es, and s#hool ,urisdi#tions.< &his parti#ular plan is for a student named !ean, a boy ha ing diffi#ulties .ith reading. IE*s, li)e the one in the figure, originally ser ed mainly students in the younger grades, but more re#ently they ha e been extended and modified to ser e transition planning for adoles#ents .ith disabilities .ho are approa#hing the end of their publi# s#hooling ;4est, et al., 7888<. For these students, the goals of the plan often in#lude a#ti ities ;li)e finding employment< to extend beyond s#hooling. !ee belo..
C:
" 'lobal &ext
Student$ !ean Cortine/
(irth Date$ E9 $ay E11E
eriod Covered by &" $ !eptember E1xx U (uly E1xy
"ddress: School$ 'rant *ar) $iddle !#hool !upport &eam ,rade 'evel$ 0
*hone: @eacher7s/$ '. Eidse
2ist spe#ialists ;edu#ational, medi#al, or other< in ol ed in assisting the student: +esour#e tea#her, instru#tional aide ;part time<: !pe#ial Curri#ulum Aeeds to be "ddressed: 2ist general needs hereI use separate sheet;s< for spe#ifi#, short-term ob,e#ti es as appropriate: !ean #an read short, familiar .ords singly, but #annot read #onne#ted text e en .hen familiar. Aeeds help espe#ially .ith de#oding and other =.ord atta#)? s)ills. !ome trouble fo#using on reading tas)s. !ean spea)s #learly and often listens .ell .hen the topi# interests him. !pe#ial $aterials or Equipment Aeeded: $odified test pro#edures and reading materials as required. !ignatures:
Parent or guardian2
K. Cortine/
Teacher3s)2 '. Eidse
Princi%al2
2. !tauffer
!ate of .EP Aeeting2 E9 B#tober E1xx Exhibit 0: " sample indi idual edu#ational plan. ;Aote that a#tual isual formats of IE* plans ary.< If you ha e a student .ith an IE*, you #an expe#t t.o #onsequen#es for tea#hing. &he first is that you should expe#t to ma)e definite, #lear plans for the student, and to put the plans in .riting. &his #onsequen#e does not, of #ourse, pre ent you from ta)ing ad antage of unexpe#ted or spontaneous #lassroom e ents as .ell in order to enri#h the #urri#ulum. 6ut it does mean that an edu#ational program for a student .ith a disability #annot #onsist only of the unexpe#ted or spontaneous. &he se#ond #onsequen#e is that you should not expe#t to #onstru#t an edu#ational plan alone, as is #ommonly done .hen planning regular #lassroom programs. 4hen it #omes to students .ith disabilities, expe#t instead to plan as part of a team. 4or)ing .ith others ensures that e eryone .ho
CC
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense is #on#erned about the student has a oi#e. It also ma)es it possible to impro e the quality of IE*s by pooling ideas from many sour#esLe en if, as you might suspe#t, it also #hallenges professionals to #ommuni#ate #learly and #ooperate respe#tfully .ith team members in order to ser e a student as .ell as possible.
Categories of disabilities7and their ambiguities

!o far I ha e said a lot about .hy in#lusion has #ome to be important for tea#hers, but not mu#h about the a#tual nature of studentsJ disabilities. *art of the reason for delaying .as be#ause, to put it simply, disabilities are inherently ambiguous. Aaming and des#ribing =types? of them implies that disabilities are relati ely fixed, stable, and distin#t, li)e different )inds of fruit or egetables. "s many tea#hers dis#o er, though, the reality is some.hat different. &he beha ior and qualities of a parti#ular student .ith a disability #an be hard to #ategori/e. &he student may be #hallenged not only by the disability, but also by experien#es #ommon to all students, disabled or not. "ny parti#ular disability, furthermore, poses problems more in some situations than in others. " student .ith a reading diffi#ulty may ha e trouble in a language arts #lass, for example, but not in a physi#al edu#ation #lassI a student .ith a hearing impairment may ha e more trouble =hearing? a topi# that he disli)es #ompared to one that he li)es. 6e#ause offi#ial des#riptions of types or #ategories of disabilities o erloo) these #omplexities, they ris) stereotyping the real, li e people to .hom they are applied ;'reen, et al., E11@<. E en the simplifi#ations might not be a serious problem if the resulting stereotypes .ere #omplimentaryLmost of us .ould not mind being #alled a =genius?, for example, e en if the des#ription is not al.ays true. !tereotypes about disabilities, ho.e er, are usually stigmati/ing, not #omplimentary. !till, #ategories of disabilities do ser e useful purposes by gi ing tea#hers, parents, and other professionals a language or frame of referen#e for tal)ing about disabilities. &hey also #an help edu#ators .hen arranging spe#ial support ser i#es for students, sin#e a student has to =ha e? an identifiable, nameable need if professionals are to pro ide help. Edu#ational authorities ha e therefore #ontinued to use #ategories ;or =labels?< to #lassify disabilities in spite of expressing #ontinuing #on#ern about .hether the pra#ti#e hurts studentsJ self-esteem or standing in the eyes of peers ;6i)len P Klie.er, E119<. For #lassroom tea#hers, the best strategy may be simply to understand ho. #ategories of disabilities are defined, .hile also )eeping their limitations in mind and being ready to explain their limitations ;ta#tfully, of #ourse< to parents or others .ho use the labels inappropriately. &hat said, .hat in fa#t are the ma,or types of disabilities en#ountered by tea#hers> 2et us ta)e them one at a time, beginning .ith the more #ommon ones.
8earning disabilities
" learning disability ;or 'D< is a spe#ifi# impairment of a#ademi# learning that interferes .ith a spe#ifi# aspe#t of s#hool.or) and that redu#es a studentJs a#ademi# performan#e signifi#antly. "n 2% sho.s itself as a ma,or dis#repan#y bet.een a studentJs ability and some feature of a#hie ement: the student may be delayed in reading, .riting, listening, spea)ing, or doing mathemati#s, but not in all of these at on#e. " learning problem is not #onsidered a learning disability if it stems from physi#al, sensory, or motor handi#aps, or from generali/ed intelle#tual impairment ;or mental retardation<. It is also not an 2% if the learning problem really refle#ts the #hallenges of learning English as a se#ond language. 'enuine 2%s are the learning problems left o er after these other possibilities are a##ounted for or ex#luded. &ypi#ally, a student .ith an 2% has not been helped by tea#hersJ ordinary efforts to assist the student .hen he or she falls behind a#ademi#allyLthough .hat #ounts as an =ordinary effort?, of #ourse, differs among tea#hers, s#hools, and students. $ost importantly, though, an 2% relates to a fairly Educational Psychology C8 " 'lobal &ext
5. Students with special educational needs spe#ifi# area of a#ademi# learning. " student may be able to read and #ompute .ell enough, for example, but not be able to .rite. 2%s are by far the most #ommon form of spe#ial edu#ational need, a##ounting for half of all students .ith spe#ial needs in the 3nited !tates and any.here from @ to E1 per #ent of all students, depending on ho. the numbers are estimated ;3nited !tates %epartment of Edu#ation, E11@I Nsseldy)e P 6ielins)i, E11E<. !tudents .ith 2%s are so #ommon, in fa#t, that most tea#hers regularly en#ounter at least one per #lass in any gi en s#hool year, regardless of the grade le el they tea#h.
%efining learning disabilities #learly

4ith so many students defined as ha ing learning disabilities, it is not surprising that the term itself be#omes ambiguous in the truest sense of =ha ing many meanings?. !pe#ifi# features of 2%s ary #onsiderably. "ny of the follo.ing students, for example, qualify as ha ing a learning disability, assuming that they ha e no other disease, #ondition, or #ir#umstan#e to a##ount for their beha ior:
"lbert, an eighth-grader, has trouble sol ing .ord problems that he reads, but #an sol e them easily if he
hears them orally.

6ill, also in eighth grade, has the re erse problem: he #an sol e .ord problems only .hen he #an read them,
not .hen he hears them.

Carole, a fifth-grader, #onstantly ma)es errors .hen she reads textual material aloud, either lea ing out
.ords, adding .ords, or substituting her o.n .ords for the printed text.
Emily, in se enth grade, has terrible hand.ritingI her letters ary in si/e and .obble all o er the page,
mu#h li)e a first- or se#ond-grader.

%enny reads ery slo.ly, e en though he is in fourth grade. 5is #omprehension suffers as a result, be#ause
he sometimes forgets .hat he read at the beginning of a senten#e by the time he rea#hes the end.
'arnetJs spelling .ould ha e to be #alled =in enti e?, e en though he has pra#ti#ed #on entionally #orre#t
spelling more than other students. 'arnet is in sixth grade.

5armin, a ninth-grader has parti#ular trouble de#oding indi idual .ords and letters if they are unfamiliarI
he reads conceal as =#on#ol? and alternate as =alfoonite?.

Irma, a tenth-grader, adds multiple-digit numbers as if they .ere single-digit numbers stu#) together: ?D N
@G equals GCC rather than C=C, though D< N @? #orre#tly equals >>. 4ith so many expressions of 2%s, it is not surprising that edu#ators sometimes disagree about their nature and about the )ind of help students need as a #onsequen#e. !u#h #ontro ersy may be ine itable be#ause 2%s by definition are learning problems .ith no ob ious origin. &here is good ne.s, ho.e er, from this state of affairs, in that it opens the .ay to try a ariety of solutions for helping students .ith learning disabilities.
"ssisting students .ith learning disabilities

&here are arious .ays to assist students .ith learning disabilities, depending not only on the nature of the disability, of #ourse, but also on the #on#epts or theory of learning guiding you. &a)e Irma, the girl mentioned abo e .ho adds t.o-digit numbers as if they .ere one digit numbers. !tated more formally, Irma adds t.o-digit numbers .ithout #arrying digits for.ard from the ones #olumn to the tens #olumn, or from the tens to the hundreds #olumn. Exhibit F sho.s the effe#t that her strategy has on one of her home.or) papers. 4hat is going on here and ho. #ould a tea#her help Irma> 81
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense !irections2 Add the follo ing num(ers. A2 E FD 2B E FA 11 E AG AC E 2B DC E HA A1 E 2C
911
77
59
610
1511
68
&hree out of the six problems are done #orre#tly, e en though Irma seems to use an in#orre#t strategy systemati#ally on all six problems. Exhibit F: IrmaJs math home.or) about t.o-digit addition
-ehaviorism2 reinforcement for
rong strategies
Bne possible approa#h #omes from the beha iorist theory dis#ussed in Chapter E. Irma may persist .ith the single-digit strategy be#ause it has been reinfor#ed a lot in the past. $aybe she .as re.arded so mu#h for adding single-digit numbers ;<N@, >NB et#.< #orre#tly that she generali/ed this s)ill to t.o-digit problemsLin fa#t over generali/ed it. &his explanation is plausible be#ause she .ould still get many t.o-digit problems right, as you #an #onfirm by loo)ing at it. In beha iorist terms, her in#orre#t strategy .ould still be reinfor#ed, but no. only on a =partial s#hedule of reinfor#ement?. "s I pointed out in Chapter E, partial s#hedules are espe#ially slo. to extinguish, so Irma persists seemingly indefinitely .ith treating t.o-digit problems as if they .ere single-digit problems. From the point of ie. of beha iorism, #hanging IrmaJs beha ior is tri#)y sin#e the desired beha ior ;borro.ing #orre#tly< rarely happens and therefore #annot be reinfor#ed ery often. It might therefore help for the tea#her to re.ard beha iors that #ompete dire#tly .ith IrmaJs inappropriate strategy. &he tea#her might redu#e #redit for simply finding the #orre#t ans.er, for example, and in#rease #redit for a student sho.ing her .or)Lin#luding the .or) of #arrying digits for.ard #orre#tly. Br the tea#her might ma)e a point of dis#ussing IrmaJs math .or) .ith Irma frequently, so as to #reate more o##asions .hen she #an praise Irma for .or)ing problems #orre#tly.
Aetacognition and res%onding reflectively

*art of IrmaJs problem may be that she is thoughtless about doing her math: the minute she sees numbers on a .or)sheet, she stuffs them into the first arithmeti# pro#edure that #omes to mind. 5er learning style, that is, seems too impulsi e and not refle#ti e enough, as dis#ussed in Chapter F. 5er style also suggests a failure of meta#ognition ;remember that idea from Chapter E><, .hi#h is her self-monitoring of her o.n thin)ing and its effe#ti eness. "s a solution, the tea#her #ould en#ourage Irma to thin) out loud .hen she #ompletes t.o-digit problemsLliterally get her to =tal) her .ay through? ea#h problem. If parti#ipating in these #on ersations .as sometimes impra#ti#al, the tea#her might also arrange for a s)illed #lassmate to ta)e her pla#e some of the time. Cooperation bet.een Irma and the #lassmate might help the #lassmate as .ell, or e en impro e o erall so#ial relationships in the #lassroom.
Constructivism, mentoring, and the 1one of %ro5imal develo%ment

*erhaps Irma has in fa#t learned ho. to #arry digits for.ard, but not learned the pro#edure .ell enough to use it reliably on her o.nI so she #onstantly falls ba#) on the earlier, better-learned strategy of single-digit addition. In that #ase her problem #an be seen in the #onstru#ti ist terms, li)e those that I dis#ussed in Chapter E. In essen#e, Educational Psychology 87 " 'lobal &ext
5. Students with special educational needs Irma has la#)ed appropriate mentoring from someone more expert than herself, someone .ho #an #reate a =/one of proximal de elopment? in .hi#h she #an display and #onsolidate her s)ills more su##essfully. !he still needs mentoring or =assisted #oa#hing? more than independent pra#ti#e. &he tea#her #an arrange some of this in mu#h the .ay she en#ourages to be more refle#ti e, either by .or)ing .ith Irma herself or by arranging for a #lassmate or e en a parent olunteer to do so. In this #ase, ho.e er, .hoe er ser es as mentor should not only listen, but also a#ti ely offer Irma help. &he help has to be ,ust enough to insure that Irma #ompletes t.o-digit problems #orre#tly Lneither more nor less. &oo mu#h help may pre ent Irma from ta)ing responsibility for learning the ne. strategy, but too little may #ause her to ta)e the responsibility prematurely.
ttention deficit hyperactivity disorder

2ttention deficit hyperactivity disorder ;or 2D9D< is a problem .ith sustaining attention and #ontrolling impulses. "s students, almost all of us ha e these problems at one time or another, but a student .ith "%5% sho.s them mu#h more frequently than usual, and often at home as .ell as at s#hool. In the #lassroom, the student .ith "%5% may fidget and squirm a lot, or ha e trouble remaining seated, or #ontinually get distra#ted and off tas), or ha e trouble .aiting for a turn, or blurt out ans.ers and #omments. &he student may shift #ontinually from one a#ti ity to another, or ha e trouble playing quietly, or tal) ex#essi ely .ithout listening to others. Br the student may mispla#e things and seem generally disorgani/ed, or be in#lined to try ris)y a#ti ities .ithout enough thought to the #onsequen#es. "lthough the list of problem beha iors is ob iously quite extensi e, )eep in mind that the student .ill not do all of these things. It is ,ust that o er time, the student .ith "%5% is li)ely to do se eral of them #hroni#ally or repeatedly, and in more than one setting ;"meri#an *sy#hiatri# "sso#iation, E111<. In the #lassroom, of #ourse, the beha iors may annoy #lassmates and frustrate tea#hers.
%ifferen#es in per#eptions: "%5% ersus high a#ti ity

It is important to note that #lassrooms are pla#es that ma)e hea y demands on not sho.ing "%5%-li)e beha iors: students are often supposed to sit for long periods, a oid interrupting others, finish tas)s after beginning them, and )eep their minds ;and materials< organi/ed. Ironi#ally, therefore, #lassroom life may sometimes aggra ate "%5% .ithout the tea#her intending for it to do so. " student .ith only a mild or o##asional tenden#y to be restless, for example, may fit in .ell outdoors playing so##er, but feel unusually restless indoors during #lass. It also should not be surprising that tea#hers sometimes mista)e a student .ho is merely rather a#ti e for a student .ith "%5%, sin#e any tenden#y to be physi#ally a#ti e may #ontribute to problems .ith #lassroom management. &he tenden#y to =o er-diagnose? is more li)ely for boys than for girls ;$aniada)i, et al., E110<, presumably be#ause gender role expe#tations #ause tea#hers to be espe#ially alert to high a#ti ity in boys. B er-diagnosis is also espe#ially li)ely for students .ho are #ulturally or linguisti#ally non-"nglo ;Chamberlain, E11@<, presumably be#ause #ultural and language differen#es may sometimes lead tea#hers to misinterpret studentsJ beha ior. &o a oid ma)ing su#h mista)es, it is important to )eep in mind that in true "%5%, restlessness, a#ti ity, and distra#tibility are .idespread and sustained. " student .ho sho.s su#h problems at s#hool but ne er at home, for example, may not ha e "%5%I he may simply not be getting along .ith his tea#her or #lassmates.
Causes of "%5%
$ost psy#hologists and medi#al spe#ialists agree that true "%5%, as opposed to =mere? intermittent distra#tibility or high a#ti ity, refle#ts a problem in ho. the ner ous system fun#tions, but they do not )no. the exa#t nature or #auses of the problem ;+utter, E11F, E11@<. +esear#h sho.s that "%5% tends to run in families, 8E
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense .ith #hildrenLespe#ially boysLof parents .ho had "%5% some.hat more li)ely than usual to experien#e the #ondition themsel es. &he asso#iation does not ne#essarily mean, though, that "%5% is inborn or geneti#. 4hy> It is be#ause it is possible that parents .ho formerly had "%5% may raise their #hildren more stri#tly in an effort to pre ent their o.n #ondition in their #hildrenI yet their stri#tness, ironi#ally, may trigger a bit more tenden#y, rather than less, to.ard the restless distra#tibility #hara#teristi# of "%5%. Bn the other hand ;or is it =on the third hand?><, the parentsJ stri#tness may also be a result, as .ell as a #ause of, a #hildJs restlessness. &he bottom line for tea#hers: sorting out #auses from effe#ts is #onfusing, if not impossible, and in any #ase may not help mu#h to determine a#tual tea#hing strategies to help the students learn more effe#ti ely.
&ea#hing students .ith "%5%

+esear#h also sho.s that "%5% #an be redu#ed for many students if they ta)e #ertain medi#ations, of .hi#h the most #ommon is methyl%henidate, #ommonly )no.n by the name +italin ;4ilens, E11@I Blfson, E110<. &his drug and others li)e it a#t by stimulating the ner ous system, .hi#h redu#es symptoms by helping a student pay better attention to the #hoi#es he or she ma)es and to the impa#t of a#tions on others. 3nfortunately the medi#ations do not .or) on all students .ith "%5%, espe#ially after they rea#h adoles#en#e, and its long-term effe#ts are un#ertain ;6reggin, 7888<. In any #ase +italin and similar drugs ha e #ertain pra#ti#al problems. %rugs #ost money, for one thing, .hi#h is a problem for a family .ithout mu#h money to begin .ith, or for a family la#)ing medi#al insuran#e that pays for medi#ationsLa parti#ularly #ommon situation in the 3nited !tates. For another thing, drugs must be ta)en regularly in order to be effe#ti e, in#luding on .ee)ends. Keeping a regular s#hedule #an be diffi#ult if parentsJ o.n s#hedules are irregular or simply differ from the #hildJs, for example be#ause of night shifts at .or) or be#ause parents are separated and share #ustody of the #hild. In any #ase, sin#e tea#hers are not do#tors and medi#ations are not under tea#hersJ #ontrol, it may be more important simply to pro ide an en ironment .here a student .ith "%5% #an organi/e #hoi#es and a#tions easily and su##essfully. Clear rules and pro#edures, for example, #an redu#e the =noise? or #haoti# quality in the #hildJs #lassroom life signifi#antly. &he rules and pro#edures #an be generated ,ointly .ith the #hildI they do not ha e to be imposed arbitrarily, as if the student .ere in#apable of thin)ing about them reasonably. !ometimes a #lassmate #an be enlisted to model slo.er, more refle#ti e styles of .or)ing, but in .ays that do not imply undue #riti#ism of the student .ith "%5%. &he more refle#ti e student #an #omplete a set of math problems, for example, .hile explaining .hat he or she is thin)ing about .hile doing the .or). !ometimes the tea#her #an help by ma)ing lists of tas)s or of steps in long tas)s. It #an help to di ide fo#used .or) into small, short sessions rather than grouping it into single, longer sessions. 4hate er the strategies that you use, they should be #onsistent, predi#table, and generated by the student as mu#h as possible. 6y ha ing these qualities, the strategies #an strengthen the studentJs self-dire#tion and ability to s#reen out the distra#tions of #lassroom life. &he goal for tea#hers, in essen#e, is to build the studentJs meta#ogniti e #apa#ity, .hile at the same time, of #ourse, treating the student .ith respe#t.
0ntellectual disabilities
"n intellectual disability is a signifi#ant limitation in a studentJs #ogniti e fun#tioning and daily adapti e beha iors ;!#halo#) P 2u#)asson, E11FI "meri#an "sso#iation on $ental +etardation, E11E<. &he student may ha e limited language or impaired spee#h and may not perform .ell a#ademi#ally. Compared to students .ith learning disabilities dis#ussed earlier, students .ith intelle#tual disabilities ha e impairments to learning that are broader and more signifi#ant. &hey s#ore poorly on standardi/ed tests of intelligen#e ;li)e the ones dis#ussed later, Educational Psychology 80 " 'lobal &ext
5. Students with special educational needs in Chapter 7E<. E eryday tas)s that most people ta)e for granted, li)e getting dressed or eating a meal, may be possible, but they may also ta)e more time and effort than usual. 5ealth and safety #an sometimes be a #on#ern ;for example, )no.ing .hether it is safe to #ross a street<. For older indi iduals, finding and )eeping a ,ob may require help from supporti e others. &he exa#t #ombination of #hallenges aries from one person to another, but it al.ays ;by definition< in ol es limitations in (oth intelle#tual and daily fun#tioning. "s a tea#her, you may hear more than one term for des#ribing students .ith intelle#tual disabilities. If the disability is mild, tea#hers sometimes refer to a student .ith the disability simply as a slo1 learner, parti#ularly if the student has no formal, spe#ial supports for the disability, su#h as a tea#hing assistant hired spe#ifi#ally to assist the student. If the disability is more mar)ed, then the student is more li)ely to be referred to either as ha ing an intellectual disability or as ha ing mental retardation. In this #hapter I primarily use the term intellectual disa(ility, be#ause it has fe.er negati e #onnotations .hile still des#ribing one )ey edu#ational aspe#t of the disability, #ogniti e impairment. Keep in mind, ho.e er, that a#tual intelle#tual disabilities are al.ays more than #ogniti e: they also in ol e #hallenges about adapting to e eryday li ing.
2e els of support for indi iduals .ith intelle#tual disabilities

Intelle#tual disabilities happen in different degrees or amounts, though most often are relati ely mild. &raditionally the intensity or =amount? of the disability .as defined by s#ores on a standardi/ed test of s#holasti# aptitude ;or =IQ test?<, .ith lo.er s#ores indi#ating more se ere disability. ;$ore about these tests in Chapter 7E.< 6e#ause of the insensiti ity of su#h tests to indi idualsJ daily so#ial fun#tioning, ho.e er, #urrent trends are to.ard defining intensities by the amount of support needed by the indi idual. &able 7E summari/es the most #ommonly used s#heme for this purpose, one #reated by the "meri#an "sso#iation on Intelle#tual and %e elopmental %isabilities ;""$+, E11E<. 2e els of support range from intermittent ;,ust o##asional or =as needed? for spe#ifi# a#ti ities< to %ervasive ;#ontinuous in all realms of li ing<. &able 7E: 2e els and areas of support for intelle#tual disabilities 'evel of support Duration of support ?re3uency of support Setting of support 2mount of professional assistance Intermittent Bnly as needed B##asional or infrequent 3sually only one or t.o ;e.g. 7-E #lasses or a#ti ities< B##asional #onsultation or monitoring by professional 2imited "s needed, but sometimes #ontinuing +egular, but frequen#y aries !e eral settings, but not usually all B##asional or regular #onta#t .ith professionals Extensi e 3sually #ontinuing +egular, but frequen#y aries !e eral settings, but not usually all +egular #onta#t .ith professionals at least on#e a .ee) *er asi e $ay be lifelong Frequent or Aearly all settings Continuous
8F
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense #ontinuous #onta#t and monitoring by professionals Source2 "meri#an "sso#iation on $ental +etardation, E11E: !#halo#) P 2u#)assen, E11F.
"s a #lassroom tea#her, the intelle#tual disabilities that you are most li)ely to see are the ones requiring the least support in your #lassroom. " student requiring only intermittent support may require spe#ial help .ith some learning a#ti ities or #lassroom routines, but not othersI he or she might need help .ith reading or putting on .inter #lothes, for example, but primarily on o##asions .hen there is pressure to do these things relati ely qui#)ly. !tudents requiring some.hat more support are li)ely to spend some.hat less time in your #lassroom and more time re#ei ing spe#ial help from other professionals, su#h as a spe#ial edu#ation tea#her, a spee#h and language spe#ialist, or an assistant to these professionals. &hese #ir#umstan#es ha e distin#t impli#ations for .ays of tea#hing these students.
&ea#hing students .ith intelle#tual disabilities

&here are many spe#ifi# te#hniques that #an help in tea#hing students .ith mild or moderate intelle#tual disabilities, but most #an be summari/ed into three more general strategies. &he first is to gi e more time and pra#ti#e than usualI the se#ond is to embed a#ti ities into the #ontext of daily life or fun#tioning .here possibleI and the third is to in#lude the #hild both in so#ial and in a#ademi# a#ti ities, rather than ,ust one or the other. 2et us loo) briefly at ea#h of these ideas.
Kiving more time and %ractice than usual

If a student has only a mild intelle#tual disability, he or she #an probably learn important fundamentals of the a#ademi# #urri#ulumLbasi# arithmeti#, for example, and basi# reading. 6e#ause of the disability, though, the student may need more time or pra#ti#e than most other students. 5e or she may be able to read many .ords by sight 3day, night, morning, afternoon, etc.), but need longer than other students to re#ogni/e and say them. Br the student may )no. that D N < P @, but need help applying this math fa#t to real ob,e#tsI you ;or a helper< might need to sho. the student that t.o %encils plus three %encils ma)e fi e %encils. 'i ing extra help ta)es time and perse eran#e, and #an try the patien#e of the student ;and of you, too<. &o deal .ith this problem, it may help to re.ard the student frequently for effort and su##esses .ith .ell-timed praise, espe#ially if it is fo#used on spe#ifi#, a#tual a#hie ementsI =Nou added that one #orre#tly?, may be more helpful than =NouJre a hard .or)er?, e en if both #omments are true. 'i ing appropriate praise is in turn easier if you set reasonable, =do-able? goals by brea)ing s)ills or tas)s into steps that the student is li)ely to learn .ithout be#oming o erly dis#ouraged. "t the same time, it is important not to insult the student .ith goals or a#ti ities that are too easy or by using #urri#ulum materials #learly intended for #hildren .ho are mu#h younger. !etting expe#tations too lo. a#tually depri es a student .ith an intelle#tual disability of rightful opportunities to learnLa serious ethi#al and professional mista)e ;6ogdan, E119<. In many #urri#ulum areas, fortunately, there already existing materials that are simplified, yet also appropriate for older students ;!nell, et al., E11@<. !pe#ial edu#ation tea#her-spe#ialists #an often help in finding them and in de ising effe#ti e .ays of using them.
8@
" 'lobal &ext
Ada%tive and functional s&ills

!tudents .ith intelle#tual disabilities present espe#ially #lear examples of a uni ersal dilemma of tea#hing: sin#e there is not enough time to tea#h e erything, ho. do .e #hoose .hat to tea#h> Bne basis for sele#ting a#ti ities is to relate learning goals to studentsJ e eryday li es and a#ti ities, ,ust as you .ould .ith all students. &his strategy addresses the other defining feature of mental retardation, the studentJs diffi#ulties .ith adapting to and fun#tioning in e eryday li ing. In tea#hing addition and subtra#tion, for example, you #an #reate examples about the pur#hasing of #ommon familiar ob,e#ts ;e.g. food< and about the need to ma)e or re#ei e #hange for the pur#hases. !imilar #onsiderations apply to learning ne. reading or oral language o#abulary. Instead of simply learning .ords in a =basi# reading? series ;or reading textboo)<, try en#ouraging the student to learn .ords that are espe#ially useful to the studentJs o.n life. Bften the student, not you yourself, is the best person to de#ide .hat these .ords a#tually are. "n adapti e, fun#tional approa#h #an help in nona#ademi# areas as .ell. In learning to read or =tell time? on a #lo#), for example, try fo#using initially on telling the times important to the student, su#h as .hen he or she gets up in the morning or .hen s#hools starts. "s you add additional times that are personally meaningful to the student, he or she .or)s gradually to.ards full )no.ledge of ho. to read the hands on a #lo#). E en if the full )no.ledge pro es slo. to de elop, ho.e er, the student .ill at least ha e learned the most useful #lo#) )no.ledge first.
.nclude the student deli(erately in grou% activities

&he )ey .ord here is inclusion2 the student should parti#ipate in and #ontribute to the life of the #lass as mu#h as possible. &his means that .here er possible, the student attends spe#ial e ents ;assemblies, field days< .ith the #lassI that if the #lass plays a group game, then the student .ith the disability is part of the gameI that if #lassmates do an assignment as a group, then if at all possible the student is assigned to one of the groups. &he #hanges resulting from these in#lusions are real, but #an be positi e for e eryone. Bn the one hand, they foster a##eptan#e and helpfulness to.ard the #hild .ith the disabilityI #lassmates learn that s#hool is partly about pro iding opportunities for e eryone, and not ,ust about e aluating or #omparing indi idualsJ s)ills. Bn the other hand, the #hanges #aused by in#lusion stimulate the student .ith the disability to learn as mu#h as possible from #lassmates, so#ially and a#ademi#ally. "mong other benefits, group a#ti ities #an gi e the student #han#es to pra#ti#e =belonging? s)illsLho. to greet #lassmates appropriately, or .hen and ho. to as) the tea#her a question. &hese are s)ills, I might add, that are benefi#ial for e eryone to learn, disabled or not. ;I dis#uss group .or) more thoroughly in Chapter 8, =Fa#ilitating #omplex thin)ing?<
9ehavioral disorders
(ehavioral disorders are a di erse group of #onditions in .hi#h a student #hroni#ally performs highly inappropriate beha iors. " student .ith this #ondition might see) attention, for example, by a#ting out disrupti ely in #lass. Bther students .ith the #ondition might beha e aggressi ely, be distra#tible and o erly a#ti e, seem anxious or .ithdra.n, or seem dis#onne#ted from e eryday reality. "s .ith learning disabilities, the sheer range of signs and symptoms defies #on#ise des#ription. 6ut the problemati# beha iors do ha e se eral general features in #ommon ;Kauffman, E11@I 5allahan P Kauffman, E119<:
they tend to be extreme they persist for extended periods of time
89

they tend to be so#ially una##eptable ;e.g. un.anted sexual ad an#es or andalism against s#hool property< they affe#t s#hool .or) they ha e no other ob ious explanation ;e.g. a health problem or temporary disruption in the family<
&he ariety among beha ioral disorders means that estimates of their frequen#y also tend to ary among states, #ities, and pro in#es. It also means that in some #ases, a student .ith a beha ioral disorder may be #lassified as ha ing a different #ondition, su#h as "%5% or a learning disability. In other #ases, a beha ioral problem sho.n in one s#hool setting may seem serious enough to be labeled as a beha ioral disorder, e en though a similar problem o##urring in another s#hool may be per#ei ed as serious, but not serious enough to deser e the label. In any #ase, a ailable statisti#s suggest that only about one to t.o per #ent of students, or perhaps less, ha e true beha ioral disordersLa figure that is only about one half or one third of the frequen#y for intelle#tual disabilities ;Kauffman, E11@<. 6e#ause of the potentially disrupti e effe#ts of beha ioral disorders, ho.e er, students .ith this #ondition are of spe#ial #on#ern to tea#hers. (ust one student .ho is highly aggressi e or disrupti e #an interfere .ith the fun#tioning of an entire #lass, and #hallenge e en the best tea#herJs management s)ills and patien#e.
!trategies for tea#hing students .ith beha ioral disorders

&he most #ommon #hallenges of tea#hing students .ith beha ioral disorders ha e to do .ith #lassroom managementLa topi# dis#ussed more thoroughly in Chapter : ;=Classroom management?<. &hree important ideas dis#ussed there, ho.e er, also deser e spe#ial emphasis here: ;7< identifying #ir#umstan#es that trigger inappropriate beha iors, ;E< tea#hing of interpersonal s)ills expli#itly, and ;0< dis#iplining a student fairly.
.dentifying circumstances that trigger ina%%ro%riate (ehaviors

%ealing .ith a disruption is more effe#ti e if you #an identify the spe#ifi# #ir#umstan#es or e ent that triggers it, rather than fo#using on the personality of the student doing the disrupting. " .ide ariety of fa#tors #an trigger inappropriate beha ior ;5eineman, %unlap, P Kin#aid, E11@<:
physiologi#al effe#tsLin#luding illness, fatigue, hunger, or side-effe#ts from medi#ations physi#al features of the #lassroomLsu#h as the #lassroom being too .arm or too #old, the #hairs being
ex#eptionally un#omfortable for sitting, or seating patterns that interfere .ith hearing or seeing
instru#tional #hoi#es or strategies that frustrate learningLin#luding restri#ting studentsJ #hoi#es unduly,
gi ing instru#tions that are un#lear, #hoosing a#ti ities that are too diffi#ult or too long, or pre enting students from as)ing questions .hen they need help 6y identifying the spe#ifi# ariables often asso#iated .ith disrupti e beha iors, it is easier to de ise .ays to pre ent the beha iors, either by a oiding the triggers if this is possible, or by tea#hing the student alternati e but quite spe#ifi# .ays of responding to the triggering #ir#umstan#e.
Teaching inter%ersonal s&ills e5%licitly

6e#ause of their history and beha ior, some students .ith beha ior disorders ha e had little opportunity to learn appropriate so#ial s)ills. !imple #ourtesies ;li)e remembering to say %lease or than&s) may not be totally un)no.n, but may be unpra#ti#ed and seem unimportant to the student, as might body language ;li)e eye #onta#t or sitting up to listen to a tea#her rather than slou#hing and loo)ing a.ay<. &hese s)ills #an be taught in .ays that do not ma)e them part of punishment, ma)e them seem =prea#hy?, or put a student to shame in front of #lassmates. %epending on the age or grade-le el of the #lass, one .ay is by reading or assigning boo)s and stories in .hi#h the #hara#ters model good so#ial s)ills. "nother is through games that require #ourteous language to su##eedI one that I re#all Educational Psychology 8: " 'lobal &ext
5. Students with special educational needs from my o.n s#hool days, for example, .as #alled =$other, $ay I>? ;!ulli an P !trang, E11E<. !till another is through programs that lin) an older student or adult from the #ommunity as a partner to the student at ris) for beha ior problemsI a prominent example of su#h a program in the 3nited !tates is 6ig 6rothers 6ig !isters of "meri#a, .hi#h arranges for older indi iduals to a#t as mentors for younger boys and girls ;&ierney, 'rossman, P +es#h, 788@I Ae.burn P !hiner, E119<. In addition, strategies based on beha iorist theory ha e pro ed effe#ti e for many students, espe#ially if the student needs opportunities simply to pra#ti#e so#ial s)ills that he has learned only re#ently and may still feel a.).ard or self-#ons#ious in using ;"lgo//ine P Nsseldy)e, E119<. !e eral beha iorist te#hniques .ere dis#ussed in Chapter E, in#luding the use of positi e reinfor#ement, extin#tion, generali/ation, and the li)e. In addition to these, tea#hers #an arrange for contingency contracts* .hi#h are agreements bet.een the tea#her and a student about exa#tly .hat .or) the student .ill do, ho. it .ill be re.arded, and .hat the #onsequen#es .ill be if the agreement is not fulfilled ;4il)inson, E110<. "n ad antage of all su#h beha iorist te#hniques is their pre#ision and #larity: there is little room for misunderstanding about ,ust .hat your expe#tations are as the tea#her. &he pre#ision and #larity in turn ma)es it less tempting or ne#essary for you, as tea#her, to be#ome angry about infra#tions of rules or a studentJs failure to fulfill #ontra#ts or agreements, sin#e the #onsequen#es tend already to be relati ely ob ious and #lear. =Keeping your #ool? #an be espe#ially helpful .hen dealing .ith beha ior that is by nature annoying or disrupting.
8airness in disci%lining
$any strategies for helping a student .ith a beha ior disorder may be spelled out in the studentJs individual educational %lan, su#h as dis#ussed earlier in this #hapter. &he plan #an ;and indeed is supposed to< ser e as a guide in de ising daily a#ti ities and approa#hes .ith the student. Keep in mind, ho.e er, that sin#e an IE* is a)in to a legal agreement among a tea#her, other professionals, a student and the studentJs parents, departures from it should be made only #autiously and #arefully, if e er. "lthough su#h departures may seem unli)ely, a student .ith a beha ior disorder may sometimes be exasperating enough to ma)e it tempting to use stronger or more s.eeping punishments than usual ;for example, isolating a student for extended times<. In #ase you are tempted in this dire#tion, remember that e ery IE* also guarantees the student and the studentJs parents due %rocess before an IE* #an be #hanged. In pra#ti#e this means #onsulting .ith e eryone in ol ed in the #aseLespe#ially parents, other spe#ialists, and the student himselfLand rea#hing an agreement before adopting ne. strategies that differ signifi#antly from the past. Instead of =in#reasing the olume? of punishments, a better approa#h is to &ee% careful records of the studentJs beha ior and of your o.n responses to it, do#umenting the reasonableness of your rules or responses to any ma,or disruptions. 6y ha ing the re#ords, #ollaboration .ith parents and other professionals #an be more produ#ti e and fair-minded, and in#rease othersJ #onfiden#e in your ,udgments about .hat the student needs in order to fit in more #omfortably .ith the #lass. In the long term, more effe#ti e #ollaboration leads both to better support and to more learning for the student ;as .ell as to better support for you as tea#herM<.
Physical disabilities and sensory impairments

" fe. students ha e serious physi#al, medi#al, or sensory #hallenges that interfere .ith their learning. 3sually, the physi#al and medi#al #hallenges are medi#al #onditions or diseases that require ongoing medi#al #are. &he sensory #hallenges are usually a loss either in hearing or in ision, or more rarely in both. 4hate er the spe#ifi# 8C
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense problem, it is serious enough to interfere .ith a#ti ities in regular #lassroom programs and to qualify the student for spe#ial edu#ational ser i#es or programs. *hysi#al #hallenges that are this serious are relati ely infrequent #ompared to some of the other spe#ial needs dis#ussed in this #hapter, though they are of #ourse important in the li es of the students and their families, as .ell as important for tea#hers to a##ommodate. Bnly about one per #ent of 3! students ha e a hearing loss serious enough to be ser ed by spe#ial programs for su#h students ;3nited !tates %epartment of Edu#ation, E11@<. Bnly about half that number ha e isual impairments that lead them to be ser ed by spe#ial programs. For t.o reasons, though, these figures are a bit misleading. Bne reason is that many more students ha e ision or hearing problems that are too mild ;su#h as .earing eyeglasses for =ordinary? nearsightedness<. "nother is that some students .ith serious sensory impairments may also ha e other disabilities and therefore not be #ounted in statisti#s about sensory impairments.
5earing loss
" #hild #an a#quire a hearing loss for a ariety of reasons, ranging from disease early in #hildhood, to diffi#ulties during #hildbirth, to rea#tions to toxi# drugs. In the #lassroom, ho.e er, the #ause of the loss is irtually irrele ant be#ause it ma)es little differen#e in ho. to a##ommodate a studentJs edu#ational needs. $ore important than the #ause of the loss is its extent. !tudents .ith only mild or moderate loss of hearing are sometimes #alled hearing im%aired or hard of hearingL only those .ith nearly #omplete loss are #alled deaf. "s .ith other sorts of disabilities, the milder the hearing loss, the more li)ely you are to en#ounter the student in a regular #lassroom, at least for part of the day.
Signs of hearing loss

"lthough determining .hether a student has a hearing loss may seem straightfor.ard ;=(ust gi e a hearing testM?<, the assessment is often not #lear #ut if it ta)es the studentJs daily experien#es into a##ount. " serious or profound hearing loss tends to be noti#ed relati ely qui#)ly and therefore often re#ei e spe#ial help ;or at least re#ei es additional diagnosis< sooner. $ild or moderate hearing loss is mu#h more #ommon, ho.e er, and is more li)ely to be o erloo)ed or mista)en for some other sort of learning problem ;!herer, E11F<. !tudents .ith a mild hearing loss sometimes ha e some.hat depressed ;or lo.ered< language and litera#y s)illsLthough not al.ays, and in any #ase so do some students ithout any loss. &hey may also seem not to listen or attend to a spea)er be#ause of ithout loss also fail to listen, though trouble in lo#ating the sour#e of soundsLbut then again, sometimes students
for entirely different reasons. !tudents .ith hearing loss may frequently gi e in#orre#t ans.ers to questionsLbut so do #ertain other students .ith normal hearing. In addition, partial hearing loss #an be hidden if the student tea#hes himself or herself to lip read, for example, or is #areful in #hoosing .hi#h questions to ans.er in a #lass dis#ussion. "nd so on. !ystemati# hearing tests gi en by medi#al or hearing spe#ialists #an resol e some of these ambiguities. 6ut e en they #an gi e a misleading impression, sin#e studentsJ true ability to manage in #lass depends on ho. .ell they #ombine #ues and information from the entire #ontext of #lassroom life. In identifying a student .ho may ha e a hearing loss, therefore, tea#hers need to obser e the student o er an extended period of time and in as many situations as possible. In parti#ular, loo) for a persistent #ombination of some of the follo.ing, but loo) for them o er repeated or numerous o##asions ;2u#)ner P Carter, E117<:
delayed language or litera#y s)ills, both .ritten and oral some ability ;usually partial< to read lips
88
" 'lobal &ext

less .orldly )no.ledge than usual be#ause of la#) of in ol ement .ith oral dialogue andKor delayed litera#y o##asionally, tenden#y to so#ial isolation be#ause of a.).ardness in #ommuni#ation
Teaching students
ith hearing loss
In prin#iple, ad,ustments in tea#hing students .ith hearing loss are relati ely easy to ma)e though they do require deliberate a#tions or #hoi#es by the tea#her and by fello. students. Interestingly, many of the strategies ma)e good ad i#e for tea#hing all studentsM
Ta&e advantage of the student+s residual hearing. !eat the student #lose to you if you are doing the tal)ing,
or #lose to )ey #lassmates if the students are in a .or) group. Keep #ompeting noise, su#h as unne#essary tal)ing or .hispering, to a minimum ;be#ause su#h noise is espe#ially distra#ting to someone .ith a hearing loss<. Keep instru#tions #on#ise and to-the-point. "s) the student o##asionally .hether he or she is understanding.
Ise visual cues li(erally. $a)e #harts and diagrams .here er appropriate to illustrate .hat you are saying.
2oo) dire#tly at the student .hen you are spea)ing to him or her ;to fa#ilitate lip reading<. 'esture and point to )ey .ords or ob,e#tsLbut .ithin reason, not ex#essi ely. *ro ide handouts or readings to re ie. isually the points that you ma)e orally.
.nclude the student in the community of the classroom. +e#ruit one or more #lassmates to assist in
=translating? oral #omments that the student may ha e missed. If the student uses "meri#an !ign 2anguage ;"!2< at home or else.here, then learn a fe. basi#, important signs of "!2 yourself ;=5ello? =than) you? =5o. are you>?<. &ea#h them to #lassmates as .ell.
Gisual impairment
!tudents .ith isual impairments ha e diffi#ulty seeing e en .ith #orre#ti e lenses. $ost #ommonly the isual diffi#ulty has to do .ith refra#tion ;the ability to fo#us<, but some students may also experien#e a limited field of ie. ;#alled tunnel vision) or be o erly sensiti e to light in general. "s .ith hearing loss, labels for impairment depend some.hat on the extent and nature of the problem. #egal (lindness means that the person has signifi#ant tunnel ision or else isual a#uity ;sharpness of ision< of E1KE11 or less, .hi#h means that he or she must be E1 feet a.ay from an ob,e#t that a person .ith normal eyesight #an see at E11 feet. #o vision means that a person has some ision usable for reading, but often needs a spe#ial opti#al de i#e su#h as a magnifying lens for doing so. "s .ith hearing loss, the milder the impairment, the more li)ely that a student .ith a ision problem .ill spend some or e en all the time in a regular #lass.
Signs of visual im%airment

!tudents .ith isual impairments often sho. some of the same signs as students .ith simple, #ommon nearsightedness. &he students may rub their eyes a lot, for example, blin) more than usual, or hold boo)s ery #lose to read them. &hey may #omplain of it#hiness in their eyes, or of heada#hes, di//iness, or e en nausea after doing a lot of #lose eye .or). &he differen#e bet.een the students .ith isual impairment and those .ith =ordinary? nearsightedness is primarily a matter of degree: the ones .ith impairment sho. the signs more often and more ob iously. If the impairment is serious enough or has roots in #ertain physi#al #onditions or disease, they may also ha e additional symptoms, su#h as #rossed eyes or s.ollen eyelids. "s .ith hearing loss, the milder forms ironi#ally #an be the most subtle to obser e and therefore the most prone to being o erloo)ed at first. For #lassroom tea#hers,
711
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense the best strategy may be to )eep tra#) of a student .hose physi#al signs happen in com(ination .ith learning diffi#ulties, and for .hom the #ombination persists for many .ee)s.
Teaching students
ith visual im%airment
In general, ad i#e for tea#hing students .ith mild or moderate isual impairment parallels the ad i#e for tea#hing students .ith hearing loss, though .ith ob ious differen#es be#ause of the nature of the studentsJ disabilities.
Ta&e advantage of the student+s residual vision. If the student still has some useful ision, pla#e him or her
.here he #an easily see the most important parts of the #lassroomL.hether that is you, the #hal)board, a ideo s#reen, or parti#ular fello. students. $a)e sure that the #lassroom, or at least the studentJs part of it, is .ell lit ;be#ause good lighting ma)es reading easier .ith lo. ision<. $a)e sure that handouts, boo)s and other reading materials ha e good, sharp #ontrast ;also helpful .ith a isual impairment<.
Ise non4visual information li(erally. +emember not to expe#t a student .ith isual impairment to learn
information that is by nature only isual, su#h as the layout of the #lassroom, the appearan#e of photographs in a textboo) or of story lines in a ideo. Explain these to the student someho.. 3se hands-on materials .here er they .ill .or), su#h as maps printed in three-dimensional relief or .ith different textures. If the student )no.s ho. to read 6raille ;an alphabet for the blind using patterns of small bumps on a page<, allo. him to do so.
.nclude the student in the community of the classroom. $a)e sure that the student is a##epted as .ell as
possible into the so#ial life of the #lass. +e#ruit #lassmates to help explain isual material .hen ne#essary. 2earn a bit of basi# 6raille and en#ourage #lassmates to do the same, e en if none of you e er be#ome as s)illed .ith it as the student himself or herself.
The value of including students #ith special needs

I ha e hinted at it already in this #hapter, but it is .orth saying again: in#luding students .ith disabilities in regular #lassrooms is aluable for e eryone #on#erned. &he students .ith disabilities themsel es tend to experien#e a ri#her edu#ational en ironment, both so#ially and a#ademi#ally. (ust as .ith ra#ial segregation, separate edu#ation is not equal edu#ation, or at least #annot be #ounted on to be equal. 6ut #lassmates of students .ith disabilities also experien#e a ri#her edu#ational en ironmentI they potentially meet a .ider range of #lassmates and to see a .ider range of edu#ational purposes in operation. &ea#hers also experien#e these benefits, but their programs often benefit in other .ays as .ell. &he most notable o erall benefit is an in#reased fo#us on di ersity among students: the presen#e of student .ith disabilities reminds e eryoneLstudents as .ell as tea#hersLthat e eryone is truly unique, .hether or not they are offi#ially designated as ha ing a disability. $any tea#hing strategies help students .ith disabilities pre#isely (ecause they are indi iduali/ed and differentiate among studentsD needs more than #on entional .hole-group tea#hing pra#ti#es. &he differentiation turns out to benefit all students, regardless of their le els of s)ill or readiness. E eryoneLnot ,ust students .ith disabilitiesLbenefits from #areful planning of ob,e#ti es, attention to indi idual differen#es among students, and establishment of a positi e so#ial atmosphere in the #lassroom. &his is su#h an important point that .e .ill return to it later, in Chapter 71, =*lanning Instru#tion.? 6ut at that point .e .ill frame the need for differentiated instru#tion around the needs of all students, .hate er their indi idual qualities.
717
" 'lobal &ext
Chapter summary
!in#e the 78:1s support for people .ith disabilities has gro.n signifi#antly, as refle#ted in the 3nited !tates by three )ey pie#es of legislation: the +ehabilitation "#t of 78:0, "meri#ans .ith %isabilities "#t of 7881, and the Indi iduals .ith %isabilities Edu#ation "#t ;I%E"<. &he support has led to ne. edu#ational pra#ti#es, in#luding alternati e assessments for students .ith disabilities, pla#ement in the least restri#ti e en ironment, and indi idual edu#ational plans. &here are se eral #ommonly used #ategories of disabilities. "lthough all of them ris) stereotyping or o ersimplifying #hildren, they #an also be helpful in gaining a preliminary understanding of their strengths and needs. For the purposes of edu#ation, the most frequent #ategory is learning disabilities, .hi#h is diffi#ulty .ith spe#ifi# aspe#ts of a#ademi# .or). &he high pre alen#e of learning disabilities ma)es this #ategory espe#ially ambiguous as a des#ription of parti#ular students. "ssistan#e for students .ith learning disabilities #an be framed in terms of beha iorist reinfor#ement, meta#ogniti e strategies, or #onstru#ti ist mentoring. "ttention defi#it hypera#ti ity disorder ;"%5%< is a problem in sustaining attention and #ontrolling impulses. It #an often be #ontrolled .ith medi#ations, but usually it is also important for tea#hers to pro ide a stru#tured en ironment for the student as .ell. Intelle#tual disabilities ;or mental retardation< are general limitations in #ogniti e fun#tioning as .ell as in the tas)s of daily li ing. Contemporary experts tend to #lassify indi iduals .ith these disabilities a##ording to the amount and frequen#y of support they need from others. &ea#hers #an assist these students by gi ing more time and pra#ti#e than usual, by in#luding adapti e and fun#tional s)ills in among the studentDs learning goals, and by finding .ays to in#lude the student in the daily life of the #lassroom. 6eha ioral disorders are #onditions in .hi#h students #hroni#ally perform highly inappropriate beha iors. !tudents .ith these problems present #hallenges for #lassroom management, .hi#h tea#hers #an meet by identifying #ir#umstan#es that trigger inappropriate beha iors, by tea#hing interpersonal s)ills expli#itly, and by ma)ing sure that punishments or dis#iplinary a#tions are fair and ha e been pre iously agreed upon. *hysi#al and sensory disabilities are signifi#ant limitations in health, hearing, or ision. &he signs both of hearing loss and of ision loss #an be subtle, but #an sometimes be obser ed o er a period of time. &ea#hing students .ith either a hearing loss or a ision loss primarily in ol es ma)ing use of the studentsJ residual sensory abilities and insuring that the student is in#luded in and supported by the #lass as .ell as possible.
Further resour#es
!e eral rele ant a#ti ities and learning resour#es #an be found at the spe#ial edu#ation page of teachinged%sych ;http:KKtea#hingedpsy#h..i)ispa#es.#omK!pe#ialVedu#ation<. In addition, ea#h of the .ebsites belo. represents an organi/ation fo#used on one parti#ular type of disability. Ea#h in#ludes free a##ess to ar#hi es of non-#urrent ,ournals and other publi#ations, as .ell as information about #onferen#es, professional training e ents, and politi#al ne.s rele ant to persons .ith disabilities. Q....ldanatl.orgR &his is primarily about learning disabilities, but also some.hat about "%5%. Q....add.orgR &his .ebsite is primarily about "%5%. Aote that its .ebsite name uses an older terminology for this disability, "%% ;no =5?< for attention deficit disorder ;.ith the term hy%eractivity). Q....shhh.orgR &his one primarily dis#usses about hearing loss. R....na h.orgS &his .ebsite is primarily about isual impairment.
71E
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense R....aamr.orgS &his one is primarily about intelle#tual disabilities or mental retardation.
Key terms
"lternati e assessment "meri#ans .ith %isabilities "#t of 7881 "ttention defi#it hypera#ti ity disorder ;"%5%< 6eha ioral disorders Contingen#y #ontra#ts 5earing loss Indi iduals .ith %isabilities Edu#ation "#t Indi idual edu#ational plan ;IE*< Intelle#tual disabilities 2east restri#ti e en ironment ;2+E< 2earning disabilities $ental retardation *ortfolio assessment +ehabilitation "#t of 78:0 +italin !ensory impairment &ransition planning Gisual impairment ith emotional distur(ance2 A %ractical guide for
+eferen#es
"lgo//ine, +. P Nsseldy)e, (. ;E119<. Teaching students every teacher. &housand Ba)s, C": Cor.in *ress. "meri#an "sso#iation on $ental +etardation. ;E11E<. !efinition, classification, and system of su%%orts, C= th edition. 4ashington, %.C.: "uthor. "meri#an *sy#hiatri# "sso#iation. ;E111<. !iagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, !SA4."4 TR 3te5t revision). "rlington, G": "meri#an *sy#hiatri# "sso#iation. 6i)len, !. P Klie.er, C. ;E119<. Constru#ting #ompeten#e: "utism, oi#e and the =disordered? body. .nternational Journal of .nclusive Education, C=;EK0<, 798-7CC. 6ogdan, %., "ttfield, +., 6issonnette, 2., 6la#)man, 2., 6ur)e, (., $u)opadhyay, &., P +ubin, !. ;Eds.<. ;E11@<. Autism2 The myth of the %erson alone. Ae. Nor): Ae. Nor) 3ni ersity *ress. 6ogdan, %. ;E119<. 4ho may be literate> %isability and resistan#e to the #ultural denial of #ompeten#e. American Educational Research Journal, ?<;E<, 790-78E. 6radley, $. P $andell, %. ;E11@<. Bppositional defiant disorder: " systemati# re ie. of the e iden#e of inter ention effe#ti eness. Journal of E5%erimental Criminology, <?;7<, 0F0-09@. 6reggin, *. ;7888<. *sy#hostimulants in the treatment of #hildren diagnosed .ith "%5%: +is)s and me#hanism of a#tion. .nternational Journal of Ris& and Safety in Aedicine, CD , 0-0@. Carothers, %. P &aylor, +. ;E110<. 3se of portfolios for students .ith autism. 8ocus on Autism and 9ther !evelo%mental !isorders, CB;E<, 7E7-7EF. Chamberlain, !. ;E11@<. +e#ogni/ing and responding to #ultural differen#es in the edu#ation of #ulturally and linguisti#ally di erse learners. .ntervention in School and Clinic, ?=;F<, 78@-E77. 'reen, !., %a is, C., Karshmer, E., $ar#h, *. P !traight, 6. ;E11@<. 2i ing stigma: &he impa#t of labeling, stereotyping, separation, status loss, and dis#rimination in the li es of indi iduals .ith disabilities and their families. Sociological .n)uiry, >@;E<, 78:-E7@. 5allahan, %. P Kauffman, (. ;E119<. E5ce%tional learners2 .ntroduction to s%ecial education, C=th edition. 6oston: "llyn P 6a#on. 5eineman, $., %unlap, '., P Kin#aid, %. ;E11@<. *ositi e support strategies for students .ith beha ioral disorders in regular #lassrooms. Psychology in the Schools, ?D;C<, ::8-:8F. Kauffman, (. ;E11@<. Characteristics of children ith emotional and (ehavioral disorders, B th edition. 3pper !addle +i er, A(: *earsonK$errill *renti#e 5all. Educational Psychology 710 " 'lobal &ext
5. Students with special educational needs Keller, 5. ;78@E<. The story of my life. Ae. Nor): %oubleday. Kelly, !. ;E11F<. "re tea#hers tra#)ed> Bn .hat basis and .ith .hat #onsequen#es. Social %sychology in education, >;7<, @@-:E. Koret/, %. P 6arton, K. ;E110KE11F<. "ssessing students .ith disabilities: Issues and e iden#e. Assessment and Evaluation, G;7 P E<, E8-91. 2u#)ner, (. 2. P Carter, K. ;E117<. Essential Com%etencies for Teaching Students Additional !isa(ilities. 7F9;7<, :-7@. Ae.burn, &. P !hiner, $. ;E119<. Noung people, mentoring and so#ial in#lusion. Oouth Justice, ;;7<, E0-F7. Ba)es, (. ;E11@<. Kee%ing trac&2 :o 3ni ersity *ress. Blfson, $., 'ameroff, $., $ar#us, !., P (ensen, *. ;E110<. Aational trends in the treatment of "%5%. American Journal of Psychiatry, C;=, 71:7-71::. *ubli# 2a. 80-77E, C: !tat. 08F ;!ept. E9, 78:0<. Reha(ilitation Act of CG><. 4ashington, %.C.: 3nited !tates 'o ernment *rinting Bffi#e. *ubli# 2a. 717-009, 71F !tat. 0E: ;(uly E9, 7881<. Americans %.C.: 3nited !tates 'o ernment *rinting Bffi#e. *ubli# 2a. 71C-FF9, 77C !tat. E9F: ;%e#ember 0, E11F<. .ndividuals ith !isa(ilities Education .m%rovement Act. 4ashington, %.C.: 3nited !tates 'o ernment *rinting Bffi#e. *ullin, %. ;E11@<. 4hen one si/e does not fit all: &he spe#ial #hallenges of a##ountability testing for students .ith disabilities. Oear(oo& of the $ational Society for Studies in Education, C=?;E<, 788. Quinn, $. ;E11E<. Changing antiso#ial beha ior patterns in young boys: a stru#tured #ooperati e learning approa#h. Education and treatment of young children, D@ ;F<, 0C1-08@. +obinson, 4. ;78CE<. Critical essays on Phillis Fheatley. 6oston: 5all *ublishers. +utter, $. ;E11F<. *ath.ays of geneti# influen#es in psy#hopathology. Euro%ean Revie , CD, 78-00. +utter, $. ;E11@<. $ultiple meanings of a de elopmental perspe#ti e on psy#hopathology. Euro%ean Journal of !evelo%mental Psychology, D;0<, EE7-E@E. !#halo#), +. P 2u#)asson, +. ;E11F<. "meri#an "sso#iation on $ental +etardationJs !efinition, Classification, S System of Su%%orts, C=th edition. Journal of Policy and Practice in .ntellectual !isa(ilities, C;0KF<, 709-7F9. !herer, $. ;E11F<. Connecting to learn2 Educational and assistive technology for %eo%le 4ashington, %.C.: "meri#an *sy#hologi#al "sso#iation. !nell, $., (anney, +., Elliott, (., 6e#), $., Colley, K., P 6urton, C. ;E11@<. Colla(orative teaming2 Teachers+ guide to inclusive %ractices. 6altimore, $%: 6roo)es *ublishing Co. !to.its#he), (., 2o itt, &., P +odrigue/, (. ;E117<. *atterns of #ollaboration in se#ondary edu#ation for youth .ith spe#ial needs: *rofiles of three high s#hools. Ir(an Education, <;;7<, 80-7EC. !ulli an, ". K. P !trang, 5. +. ;E11EKE110<. 6ibliotherapy in the Classroom: 3sing 2iterature to *romote the %e elopment of Emotional Intelligen#e. Childhood Education >G;E<, :F-C1. &ierney, (., 'rossman, (., P +es#h, A. ;788@<. Aa&ing a difference2 An im%act study of (ig (rothers (ig sisters. *hiladelphia: *ubli#K*ri ate Gentures. ith disa(ilities. ith !isa(ilities Act of CGG=. 4ashington, schools structure ine)uality, Dnd edition. Ae. 5a en, C&: Nale ith :earing #oss and
71F
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense 3nited !tates %epartment of Edu#ation. ;E11@<. D>th Annual Re%ort to Congress on the im%lementation of the .ndividuals ith !isa(ilities Education Act. 4ashington, %.C.: "uthor. 4esson, C. P King, +. ;7889<. *ortfolio assessment and spe#ial edu#ation students. Teaching E5ce%tional Children, DB;E<, FF-FC. 4est, 2., Corbey, !., 6oyer-!tephens, "., (ones, 6. $iller, +., P !ar)ees-4ir#ens)i, $. ;7888<. .ntegrating transition %lanning into the .EP %rocess, Dnd edition. "lexandria, G": Coun#il for Ex#eptional Children. 4ilens, &., $#6urnett, K., !tein, $., 2erner, $., !pen#er, &., P 4olrai#h, $. ;E11@<. "%5% treatment .ith on#e-daily methylphenidate. Journal of American Academy of Child S Adolescent Psychiatry, ??;71<, 717@-71E0. 4il)inson, 2. ;E110<. 3sing beha ioral #onsultation to redu#e #hallenging beha ior in the #lassroom. Psychology in the schools, ?>;0<, 711-71@. Nsseldy)e, (. P 6ielins)i, (. ;E11E<. Effe#t of different methods of reporting and re#lassifi#ation on trends in test s#ores for students .ith disabilities. E5ce%tional Children, ;B;E<, 7C8-E17.
71@
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:. Student motivation
$ot so long ago, a teacher named -ar(ara 8uller taught general science to elementary years students, and one of her units as a(out insects and s%iders. As %art of the unit she had students search for insects and s%iders around their o n homes or a%artments. They (rought the creatures to school 3safely in 'ars), ans ered a num(er of )uestions a(out them in their 'ournals, and eventually gave (rief oral re%orts a(out their findings to the class. The assignment seemed straightfor ard, (ut -ar(ara found that students res%onded to it in very different -ar(ara descri(ed their res%onses2 *. remem(er Jose couldn+t them in his 'ournal and had filmed it, he *Then there ait to get started, and couldn+t (ear to end the assignment either7 Every %ictures of ish . rote co%ious notes a(out them. At the end he gave the (est oral day he (rought more (ugs or s%iders0eventually D@ different &inds. Every day he dre ays. #oo&ing (ac&, here is ho
%resentation .+ve ever seen from a third4graderL he called it 6They :ave Is 9utnum(ered7+ . as so %oised and so enthusiastic. ho as al ays as #indsey0the one
anted to (e the (est in everything, regardless of (ugs and only as (ringing, and ho much. Fhen she sa
hether it interested her. She started off the one s%ider. -ut she &e%t an eye on ho much Jose
or& rather slo ly0'ust (rought in a fe
hat everyone else
as doing, though, she %ic&ed u% her %ace, li&e she
as trying to match his level. as 9K0.
E5ce%t that instead of (ringing a diversity of creatures as Jose really could not give her a (ad mar& for it0(ut it *And there
as doing, she 'ust (rought more and
more of the same ones0almost t enty dead house flies, as . recall7 :er %resentation as more concerned a(out her mar& than a(out the material. as To(ias0discouraging old To(ias. :e did the hat the (asic level of or&
asn+t as creative or insightful as Jose+s. . thin& she or&, (ut 'ust (arely. . noticed him asn+t cheating, . as
loo&ing a lot at other students+ insect collections and at their 'ournal entries. :e (elieve, 'ust figuring out acce%ta(le. :e also *And Toey2 she
as for the assignment0 hat he needed to do
sim%ly to avoid failing it. :e (rought in fe er (ugs than most others, though still a num(er that as all acce%ta(le, (ut not much more than that. as )uite a case7 . never &ne
rote shorter ans ers in his 'ournal and gave one of the shortest oral re%orts. .t hether to laugh or cry a(out her. She didn+t e5actly ith other students. So she as easily or& done, es%ecially a(out her 'ournal entries. Fhat ith the assignment
resist doing the assignment, (ut she certainly li&ed to chat distracted, and that cut do n on getting her really saved her0 hat &e%t her ended u% chatting %resentations. So &no hat Toey ith. The other t o
or& at a reasona(ly high level of )uality0 ere the t o girls she ere already %retty motivated to do a lot rite good 'ournal entries, and ma&e interesting oral ith them, the conversations often ended u% or&. . don+t
0create fine loo&ing (ug collections,
hen Toey attem%ted chitchat ould have done ithout them., 719
focusing on the assignment any ay7 She had them to than& for &ee%ing her mind on the
" 'lobal &ext
6. Student motivation "s 6arbara FullerJs re#olle#tions suggest, students assign arious meanings and attitudes to a#ademi# a#ti ities Lpersonal meanings and attitudes that arouse and dire#t their energies in different .ays. 4e #all these and their asso#iated energi/ing and dire#ting effe#ts by the term motivation* or sometimes motivation to learn. "s you .ill see, differen#es in moti ation are an important sour#e of di ersity in #lassrooms, #omparable in importan#e to differen#es in prior )no.ledge, ability, or de elopmental readiness. 4hen it #omes to s#hool learning, furthermore, studentsJ moti ations ta)e on spe#ial importan#e be#ause studentsJ mere presen#e in #lass is ;of #ourse< no guarantee that students really .ant to learn. It is only a sign that students li e in a so#iety requiring young people to attend s#hool. !in#e modern edu#ation is #ompulsory, tea#hers #annot ta)e studentsJ moti ation for granted, and they ha e a responsibility to insure studentsJ moti ation to learn. !omeho. or other, tea#hers must persuade students to .ant to do .hat students ha e to do any.ay. &his tas)Lunderstanding and therefore influen#ing studentsJ moti ations to learnLis the fo#us of this #hapter. Fortunately, as you .ill see, there are .ays of a##omplishing this tas) that respe#t studentsJ #hoi#es, desires, and attitudes. 2i)e moti ation itself, theories of it are full of di ersity. For #on enien#e in na igating through the di ersity, .e ha e organi/ed the #hapter around six ma,or theories or perspe#ti es about moti es and their sour#es. 4e #all the topi#s ;7< moti es as beha ior #hange, ;E< moti es as goals, ;0< moti es as interests, ;F< moti es as attributions about su##ess, ;@< moti es as beliefs about self-effi#a#y, and ;9< moti es as self-determination. 4e end .ith a perspe#ti e #alled e5%ectancy4value theory .hi#h integrates ideas from some of the other six theories, and partly as a result implies some additional suggestions for influen#ing studentsJ moti ations to learn in positi e .ays.
&otives as behavior
!ometimes it is useful to thin) of moti ation not as something =inside? a student dri ing the studentJs beha ior, but as e)uivalent to the studentJs out.ard beha iors. &his is the perspe#ti e of beha iorism, .hi#h .e dis#ussed in Chapter 7 ;=!tudent learning?< as a .ay to thin) about the learning pro#ess. In its most thorough-going form, beha iorism fo#uses almost #ompletely on .hat #an be dire#tly seen or heard about a personJs beha ior, and has relati ely fe. #omments about .hat may lie behind ;or =underneath? or =inside?< the beha ior. 4hen it #omes to moti ation, this perspe#ti e means minimi/ing or e en ignoring the distin#tion bet.een the inner dri e or energy of students, and the out.ard beha iors that express the dri e or energy. &he t.o are #onsidered the same, or nearly so. Equating the inner and the out.ard might seem to iolate #ommon sense. 5o. #an a student do something .ithout some sort of feeling or thought to ma)e the a#tion happen> "s .e .ill explain, this ery question has led to alternati e models of moti ation that are based on #ogniti e rather than beha iorist theories of learning. 4e .ill explain some of these later in this #hapter. 6efore getting to them, ho.e er, .e en#ourage you to #onsider the ad antages of a beha iorist perspe#ti e on moti ation. !ometimes the #ir#umstan#es of tea#hing limit tea#hersJ opportunities to distinguish bet.een inner moti ation and out.ard beha ior. Certainly tea#hers see plenty of student beha iorsLsigns of moti ation of some sort. 6ut the multiple demands of tea#hing #an limit the time needed to determine .hat the beha iors mean. If a student as)s a lot of questions during dis#ussions, for example, is he or she #urious about the material itself, or ,ust .anting to loo) intelligent in front of #lassmates and the tea#her> In a #lass .ith many students and a busy agenda, there may not be a lot of time for a tea#her to de#ide bet.een these possibilities. In other #ases, the problem may not be limited time as mu#h as #ommuni#ation diffi#ulties .ith a student. Consider a student .ho is still learning English,
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&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense or .ho belongs to a #ultural #ommunity that uses patterns of #on ersation that are unfamiliar to the tea#her, or .ho has a disability that limits the studentJs general language s)ill. In these #ases dis#erning the studentJs inner moti ations may ta)e more time and effort. It is important to in est the extra time and effort for su#h students, but .hile a tea#her is doing so, it is also important for her to guide and influen#e the studentsJ beha ior in #onstru#ti e dire#tions. &hat is .here beha iorist approa#hes to moti ation #an help.
Bperant #onditioning as a .ay of moti ating

&he most #ommon ersion of the beha ioral perspe#ti e on moti ation is the theory of o%erant conditioning asso#iated .ith 6. F. !)inner ;780C, 78@:<, .hi#h .e dis#ussed in Chapter 7 ;=2earning pro#ess?<. &he des#ription in that #hapter fo#used on beha ioral learning, but the same operant model #an be transformed into an a##ount of moti ation. In the operant model, you may re#all, a beha ior being learned ;the =operant?< in#reases in frequen#y or li)elihood be#ause performing it ma)es a reinfor#ement a ailable. &o understand this model in terms of moti ation, thin) of the li&elihood of response as the moti ation and the reinforcement as the moti ator. Imagine, for example, that a student learns by operant #onditioning to ans.er questions during #lass dis#ussions: ea#h time the student ans.ers a question ;the operant<, the tea#her praises ;reinfor#es< this beha ior. In addition to thin)ing of this situation as beha ioral learning, ho.e er, you #an also thin) of it in terms of motivation2 the li)elihood of the student ans.ering questions ;the moti ation< is in#reasing be#ause of the tea#herJs praise ;the moti ator<. $any #on#epts from operant #onditioning, in fa#t, #an be understood in moti ational terms. "nother one, for example, is the #on#ept of e5tinction, .hi#h .e defined in Chapter 7 as the tenden#y for learned beha iors to be#ome less li)ely .hen reinfor#ement no longer o##ursLa sort of =unlearning?, or at least a de#rease in performan#e of pre iously learned. &he de#rease in performan#e frequen#y #an be thought of as a loss of moti ation, and remo al of the reinfor#ement #an be thought of as remo al of the moti ator. &able 70 summari/es this .ay of reframing operant #onditioning in terms of moti ation, both for the #on#epts dis#ussed in Chapter 7 and for other additional #on#epts. &able 70: Bperant #onditioning as learning and as moti ation Concept Definition phrased in terms of learning Bperant 6eha ior that be#omes more li)ely be#ause of reinfor#ement +einfor#ement !timulus that in#reases li)elihood of a beha ior *ositi e reinfor#ement !timulus that increases li)elihood of a beha ior by to a situation Aegati e reinfor#ement !timulus that increases !timulus that moti ates &ea#her stops nagging student about late !timulus that moti ates by its %resenceI an !timulus that moti ates Definition phrased in terms of motivation 6eha ior that suggests an in#rease in moti ation !tudent listens to tea#herJs #omments during le#ture or dis#ussion &ea#her praises student for listening &ea#her ma)es en#ouraging remar)s about studentJs home.or) Classroom e#ample
being introduced or added =in#enti e?
the li)elihood of a beha ior by its a(sence or
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6. Student motivation by being removed or ta)en avoidance a.ay from a situation *unishment !timulus that decreases the li)elihood of a beha ior by being introduced or added to a situation Extin#tion +emo al of reinfor#ement for a beha ior !haping su##essi e approximations +einfor#ements for beha iors that gradually resemble ;approximate< a final goal beha ior +emo al of moti ating stimulus that leads to de#rease in moti ation !timuli that gradually shift moti ation to.ard a final goal moti ation &ea#her stops #ommenting altogether about studentJs home.or) &ea#her praises student for returning home.or) a bit #loser to the deadlineI gradually she praises for a#tually being on time Continuous reinfor#ement +einfor#ement that o##urs each time that an operant beha ior o##urs $oti ator that o##urs sign of moti ation o##urs &ea#her praises highly time he .or)s for fi e minutes .ithout interruption Intermittent reinfor#ement +einfor#ement that sometimes o##urs follo.ing an operant beha ior, but not on e ery o##asion $oti ator that o##urs sometimes .hen a beha ioral sign of moti ation o##urs, but not on e ery o##asion &ea#her praises highly a#ti e student sometimes .hen he .or)s .ithout interruption, but not e ery time !timulus that %resence &ea#her dedu#ts points home.or)
decreases moti ation by its for late home.or)
each time that a beha ioral a#ti e student for every
Cautions about beha ioral perspe#ti es on moti ation

"s .e mentioned, beha iorist perspe#ti es about moti ation do refle#t a #lassroom reality: that tea#hers sometimes la#) time and therefore must fo#us simply on studentsJ appropriate out.ard beha ior. 6ut there are nonetheless #autions about adopting this ie.. "n ob ious one is the ambiguity of studentsJ spe#ifi# beha iorsI .hat loo)s li)e a sign of one moti e to the tea#her may in fa#t be a sign of some other moti e to the student ;%e'randpre, E111<. If a student loo)s at the tea#her intently .hile she is spea)ing, does it mean the student is moti ated to learn, or only that the student is daydreaming> If a student in ariably loo)s a.ay .hile the tea#her is spea)ing, does it mean that the student is disrespe#tful of the tea#her, or that student #omes from a family or #ultural group .here avoiding eye #onta#t a#tually sho.s more respe#t for a spea)er than dire#t eye #onta#t> "nother #on#ern about beha iorist perspe#ti es, in#luding operant #onditioning, is that it leads tea#hers to ignore studentsJ #hoi#es and preferen#es, and to =play 'od? by ma)ing #hoi#es on their behalf ;Kohn, 7889<. 718
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense "##ording to this #riti#ism, the distin#tion bet.een =inner? moti es and expressions of moti es in out.ard beha ior does not disappear ,ust be#ause a tea#her ;or a psy#hologi#al theory< #hooses to treat a moti e and the beha ioral expression of a moti e as equi alent. !tudents usually do )no. .hat they .ant or desire, and their .ants or desires may not al.ays #orrespond to .hat a tea#her #hooses to reinfor#e or ignore. &his, in a ne. guise, is on#e again the issue of intrinsic ersus e5trinsic moti ation that .e dis#ussed in Chapter 7. "pproa#hes that are ex#lusi ely beha ioral, it is argued, are not sensiti e enough to studentsJ intrinsic, self-sustaining moti ations. "s .e pointed out in Chapter 7, there is truth to this allegation if a tea#her a#tually does rely on re.arding beha iors that she alone has #hosen, or e en if she persists in reinfor#ing beha iors that students already find moti ating .ithout external reinfor#ement. In those #ases reinfor#ements #an ba#)fire: instead of ser ing as an in#enti e to desired beha ior, reinfor#ement #an be#ome a reminder of the tea#herJs po.er and of studentsJ la#) of #ontrol o er their o.n a#tions. " #lassi# resear#h study of intrinsi# moti ation illustrated the problem ni#ely. In the study, resear#hers re.arded uni ersity students for t.o a#ti itiesLsol ing pu//les and .riting ne.spaper headlines Lthat they already found interesting. !ome of the students, ho.e er, .ere %aid to do these a#ti ities, .hereas others .ere not. 3nder these #onditions, the students .ho .ere paid .ere less li)ely to engage in the a#ti ities follo.ing the experiment than .ere the students .ho .ere not paid, e en though both groups had been equally interested in the a#ti ities to begin .ith ;%e#i, 78:7<. &he extrinsi# re.ard of payment, it seemed, interfered .ith the intrinsi# re.ard of .or)ing the pu//les. 2ater studies #onfirmed this effe#t in numerous situations, though they ha e also found #ertain #onditions .here extrinsi# re.ards do not redu#e intrinsi# re.ards. Extrinsi# re.ards are not as harmful, for example, if a person is paid =by the hour? ;i.e. by a flat rate< rather than pie#emeal ;by the number of items #ompleted< ;Cameron P *ier#e, 788FI Eisenberger P Cameron, 7889<. &hey also are less harmful if the tas) itself is relati ely .ell-defined ;li)e .or)ing math problems or playing solitaire< and high-quality performan#e is expe#ted at all times. !o there are still times and .ays .hen externally determined reinfor#ements are useful and effe#ti e. In general, ho.e er, extrinsi# re.ards do seem to undermine intrinsi# moti ation often enough that they need to be used sele#ti ely and thoughtfully ;%e#i, Koestner, P +yan, E117<. "s it happens, help .ith being sele#ti e and thoughtful #an be found in the other, more #ogniti ely oriented theories of moti ation. &hese use the goals, interests, and beliefs of students as .ays of explaining differen#es in studentsJ moti es and in ho. the moti es affe#t engagement .ith s#hool. 4e turn to these #ogniti ely oriented theories next, beginning .ith those fo#used on studentsJ goals.
&otives as goals
Bne .ay moti es ary is by the )ind of goals that students set for themsel es, and by ho. the goals support studentsJ a#ademi# a#hie ement. "s you might suspe#t, some goals en#ourage a#ademi# a#hie ement more than others, but e en moti es that do not #on#ern a#ademi#s expli#itly tend to affe#t learning indire#tly.
'oals that #ontribute to a#hie ement

4hat )inds of a#hie ement goals do students hold> Imagine three indi iduals, $aria, !ara, and 2indsay, .ho are ta)ing algebra together. $ariaJs main #on#ern is to learn the material as .ell as possible be#ause she finds it interesting and be#ause she belie es it .ill be useful to her in later #ourses, perhaps at uni ersity. 5ers is a mastery goal be#ause she .ants primarily to learn or master the material. !ara, ho.e er, is #on#erned less about algebra than about getting top mar)s on the exams and in the #ourse. 5ers is a performan#e goal be#ause she is fo#used primarily on loo)ing su##essfulI learning algebra is merely a ehi#le for performing .ell in the eyes of peers and Educational Psychology 771 " 'lobal &ext
6. Student motivation tea#hers. 2indsay, for her part, is primarily #on#erned about a oiding a poor or failing mar). 5ers is a performan#ea oidan#e goal or failure-a oidan#e goal be#ause she is not really as #on#erned about learning algebra, as $aria is, or about #ompetiti e su##ess, as !ara isI she is simply intending to a oid failure. "s you might imagine, mastery, performan#e, and performan#e-a oidan#e goals often are not experien#ed in pure form, but in #ombinations. If you play the #larinet in the s#hool band, you might .ant to impro e your te#hnique simply be#ause you en,oy playing as .ell as possibleLessentially a mastery orientation. 6ut you might also .ant to loo) talented in the eyes of #lassmatesLa performan#e orientation. "nother part of .hat you may .ish, at least pri ately, is to a oid loo)ing li)e a #omplete failure at playing the #larinet. Bne of these moti es may predominate o er the others, but they all may be present. $astery goals tend to be asso#iated .ith en,oyment of learning the material at hand, and in this sense represent an out#ome that tea#hers often see) for students. 6y definition therefore they are a form of intrinsic motivation. "s su#h mastery goals ha e been found to be better than performan#e goals at sustaining studentsJ interest in a sub,e#t. In one re ie. of resear#h about learning goals, for example, students .ith primarily mastery orientations to.ard a #ourse they .ere ta)ing not only tended to express greater interest in the #ourse, but also #ontinued to express interest .ell beyond the offi#ial end of the #ourse, and to enroll in further #ourses in the same sub,e#t ;5ara#)ie.i#/, et al., E11EI 4olters, E11F<. *erforman#e goals, on the other hand, imply e5trinsic motivation, and tend to sho. the mixed effe#ts of this orientation. " positi e effe#t is that students .ith a performan#e orientation do tend to get higher grades than those .ho express primarily a mastery orientation. &he ad antage in grades o##urs both in the short term ;.ith indi idual assignments< and in the long term ;.ith o erall grade point a erage .hen graduating<. 6ut there is e iden#e that performan#e oriented students do not a#tually learn material as deeply or permanently as students .ho are more mastery oriented ;$idgley, Kaplan, P $iddleton, E117<. " possible reason is that measures of performan#eLsu#h as test s#oresLoften re.ard relati ely shallo. memori/ation of information and therefore guide performan#e-oriented students a.ay from pro#essing the information thoughtfully or deeply. "nother possible reason is that a performan#e orientation, by fo#using on gaining re#ognition as the best among peers, en#ourages #ompetition among peers. 'i ing and re#ei ing help from #lassmates is thus not in the self-interest of a performan#e-oriented student, and the resulting isolation limits the studentJs learning.
'oals that affe#t a#hie ement indire#tly 8ailure4avoidant goals

"s .e mentioned, failure-a oidant goals by nature undermine a#ademi# a#hie ement. Bften they are a negati e byprodu#t of the #ompetiti eness of performan#e goals ;3rdan, E11F<. If a tea#her ;and sometimes also fello. students< put too mu#h emphasis on being the best in the #lass, and if interest in learning the material as su#h therefore suffers, then some students may de#ide that su##ess is beyond their rea#h or may not be desirable in any #ase. &he alternati eLsimply a oiding failureLmay seem .iser as .ell as more feasible. Bn#e a student adopts this attitude, he or she may undera#hie e more or less deliberately, doing only the minimum .or) ne#essary to a oid loo)ing foolish or to a oid serious #onfli#t .ith the tea#her. " oiding failure in this .ay is an example of self. handicappingLdeliberate a#tions and #hoi#es that the redu#e #han#es of su##ess. !tudents may self-handi#ap in a number of .aysI in addition to not .or)ing hard, they may pro#rastinate about #ompleting assignments, for example, or set goals that are unrealisti#ally high.
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Social goals
$ost students need and alue relationships, both .ith #lassmates and .ith tea#hers, and often ;though not al.ays< they get a good deal of positi e support from the relationships. 6ut the effe#ts of so#ial relationships are #omplex, and at times #an .or) both for and against a#ademi# a#hie ement. If a relationship .ith the tea#her is important and reasonably positi e, then the student is li)ely to try pleasing the tea#her by .or)ing hard on assignments ;%o.son P $#Inerney, E110<. Aote, though, that this effe#t is #loser to performan#e than masteryI the student is primarily #on#erned about loo)ing good to someone else. If, on the other hand, a student is espe#ially #on#erned about relationships .ith peers, the effe#ts on a#hie ement depend on the studentJs moti es for the relationship, as .ell as on peersJ attitudes. %esiring to be #lose to peers personally may lead a student to as) for help from, and gi e help to peersLa beha ior that may support higher a#hie ement, at least up to a point. 6ut desiring to impress peers .ith s)ills and )no.ledge may lead to the opposite: as .e already mentioned, the #ompetiti e edge of su#h a performan#e orientation may )eep the student from #ollaborating, and in this indire#t .ay redu#e a studentJs opportunities to learn. &he abilities and a#hie ement moti ation of peers themsel es #an also ma)e a differen#e, but on#e again the effe#ts ary depending on the #ontext. 2o. a#hie ement and moti ation by peers affe#ts an indi idualJs a#ademi# moti ation more in elementary s#hool than in high s#hool, more in learning mathemati#s than learning to read, and more if their is a .ide range of abilities in a #lassroom than if there is a more narro. range ;6ur)e P !ass, E119<. In spite of these #omplexities, so#ial relationships are alued so highly by most students that tea#hers should generally fa#ilitate them, though also )eep an eye on their nature and their #onsequent effe#ts on a#hie ement. "s .e explain further, many assignments #an be a##omplished produ#ti ely in groups, for example, as long as the groups are formed thoughtfullyI in that #hapter .e dis#uss some .ays of insuring that su#h groups are su##essful, su#h as by #hoosing group tas)s .isely and re#ogni/ing all membersJ #ontributions are fully as possible. +elationships #an also be supported .ith a#ti ities that in ol e students or adults from another #lass or from outside the s#hool, as often happens .ith s#hool or #ommunity ser i#e pro,e#ts. &hese #an pro ide #onsiderable so#ial satisfa#tion and #an sometimes be #onne#ted to #urrent #urri#ulum needs ;6utin, E11@<. 6ut the ma,ority of studentsJ so#ial #onta#ts are li)ely al.ays to #ome from studentsJ o.n initiati es .ith ea#h other in simply ta)ing time to tal) and intera#t. &he tea#herJs ,ob is to en#ourage these informal #onta#ts, espe#ially .hen they happen at times that support rather than interfere .ith learning.
En#ouraging mastery goals

E en though a degree of performan#e orientation may be ine itable in s#hool be#ause of the mere presen#e of #lassmates, it does not ha e to ta)e o er studentsJ a#ademi# moti ation #ompletely. &ea#hers #an en#ourage mastery goals in arious .ays, and should in fa#t do so be#ause a mastery orientation leads to more sustained, thoughtful learning, at least in #lassrooms, .here #lassmates may sometimes debate and disagree .ith ea#h other ;%arnon, 6utera, P 5ara#)ie.i#/, E119<. 5o. #an tea#hers do so> Bne .ay is to allo. students to #hoose spe#ifi# tas)s or assignments for themsel es, .here possible, be#ause their #hoi#es are more li)ely than usual to refle#t prior personal interests, and hen#e be moti ated more intrinsi#ally than usual. &he limitation of this strategy, of #ourse, is that students may not see some of the #onne#tions bet.een their prior interests and the #urri#ulum topi#s at hand. In that #ase it also helps for the tea#her to loo) for and point out the rele an#e of #urrent topi#s or s)ills to studentsJ personal interests and goals.
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6. Student motivation !uppose, for example, that a student en,oys the latest styles of musi#. &his interest may a#tually ha e #onne#tions .ith a .ide range of s#hool #urri#ulum, su#h as:
biology ;be#ause of the physiology of the ear and of hearing< physi#s or general s#ien#e ;be#ause of the nature of musi#al a#ousti#s< history ;be#ause of #hanges in musi#al styles o er time< English ;be#ause of relationships of musi#al lyri#s and themes .ith literary themes< foreign languages ;be#ause of #omparisons of musi# and songs among #ultures<
!till another .ay to en#ourage mastery orientation is to fo#us on studentsJ indi idual effort and impro ement as mu#h as possible, rather than on #omparing studentsJ su##esses to ea#h other. Nou #an en#ourage this orientation by gi ing students detailed feedba#) about ho. they #an impro e performan#e, or by arranging for students to #ollaborate on spe#ifi# tas)s and pro,e#ts rather than to #ompete about them, and in general by sho.ing your o.n enthusiasm for the sub,e#t at hand.
&otives as interests
In addition to holding different )inds of goalsL.ith #onsequent differen#es in a#ademi# moti ationLstudents sho. ob ious differen#es in le els of interest in the topi#s and tas)s of the #lassroom. !uppose that t.o high s#hool #lassmates, Fran) and (ason, both are ta)ing #hemistry, and spe#ifi#ally learning ho. to balan#e #hemi#al equations. Fran) finds the material boring and has to for#e himself to study itI as a result he spends only the time needed to learn the basi# material and to #omplete the assignments at a basi# le el. (ason, on the other hand, en,oys the #hallenges of balan#ing #hemi#al equations. 5e thin)s of the tas) as an intriguing pu//leI he not only sol es ea#h of them, but also #ompares the problems to ea#h other as he goes through them. Fran)Js learning is based on effort #ompared to (asonJs, .hose learning is based more fully on interest. "s the example implies, .hen students learn from interest they tend to de ote more attention to the topi# than if they learn from effort ;5idi P +enninger, E119<. &he finding is not surprising sin#e interest is another aspe#t of intrinsic motivationLenergy or dri e that #omes from .ithin . " distin#tion bet.een effort and interest is often artifi#ial, ho.e er, be#ause the t.o moti es often get blended or #ombined in studentsJ personal experien#es. $ost of us #an remember times .hen .e .or)ed at a s)ill that .e en,oyed and found interesting, but that also required effort to learn. &he #hallenge for tea#hers is therefore to dra. on and en#ourage studentsJ interest as mu#h as possible, and thus )eep the required effort .ithin reasonable boundsLneither too hard nor too easy.
!ituational interest ersus personal interest

!tudentsJ interests ary in ho. deeply or permanently they are lo#ated .ithin students. Situational interests are ones that are triggered temporarily by features of the immediate situation. 3nusual sights, sounds, or .ords #an stimulate situational interest. " tea#her might sho. an interesting image on the o erhead pro,e#tor, or play a brief bit of musi#, or ma)e a surprising #omment in passing. "t a more abstra#t le el, unusual or surprising topi#s of dis#ussion #an also arouse interest .hen they are first introdu#ed. ersonal interests are relati ely permanent preferen#es of the student, and are usually expressed in a ariety of situations. In the #lassroom, a student may ;or may not< ha e a personal interest in parti#ular topi#s, a#ti ities, or sub,e#t matter. Butside #lass, though, he or she usually has additional personal interests in parti#ular non-a#ademi# a#ti ities ;e.g. sports, musi#< or e en in parti#ular people ;a #elebrity, a friend .ho li es nearby<. &he non-a#ademi# personal interests may sometimes
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&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense #onfli#t .ith a#ademi# interestI it may be more interesting to go to the shopping mall .ith a friend than to study e en your most fa orite sub,e#t.
-enefits of %ersonal interest

In general, personal interest in an a#ademi# topi# or a#ti ity tends to #orrelate .ith a#hie ement related to the topi# or a#ti ity. "s you might suppose, a student .ho is truly interested is more li)ely to fo#us on the topi# or a#ti ity more fully, to .or) at it for longer periods, to use more thoughtful strategies in learningLand to en,oy doing so ;5idi, E117I 5idi P +enninger, E119<. !mall .onder that the student a#hie es moreM Aote, though, a persistent ambiguity about this benefit: it is often not #lear .hether personal interest leads to higher a#hie ement, or higher a#hie ement leads to stronger interest. Either possibility seems plausible. +esear#h to sort them out, ho.e er, has suggested that at least some of the influen#e goes in the dire#tion from interest to a#hie ementI .hen elementary students .ere gi en boo)s from .hi#h to learn about a ne. topi#, for example, they tended to learn more from boo)s .hi#h they #hose themsel es than from boo)s that .ere simply assigned ;+eynolds P !ymons, E117<. !o interest seemed to lead to learning. 6ut this #on#lusion does not rule out its #on erse, that a#hie ement may stimulate interest as .ell. "s (oe learns more about history, he steadily finds history more interestingI as $#Ken/ie learns more about biology, she gradually .ants to learn more of it.
!timulating situational interests

If a student has little prior personal interest in a topi# or a#ti ity, the tea#her is fa#ed .ith stimulating initial, situational interest, in hopes that the initial interest .ill gradually be#ome more permanent and personal. &here are a number of strategies for meeting this #hallenge:
It helps to in#lude surprises in your #omments and in #lassroom a#ti ities from time to time: tell students
fa#ts that are true but #ounter-intuiti e, for example, or demonstrate a s#ien#e experiment that turns out differently than students expe#t ;'uthrie, 4igfield, P 5umeni#), E119<.
It also helps to relate ne. material to studentsJ prior experien#es e en if their experien#es are not related to
a#ademi#s or to s#hool dire#tly. &he #on#epts of gra itation and a##eleration, for example, operate e ery time a ball is hit or thro.n in a softball game. If this #onne#tion is pointed out to a student .ho en,oys playing a lot of softball, the #on#epts #an ma)e #on#epts more interesting.
It helps to en#ourage students to respond to ne. material a#ti ely. 6y ha ing students tal) about the
material together, for example, students #an begin ma)ing their o.n #onne#tions to prior personal interests, and the so#ial intera#tion itself helps to lin) the material to their personal, so#ial interests as .ell.
A caution2 seductive details

E en though it is important to stimulate interest in ne. material someho., it is also possible to mislead or distra#t students a##identally by adding inappropriate, but stimulating features to ne. material ;'arner, et al., 788EI 5arp P $ayer, 788C<. %istra#tions happen a number of .ays, su#h as any of these among others:
deliberately telling ,o)es in #lass using #olorful illustrations or pi#tures adding interesting bits of information to a .ritten or erbal explanation
4hen .ell #hosen, all of these mo es #an indeed arouse studentsJ interest in a ne. topi#. 6ut if they do not really relate to the topi# at hand, they may simply #reate misunderstandings or pre ent students from fo#using on )ey material. "s .ith most other learning pro#esses, ho.e er, there are indi idual differen#es among students in Educational Psychology 77F " 'lobal &ext
6. Student motivation distra#tability, students .ho are struggling, and are more prone to distra#tion and misunderstanding than students .ho are already learning more su##essfully ;!an#he/ P 4iley, E119<. Bn balan#e the best ad i#e is probably therefore to use strategies to arouse situational interest, but to assess studentsJ responses to them #ontinually and as honestly as possible. &he )ey issue is .hether students seem to learn be#ause of stimulating strategies that you pro ide, or in spite of them.
&otives related to attributions

2ttributions are per#eptions about the #auses of su##ess and failure. !uppose that you get a lo. mar) on a test and are .ondering .hat #aused the lo. mar). Nou #an #onstru#t arious explanations forLma)e arious attributions aboutLthis failure. $aybe you did not study ery hardI maybe the test itself .as diffi#ultI maybe you .ere unlu#)yI maybe you ,ust are not smart enough. Ea#h explanation attributes the failure to a different fa#tor. &he explanations that you settle upon may refle#t the truth a##uratelyLor then again, they may not. 4hat is important about attributions is that they refle#t personal beliefs about the sour#es or #auses of su##ess and failure. "s su#h, they tend to affe#t moti ation in arious .ays, depending on the nature of the attribution ;4einer, E11@<.
2o#us, stability, and #ontrollability

"ttributions ary in three underlying .ays: lo#us, stability, and #ontrollability. 'ocus of an attribution is the lo#ation ;figurati ely spea)ing< of the sour#e of su##ess or failure. If you attribute a top mar) on a test to your ability, then the lo#us is internalL if you attribute the mar) to the testJs ha ing easy questions, then the lo#us is e5ternal. &he stability of an attribution is its relati e permanen#e. If you attribute the mar) to your ability, then the sour#e of su##ess is relati ely sta(le0by definition, ability is a relati ely lasting quality. If you attribute a top mar) to the effort you put in to studying, then the sour#e of su##ess is unsta(le0effort #an ary and has to be rene.ed on ea#h o##asion or else it disappears. &he controllability of an attribution is the extent to .hi#h the indi idual #an influen#e it. If you attribute a top mar) to your effort at studying, then the sour#e of su##ess is relati ely controlla(le0you #an influen#e effort simply by de#iding ho. mu#h to study. 6ut if you attribute the mar) to simple lu#), then the sour#e of the su##ess is uncontrolla(le0there is nothing that #an influen#e random #han#e. "s you might suspe#t, the .ay that these attributions #ombine affe#ts studentsJ a#ademi# moti ations in ma,or .ays. It usually helps both moti ation and a#hie ement if a student attributes a#ademi# su##esses and failures to fa#tors that are internal and #ontrollable, su#h as effort or a #hoi#e to use parti#ular learning strategies ;%.e#), E111<. "ttributing su##esses to fa#tors that are internal but stable or #ontrollable ;li)e ability<, on the other hand, is both a blessing and a #urse: sometimes it #an #reate optimism about prospe#ts for future su##ess ;=I al.ays do .ell?<, but it #an also lead to indifferen#e about #orre#ting mista)es ;%.e#), E119<, or e en #reate pessimism if a student happens not to perform at the a##ustomed le el ;=$aybe IJm not as smart as I thought?<. 4orst of all for a#ademi# moti ation are attributions, .hether stable or not, related to external fa#tors. 6elie ing that performan#e depends simply on lu#) ;=&he tea#her .as in a bad mood .hen mar)ing?< or on ex#essi e diffi#ulty of material remo es in#enti e for a student to in est in learning. "ll in all, then, it seems important for tea#hers to en#ourage internal, stable attributions about su##ess.
Influen#ing studentsJ attributions

5o. #an they do so> Bne .ay or another, the effe#ti e strategies in ol e framing tea#hersJ o.n explanations of su##ess and failure around internal, #ontrollable fa#tors. Instead of telling a student: ='ood .or)M NouJre smartM?, 77@
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense try saying: ='ood .or)M Nour effort really made a differen#e, didnJt it>? If a student fails, instead of saying,=&oo badM &his material is ,ust too hard for you,? try saying, =2etJs find a strategy for pra#ti#ing this more, and then you #an try again.? In both #ases the first option emphasi/es un#ontrollable fa#tors ;effort, diffi#ulty le el<, and the se#ond option emphasi/es internal, #ontrollable fa#tors ;effort, use of spe#ifi# strategies<. !u#h attributions .ill only be #on in#ing, ho.e er, if tea#hers pro ide appropriate #onditions for students to learnL#onditions in .hi#h studentsJ efforts really do pay off. &here are three #onditions that ha e to be in pla#e in parti#ular. First, a#ademi# tas)s and materials a#tually ha e to be at about the right le el of diffi#ulty. If you gi e problems in ad an#ed #al#ulus to a first-grade student, the student .ill not only fail them but also be ,ustified in attributing the failure to an external fa#tor, tas) diffi#ulty. If assignments are assessed in .ays that produ#e highly ariable, unreliable mar)s, then students .ill rightly attribute their performan#e to an external, unstable sour#e: lu#). 6oth #ir#umstan#es .ill interfere .ith moti ation. !e#ond, tea#hers also need to be ready to gi e help to indi iduals .ho need itLe en if they belie e that an assignment is easy enough or #lear enough that students should not need indi idual help. +eadiness to help is al.ays essential be#ause it is often hard to )no. in ad an#e exa#tly ho. hard a tas) .ill pro e to be for parti#ular students. 4ithout assistan#e, a tas) that pro es diffi#ult initially may remain diffi#ult indefinitely, and the student .ill be tempted to ma)e unprodu#ti e, though #orre#t, attributions about his or her failure ;=I .ill ne er understand this?, =IJm not smart enough?, or =It doesnJt matter ho. hard I study?<. &hird, tea#hers need to remember that abilityLusually #onsidered a relati ely stable fa#torLoften a#tually #hanges incrementally o er the long term. +e#ogni/ing this fa#t is one of the best .ays to bring about a#tual in#reases in studentsJ abilities ;6la#).ell, &r/nie.s)i, P %.e#), E11:I !#hun), *intri#h, P $eese, E11C<. " middleyears student might play the trumpet in the s#hool band at a high le el of ability, but this ability a#tually refle#ts a lot of pre ious effort and a gradual in#rease in ability. " se#ond grade student .ho reads fluently, in this sense may ha e high #urrent ability to readI but at some point in the distant past that same student #ould not read as .ell, and e en further ba#) he may not ha e been able to read at all. &he in#reases in ability ha e happened at least in part be#ause of effort. 4hile these ideas may seem ob ious, they #an easily be forgotten in the #lassroom be#ause effort and ability e ol e a##ording to ery different time frames. Effort and its results appear relati ely immediatelyI a student expends effort this .ee), this day, or e en at this ery moment, and the effort ;if not the results< are isible right a.ay. 6ut ability may ta)e longer to sho. itselfI a student often de elops it only o er many .ee)s, months, or years.
&otivation as self;efficacy
In addition to being influen#ed by their goals, interests, and attributions, studentsJ moti es are affe#ted by s%ecific beliefs about the studentJs personal #apa#ities. In self.efficacy theory the beliefs be#ome a primary, expli#it explanation for moti ation ;6andura, 78::, 78C9, 788:<. Self.efficacy is the belief that you are #apable of #arrying out a spe#ifi# tas) or of rea#hing a spe#ifi# goal. Aote that the belief and the a#tion or goal are s%ecific. !elfeffi#a#y is a belief that you #an .rite an a##eptable term paper, for example, or repair an automobile, or ma)e friends .ith the ne. student in #lass. &hese are relati ely spe#ifi# beliefs and tas)s. !elf-effi#a#y is not about .hether you belie e that you are intelligent in general, .hether you al.ays li)e .or)ing .ith me#hani#al things, or thin) that you are generally a li)eable person. &hese more general ,udgments are better regarded as arious mixtures of self4conce%ts ;beliefs about general personal identity< or of self4esteem ;e aluations of identity<. &hey
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6. Student motivation are important in their o.n right, and sometimes influen#e moti ation, but only indire#tly ;6ong P !)aal i), E11F<. !elf-effi#a#y beliefs, furthermore, are not the same as =true? or do#umented s)ill or ability. &hey are self4 #onstru#ted, meaning that they are personally de eloped per#eptions. &here #an sometimes therefore be dis#repan#ies bet.een a personJs self-effi#a#y beliefs and the personJs abilities. Nou #an belie e that you #an .rite a good term paper, for example, .ithout a#tually being able to do so, and i#e ersa: you #an belie e yourself in#apable of .riting a paper, but dis#o er that you are in fa#t able to do so. In this .ay self-effi#a#y is li)e the e eryday idea of confidence, ex#ept that it is defined more pre#isely. "nd as .ith #onfiden#e, it is possible to ha e either too mu#h or too little self-effi#a#y. &he optimum le el seems to be either at or slightly abo e true #apa#ity ;6andura, 788:<. "s .e indi#ate belo., large dis#repan#ies bet.een self-effi#a#y and ability #an #reate moti ational problems for the indi idual.
Effe#ts of self-effi#a#y on studentsJ beha ior

!elf-effi#a#y may sound li)e a uniformly desirable quality, but resear#h as .ell as tea#hersJ experien#e suggests that its effe#ts are a bit more #ompli#ated than they first appear. !elf-effi#a#y has three main effe#ts, ea#h of .hi#h has both a =dar)? or undesirable side and a positi e or desirable side.
Choice of tas&s
&he first effe#t is that self-effi#a#y ma)es students more .illing to #hoose tas)s .here they already feel #onfident of su##eeding. &his effe#t is almost ine itable, gi en the definition of the #on#ept of self-effi#a#y, it has also been supported by resear#h on self-effi#a#y beliefs ;*a,ares P !#hun), E117<. For tea#hers, the effe#t on #hoi#e #an be either .el#ome or not, depending on #ir#umstan#es. If a student belie es that he or she #an sol e mathemati#al problems, then the student is more li)ely to attempt the mathemati#s home.or) that the tea#her assigns. 3nfortunately the #on erse is also true. If a student belie es that he or she is in#apable of math, then the student is less li)ely to attempt the math home.or) ;perhaps telling himself, =4hatJs the use of trying>?<, regardless of the studentJs a#tual ability in math. !in#e self-effi#a#y is self-#onstru#ted, furthermore, it is also possible for students to mis#al#ulate or misper#ei e their true s)ill, and the misper#eptions themsel es #an ha e #omplex effe#ts on studentsJ moti ations. From a tea#herJs point of ie., all is .ell e en if students o erestimate their #apa#ity but a#tually do su##eed at a rele ant tas) any.ay, or if they underestimate their #apa#ity, yet dis#o er that they can su##eed and raise their self-effi#a#y beliefs as a result. "ll may not be .ell, though, if students do not belie e that they #an su##eed and therefore do not e en try, or if students o erestimate their #apa#ity by a .ide margin, but are disappointed unexpe#tedly by failure and lo.er their self-effi#a#y beliefs.
Persistence at tas&s
" se#ond effe#t of high self-effi#a#y is to in#rease a persisten#e at rele ant tas)s. If you belie e that you #an sol e #ross.ord pu//les, but en#ounter one that ta)es longer than usual, then you are more li)ely to .or) longer at the pu//le until you ;hopefully< really do sol e it. &his is probably a desirable beha ior in many situations, unless the persisten#e happens to interfere .ith other, more important tas)s ;.hat if you should be doing home.or) instead of .or)ing on #ross.ord pu//les><. If you happen to ha e lo. self-effi#a#y for #ross.ords, on the other hand, then you are more li)ely to gi e up early on a diffi#ult pu//le. 'i ing up early may often be undesirable be#ause it depri es you of a #han#e to impro e your s)ill by persisting. &hen again ;on the third hand><, the #onsequent la#) of su##ess be#ause of gi ing up may pro ide a useful in#enti e to impro e your #ross.ord s)ills. "nd again, 77:
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense misper#eptions of #apa#ity ma)e a differen#e. B erestimating your #apa#ity by a lot ;ex#essi ely high self-effi#a#y< might lead you not to prepare for or fo#us on a tas) properly, and thereby impair your performan#e. !o as .ith #hoosing tas)s, the effe#ts of self-effi#a#y ary from one indi idual to another and one situation to another. &he tea#herJs tas) is therefore t.o-fold: first, to dis#ern the ariations, and se#ond, to en#ourage the positi e selfeffi#a#y beliefs. &able 7F offers some additional ad i#e about ho. to do this. &able 7F: 4ays of en#ouraging self-effi#a#y beliefs Strategy 7. !et goals .ith students, and get a #ommitment from them to rea#h the goals. "#ample of 1hat the teacher might say =6y the end of the month, I .ant you to )no. all of the times table up to E@ x E@. Can I #ount on you to do that>? E. En#ourage students to #ompare their performan#e .ith their o.n pre ious performan#e, not .ith other students. 0. *oint out lin)s bet.een effort and impro ement. =I sa. you studying for this test more this .ee). Ao .onder you did better this timeM? F. In gi ing feedba#) about performan#e, fo#us on information, not e aluati e ,udgments. =*art 7 of the lab .rite-up .as ery detailed, ,ust as the assignment as)ed. *art E has a lot of good ideas in it, but it needs to be more detailed and stated more expli#itly.? @. *oint out that in#reases in )no.ledge or s)ill happen gradually by sustained effort, not be#ause of inborn ability. =E ery time I read another one of your essays, I see more good ideas than the last time. &hey are so mu#h more #omplete than .hen you started the year.? =Compare that dra.ing against the one that you made last semester. I thin) youJll find impro ementsM?
Res%onse to failure
5igh self-effi#a#y for a tas) not only in#reases a personJs persisten#e at the tas), but also impro es their ability to #ope .ith stressful #onditions and to re#o er their moti ation follo.ing outright failures. !uppose that you ha e t.o assignmentsLan essay and a s#ien#e lab reportLdue on the same day, and this #ir#umstan#e promises to ma)e your life he#ti# as you approa#h the deadline. Nou .ill #ope better .ith the stress of multiple assignments if you already belie e yourself #apable of doing both of the tas)s, than if you belie e yourself #apable of doing ,ust one of them or ;espe#ially< of doing neither. Nou .ill also re#o er better in the unfortunate e ent that you end up .ith a poor grade on one or e en both of the tas)s. &hat is the good ne.s. &he bad ne.s, at least from a tea#herJs point of ie., is that the same resilien#e #an sometimes also ser e non-a#ademi# and non-s#hool purposes. 5o. so> !uppose, instead of t.o s#hool assignments due on the same day, a student has only one s#hool assignment due, but also holds a part-time e ening ,ob as a ser er in a lo#al restaurant. !uppose, further, that the student has high self-effi#a#y for both of these tas)sI he belie es, in other .ords, that he is #apable of #ompleting the assignment as .ell as #ontinuing to .or) at the ,ob.
77C
" 'lobal &ext
6. Student motivation &he result of su#h resilient beliefs #an easily be a student .ho de otes less attention to s#hool .or) than ideal, and .ho e en ends up .ith a lo er grade on the assignment than he or she is #apable of.
2earned helplessness and self-effi#a#y

If a personJs sense of self-effi#a#y is ery lo., he or she #an de elop learned helplessness* a per#eption of #omplete lac& of #ontrol in mastering a tas). &he attitude is similar to depression, a per asi e feeling of apathy and a belief that effort ma)es no differen#e and does not lead to su##ess. 2earned helplessness .as originally studied from the beha iorist perspe#ti e of #lassi#al and operant #onditioning by the psy#hologist $artin !eligman ;788@<. &he studies used a some.hat =gloomy? experimental pro#edure in .hi#h an animal, su#h as a rat or a dog, .as repeatedly sho#)ed in a #age in a .ay that pre ented the animal from es#aping the sho#)s. In a later phase of the pro#edure, #onditions .ere #hanged so that the animal #ould a oid the sho#)s by merely mo ing from one side of the #age to the other. Net frequently they did not bother to do soM !eligman #alled this beha ior learned hel%lessness. In people, learned helplessness leads to #hara#teristi# .ays of dealing .ith problems. &hey tend to attribute the sour#e of a problem to themsel es, to generali/e the problem to many aspe#ts of life, and to see the problem as lasting or permanent. $ore optimisti# indi iduals, in #ontrast, are more li)ely to attribute a problem to outside sour#es, to see it as spe#ifi# to a parti#ular situation or a#ti ity, and to see it as temporary or time-limited. Consider, for example, t.o students .ho ea#h fail a test. &he one .ith a lot of learned helplessness is more li)ely to explain the failure by saying something li)e: =IJm stupidI I ne er perform .ell on any s#hool.or), and I ne er .ill perform .ell at it.? &he other, more optimisti# student is more li)ely to say something li)e: =&he tea#her made the test too hard this time, so the test doesnJt pro e anything about ho. I .ill do next time or in other sub,e#ts.? 4hat is note.orthy about these differen#es in per#eption is ho. mu#h the more optimisti# of these perspe#ti es resembles high self-effi#a#y and ho. mu#h learned helplessness seems to #ontradi#t or differ from it. "s already noted, high self-effi#a#y is a strong belief in oneJs #apa#ity to #arry out a s%ecific tas) su##essfully. 6y definition therefore self-effi#a#y fo#uses attention on a temporary or time-limited a#ti ity ;the tas)<, e en though the #ause of su##essful #ompletion ;oneself< is =internal?. &ea#hers #an minimi/e learned helplessness in students, therefore, by en#ouraging their self-effi#a#y beliefs. &here are se eral .ays of doing this, as .e explain next.
!our#es of self-effi#a#y beliefs

*sy#hologists .ho study self-effi#a#y ha e identified four ma,or sour#es of self-effi#a#y beliefs ;*a,ares P !#hun), E117, E11E<. In order of importan#e they are ;7< prior experien#es of mastering tas)s, ;E< .at#hing othersJ mastering tas)s, ;0< messages or =persuasion? from others, and ;F< emotions related to stress and dis#omfort. Fortunately the first three #an be influen#ed by tea#hers dire#tly, and e en the fourth #an sometimes be influen#ed indire#tly by appropriate interpreti e #omments from the tea#her or others.
Prior e5%eriences of mastery

Aot surprisingly, past su##esses at a tas) in#rease studentsJ beliefs that they .ill su##eed again in the future. &he impli#ation of this basi# fa#t means that tea#hers need to help students build a history of su##esses. 4hether they are math problems, reading assignments, or athleti# a#ti ities, tas)s ha e to end .ith su##ess more often than .ith failure. Aote, though, that the su##esses ha e to represent mastery that is genuine or #ompeten#e that is truly authenti#. !u##ess at tas)s that are tri ial or irrele ant do not impro e self-effi#a#y beliefs, nor does praise for su##esses that a student has not really had ;Eri)son, 789CK788F<. 778
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense "s a pra#ti#al matter, #reating a genuine history of su##ess is most #on in#ing if tea#hers also .or) to broaden a studentJs ision of =the past?. Nounger students ;elementary-age< in parti#ular ha e relati ely short or limited ideas of .hat #ounts as =past experien#e?I they may go ba#) only a fe. o##asions .hen forming impressions of .hether they #an su##eed again in the future ;E##les, et al., 788C<. Blder students ;se#ondary s#hool< gradually de elop longer ie.s of their personal =pasts?, both be#ause of impro ements in memory and be#ause of a##umulating a personal history that is truly longer. &he #hallenge for .or)ing .ith any age, ho.e er, is to insure that students base self-effi#a#y beliefs on all rele ant experien#es from their pasts, not ,ust on sele#ted or re#ent experien#es.
Fatching others+ e5%eriences of mastery

" se#ond sour#e of effi#a#y beliefs #omes from vicarious e5%erience of mastery, or obser ing othersJ su##esses ;!#hun) P -immerman, 788:<. !imply seeing someone else su##eed at a tas), in other .ords, #an #ontribute to belie ing that you, too, #an su##eed. &he effe#t is stronger .hen the obser er la#)s experien#e .ith the tas) and therefore may be unsure of his or her o.n ability. It is also stronger .hen the model is someone respe#ted by the obser er, su#h as a studentJs tea#her, or a peer .ith generally #omparable ability. E en under these #onditions, though, i#arious experien#e is not as influential as dire#t experien#e. &he reasons are not hard to imagine. !uppose, for example, you .itness both your tea#her and a respe#ted friend su##eed at singing a fa orite tune, but you are unsure .hether you personally #an sing. In that #ase you may feel en#ouraged about your o.n potential, but are li)ely still to feel some.hat un#ertain of your o.n effi#a#y. If on the other hand you do not .itness othersJ singing, but you ha e a history of singing .ell yourself, it is a different story. In that #ase you are li)ely to belie e in your effi#a#y, regardless of ho. others perform. "ll of .hi#h suggests that to a modest extent, tea#hers may be able to enhan#e studentsJ self-effi#a#y by modeling su##ess at a tas) or by pointing out #lassmates .ho are su##essful. &hese strategies #an .or) be#ause they not only sho. ho. to do a tas), but also #ommuni#ate a more fundamental message, the fa#t that the tas) can in fa#t be done. If students are learning a diffi#ult arithmeti# pro#edure, for example, you #an help by demonstrating the pro#edure, or by pointing out #lassmates .ho are doing it. Aote, though, that i#arious mastery is helpful only if ba#)ed up .ith real su##esses performed by the students themsel es. It is also helpful only if the =model #lassmates? are per#ei ed as truly #omparable in ability. B eruse of i#arious models, espe#ially in the absen#e of real su##ess by learners, #an #ause learners to disqualify a modelJs su##essI students may simply de#ide that the model is =out of their league? in s)ills and is therefore irrele ant to ,udging their o.n potential.
Social messages and %ersuasion

" third sour#e of effi#a#y beliefs are en#ouragements, both implied and stated, that persuade a person of his or her #apa#ity to do a tas). *ersuasion does not #reate high effi#a#y by itself, but it often in#reases or supports it .hen #oupled .ith either dire#t or i#arious experien#e, espe#ially .hen the persuasion #omes from more than one person ;'oddard, 5oy, P 5oy, E11F<. For tea#hers, this suggests t.o things. &he first, of #ourse, is that en#ouragement #an moti ate students, espe#ially .hen it is fo#used on a#hie able, spe#ifi# tas)s. It #an be moti ating to say things li)e: =I thin) you #an do it? or =IJ e seen you do this before, so I )no. that you #an do it again?. 6ut the se#ond impli#ation is that tea#hers should arrange .here er possible to support their en#ouragement by designing tas)s at hand that are in fa#t a#hie able by the student. !tri)ing a balan#e of en#ouragement and tas) diffi#ulty may seem straightfor.ard, but sometimes it #an be #hallenging be#ause students #an sometimes per#ei e tea#hersJ #omments and tas)s quite Educational Psychology 7E1 " 'lobal &ext
6. Student motivation differently from ho. tea#hers intend. 'i ing ex#essi e amounts of detailed help, for example, may be intended as support for a student, but be ta)en as a la#) of #onfiden#e in the studentJs ability to do the tas) independently.
Emotions related to success, stress or discomfort

&he pre ious three sour#es of effi#a#y beliefs are all rather #ogniti e or =thin)ing oriented?, but emotions also influen#e expe#tations of su##ess or failure. Feeling ner ous or anxious ,ust before spea)ing to a large group ;sometimes e en ,ust a #lass full of studentsM< #an fun#tion li)e a message that says =IJm not going to su##eed at doing this?, e en if there is in fa#t good reason to expe#t su##ess. 6ut positi e feelings #an also raise beliefs about effi#a#y. 4hen re#alling the ex#itement of su##eeding at a pre ious, unrelated tas), people may o erestimate their #han#es of su##ess at a ne. tas) .ith .hi#h they ha e no pre ious experien#e, and are therefore in no position to predi#t their effi#a#y. For tea#hers, the most important impli#ation is that studentsJ moti ation #an be affe#ted .hen they generali/e from past experien#e .hi#h they belie e, rightly or .rongly, to be rele ant. 6y simply announ#ing a test, for example, a tea#her #an ma)e some students anxious e en before the students find out anything about the testL .hether it is easy or diffi#ult, or e en #omparable in any .ay to other experien#es #alled =tests? in their pasts. Con ersely, it #an be misleading to en#ourage students on the basis of their su##ess at past a#ademi# tas)s if the earlier tas)s .ere not really rele ant to requirements of the ne. tas)s at hand. !uppose, for example, that a middleyears student has pre iously .ritten only brief opinion-based papers, and ne er .ritten a resear#h-based paper. In that #ase boosting the studentJs #onfiden#e by telling him that =it is ,ust li)e the papers you .rote before? may not be helpful or e en honest.
" #aution: moti ation as #ontent ersus moti ation as pro#ess

" #aution about self-effi#a#y theory is its hea y emphasis on ,ust the pro#ess of moti ation, at the expense of the #ontent of moti ation. &he basi# self-effi#a#y model has mu#h to say about ho. beliefs affe#t beha ior, but relati ely little to say about .hi#h beliefs and tas)s are espe#ially satisfying or lead to the greatest .ell-being in students. &he ans.er to this question is important to )no., sin#e tea#hers might then sele#t tas)s as mu#h as possible that are intrinsi#ally satisfying, and not merely a#hie able. "nother .ay of posing this #on#ern is by as)ing: =Is it possible to feel high self-effi#a#y about a tas) that you do not en,oy>? It does seem quite possible for su#h a gap to exist. "s a youth, for example, one of us ;Kel in !eifert< had #onsiderable su##ess .ith sol ing mathemati#s problems in high s#hool algebra, and expended #onsiderable effort doing algebra assignments as home.or). 6efore long, he had de eloped high self-effi#a#y .ith regard to sol ing su#h problems. 6ut Kel in ne er really en,oyed sol ing the algebra problems, and later e en turned a.ay permanently from math or s#ien#e as a #areer ;mu#h to the disappointment of his tea#hers and family<. In this #ase self-effi#a#y theory ni#ely explained the pro#ess of his moti ationLKel inJs belief in his #apa#ity led to persisten#e at the tas)s. 6ut it did not explain the #ontent of his moti ationLhis gro.ing disli)e of the tas)s. "##ounting for su#h a gap requires a different theory of moti ation, one that in#ludes not only spe#ifi# beliefs, but =deeper? personal needs as .ell. "n example of this approa#h is self-determination theory, .here .e turn next.
&otivation as self;determination
Common sense suggests that human moti ations originate from some sort of inner =need?. 4e all thin) of oursel es as ha ing arious =needs?, a need for food, for example, or a need for #ompanionshipLthat influen#es our #hoi#es and a#ti ities. &his same idea also forms part of some theoreti#al a##ounts of moti ation, though the 7E7
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense theories differ in the needs that they emphasi/e or re#ogni/e. In Chapter E, for example, .e tal)ed about $aslo.Js hierar#hy of needs as an example of moti ations that fun#tion li)e needs that influen#e long-term personal de elopment. "##ording to $aslo., indi iduals must satisfy physi#al sur i al needs before they see) to satisfy needs of belonging, they satisfy belonging needs before esteem needs, and so on. In theory, too, people ha e both defi#it needs and gro.th needs, and the defi#it needs must be satisfied before gro.th needs #an influen#e beha ior ;$aslo., 78:1<. In $aslo.Js theory, as in others that use the #on#ept, a need is a relati ely lasting #ondition or feeling that requires relief or satisfa#tion and that tends to influen#e a#tion o er the long term. !ome needs may de#rease .hen satisfied ;li)e hunger<, but others may not ;li)e #uriosity<. Either .ay, needs differ from the selfeffi#a#y beliefs dis#ussed earlier, .hi#h are relati ely spe#ifi# and #ogniti e, and affe#t parti#ular tas)s and beha iors fairly dire#tly. " re#ent theory of moti ation based on the idea of needs is self-determination theory, proposed by the psy#hologists Ed.ard %e#i and +i#hard +yan ;E111<, among others. &he theory proposes that understanding moti ation requires ta)ing into a##ount three basi# human needs:
autonomyLthe need to feel free of external #onstraints on beha ior #ompeten#eLthe need to feel #apable or s)illed relatednessLthe need to feel #onne#ted or in ol ed .ith others
Aote that these needs are all psy#hologi#al, not physi#alI hunger and sex, for example, are not on the list. &hey are also about personal gro.th or de elopment, not about defi#its that a person tries to redu#e or eliminate. 3nli)e food ;in beha iorism< or safety ;in $aslo.Js hierar#hy<, you #an ne er get enough of autonomy, #ompeten#e, or relatedness. Nou ;and your students< .ill see) to enhan#e these #ontinually throughout life. &he )ey idea of self-determination theory is that .hen persons ;su#h as you or one of your students< feel that these basi# needs are reasonably .ell met, they tend to per#ei e their a#tions and #hoi#es to be intrinsi#ally moti ated or =self-determined?. In that #ase they #an turn their attention to a ariety of a#ti ities that they find attra#ti e or important, but that do not relate dire#tly to their basi# needs. "mong your students, for example, some indi iduals might read boo)s that you ha e suggested, and others might listen attenti ely .hen you explain )ey #on#epts from the unit that you happen to be tea#hing. If one or more basi# needs are not met .ell, ho.e er, people .ill tend to feel #oer#ed by outside pressures or external in#enti es. &hey may be#ome preo##upied, in fa#t, .ith satisfying .hate er need has not been met and thus ex#lude or a oid a#ti ities that might other.ise be interesting, edu#ational, or important. If the persons are students, their learning .ill suffer.
!elf-determination and intrinsi# moti ation

In proposing the importan#e of needs, then, self-determination theory is asserting the importan#e of intrinsi# moti ation, an idea that has #ome up before in this boo) ;see espe#ially Chapter 7, about learning theory<, and that .ill #ome again later ;see espe#ially Chapter 8, about planning instru#tion<. &he self-determination ersion of intrinsi# moti ation, ho.e er, emphasi/es a personJs per#eption of freedom, rather than the presen#e or absen#e of =real? #onstraints on a#tion. !elf-determination means a person feels free, e en if the person is also operating .ithin #ertain external #onstraints. In prin#iple, a student #an experien#e self-determination e en if the student must, for example, li e .ithin externally imposed rules of appropriate #lassroom beha ior. &o a#hie e a feeling of self-determination, ho.e er, the studentJs basi# needs must be metLneeds for autonomy, #ompeten#e, and relatedness. In moti ating students, then, the bottom line is that tea#hers ha e an interest in helping students to
7EE
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6. Student motivation meet their basi# needs, and in not letting s#hool rules or the tea#hersJ o.n leadership styles interfere .ith or blo#) satisfa#tion of studentsJ basi# needs. =*ure? self-determination may be the ideal for most tea#hers and students, of #ourse, but the reality is usually different. For a ariety of reasons, tea#hers in most #lassrooms #annot be expe#ted to meet all studentsJ basi# needs at all times. Bne reason is the sheer number of students, .hi#h ma)es it impossible to attend to e ery student perfe#tly at all times. "nother reason is tea#hersJ responsibility for a #urri#ulum, .hi#h #an require #reating expe#tations for studentsJ a#ti ities that sometimes #onfli#t .ith studentsJ autonomy or ma)es them feel ;temporarily< less than fully #ompetent. !till another reason is studentsJ personal histories, ranging from di or#e to po erty, .hi#h may #reate needs in some indi iduals .hi#h are beyond the po.er of tea#hers to remedy. &he result from studentsJ point of ie. is usually only a partial per#eption of self-determination, and therefore a simultaneous mix of intrinsi# and extrinsi# moti ations. !elf-determination theory re#ogni/es this reality by suggesting that the =intrinsi#-ness? of moti ation is really a matter of degree, extending from highly e5trinsi#, through arious mixtures of intrinsi# and extrinsi#, to highly intrinsi# ;Koestner P 2osier, E11F<. "t the extrinsi# end of the s#ale is learning that is regulated primarily by external re.ards and #onstraints, .hereas at the intrinsi# end is learning regulated primarily by learners themsel es. &able 7@ summari/es and gi es examples of the arious le els and their effe#ts on moti ation. 6y assuming that moti ation is often a mix of the intrinsi# and extrinsi#, the ,ob of the tea#her be#omes more realisti#I the ,ob is not to expe#t purely intrinsi# moti ation from students all the time, but simply to arrange and en#ourage moti ations that are as intrinsi# as possible. &o do this, the tea#her needs to support studentsJ basi# needs for autonomy, #ompeten#e, and relatedness. &able 7@: Combinations of intrinsi# and extrinsi# moti ation Source of regulation of action =*ure? extrinsi# moti ation *erson la#)s the intention to ta)e any a#tion, regardless of pressures or in#enti es Gery external to person "#tions regulated only by outside pressures and in#enti es, and #ontrols !tudent #ompletes no .or) e en .hen pressured or .hen in#enti es are offered !tudent #ompletes assignment only if reminded expli#itly of the in#enti e of grades andKor negati e #onsequen#es of failing !ome.hat external !pe#ifi# a#tions regulated internally, but .ithout refle#tion or #onne#tion to personal needs !tudent #ompletes assignment independently, but only be#ause of fear of shaming self or be#ause of guilt about #onsequen#es of not #ompleting assignment !ome.hat internal "#tions re#ogni/ed by indi idual as important or as aluable as a means to a more alued goal !tudent generally #ompletes s#hool .or) independently, but only be#ause of its alue in gaining Description "#ample
7E0
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense admission to #ollege Gery internal "#tions adopted by indi idual as integral to self-#on#ept and to personJs ma,or personal alues !tudent generally #ompletes s#hool .or) independently, be#ause being .ell edu#ated is part of the studentJs #on#ept of himself =*ure? intrinsi# regulation "#tions pra#ti#ed solely be#ause they are en,oyable and alued for their o.n sa)e !tudent en,oys e ery topi#, #on#ept, and assignment that e ery tea#her e er assigns, and #ompletes s#hool .or) solely be#ause of his en,oyment
3sing self-determination theory in the #lassroom

4hat are some tea#hing strategies for supporting studentsJ needs> Edu#ational resear#hers ha e studied this question from a ariety of dire#tions, and their resulting re#ommendations #on erge and o erlap in a number of .ays. For #on enien#e, the re#ommendations #an be grouped a##ording to the basi# need that they address, beginning .ith the need for autonomy.
Su%%orting autonomy in learners

" ma,or part of supporting autonomy is to gi e students choices .here er possible ;+yan P 2yn#h, E110<. &he #hoi#es that en#ourage the greatest feelings of self-#ontrol, ob iously, are ones that are about relati ely ma,or issues or that ha e relati ely signifi#ant #onsequen#es for students, su#h as .hom to #hoose as partners for a ma,or group pro,e#t. 6ut #hoi#es also en#ourage some feeling of self-#ontrol e en .hen they are about relati ely minor issues, su#h as ho. to organi/e your des) or .hat )ind of folder to use for storing your papers at s#hool. It is important, furthermore, to offer #hoi#es to all students, in#luding students needing expli#it dire#tions in order to .or) su##essfullyI a oid reser ing #hoi#es for only the best students or gi ing up offering #hoi#es altogether to students .ho fall behind or .ho need extra help. "ll students .ill feel more self-determined and therefore more moti ated if they ha e #hoi#es of some sort. &ea#hers #an also support studentsJ autonomy more dire#tly by minimi/ing external re.ards ;li)e grades< and #omparisons among studentsJ performan#e, and by orienting and responding themsel es to studentsJ expressed goals and interests. In tea#hing elementary students about #limate #hange, for example, you #an support autonomy by exploring .hi#h aspe#ts of this topi# ha e already #ome to studentsJ attention and aroused their #on#ern. &he point of the dis#ussion .ould not be to find out =.ho )no.s the most? about this topi#, but to build and enhan#e studentsJ intrinsi# moti ations as mu#h as possible. In reality, of #ourse, it may not be possible to su##eed at this goal fullyLsome students may simply ha e no interest in the topi#, for example, or you may be #onstrained by time or resour#es from indi iduali/ing #ertain a#ti ities fully. 6ut any degree of attention to studentsJ indi iduality, as .ell as any degree of #hoi#e, .ill support studentsJ autonomy.
Su%%orting the need for com%etence

&he most ob ious .ay to ma)e students feel #ompetent is by sele#ting a#ti ities .hi#h are #hallenging but nonetheless a#hie able .ith reasonable effort and assistan#e ;Elliott, $#'regor, P &hrash, E11F<. "lthough fe. Educational Psychology 7EF " 'lobal &ext
6. Student motivation tea#hers .ould disagree .ith this idea, there are times .hen it is hard to put into pra#ti#e, su#h as .hen you first meet a #lass at the start of a s#hool year and therefore are unfamiliar .ith their ba#)grounds and interests. 6ut there are some strategies that are generally effe#ti e e en if you are not yet in a position to )no. the students .ell. Bne is to emphasi/e a#ti ities that require a#ti e response from students. !ometimes this simply means sele#ting pro,e#ts, experiments, dis#ussions and the li)e that require students to do more than simply listen. Bther times it means expe#ting a#ti e responses in all intera#tions .ith students, su#h as by as)ing questions that #all for =di ergent? ;multiple or elaborated< ans.ers. In a so#ial studies #lass, for example, try as)ing =4hat are some .ays .e #ould find out more about our #ommunity>? instead of =&ell me the three best .ays to find out about our #ommunity.? &he first question in ites more di ergent, elaborate ans.ers than the se#ond. "nother generally effe#ti e .ay to support #ompeten#e is to respond and gi e feedba#) as immediately as possible. &ests and term papers help subsequent learning more if returned, .ith #omments, sooner rather than later. %is#ussions tea#h more if you in#lude your o.n ideas in them, .hile still en#ouraging studentsJ input. !mall group and independent a#ti ities are more effe#ti e if you pro ide a #on enient .ay for students to #onsult authoritati e sour#es for guidan#e .hen needed, .hether the sour#e is you personally, a tea#hing assistant, a spe#ially sele#ted reading, or e en a #omputer program. In addition, you #an sometimes de ise tas)s that #reate a feeling of #ompeten#e be#ause they ha e a =natural? solution or ending point. "ssembling a ,igsa. pu//le of the #ommunity, for example, has this quality, and so does creating a ,igsa. pu//le of the #ommunity if the students need a greater #hallenge.
Su%%orting the need to relate to others

&he main .ay of support studentsJ need to relate to others is to arrange a#ti ities in .hi#h students .or) together in .ays that are mutually supporti e, that re#ogni/e studentsJ di ersity, and minimi/e #ompetition among indi iduals. 4e .ill ha e more to say about this strategy in Chapter C ;=Instru#tional strategies?<, .here .e des#ribe se eral arieties of #ooperati e learning, as .ell as some of their pitfalls to be a oided. For no., simply note that ha ing students .or) together #an happen in many .ays. Nou #an, for example, deliberately arrange pro,e#ts that require a ariety of talentsI some edu#ators #all su#h a#ti ities =ri#h group .or)? ;Cohen, 788FI Cohen, 6rody, P !apon-!he in, E11F<. In studying in small groups about medie al so#iety, for example, one student #an #ontribute his dra.ing s)ills, another #an #ontribute his .riting s)ills, and still another #an #ontribute his dramati# s)ills. &he result #an be a multi-fa#eted presentationL.ritten, isual, and oral. &he groups needed for ri#h group .or) pro ide for studentsJ relationships .ith ea#h other, .hether they #ontain six indi iduals or only t.o. &here are other .ays to en#ourage relationships among students. In the ,igsa. #lassroom ;"ronson P *atnoe, 788:<, for example, students .or) together in t.o phases. In the first phase, groups of =experts? .or) together to find information on a spe#iali/ed topi#. In a se#ond phase the expert groups split up and reform into =generalist? groups #ontaining one representati e from ea#h former expert group. In studying the animals of "fri#a, for example, ea#h expert group might find information about a different parti#ular #ategory of animal or plantI one group might fo#us on mammal, another on bird, a third on reptiles, and so on. In the se#ond phase of the ,igsa., the generalist groups .ould pool information from the experts to get a more .ell-rounded ie. of the topi#. &he generalist groups .ould ea#h ha e an expert about mammals, for example, but also an expert about birds and about reptiles.
7E@
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense "s a tea#her, you #an add to these organi/ational strategies by en#ouraging the de elopment of your o.n relationships .ith #lass members. Nour goal, as tea#her, is to demonstrate #aring and interest in your students not ,ust as students, but as people. &he goal also in ol es beha ing as if good relationships bet.een and among #lass members are not only possible, but ready to de elop and perhaps e en already de eloping. " simple ta#ti#, for example, is to spea) of =.e? and =us? as mu#h as possible, rather than spea)ing of =you students?. "nother ta#ti# is to present #ooperati e a#ti ities and assignments .ithout apology, as if they are in the best interests not ,ust of students, but of =us all? in the #lassroom, yourself in#luded.
Keeping self-determination in perspe#ti e

In #ertain .ays self-determination theory pro ides a sensible .ay to thin) about studentsJ intrinsi# moti ation and therefore to thin) about ho. to get them to manage their o.n learning. " parti#ular strength of the theory is that it re#ogni/es degrees of self-determination and bases many ideas on this reality. $ost people re#ogni/e #ombinations of intrinsi# and extrinsi# moti ation guiding parti#ular a#ti ities in their o.n li es. 4e might en,oy tea#hing, for example, but also do this ,ob partly to re#ei e a pay#he#). &o its #redit, self-determination theory also relies on a list of basi# human needsLautonomy, #ompeten#e, and relatednessLthat relate #omfortably .ith some of the larger purposes of edu#ation. "lthough these are positi e features for understanding and influen#ing studentsJ #lassroom moti ation, some edu#ators and psy#hologists nonetheless ha e lingering questions about the limitations of self-determination theory. Bne is .hether merely pro iding #hoi#es a#tually impro es studentsJ learning, or simply impro es their satisfaction .ith learning. &here is e iden#e supporting both possibilities ;Flo.erday P !#hra., E110I %e#i P +yan, E110<, and it is li)ely that there are tea#hers .hose #lassroom experien#e supports both possibilities as .ell. "nother question is .hether it is possible to overdo attention to studentsJ needsLand again there is e iden#e for both fa oring and #ontradi#ting this possibility. &oo many #hoi#es #an a#tually ma)e anyone ;not ,ust a student< frustrated and dissatisfied .ith a #hoi#e the person a#tually does ma)e ;!#h.art/, E11F<. Furthermore, differentiating a#ti ities to studentsJ #ompeten#e le els may be impra#ti#al if students are fun#tioning at extremely di erse le els .ithin a single #lass, as sometimes happens. %ifferentiating may be inappropriate, too, if it holds a tea#her ba#) from #o ering )ey #urri#ulum ob,e#ti es .hi#h students need and .hi#h at least some students are able to learn. &hese are serious #on#erns, though in our opinion not serious enough to gi e up offering #hoi#es to students or to stop differentiating instru#tion altogether. In Chapter : ;=Classroom management and the learning en ironment?<, therefore, .e explain the pra#ti#al basis for this opinion, by des#ribing .or)able .ays for offering #hoi#es and re#ogni/ing studentsJ di ersity.
E4pectancy 4 value) effects on students% motivation

"s .e ha e explained in this #hapter, moti ation is affe#ted by se eral fa#tors, in#luding reinfor#ement for beha ior, but espe#ially also studentsJ goals, interests, and sense of self-effi#a#y and self-determination. &he fa#tors #ombine to #reate t.o general sour#es of moti ation: studentsJ expe#tation of su##ess and the alue that students pla#e on a goal. Gie.ing moti ation in this .ay is often #alled the expe#tan#y- alue model of moti ation ;4igfield P E##les, E11EI 4igfield, &on), P E##les, E11F<, and sometimes .ritten .ith a multipli#ati e formula: expe#tan#y x alue ] moti ation. &he relationship bet.een expe#tation and alue is =multipli#ati e? rather than additi e be#ause in order to be moti ated, it is ne#essary for a person to ha e at least a modest expe#tation of su##ess and to assign a tas) at least some positi e alue. If you ha e high expe#tations of su##ess but do not alue a tas) at all ;mentally Educational Psychology 7E9 " 'lobal &ext
6. Student motivation assign it a =1? alue<, then you .ill not feel moti ated at all. 2i)e.ise, if you alue a tas) highly but ha e no expe#tation of su##ess about #ompleting it ;assign it a =1? expe#tan#y<, then you also .ill not feel moti ated at all. Expe#tan#ies are the result of arious fa#tors, but parti#ularly the goals held by a student, and the studentJs selfeffi#a#y, .hi#h .e dis#ussed earlier in this #hapter. " student .ith mastery goals and strong self-effi#a#y for a tas), for example, is li)ely to hold high expe#tations for su##essLalmost by definition. Galues are also the result of arious fa#tors, but espe#ially studentsJ interests and feelings of self-determination. " student .ho has a lasting personal interest in a tas) or topi# and is allo.ed to #hoose it freely is espe#ially li)ely to alue the tas)Land therefore to feel moti ated. Ideally both expe#tan#ies and alues are high in students on any )ey learning tas). &he reality, ho.e er, is that students sometimes do not expe#t su##ess, nor do they ne#essarily alue it .hen su##ess is possible. 5o. #an a tea#her respond to lo. expe#tations and lo. aluing> 4e ha e offered a number of suggestions to meet this #hallenge throughout this #hapter. In brief, raising lo. expe#tations depends on ad,usting tas) diffi#ulty so that su##ess be#omes a reasonable prospe#t: a tea#her must ma)e tas)s neither too hard nor too easy. +ea#hing this general goal depends in turn on thoughtful, appropriate planningLsele#ting reasonable ob,e#ti es, ad,usting them on the basis of experien#e, finding supporti e materials, and pro iding students .ith help .hen needed. +aising the alue of a#ademi# tas)s is equally important, but the general strategies for doing so are different than for raising expe#tations. In#reasing alue requires lin)ing the tas) to studentsJ personal interests and prior )no.ledge, sho.ing the utility of the tas) to studentsJ future goals, and sho.ing that the tas) is aluable to other people .hom studentsJ respe#t. !ome of these strategies .ere dis#ussed earlier in this #hapter, but others ;e.g. lin)ing ne. learning .ith prior )no.ledge< are dis#ussed in Chapter E, .hi#h is #alled =&he learning pro#ess?.
T R2ET) a model for integrating ideas about motivation
" model of moti ation that integrates many ideas about moti ation, in#luding those in this #hapter, has been
de eloped by Carole "mes ;7881, 788E<. &he a#ronym or abbre iated name for the program is &"+'E&, .hi#h stands for six elements of effe#ti e moti ation:

@as) 2uthority +e#ognition ,rouping " aluating @ime
Ea#h of the elements #ontributes to studentsD moti ation either dire#tly or indire#tly.
&as)
"s explained earlier, students experien#e tas)s in terms of their alue, their expe#tation of su##ess, and their authenti#ity. &he alue of a tas) is assessed by its importan#e, interest to the student, usefulness or utility, and the #ost in terms of effort and time to a#hie e it. Expe#tation of su##ess is assessed by a studentDs per#eption of the diffi#ulty of a tas). 'enerally a middling le el of diffi#ulty is optimal for studentsI too easy, and the tas) seems tri ial ;not aluable or meaningful<, and too hard, and the tas) seems unli)ely to su##eed and in this sense useless. "uthenti#ity refers to ho. mu#h a tas) relates to real-life experien#es of studentsI the more it does so, the more it #an build on studentsD interests and goals, and the more meaningful and moti ating it be#omes. 7E:
"utonomy
$oti ation is enhan#ed if students feel a degree of autonomy or responsibility for a learning tas). "utonomy strengthens self-effi#a#y and self-determinationLt.o alued and moti ating attitudes des#ribed earlier in this #hapter. 4here possible, tea#hers #an enhan#e autonomy by offering studentsD #hoi#es about assignments and by en#ouraging them to ta)e initiati e about their o.n learning.
+e#ognition
&ea#hers #an support studentsD moti ation by re#ogni/ing their a#hie ements appropriately. $u#h depends, ho.e er, on ho. this is doneI as dis#ussed earlier, praise sometimes undermines performan#e. It is not espe#ially effe#ti e if praise is ery general and la#)ing in detailed reasons for the praiseI or if praise is for qualities .hi#h a student #annot influen#e ;li)e intelligen#e instead of effort<I or if praise is offered so .idely that it loses meaning or e en be#omes a signal that performan#e has been substandard. $any of these paradoxi#al effe#ts are des#ribed by self-determination and self-effi#a#y theory ;and .ere explained earlier in this #hapter<.
'rouping
$oti ation is affe#ted by ho. students are grouped together for their .or)La topi# dis#ussed in more detail in Chapter C ;=Instru#tional !trategies?<. &here are many .ays to group students, but they tend to fall into three types: #ooperati e, #ompetiti e, and indi idualisti# ;(ohnson P (ohnson, 7888<. In #ooperati e learning, a set of students .or) together to a#hie e a #ommon goal ;for example, produ#ing a group presentation for the #lass<I often they re#ei e a final grade, or part of a final grade, in #ommon. In #ompetiti e learning, students .or) indi idually, and their grades refle#t #omparisons among the students ;for example, their performan#es are ran)ed relati e to ea#h other, or they are =graded on a #ur e?<. In indi idualisti# learning, students .or) by themsel es, but their grades are unrelated to the performan#e of #lassmates. +esear#h that #ompares these three forms of grouping tends to fa or #ooperati e learning groups, .hi#h apparently supports studentsD need for belongingLan idea important in self-determination theory dis#ussed earlier in this #hapter.
E aluation
'rouping stru#tures ob iously affe#t ho. studentsD efforts are e aluated. " fo#us on #omparing students, as happens .ith #ompetiti e stru#tures, #an distra#t students from thin)ing about the material to be learned, and to fo#us instead on ho. they appear to external authoritiesI the question shifts from =4hat am I learning>? to =4hat .ill the tea#her thin) about my performan#e>? " fo#us on #ooperati e learning, on the other hand, #an ha e doubleedged effe#ts: students are en#ouraged to help their group mates, but may also be tempted to rely ex#essi ely on othersD efforts or alternati ely to ignore ea#h otherDs #ontributions and o erspe#iali/e their o.n #ontributions. !ome #ompromise bet.een #ooperati e and indi idualisti# stru#tures seems to #reate optimal moti ation for learning ;!la in, 788@<.
&ime
"s e ery tea#her )no.s, students ary in the amount of time needed to learn almost any material or tas). "##ommodating the differen#es #an be #hallenging, but also important for maximi/ing studentsD moti ation. !#hool days are often filled .ith interruptions and fixed inter als of time de oted to non-a#ademi# a#ti itiesLfa#ts that ma)e it diffi#ult to be flexible about granting indi iduals different amounts of time to #omplete a#ademi# tas)s. Aonetheless a degree of flexibility is usually possible: larger blo#)s of time #an sometimes be #reated for important
7EC
" 'lobal &ext
6. Student motivation a#ti ities ;for example, .riting an essay<, and sometimes enri#hment a#ti ities #an be arranged for some students .hile others re#ei e extra attention from the tea#her on #ore or basi# tas)s. $ore about su#h strategies is dis#ussed in Chapter C ;=Instru#tional !trategies?<.
&he bottom line about moti ation: sustaining fo#us on learning

!ooner or later .hen you tea#h, there .ill be situations appropriate for ea#h perspe#ti e about moti ation des#ribed in this #hapter. &here .ill be times .hen fo#using ex#lusi ely on studentsJ appropriate beha ior ;or la#) thereof< .ill be both ne#essary and suffi#ient e iden#e of moti ation. 6ut there .ill be other times .hen it is important to en#ourage studentsJ beliefs that they #an a##omplish spe#ifi# tas)s, and still other times .hen pro iding for studentsJ underlying needs for #ompeten#e or so#ial #onne#tion is important. &hin) of these perspe#ti es as alternati es to be used either singly or in #ombination .hen the time is right. 6e#ause of your o.n alues, attitudes, or beliefs, you may find one perspe#ti e more personally #ompatible than another. E en if you settle on fa orite .ays of moti ating students, though, .e en#ourage you to )eep the other, less fa ored approa#hes in reser e any.ay, and to experiment .ith them. 4e belie e that an e#le#ti# approa#h to moti ation .ill enri#h your tea#hing the most, and enri#h your studentsJ moti ation and learning as .ell. If there is a single lesson from the #on#epts about moti ation outlined in this #hapter, it is this: a#ademi# moti ation has no single sour#e, and tea#hers moti ate students the best .hen they assume moti ation is #omplex. &he next t.o #hapters loo) at .ays of reali/ing su#h =broad-mindedness? in pra#ti#e, first .hen you prepare a#ti ities and #lasses and later .hen you a#tually tea#h them.
Chapter summary
$oti ationLthe energy or dri e that gi es beha ior dire#tion and fo#usL#an be understood in a ariety of .ays, ea#h of .hi#h has impli#ations for tea#hing. Bne perspe#ti e on moti ation #omes from beha iorism, and equates underlying dri es or moti es .ith their out.ard, isible expression in beha ior. $ost others, ho.e er, #ome from #ogniti e theories of learning and de elopment. $oti es are affe#ted by the )ind of goals set by studentsL.hether they are oriented to mastery, performan#e, failure-a oidan#e, or so#ial #onta#t. &hey are also affe#ted by studentsJ interests, both personal and situational. "nd they are affe#ted by studentsJ attributions about the #auses of su##ess and failureL.hether they per#ei e the #auses are due to ability, effort, tas) diffi#ulty, or lu#). " ma,or #urrent perspe#ti e about moti ation is based on self-effi#a#y theory, .hi#h fo#uses on a personJs belief that he or she is #apable of #arrying out or mastering a tas). 5igh self-effi#a#y affe#ts studentsJ #hoi#e of tas)s, their persisten#e at tas)s, and their resilien#e in the fa#e of failure. It helps to pre ent learned helplessness, a per#eption of #omplete la#) of #ontrol o er mastery or su##ess. &ea#hers #an en#ourage high self-effi#a#y beliefs by pro iding students .ith experien#es of mastery and opportunities to see othersJ experien#es of mastery, by offering .elltimed messages persuading them of their #apa#ity for su##ess, and by interpreting studentsJ emotional rea#tions to su##ess, failure and stress. "n extension of self-effi#a#y theory is self-determination theory, .hi#h is based on the idea that e eryone has basi# needs for autonomy, #ompeten#e, and relatedness to others. "##ording to the theory, students .ill be moti ated more intrinsi#ally if these three needs are met as mu#h as possible. " ariety of strategies #an assist tea#hers in doing so. Bne program for doing so is #alled &"+'E&I it dra.s on ideas from se eral theories of moti ation to ma)e pra#ti#al re#ommendations about moti ating students.
7E8
Further resour#es
Rhttp:KKtea#hingedpsy#h..i)ispa#es.#omK$oti ationS &his page lists se eral materials and lin)s related to moti ating students in #lassroom situations.
Key terms
"lbert 6andura "ttributions of su##ess or failure "utonomy, need for 6eha iorist perspe#ti e on moti ation Competen#e, need for Failure-a oidant goals Intrinsi# moti ation (igsa. #lassroom 2earned helplessness $astery goals $oti ation Aeed for relatedness *erforman#e goals *ersonal interests !elf-determination theory !elf-effi#a#y !ituational interests &"+'E&
+eferen#es
"llison, K., %.yer, (., P $a)in, !. ;7888<. !elf-effi#a#y and parti#ipation in igorous physi#al a#ti ity by high s#hool students. :ealth Education and -ehavior, D;;7<, 7E-EF. "mes, C. ;7881<. $oti ation: 4hat tea#hers need to )no.. Teachers College Record, GC, F18-FE7. "mes. C. ;788E<. Classrooms: 'oals, stru#tures, and student moti ation. Journal of Educational Psychology, B?, E97-E:7. "ronson, E. P *atnoe, !. ;788:<. The Jigsa Ae. Nor): 2ongman. 6andura, ". ;78::<. !elf-effi#a#y: &o.ard a unifying theory of beha ioral #hange. Psychological Revie , B?, 787-E7@. 6andura, ". ;78C9<. Social foundations of thought and action2 A social cognitive theory. Engle.ood Cliffs, A(: *renti#e 5all. 6andura, ". ;788:<. Self4efficacy2 The e5ercise of control. Ae. Nor): Freeman. 6la#).ell, 2., &r/nie.s)i, K., P %.e#), C. ;E11:<. Impli#it theories predi#t a#hie ement a#ross an adoles#ent transition: a longitudinal study. Child !evelo%ment, >B, EF9-E90. 6ong, $. P !)aal i), E. ;E11F<. "#ademi# self-#on#ept and self-effi#a#y: 5o. different are they really> Educational %sychology revie , C@;7<, 7-F1. 6ur)e, $. P !ass, &. ;E119<. Classroom peer effe#ts and student a#hie ement. *aper presented at the annual meeting of the "meri#an E#onomi# "sso#iation, 6oston, 3!". 6utin, %. ;E11@<. Service learning in higher education. Ae. Nor): *algra e $a#millan. Cameron, (. P *ier#e, 4. ;788F<. +einfor#ement, re.ard, and intrinsi# moti ation: " meta-analysis. Revie of Educational Research, ;?, 090-FE0. Cohen, E. ;788F<. !esigning grou% or&2 Strategies for the heterogeneous classroom, Dnd edition. Ae. Nor): &ea#hersJ College *ress. %arnon, C., 6utera, F., P 5ara#)ie.i#/, (. ;E119<. "#hie ement goals in so#ial intera#tions: 2earning .ith mastery ersus performan#e goals. Aotivation and Emotion, <C, 97-:1. %e#i, E. ;78:7<. Effe#ts of externally mediated re.ards on intrinsi# moti ation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, CB, 71@-77@. Educational Psychology 701 " 'lobal &ext classroom2 -uilding coo%eration in the classroom, Dnd edition.
6. Student motivation %e#i, E., Koestner, +., P +yan, +. ;E117<. Extrinsi# re.ards and intrinsi# moti ation in edu#ation: +e#onsidered on#e again. Revie of Educational Research, >C;7<, 7-E:. %e#i, E. P +yan, +. ;E110<. &he paradox of a#hie ement: &he harder you push, the .orse it gets. In E. "ronson ;Ed.<, .m%roving academic achievement2 .m%act of %sychological factors in education ;pp. 9E81<. 6oston: "#ademi# *ress. %e'ranpre, +. ;E111<. " s#ien#e of meaning: Can beha iorism bring meaning to psy#hologi#al s#ien#e> American Psychologist, @@;:<, :E7-:09. %o.son, $. P $#Inerney, %. ;E110<. 4hat do students say about their moti ational goals> &o.ard a more #omplex and dynami# perspe#ti e on student moti ation. Contem%orary Educational Psychology, DB, 87770. %.e#), C. ;E111<. Self4theories2 Their role in motivation, %ersonality, and develo%ment. *hiladelphia: *sy#hology *ress. %.e#), C. ;E119<. Aindset2 The ne %sychology of success. Ae. Nor): +andom 5ouse. E##les, (., 4igfield, "., P !#hiefele, 3. ;788C<. $oti ation to su##eed. In 4. %amon P A. Eisenberg ;Eds.<, :and(oo& of child %sychology, "olume <2 Social, emotional, and %ersonality develo%ment, @ th edition ;pp. 717:-718@<. Ae. Nor): 4iley. Eisenberger, +. P Cameron, (. ;7889<. %etrimental effe#ts of re.ard: +eality or myth> American Psychologist, @C, 77@0-7799. Elliott, "., $#'regor, 5., P &hrash, &. ;E11F<. &he need for #ompeten#e. In E. %e#i P +. +yan ;Eds.<, :and(oo& of self4determination research ;pp. 097-0CC<. +o#hester, AN: 3ni ersity of +o#hester *ress. Eri)son, E. ;789CK788F<. .dentity, youth, and crisis. Ae. Nor): Aorton. Flo.erday, &., !hra., '., P !te ens, (. ;E11F<. +ole of #hoi#e and interest in reader engagement. Journal of Educational Research, G>, 80-710. 'arner, +., 6ro.n, +., !anders, !. P $en)e, %. ;788E<. =!edu#ti e details? and learning from text. In ". +enninger, !. 5idi, P ". Krapp ;Eds.<, The role of interest in learning and develo%ment, pp. E08-E@F. $ah.ah, A(: Erlbaum. 'oddard, +., 5oy, 4., P 5oy, ". ;E11F<. Colle#ti e effi#a#y beliefs: &heoreti#al de elopments, empiri#al e iden#e, and future dire#tions. Educational Researcher, <<;0<, 0-70. 'uthrie, (., 4igfield, "., P 5umeni#), A. ;E119<. Influen#es of stimulating tas)s on reading moti ation and #omprehension. Journal of Educational Research, GG, E0E-EF@. 5arp, !. P $ayer, +. ;788C<. 5o. sedu#ti e details do their damage. Journal of Educational Psychology, G=, F7F-F0F. 5ar/#)ie.i#/, (., 6arron, K., &auer, (., P Elliot, ". ;E11E<. !hort-term and long-term #onsequen#es of a#hie ement goals. Journal of Educational Psychology, GD, 079-0E1. 5idi, !. P +enninger, ". ;E119<. " four-phase model of interest de elopment. Educational Psychology, ?C, 777-7E:. (ohnson, %. P (ohnson, +. ;7888<. #earning together and alone2 Coo%erative, com%etitive, and individualistic learning, @th edition. 6oston: "llyn P 6a#on. Kohn, ". ;7889<. $o contest2 The case against com%etition. 6oston: 5oughton $ifflin.
707
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense Koestner, +. P 2osier, '. ;E11F<. %istinguishing three .ays of being highly moti ated: a #loser loo) at intro,e#tion, identifi#ation, and intrinsi# moti ation. In E. %e#i P +. +yan ;Eds.<, :and(oo& of self4 determination research ;pp. 717-7EE<. +o#hester, AN: 3ni ersity of +o#hester *ress. 2ent, +., 6ro.n, !., Aota, 2., P !oresi, !. ;E110<. &ea#hing so#ial #ogniti e interest and #hoi#e hypotheses a#ross 5olland types in Italian high s#hool students. Journal of "ocational -ehavior, ;D, 717-77C. 2indley, 2. ;E119<. &he paradox of self-effi#a#y: +esear#h .ith di erse populations. Journal of Career Assessment, C?;7<, 7F0-791. $au, 4.-C. ;E110<. Fa#tors that influen#e persisten#e in s#ien#e and engineering #areer aspirations. Career !evelo%ment Uuarterly, @C, E0F-EF0. $idgley, C., Kaplan, "., P $iddleton, $. ;E117<. *erforman#e-approa#h goals: 'ood for .hat, for .hom, and under .hat #onditions, and at .hat #ost> Journal of Educational Psychology, G<, ::-C9. *a,ares, F. P !#hun), %. ;E117<. !elf-beliefs and s#hool su##ess: !elf-effi#a#y, self-#on#ept, and s#hool a#hie ement. In . +iding P !. +ayner ;Eds.<, Perce%tion ;pp. E08-E99<. 2ondon: "blex *ublishing. *a,ares, F. P !#hun), %. ;E11E<. !elf-beliefs in psy#hology and edu#ation: "n histori#al perspe#ti e. In (. "ronson ;Ed.<, .m%roving academic achievement ;pp. 0-E7<. Ae. Nor): "#ademi# *ress. +eynolds, *. P !ymons, !. ;E117<. $oti ational ariables and #hildrenJs text sear#h. Journal of Educational Psychology, G<, 7F-EE. +yan, +. P 2yn#h, $. ;E110<. *hilosophies of moti ation and #lassroom management. In +. Curren ;Ed.<, -lac& ell com%anion to %hiloso%hy2 A com%anion to the %hiloso%hy of education ;pp. E91-E:7<. Ae. Nor), AN: 6la#).ell. !an#he/, C. P 4iley, (. ;E119<. "n examination of the sedu#ti e details effe#t in terms of .or)ing memory #apa#ity. Aemory and Cognition, <?, 0FF-0@@. !apon-!he in, $. P Cohen, E. ;E11F<. Con#lusion. In Cohen, E., 6rody, C., P !apon-!he in, $. ;Eds.<, Teaching coo%erative learning2 The challenge for teacher education ;pp. E7:-EEF<. "lbany, AN: !tate 3ni ersity of Ae. Nor) *ress. !#hun), %. P -immerman, 6. ;788:<. !o#ial origins of self-regulatory #ompeten#e. Educational %sychologist, <?;F<, 78@-E1C. !#h.art/, 6. ;E11F<. The %arado5 of choice2 Fhy more is less. Ae. Nor): E##oK5arper Collins. !#hun), %., *intri#h, *., $eese, (. ;E11C<. Aotivation in education2 Theory, research and a%%lications. Ae. Nor): *earson *rofessional. !)inner, 6. F. ;780C<. The (ehavior of organisms. Ae. Nor): "ppleton-Century-Crofts. !la in, +. ;788@<. Coo%erative learning, Dnd edition. 6oston: "llyn P 6a#on. !)inner, 6. F. ;78@:<. "er(al (ehavior. Ae. Nor): "ppleton-Century-Crofts. 3rdan, &. ;E11F<. *redi#tors of self-handi#apping and a#hie ement: Examining a#hie ement goals, #lassroom goal stru#tures, and #ulture. Journal of Educational Psychology, G;, E@7-E@F. 4einer, 6. ;E11@<. $oti ation from an attribution perspe#ti e and the so#ial psy#hology of per#ei ed #ompeten#e. In ". Elliot P C. %.e#) ;Eds.<, :and(oo& of Com%etence and Aotivation, pp. :0-CF. Ae. Nor): 'uilford *ress. 4igfield, ". P E##les, (. ;E11E<. The develo%ment of achievement motivation. !an %iego, C": "#ademi# *ress. Educational Psychology 70E " 'lobal &ext
6. Student motivation 4igfield, "., &on), !., P E##les, (. ;E11F<. Expe#tan#y- alue theory in #ross-#ultural perspe#ti e. In %. $#Inerney P !. an Etten ;Eds.<, Research on Sociocultural .nfluences on Aotivation and #earning. 'reen.i#h, C&: Information "ge *ublishers. 4olters, C. ;E11F<. "d an#ing a#hie ement goal theory: 3sing goal stru#tures and goal orientations to predi#t studentsJ moti ation, #ognition, and a#hie ement. Journal of Educational Psychology, G;, E09E@1.
700
<. Classroom management and the learning environment

&his is an ex#erpt from a professional ,ournal )ept by one of us ;Kel in !eifert< .hen he .as tea#hing )indergarten: D=554CC4C?2 Today my student Carol sat in the circle, atching others hile e all %layed !uc&, ho then chases the as (ored, (ecause ell. 9ne !uc&, Koose 3in this game, one student is outside the circle, tags another student first %erson around the circle). Carol+s turn had already %assed. A%%arently she
she flo%%ed on her (ac&, smiling (roadly, rolling around lu5uriously on the floor in the %ath of the other runners. Several classmates noticed her, smiled or giggled, (egan flo%%ing do n as chaser tri%%ed over a *flo%%er,. *Sit u%, Carol,, said ., the ever4vigilant teacher. *Oou+re in the t ice, firmlyL then moved to %ic& her u%. .nstantly Carol ran to the far side of the gym, still smiling (roadly. Then her (est friend ran off her. $o a hole ne game ith as launched, or really t o games2 *Run4from4the4teacher, and ay., -ut no result. . re%eated this
*En'oy4(eing4 atched4(y4every(ody,. A lot more e5citing, unfortunately, than !uc&, !uc&, Koose7 "n ex#erpt from Kel inJs same ,ournal se eral years later, .hen he .as tea#hing math in high s#hool: D=554<4?2 The same four students sat in the (ac& again today, as usual. They seem to loo& in every direction e5ce%t at me, even smile and (e sure other ho loves hen .+m e5%laining material that they need to &no . The ay they his%er to each other, it seems almost li&e they are *in love, hom the most. ith the grou%, and so on. -ut others seem almost envious0as if they ere im%ressed ith the foursome+s a(ility to get a ay ay, . thin& a lot of other students are (eing distracted. ant ith ith each other, though . can+t
9thers0students not %art of the foursome0seem to react variously. Some seem annoyed, turn the ay, avoid tal&ing to (e %art of the *in, grou%, too, and
(eing inattentive and almost rude. Either
T ice during the %eriod today, . ha%%ened to notice mem(ers of the grou% %assing a note, and then giggling and loo&ing at me. -y the end, . had had enough of this sort of thing, so . &e%t them in (riefly after class and as&ed one of them to read the note. They loo&ed a (it em(arrassed and hesitant, (ut eventually one of them o%ened the note and read it out loud. *Choose one,, it said. *Ar Seifert loo&s 3C) old VVVV, 3D) stu%idVVVV, or 3<) cluelessVVVV., Kel inDs experien#es in managing these ery different #lassrooms taught him .hat e ery tea#her )no.s or else qui#)ly learns: management matters a lot. 6ut his experien#es also taught him that management is about more than #orre#ting the misbeha iors of indi iduals, more than ,ust dis#ipline. Classroom management is also about or#hestrating or #oordinating entire sets or sequen#es of learning a#ti ities so that everyone, misbeha ing or not, learns as easily and produ#ti ely as possible. Edu#ators sometimes therefore des#ribe good management as the
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. !lassroom management and the learning environment creation of a positive learning environment, be#ause the term #alls attention to the totality of a#ti ities and people in a #lassroom, as .ell as to their goals and expe#tations about learning ;(ones P (ones, E11:<. 4hen one of us ;Kel in< .as tea#hing, he used both terms almost inter#hangeably, though in spea)ing of management he more often .as referring to indi idual studentsJ beha ior and learning, and in spea)ing of the learning environment he more often meant the o erall =feel? of the #lass as a .hole.
(hy classroom management matters

$anaging the learning en ironment is both a ma,or responsibility and an on-going #on#ern for all tea#hers, e en those .ith years of experien#e ;'ood P 6rophy, E11E<. &here are se eral reasons. In the first pla#e, a lot goes on in #lassrooms simultaneously, e en .hen students seem to be doing only one tas) in #ommon. &.enty-fi e students may all seem to be .or)ing on a sheet of math problems. 6ut loo) more #losely: se eral may be stu#) on a parti#ular problem, ea#h for different reasons. " fe. others ha e .or)ed only the first problem or t.o and are no. #hatting quietly .ith ea#h other instead of #ontinuing. !till others ha e finished and are .ondering .hat to do next. "t any one moment ea#h student needs something differentLdifferent information, different hints, different )inds of en#ouragement. !u#h di ersity in#reases e en more if the tea#her deliberately assigns multiple a#ti ities to different groups or indi iduals ;for example, if some students do a reading assignment .hile others do the math problems<. "nother reason that managing the en ironment is #hallenging is be#ause a tea#her #an not predi#t e erything that .ill happen in a #lass. " .ell-planned lesson may fall flat on its fa#e, or ta)e less time than expe#ted, and you find yourself impro ising to fill #lass time. Bn the other hand an unplanned moment may be#ome a .onderful, sustained ex#hange among students, and prompt you to drop pre ious plans and follo. the flo. of dis#ussion. Interruptions happen #ontinually: a fire drill, a drop-in isit from another tea#her or the prin#ipal, a #all on the inter#om from the offi#e. "n a#ti ity may indeed turn out .ell, but also rather differently than you intendedI you therefore ha e to de#ide ho., if at all, to ad,ust the next dayDs lesson to allo. for this surprise. " third reason for the importan#e of management is that students form opinions and per#eptions about your tea#hing that are in#onsistent .ith your o.n. 4hat you intend as en#ouragement for a shy student may seem to the student herself li)e =for#ed parti#ipation?. "n eager, outgoing #lassmate .at#hing your effort to en#ourage the shy student, moreo er, may not see you as either en#ouraging or #oer#ing, but as o erloo)ing or ignoring other students .ho already .ant to parti#ipate. &he ariety of per#eptions #an lead to surprises in studentsJ responsesLmost often small ones, but o##asionally ma,or. "t the broadest, so#iety-.ide le el, #lassroom management #hallenges tea#hers be#ause publi# s#hooling is not oluntary, and studentsJ presen#e in a #lassroom is therefore not a sign, in and of itself, that they .ish to learn. Instead, studentsJ presen#e is ,ust a sign that an o%%ortunity exists for tea#hers to moti ate students to learn. !ome students, of #ourse, do en,oy learning and being in s#hool, almost regardless of .hat tea#hers doM Bthers do en,oy s#hool, but only be#ause tea#hers ha e .or)ed hard to ma)e #lassroom life pleasant and interesting. &hose students be#ome moti ated be#ause you ha e su##essfully #reated a positi e learning en ironment and ha e sustained it through s)illful management. Fortunately it is possible to earn this sort of #ommitment from many students, and this #hapter des#ribes .ays of doing so. 4e begin .ith .ays of %reventing management problems from happening by in#reasing studentsJ fo#us on learning. &he methods in#lude ideas about arranging #lassroom spa#e, about establishing pro#edures, routines,
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&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense and rules, and about #ommuni#ating the importan#e of learning to students and parents. "fter these pre ention oriented dis#ussions, .e loo) at .ays of refo#using students .hen and if their minds or a#tions stray from the tas)s at hand. "s you probably )no. from being a student, bringing students ba#) on tas) #an happen in many .ays, and the .ays ary .idely in the energy and persisten#e required of the tea#her. 4e try to indi#ate some of these ariations, but be#ause of spa#e limitations and be#ause of the ri#hness of #lassroom life, .e #annot des#ribe them all.
Preventing management problems by focusing students on learning

&he easiest management problems to sol e are ones that do not happen in the first pla#eM E en before the s#hool year begins, you #an minimi/e beha ior problems by arranging #lassroom furniture and materials in .ays that en#ourage a fo#us on learning as mu#h as possible. 2ater, on#e s#hool begins, you #an establish pro#edures and rules that support a fo#us on learning e en more.
"rranging #lassroom spa#e

Gie.ed broadly, #lassrooms may seem to be arranged in similar .ays, but there are a#tually important alternati e arrangements to #onsider. Gariations exist be#ause of grade le el, the sub,e#ts taught, the tea#herJs philosophy of edu#ation, and of #ourse the si/e of the room and the furniture a ailable. 4hate er the arrangement that you #hoose, it should help students to fo#us on learning tas)s as mu#h as possible and minimi/e the #han#es of distra#tions. 6eyond these basi# prin#iples, ho.e er, the =best? arrangement depends on .hat your students need and on the )ind of tea#hing that you prefer and feel able to pro ide ;6oyner, E110I Aations P 6oyett, E11E<. &he next se#tions des#ribe some of the options. In #onsidering them ;and before mo ing too mu#h furniture around your roomM<, you might .ant to try experimenting .ith spatial arrangements = irtually? by using one of the #omputer programs a ailable on the Internet ;see: http:KKtea#her.s#holasti#.#omKtoolsK#lassZsetupK<.
!is%lays and
all s%ace
"ll #lassrooms ha e .alls, of #ourse, and ho. you fill them #an affe#t the mood or feeling of a #lassroom. "mple displays ma)e a room interesting and #an be used to reinfor#e #urri#ulum goals and display ;and hen#e publi#ly re#ogni/e< studentsJ .or). 6ut too many displays #an also ma)e a room seem =busy? or distra#ting as .ell as physi#ally smaller. &hey #an also be more .or) to maintain. If you are starting a ne. s#hool year, then, a good strategy is to de#orate some of the .all or bulletin board spa#e, but not to fill it all immediately. 2ea ing some spa#e open lea es flexibility to respond to ideas and #urri#ulum needs that emerge after the year is under.ay. &he same ad i#e applies espe#ially for displays that are high maintenan#e, su#h as aquariums, pets, and plants. &hese #an ser e .onderfully as learning aids, but do not ha e to be in pla#e on the first day of s#hool. Aot only the students, but also you yourself, may already ha e enough to #ope .ith at that time.
Com%uters in the classroom

If you are li)e the ma,ority of tea#hers, you .ill ha e only one #omputer in your room, or at most ,ust a fe., and their pla#ement may be pre-determined by the lo#ation of po.er and #able outlets. If so, you need to thin) about #omputer pla#ement early in the pro#ess of setting up a room. Bn#e the lo#ation of #omputers is set, lo#ations for des)s, high-usage shel es, and other mo eable items #an be #hosen more sensiblyLin general, as already mentioned, so as to minimi/e distra#tions to students and to a oid unne#essary traffi# #ongestion.
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. !lassroom management and the learning environment
"isi(ility of and interactions
ith students
2earning is fa#ilitated if the furniture and spa#e allo. you to see all students and to intera#t .ith them from a #omfortable distan#e. 3sually this means that the main, #entral part of the roomL.here des)s and tables are usually lo#atedLneeds to be as open and as spa#ious as possible. 4hile this idea may seem ob ious, ena#ting it #an be #hallenging in pra#ti#e if the room itself is small or shaped unusually. In #lassrooms .ith young students ;)indergarten<, furthermore, open spa#es tend to allo., if not in ite, physi#al mo ement of #hildrenLa feature that you may #onsider either #onstru#ti e or annoying, depending on your edu#ational goals and the a#tual le el of a#ti ity that o##urs.
S%atial arrangements uni)ue to grade levels or su('ects

&he best room arrangement sometimes depends on the grade le el or sub,e#t area of the #lass. If you tea#h in elementary s#hool, for example, you may need to thin) espe#ially about .here students #an )eep their daily belongings, su#h as #oats and lun#hes. In some s#hools, these #an be )ept outside the #lassroomLbut not ne#essarily. !ome sub,e#ts and grade le els, furthermore, lend themsel es espe#ially .ell to small group intera#tion, in .hi#h #ase you might prefer not to seat students in ro.s, but instead around small-group tables or .or) areas. &he latter arrangement is sometimes preferred by elementary tea#hers, but is also useful in high s#hools .here er students need lots of #ounter spa#e, as in some shops or art #ourses, or .here they need to intera#t, as in English as a !e#ond 2anguage #ourses ;$#Cafferty, (a#obs, P Iddings, E119<. &he )ey issue in de#iding bet.een tables and ro.s, ho.e er, is not grade le el or sub,e#t as su#h, but the amount of small group intera#tion you .ant to en#ourage, #ompared to the amount of .hole-group instru#tion. "s a rule, tables ma)e .or)ing .ith peers easier, and ro.s ma)e listening to the tea#her more li)ely and group .or) slightly more a.).ard physi#ally. Ironi#ally, some tea#hers also experien#e #hallenges about room arrangement be#ause they do not a#tually ha e a #lassroom of their o.n, be#ause they must mo e ea#h day among other tea#hersJ rooms. =Floating? is espe#ially li)ely for spe#iali/ed tea#hers ;e.g. musi# tea#hers in elementary s#hools, .ho mo e from #lass to #lass< and in s#hools ha e an o erall shortage of #lassrooms. Floating #an sometimes be annoying to the tea#her, though it a#tually also has ad antages, su#h as not ha ing to ta)e responsibility for ho. other tea#hersJ rooms are arranged. If you find yourself floating, it helps to #onsider a fe. )ey strategies, su#h as:
#onsider using a permanent #art to mo e #ru#ial supplies from room to room ma)e sure that e ery one of your rooms has an o erhead pro,e#tor ;do not #ount on using #hal)boards or
#omputers in other tea#hersJ rooms<

tal) to the other tea#hers about ha ing at least one shelf or #orner in ea#h room designated for your
ex#lusi e use
Establishing daily pro#edures and routines

rocedures or routines are spe#ifi# .ays of doing #ommon, repeated #lassroom tas)s or a#ti ities. Examples in#lude #he#)ing daily attendan#e, dealing .ith students .ho arri e late, or granting permission to lea e the #lassroom for an errand. "#ademi#ally related pro#edures in#lude .ays of turning in daily home.or) ;e.g. putting it on a designated shelf at a parti#ular time<, of gaining the tea#herJs attention during quiet seat .or) ;e.g. raising your hand and .aiting<, and of starting a =free #hoi#e? a#ti ity after #ompleting a #lassroom assignment.
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&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense *ro#edures ser e the largely pra#ti#al purpose of ma)ing a#ti ities and tas)s flo. smoothlyLa aluable and ne#essary purpose in #lassrooms, .here the a#tions of many people ha e to be #oordinated .ithin limited time and spa#e. "s su#h, pro#edures are more li)e so#ial #on entions than li)e moral expe#tations. &hey are only indire#tly about .hat is ethi#ally right or ethi#ally desira(le to do ;&uriel, E119<. $ost pro#edures or routines #an be a##omplished in more than one .ay, .ith only minor differen#es in out#omes. &here is more than one .ay, for example, for the pro#edure of ta)ing attendan#e: the tea#her #ould #all the role, delegate a student to #all the role, or note studentsJ presen#e on a seating #hart. Ea#h ariation a##omplishes essentially the same tas), and the #hoi#e may be less important than the fa#t that the #lass #oordinates its a#tions someho , by #ommitting to some sort of #hoi#e. For tea#hers, of #ourse, an initial management tas) is to establish pro#edures and routines as promptly as possible. 6e#ause of the #on entional quality of pro#edures, some tea#hers find that it .or)s .ell simply to announ#e and explain )ey pro#edures .ithout in iting mu#h dis#ussion from students ;=5ere is ho. .e .ill #hoose partners for the group .or)?<. Bther tea#hers prefer to in ite input from students .hen #reating pro#edures ;as)ing the #lass, =4hat do you feel is the best .ay for students to get my attention during a quiet reading time>?<. 6oth approa#hes ha e ad antages as .ell as disad antages. !imply announ#ing )ey pro#edures sa es time and insures #onsisten#y in #ase you tea#h more than one #lass ;as you .ould in high s#hool<. 6ut it puts more responsibility on the tea#her to #hoose pro#edures that are truly reasonable and pra#ti#al. In iting studentsJ input, on the other hand, #an help students to be#ome a.are of and #ommitted to pro#edures, but at the #ost of requiring more time to settle on them. It also ris)s #reating #onfusion if you tea#h multiple #lasses, ea#h of .hi#h adopts different pro#edures. 4hate er approa#h you #hoose, of #ourse, they ha e to ta)e into a##ount any pro#edures or rules imposed by the s#hool or s#hool distri#t as a .hole. " s#hool may ha e a uniform poli#y about ho. to re#ord daily attendan#e, for example, and that poli#y may determine, either partly or #ompletely, ho. you ta)e attendan#e .ith your parti#ular students.
Establishing #lassroom rules

3nli)e pro#edures or routines, rules express standards of beha ior for .hi#h indi idual students need to ta)e responsibility. "lthough they are li)e pro#edures in that they sometimes help in insuring the effi#ien#y of #lassroom tas)s, they are really about en#ouraging students to be responsible for learning and sho.ing respe#t for ea#h other. Exhibit @ lists a typi#al set of #lassroom rules. 7. &reat others .ith #ourtesy and politeness.
E. $a)e sure to bring required materials to #lass and to a#ti ities. 0. 6e on time for #lass and other a#ti ities. F. 2isten to the tea#her and to others .hen they are spea)ing. @. Follo. all s#hool rules.
Exhibit @: !ample set of #lassroom rules Aote three things about the examples in Exhibit @. Bne is that the rules are not numerousI the table lists only fi e. $ost edu#ational experts re#ommend )eeping the number of rules to a minimum in order to ma)e them easier to remember ;&horson, E110I 6rophy, E11F<. " se#ond feature is that they are stated in positi e terms ;=%o [^?< Educational Psychology 70C " 'lobal &ext
. !lassroom management and the learning environment rather than negati e terms ;=%o not do N^?<, a strategy that emphasi/es and #larifies .hat students should do rather than .hat they should a oid. " third feature is that ea#h rule a#tually #o ers a #olle#tion of more spe#ifi# beha iors. &he rule =6ring all materials to #lass?, for example, #o ers bringing pen#ils, paper, textboo)s, home.or) papers, and permission slipsLdepending on the situation. "s a result of their generality, rules often ha e a degree of ambiguity that sometimes requires interpretation. Infra#tions may o##ur that are marginal or =in a grey area?, rather than #lear #ut. " student may bring a pen, for example, but the pen may not .or) properly. Nou may therefore .onder .hether this in#ident is really a failure to follo. the rule, or ,ust an unfortunate ;and in this #ase minor< fault of the pen manufa#turer. "s .ith #lassroom pro#edures, rules #an be planned either by the tea#her alone, or by the tea#her .ith ad i#e from students. &he arguments for ea#h approa#h are similar to the arguments for pro#edures: rules =laid on? by the tea#her may be more effi#ient and #onsistent, and in this sense more fair, but rules influen#ed by the students may be supported more fully by the students. 6e#ause rules fo#us strongly on personal responsibility, ho.e er, there is a stronger #ase for in ol ing students in ma)ing them than in ma)ing #lassroom pro#edures ;6roo)field, E119I Kohn, E119<. In any #ase the question of .ho plans #lassroom rules is not ne#essarily an eitherKor #hoi#e. It is possible in prin#iple to impose #ertain rules on students ;for example, ="l.ays be polite to ea#h other?< but let the students determine the #onsequen#es for iolations of #ertain rules ;for example, =If a student is dis#ourteous to a #lassmate, heKshe must apologi/e to the student in .riting?<. !ome mixture of influen#es is probably ine itable, in fa#t, if only be#ause the #lass needs to ta)e into a##ount your o.n moral #ommitments as the tea#her as .ell as any imposed by the s#hool ;li)e =Ao smo)ing in the s#hool? or ="l.ays .al) in the hall.ays?<.
*a#ing and stru#turing lessons and a#ti ities

Bne of the best .ays to pre ent management problems is by pa#ing and stru#turing lessons or a#ti ities as smoothly and #ontinuously as possible. &his goal depends on three ma,or strategies:
sele#ting tas)s or a#ti ities at an appropriate le el of diffi#ulty for your students pro iding a moderate le el of stru#ture or #larity to students about .hat they are supposed to do, espe#ially
during transitions bet.een a#ti ities

)eeping alert to the flo. and interplay of beha iors for the #lass as a .hole and for indi iduals .ithin it.
Ea#h strategy presents spe#ial #hallenges to tea#hers, but also opportunities for helping students to learn.
Choosing tas&s at an a%%ro%riate level of difficulty

"s experien#ed tea#hers )no. and as resear#h has #onfirmed, students are most li)ely to engage .ith learning .hen tas)s are of moderate diffi#ulty, neither too easy nor too hard and therefore neither boring nor frustrating ;6ritt, E11@<. Finding the right le el of diffi#ulty, ho.e er, #an be a #hallenge if you ha e little experien#e tea#hing a parti#ular grade le el or #urri#ulum, or e en if students are simply ne. to you and their abilities un)no.n. 4hether familiar or not, members of any #lass are li)ely to ha e di erse s)ills and readinessUa fa#t that ma)es it #hallenging to determine .hat le el of diffi#ulty is appropriate. " #ommon strategy for dealing .ith these #hallenges is to begin units, lessons, or pro,e#ts .ith tas)s that are relati ely easy and familiar. &hen, introdu#e more diffi#ult material or tas)s gradually until students seem #hallenged, but not o er.helmed. Follo.ing this strategy gi es the tea#her a #han#e to obser e and diagnose studentsJ learning needs before ad,usting #ontent, and it gi es students a #han#e to orient themsel es to the tea#herJs expe#tations, tea#hing style, and topi# of study .ithout be#oming frustrated prematurely. 2ater in a unit, lesson, or pro,e#t, students seem better able to deal .ith more diffi#ult tas)s or #ontent 708
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense ;Gan $errionboer, E110<. &he prin#iple seems to help as .ell .ith =authenti#? learning tas)sLones that resemble real-.orld a#ti ities, su#h as learning to dri e an automobile or to #oo) a meal, and that present a ariety of #omplex tas)s simultaneously. E en in those #ases it helps to isolate and fo#us on the simplest subtas)s first ;su#h as =put the )ey in the ignition?< and mo e to harder tas)s only later ;su#h as parallel par)ing<. !equen#ing instru#tion is only a partial solution to finding the best =le el? of diffi#ulty, ho.e er, be#ause it does not deal .ith enduring indi idual differen#es among students. &he fundamental #hallenge to tea#hers is to indi iduali/e or differentiate instru#tion fully: to tailor it not only to the #lass as a group, but to the lasting differen#es among members of the #lass. Bne .ay to approa#h this sort of di ersity, ob iously, is to plan different #ontent or a#ti ities for different students or groups of students. 4hile one group .or)s on &as) ", another group .or)s on &as) 6I one group .or)s on relati ely easy math problems, for example, .hile another .or)s on harder ones. %ifferentiating instru#tion in this .ay #ompli#ates a tea#herJs ,ob, but it #an be done, and has in fa#t been done by many tea#hers ;it also ma)es tea#hing more interestingM<. In the next #hapter, .e des#ribe some #lassroom management strategies that help .ith su#h multi-tas)ing.
Providing moderate amounts of structure and detail

Chan#es are that at some point in your edu#ational #areer you ha e .ished that a tea#her .ould #larify or explain an assignment more fully, and perhaps gi e it a #learer stru#ture or organi/ation. !tudentsJ desire for #larity is espe#ially #ommon .ith assignments that are by nature open-ended, su#h as long essays, large pro,e#ts, or #reati e .or)s. !imply being told to =.rite an essay #ritiquing the no el?, for example, lea es more room for un#ertainty ;and .orry< than being gi en guidelines about .hat questions the essay should address, .hat topi#s or parts it should ha e, and .hat its length or style should be ;Chesebro, E110<. "s you might suspe#t, some students desire #larity more than others, and impro e their performan#e espe#ially mu#h .hen pro ided .ith plenty of stru#ture and #larity. !tudents .ith #ertain )inds of learning diffi#ulties, in parti#ular, often learn effe#ti ely and stay on tas) only if pro ided .ith some.hat expli#it, detailed instru#tions about the tas)s expe#ted of them ;$ar)s, et al., E110<. "s a tea#her, the #hallenge is to a##ommodate studentsJ need for #larity .ithout ma)ing guidan#e so spe#ifi# or detailed that students do little thin)ing for themsel es. "s a ;ridi#ulously extreme< example, #onsider a tea#her gi es =#lear? instru#tions for an essay by announ#ing not only exa#tly .hi#h arti#les to read and #ite in the essay and .hi#h topi#s or issues to #o er, but e en requires spe#ifi# .ording of senten#es in their essays. &his mu#h spe#ifi#ity may redu#e studentsJ un#ertainties and ma)e the tea#herJs tas) of e aluating the essays relati ely straightfor.ard and easy. 6ut it also redu#es or e en eliminates the edu#ational alue of the assignmentLassuming, of #ourse, that its purpose is to get students to thin) for themsel es. Ideally, then, stru#ture should be moderate rather than extreme. &here should be ,ust enough to gi e students some sense of dire#tion and to stimulate more a##omplishment than if they .or)ed .ith less stru#ture or guidan#e. &his ideal is an appli#ation of Gygots)yJs idea of the /one of proximal de elopment that .e dis#ussed in the #hapter, =&he learning pro#ess?: a pla#e ;figurati ely spea)ing< .here students get more done .ith help than .ithout it. &he ideal amount of guidan#eLthe =lo#ation? of the /one of proximal de elopmentL aries .ith the assignment and the student, and it ;hopefully< de#reases o er time for all students. Bne student may need more guidan#e to do his or her best in math, but less guidan#e in order to .rite her or his best essay. "nother student may need the re erse. 6ut if all goes .ell, both students may need less at the end of the year than at the beginning.
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. !lassroom management and the learning environment
Aanaging transitions
&ransitions bet.een a#ti ities is often full of distra#tions and =lost? time, and is a time .hen inappropriate beha iors are espe#ially li)ely to o##ur. *art of the problem is intrinsi# to transitions: students may ha e to .ait before a ne. a#ti ity a#tually begins, and therefore get bored at the ery moment .hen the tea#her is preo##upied .ith arranging materials for the ne. a#ti ity. From the point of ie. of the students, transitions may seem essentially li)e unsuper ised group time, .hen seemingly any beha ior is tolerated. $inimi/ing su#h problems requires t.o strategies, one of .hi#h is easier to implement than the other. &he easier strategy is for you, as tea#her, to organi/e materials as .ell as possible ahead of time, so that you minimi/e the time needed to begin a ne. a#ti ity. &he ad i#e sounds simple, and mostly is, but it sometimes ta)es a bit of pra#ti#e to implement smoothly. 4hen one of us ;Kel in< first began tea#hing uni ersity, for example, parti#ular papers or o erhead transparen#ies sometimes got lost in the .rong folder in spite of Kel inDs efforts to )eep them .here they .ere easy to find. &he resulting delays about finding them slo.ed the pa#e of #lass and #aused frustrations. " se#ond, more #omplex strategy is to tea#h students .ays to manage their o.n beha ior during transitions ;$ar/ano P $ar/ano, E11F<. If students tal) too loudly at these times, for example, then dis#uss .ith them .hat #onstitutes appropriate le els or amounts of tal), and dis#uss the need for them to monitor their o.n sound le el. Br if students stop .or) early in anti#ipation of ending an a#ti ity, then tal) aboutLor e en pra#ti#eL.aiting for a signal from yourself to indi#ate the true ending point for an a#ti ity. If #ertain students #ontinue .or)ing (eyond the end of an a#ti ity. Bn the other hand, try gi ing them .arning of the impending end in ad an#e, and remind them about to ta)e responsibility for a#tually finishing .or) on#e they hear the ad an#e .arning, and so on. &he point of these ta#ti#s is to en#ourage responsibility for beha ior during transitions, and thereby redu#e your o.n need to monitor students at that #ru#ial time. Aone of these ideas, of #ourse, mean that you, as tea#her, should gi e up monitoring studentsJ beha ior entirely. Chan#es are that you still .ill need to noti#e if and .hen someone tal)s too loudly, finishes too early, or #ontinues too long, and you .ill still need to gi e some students appropriate reminders. 6ut the amount of reminding .ill be less to the extent that students #an remind and monitor themsel esLa .el#ome trend at any time, but espe#ially during transitions.
Aaintaining the flo
of activities
" lot of #lassroom management is really about )eeping a#ti ities flo.ing smoothly, both during indi idual lessons and a#ross the s#hool day. &he trouble is that there is ne er ,ust =one? e ent happening at a time, e en if only one a#ti ity has been formally planned and is supposed to be o##urring. Imagine, for example, that e eryone is supposed to be attending a single .hole-#lass dis#ussion on a topi#I yet indi idual students .ill be ha ing different experien#es at any one moment. !e eral students may be listening and #ontributing #omments, for example, but a fe. others may be planning .hat they .ant to say ne5t and ignoring the #urrent spea)ers, still others may be ruminating about .hat a pre ious spea)er said, and still others may be thin)ing about unrelated matters--the restroom, food, or sex. &hings get e en more #ompli#ated if the tea#her deliberately plans multiple a#ti ities: in that #ase some students may intera#t .ith the tea#her, for example, .hile others do .or) in an unsuper ised group or .or) independently in a different part of the room. 5o. is a tea#her to )eep a#ti ities flo.ing smoothly in the fa#e of su#h ariety>
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&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense " #ommon mista)e of beginning tea#hers in multi-fa#eted settings li)e these is to pay too mu#h attention to any one a#ti ity, student, or small group, at the expense of noti#ing and responding to all the others. If you are helping a student on one side of the room .hen someone on the other side disturbs #lassmates .ith off-tas) #on ersation, it #an be less effe#ti e either to finish .ith the student you are helping before attending to the disruption, or to interrupt yourself to sol e the disruption on the other side of the room. "lthough one of these responses may be ne#essary, either one in ol es disruption some here. &here is a ris) that either the studentJs #hatting may spread to others, or the interrupted student may be#ome bored .ith .aiting for the tea#herJs attention and .ander off-tas) herself. " better solution, though one that at first may seem #hallenging, is to attend to (oth e ents at on#eLa strategy that .as named 1ithitness in a series of no.-#lassi# resear#h studies se eral de#ades ago ;Kounin, 78:1<. 4ithitness does not mean that you fo#us on all simultaneous a#ti ities .ith equal #are, but only that you remain a.are of multiple a#ti ities, beha iors, and e ents to some degree. "t a parti#ular moment, for example, you may be fo#using on helping a student, but in some #orner of your mind you also noti#e .hen #hatting begins on the other side of the room. Nou ha e, as the saying goes, =eyes in the ba#) of your head?. +esear#h has found that experien#ed tea#hers are mu#h more li)ely to sho. .ithitness than inexperien#ed tea#hers, and that these qualities are asso#iated .ith managing #lassrooms su##essfully ;Emmer P !tough, E117<. !imultaneous a.arenessL.ithitnessLma)es possible responses to the multiple e ents that are immediate and nearly simultaneousL.hat edu#ators sometimes #alled overlapping. &he tea#herJs responses to ea#h e ent or beha ior need not ta)e equal time, nor e en be equally noti#eable to all students. If you are helping one student .ith seat .or) at the pre#ise moment .hen another student begins #hatting off-tas), for example, a qui#) glan#e to the se#ond student may be enough to bring the se#ond one ba#) to the .or) at hand, and may s#ar#ely interrupt your #on ersation .ith the first student, or be noti#ed by others .ho are not e en in ol ed. &he result is a smoother flo. to a#ti ities o erall. "s a ne. tea#her, you may find that .ithitness and o erlapping de elop more easily in some situations than in others. It may be easier to )eep an eye ;or ear< on multiple a#ti ities during familiar routines, su#h as ta)ing attendan#e, but harder to do the same during a#ti ities that are unfamiliar or #omplex, su#h as introdu#ing a ne. topi# or unit that you ha e ne er taught before. 6ut s)ill at broadening your attention does in#rease .ith time and pra#ti#e. It helps to )eep trying. $erely demonstrating to students that you are =.ithit?, in fa#t, e en .ithout ma)ing deliberate o erlapping responses, #an sometimes deter students from off-tas) beha ior. !omeone .ho is tempted to pass notes in #lass, for example, might not do so be#ause she belie es that you .ill probably noti#e her doing it any.ay, .hether or not you are able to noti#e in fa#t.
Communi#ating the importan#e of learning and of positi e beha ior

"ltogether, the fa#tors .e ha e dis#ussedLarranging spa#e, pro#edures, and rules, and de eloping ithitness0 help #ommuni#ate an important message: that in the #lassroom learning and positi e so#ial beha ior are priorities. In addition, tea#hers #an #on ey this message by offering timely feedba#) to students about performan#e, by )eeping a##urate re#ords of the performan#e, and by deliberately #ommuni#ating .ith parents or #aregi ers about their #hildren and about #lass a#ti ities. Communi#ating effe#ti ely is so important for all aspe#ts of tea#hing, in fa#t, that .e dis#uss it more fully later in this boo) ;see Chapter C,=&he nature of #lassroom #ommuni#ation?<. 5ere .e fo#us on only one of its important
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. !lassroom management and the learning environment aspe#ts: ho. #ommuni#ation #ontributes to a smoothly fun#tioning #lassroom and in this .ay helps pre ent beha ior problems.
'i ing timely feedba#)

&he term feed(ac&, .hen used by edu#ators, refers to responses to students about their beha ior or performan#e. Feedba#) is essential if students are to learn and if they are to de elop #lassroom beha ior that is so#ially s)illed and =mature?. 6ut feedba#) #an only be fully effe#ti e if offered as soon as possible, .hen it is still rele ant to the tas) or a#ti ity at hand ;+eynolds, 788E<. " s#ore on a test is more informati e immediately after a test than after a six-month delay, .hen students may ha e forgotten mu#h of the #ontent of the test. " tea#herJs #omment to a student about an inappropriate, off-tas) beha ior may not be espe#ially .el#ome at the moment the beha ior o##urs, but it #an be more influential and informati e thenI later, both tea#her and student .ill ha e trouble remembering the details of the off-tas) beha ior, and in this sense may literally =not )no. .hat they are tal)ing about?. &he same is true for #omments about a %ositive beha ior by a student: hearing a #ompliment right a.ay ma)es it easier to the #omment .ith the beha ior, and allo.s the #ompliment to influen#e the student more strongly. &here are of #ourse pra#ti#al limits to ho. fast feedba#) #an be gi en, but the general prin#iple is #lear: feedba#) tends to .or) better .hen it is timely. &he prin#iple of timely feedba#) is #onsistent, in#identally, .ith a #entral prin#iple of operant #onditioning dis#ussed in Chapter E: reinfor#ement .or)s best .hen it follo.s a to-be-learned operant beha ior #losely ;!)inner, 78@:<. In this #ase a tea#herJs feedba#) ser es as a form of reinfor#ement. &he analogy is easiest to understand .hen the feedba#) ta)es the form of praiseI in operant #onditioning terms, the reinfor#ing praise then fun#tions li)e a =re.ard?. 4hen feedba#) is negati e, it fun#tions as an =a ersi e stimulus? ;in operant terms<, shutting do.n the beha ior #riti#i/ed. "t other times, though, #riti#ism #an also fun#tion as an unintended reinfor#ement. &his happens, for example, if a student experien#es #riti#ism as a redu#tion in isolation and therefore as in in#rease in his importan#e in the #lassLa relati ely desirable #hange. !o the inappropriate beha ior #ontinues, or e en in#reases, #ontrary to the tea#herDs intentions. Exhibit 9 diagrams this sequen#e of e ents.
"#ample of unintended negative reinforcement in the classroom$ Student is isolated socially Student publicly attention +einfor#ement #an happen in #lass if an undesirable beha ior, leads to a less a ersi e state for a student. !o#ial isolation #an be redu#ed by publi# misbeha ior, .hi#h stimulates attention that is reinfor#ing. Ironi#ally, the effort to end misbeha ior ends up stimulating the misbeha ior. Exhibit 9: "ttra#ting attention as negati e reinfor#ement misbehaves Student gains others'
$aintaining a##urate re#ords

"lthough timeliness in responding to students #an sometimes happen naturally during #lass, there are also situations .here promptness depends on ha ing organi/ed )ey information ahead of time. Bb ious examples are the s#ores, mar)s, and grades returned to students for their .or). " short qui/ ;su#h as a .ee)ly spelling test< may be possible to return quite soon after the qui/Lsometimes you or e en the students themsel es #an mar) it during #lass. $ore often, though, assignments and tests require longer pro#essing times: you ha e to read, s#ore, or add
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&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense #omments to ea#h paper indi idually. Ex#essi e time to e aluate studentsD .or) #an redu#e the usefulness of a tea#herJs e aluations to students .hen she finally does return the .or) ;6la#), et al., E11F<. %uring the days or .ee)s .aiting for a test or assignment to be returned, students are left .ithout information about the quality or nature of their performan#eI at the extreme they may e en ha e to #omplete another test or do another assignment before getting information about an earlier one. ;*erhaps you yourself ha e experien#ed this parti#ular problemM< %elays in pro iding feedba#) about a#ademi# performan#e #an ne er be eliminated entirely, but they #an be redu#ed by )eeping a##urate, .ell-organi/ed re#ords of studentsJ .or). " number of #omputer programs are a ailable to help .ith this #hallengeI if your s#hool does not already ha e one in use, then there are se eral do.nloadable either free or at lo. #ost from the Internet ;e.g. Rhttp:KKdmo/.orgKComputersK!oft.areKEdu#ationalK&ea#hersZ5elpK'radeboo)sKS<. %es#ribing these is beyond the s#ope of this boo). For no. .e simply emphasi/e that grading systems benefit studentsJ learning the most .hen they pro ide feedba#) as qui#)ly and frequently as possible ;$#$illan, E117<, pre#isely the reason .hy a##urate, .ell-organi/ed re#ord-)eeping is important to )eep. "##urate re#ords are helpful not only for s#ores on tests, qui//es, or assignments, but also for de eloping des#ripti e summaries of the nature of studentsJ a#ademi# s)ills or progress. " #ommon .ay to de elop a des#ription is the student portfolio, .hi#h is a #ompilation of the studentJs .or) and on-going assessments of it #reated by the tea#her or in some #ases by the student ;$orit/ P Christie, E11@I 4hite, E11@<. &o )no. ho. a studentJs s#ien#e pro,e#t e ol ed from its beginning, for example, a tea#her and student #an )eep a portfolio of lab notes, logs, preliminary data, and the li)e. &o )no. ho. a studentJs .riting s)ills de eloped, they #ould )eep a portfolio of early drafts on arious .riting assignments. "s the .or) a##umulates, the student #an dis#uss it .ith the tea#her, and .rite brief refle#tions on its strengths thus far or on the steps needed to impro e the .or) further. 6y pro iding a .ay to respond to .or) as it e ol es, and by in#luding students in ma)ing the assessments, portfolios pro ide relati ely prompt feedba#), and in any #ase pro ide it sooner than by .aiting for the tea#her to re ie. .or) that is #omplete or final.
Communi#ating .ith parents and #aregi ers

!in#e parents and #aregi ers in a sense =donate? their #hildren to s#hools ;at least figurati ely spea)ing<, tea#hers are responsible for )eeping them informed and in ol ed to .hate er extent is pra#ti#al. Girtually all parents understand and assume that s#hools are generally intended for learning. %etailed #ommuni#ation #an enri#h parentsD understanding, of ho. learning is addressed .ith their parti#ular #hildJs #lassroom, and sho. them more pre#isely .hat their parti#ular #hild is doing. &he better su#h understanding in turn en#ourages parents and #aregi ers to support their #hildJs learning more #onfidently and =intelligently?. In this sense it #ontributes indire#tly to a positi e learning en ironment in their #hildJs #lass. &here are arious .ays to #ommuni#ate .ith parents, ea#h .ith ad antages and limitations. 5ere are three #ommon examples:
A regular classroom ne sletter2 " ne.sletter establishes a lin) .ith parents or #aregi ers .ith
#omparati ely little effort on the part of the tea#her. "t the beginning of the year, for example, a ne.sletter #an tell about spe#ial materials that students .ill need, important dates to remember ;li)e professional de elopment days .hen there is no s#hool<, or about #urri#ulum plans for the next fe. .ee)s. 6ut ne.sletters also ha e limitations. &hey #an seem impersonal, and they may get lost on the .ay home and
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. !lassroom management and the learning environment ne er rea#h parents or #aregi ers. &hey #an also be impra#ti#al for tea#hers .ith multiple #lasses, as in high s#hool or in spe#ialist sub,e#ts ;li)e musi# or physi#al edu#ation<, .here ea#h #lass follo.s a different program or #urri#ulum.
Tele%hone calls2 &he main ad antage of phoning is its immedia#y and indi iduality. &ea#her and parent or
#aregi er #an tal) about a parti#ular student, beha ior, or #on#ern, and do it no . 6y the same to)en, ho.e er, phone #alls are not an effi#ient .ay for informing parents about e ents or a#ti ities that affe#t e eryone in #ommon. &he indi iduality of phoning may explain .hy tea#hers often use this method .hen a student has a problem that is urgent or unusualLas .hen he has failed a test, missed #lasses, or misbeha ed seriously. +ightly or .rongly, a studentJs su##esses tend not to prompt phone #alls to the studentJs home ;though in fairness students may be more li)ely to tell parents about their su##esses themsel es, ma)ing it less essential for the tea#her to do so<.
Parent4teacher conferences2 $ost s#hools s#hedule periodi# timesLoften a day or e ening per termL.hen
tea#hers meet briefly .ith parents or #aregi ers .ho .ish to meet. 3nder good #onditions, the #onferen#es ha e the indi iduality of phone #alls, but also the ri#hness of #ommuni#ation possible only in fa#e-to-fa#e meetings. !in#e #onferen#es are a ailable to all parents, they need not fo#us on beha ior or a#ademi# problems, but often simply help to build rapport and understanding bet.een parents or #aregi ers and the tea#her. !ometimes too, parti#ularly at younger grade le els, tea#hers in ol e students in leading their o.n #onferen#esI the students display and explain their o.n .or) using a portfolio or other ar#hi e of a##umulated materials ;6enson P 6arnett, E11@I !tiggins P Chappuis, E11@<. In spite of all of these ad antages, though, parent-tea#her #onferen#es ha e limitations. !ome parents #annot get to #onferen#es be#ause of .or) s#hedules, #hild #are, or transportation problems. Bthers may feel intimated by any s#hoolsponsored e ent be#ause they spea) limited English or be#ause they remember painful experien#es from their o.n s#hool days. E en if you ma)e se eral efforts to #ommuni#ate, some parents may remain out of #onta#t. In these #ases it is important to remember that the parents may not be indifferent to their #hild or to the alue of edu#ation. Bther possibilities exist, as some of our #omments abo e imply: parents may ha e diffi#ulties .ith #hild #are, for example, ha e in#on enient .or) s#hedules, or feel self-#ons#ious about their o.n #ommuni#ation s)ills ;!te ens P &ollafield, E110<. E en so, there are .ays to en#ourage parents .ho may be shy, hesitant, or busy. Bne is to thin) about ho. they #an assist the s#hool e en from homeLfor example, by ma)ing materials to be used in #lass or ;if they are #omfortable using English< phoning other parents about #lass e ents. " se#ond .ay is to ha e a spe#ifi# tas) for the parents in mindLone .ith #lear stru#ture, su#h as photo#opying materials to be used by students later. " third is to remember to en#ourage, support, and respe#t the parentsJ presen#e and #ontributions .hen they do sho. up at s#hool fun#tions. Keep in mind that parents are experts about their o.n parti#ular #hildren, and .ithout them, you .ould ha e no students to tea#hM
Responding to student misbehavior

!o far .e ha e fo#used on pre enting beha iors that are inappropriate or annoying. &he ad i#e has all been proa#ti e or for.ard-loo)ing: plan #lassroom spa#e thoughtfully, #reate reasonable pro#edures and rules, pa#e lessons and a#ti ities appropriately, and #ommuni#ate the importan#e of learning #learly. "lthough .e #onsider these ideas important, it .ould be na_ e to imply they are enough to pre ent all beha ior problems. For arious reasons,
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&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense students sometimes still do things that disrupt other students or interrupt the flo. of a#ti ities. "t su#h moments the #hallenge is not about long-term planning but about ma)ing appropriate, but prompt responses. $isbeha iors left alone #an be #ontagious, a pro#ess edu#ators sometimes #all the ripple effect ;Kounin, 78:1<. Chatting bet.een t.o students, for example, #an gradually spread to six studentsI rudeness by one #an e entually be#ome rudeness by se eralI and so on. 6e#ause of this tenden#y, delaying a response to inappropriate beha ior #an ma)e the ,ob of getting students ba#) on tra#) harder than responding to it as immediately as possible. &here are many .ays to respond to inappropriate beha iors, of #ourse, and they ary in ho. mu#h they fo#us on the immediate beha ior #ompared to longer-term features or patterns of a studentJs beha ior. &here are so many .ays to respond, in fa#t, that .e #an des#ribe only a sample of the possibilities here. Aone are effe#ti e all of the time, though all do .or) at least some of the time. 4e start .ith a response that may not seem on the surfa#e li)e a remedy at allLsimply ignoring misbeha iors.
Ignoring misbeha iors

" lot of misbeha iors are not important or frequent enough to deser e any response at all. &hey are li)ely to disappear ;or e5tinguish, in beha iorist terms< simply if left alone. If a student .ho is usually quiet during #lass happens to .hisper to a neighbor on#e in a.hile, it is probably less disrupti e and ,ust as effe#ti e to ignore the infra#tion than to respond to it. !ome misbeha iors may not be .orth a response e en if they are frequent, as long as they do not seem to bother others. !uppose, for example, that a #ertain student has a habit of #hoosing quiet seat-.or) times to sharpen her pen#il. !he is #ontinually out of her seat to go to the sharpener. Net this beha ior is not really noti#ed by others. Is it then really a problem, ho.e er unne#essary or ill-timed it may be> In both examples ignoring the beha ior may be .ise be#ause there is little danger of the beha ior disrupting other students or of be#oming more frequent. Interrupting your a#ti itiesLor the studentsJLmight #ause more disruption than simply ignoring the problem. &hat said, there #an still be problems in de#iding .hether a parti#ular misbeha ior is truly minor, infrequent, or unnoti#ed by others. 3nli)e in our example abo e, students may .hisper to ea#h other more than =rarely? but less than =often?: in that #ase, .hen do you de#ide that the .hispering is in fa#t too frequent and needs a more a#ti e response from you> Br the student .ho sharpens her pen#il, mentioned abo e, may not bother most others, but she may nonetheless bother a fe.. In that #ase ho. many bothered #lassmates are =too many?> Fi e, three, ,ust one, or^> In these ambiguous #ases, you may need more a#ti e .ays of dealing .ith an inappropriate beha ior, li)e the ones des#ribed in the next se#tions.
'esturing non erbally

!ometimes it .or)s to #ommuni#ate using gestures, eye #onta#t, or =body language? that in ol e little or no spea)ing. Aon erbal #ues are often appropriate if a misbeha ior is ,ust a bit too serious or frequent to ignore, but not serious or frequent enough to merit ta)ing the time deliberately to spea) to or tal) .ith the student. If t.o students are #hatting off-tas) for a relati ely extended time, for example, sometimes a glan#e in their dire#tion, a fro.n, or e en ,ust mo ing #loser to the students is enough of a reminder to get them ba#) on tas). E en if these responses pro e not to be enough, they may help to )eep the off-tas) beha ior from spreading to other students. " ris) of relying on non erbal #ues, ho.e er, is that some students may not understand their meaning, or may e en fail to noti#e them. If the t.o #hatting students mentioned abo e are engrossed in their tal)ing, for example, they may not see you glan#e or fro.n at them. Br they might noti#e but not interpret your #ue as a reminder to get Educational Psychology 7F9 " 'lobal &ext
. !lassroom management and the learning environment ba#) on tas). $isinterpretation of non erbal gestures and #ues is more li)ely .ith young #hildren, .ho are still learning the subtleties of adultsJ non erbal =language? ;'uerrero P Floyd, E11@I 5eimann, et al., E119<. It is also more li)ely .ith students .ho spea) limited English or .hose #ultural ba#)ground differs signifi#antly from your o.n. &hese students may ha e learned different non erbal gestures from your o.n as part of their parti#ipation in their original #ulture ;$arsh, Elfenbein, P "mbady, E110<.
Aatural and logi#al #onsequen#es

Consequen#es are the out#omes or results of an a#tion. 4hen managing a #lassroom, t.o )inds of #onsequen#es are espe#ially effe#ti e for influen#ing studentsD beha ior: natural #onsequen#es and logi#al #onsequen#es. "s the term implies, natural conse3uences happen =naturally?, .ithout deliberate intention by anyone. If a student is late for #lass, for example, a natural #onsequen#e is that he misses information or material that needed to do an assignment. 'ogical conse3uences are ones that happen be#ause of the responses of or de#isions by others, but that also ha e an ob ious or =logi#al? relationship to the original a#tion. If one student steals anotherJs lun#h, for example, a logi#al #onsequen#e might be for the thief to reimburse the i#tim for the #ost of the lun#h. Aatural and logi#al #onsequen#es are often .o en together and thus hard to distinguish: if one student pi#)s a fight .ith another student, a natural #onsequen#e might be in,ury not only to the i#tim, but also to the aggressor ;an inherent byprodu#t of fighting<, but a logi#al #onsequen#e might be to lose friends ;the response of others to fighting<. In pra#ti#e both may o##ur. In general resear#h has found that both natural and logi#al #onsequen#es #an be effe#ti e for minimi/ing undesirable beha iors, pro ided they are applied in appropriate situations ;4einstein, &omlinson-Clar)e, P Curran, E11F<. Consider a student .ho runs impulsi ely do.n s#hool hall.ays. &he student is li)ely to ha e =traffi# a##idents?, and thus ;hopefully< to see that running is not safe and to redu#e the frequen#y of running. Br #onsider a student .ho #hroni#ally tal)s during #lass instead of .or)ing on an assigned tas). &he student may ha e to ma)e up the assignment later, possibly as home.or). 6e#ause the beha ior and the #onsequen#e are #onne#ted logi#ally, the student is relati ely li)ely to see the dra.ba#) of #hoosing to tal), and to redu#e ho. mu#h he or she tal)s on subsequent o##asions. In either #ase, .hether natural or logi#al, the )ey features that ma)e #onsequen#es .or) are ;a< that they are appropriate to the misbeha ior and ;b< that the student understands the #onne#tion bet.een the #onsequen#es and the original beha ior. Aoti#e, though, that natural and logi#al #onsequen#es do not al.ays .or)I if they did, there .ould be no further need for management strategiesM Bne limitation is that misbeha iors #an sometimes be so serious that no natural or logi#al #onsequen#e seems suffi#ient or appropriate. !uppose, for example, that one student deliberately brea)s another studentJs eyeglasses. &here may be a natural #onsequen#e for the victim ;he or she .ill not be able to see easily<, but not for the student .ho bro)e the glasses. &here may also be no #onsequen#es for the aggressor that are both logi#al and fully satisfa#tory: the aggressor student .ill not be able to repair the bro)en glasses himself, and may not be able to pay for ne. glasses either. "nother limitation of natural and logi#al #onsequen#es is that their su##ess depends on the moti es of the misbeha ing student. If the student is see)ing attention or a##eptan#e by others, then #onsequen#es often .or) .ell. 6ullying in order to impress others, for example, is more li)ely to lose friends than to .in themLso bullying moti ated in this .ay is self-limiting. If a student is see)ing po.er o er others, on the other hand, then the #onsequen#es of bullying may not redu#e the beha ior. 6ullying in order to #ontrol othersJ a#tions by definition
7F:
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense a#tually a#hie es its o.n goal, and its =natural? result ;losing friends< .ould be irrele ant. Bf #ourse, a bully might also a#t from a #ombination of moti es, so that natural and logi#al #onsequen#es limit bullying beha ior, but only partially. " third problem .ith natural and logi#al #onsequen#es is that they #an easily be #onfused .ith deliberate punishment ;Kohn, E119<. &he differen#e is important. Consequen#es are fo#used on repairing damage and restoring relationships, and in this sense they fo#us on the future. *unishments highlight a mista)e or .rongdoing and in this sense fo#us on the past. Consequen#es tend to be more solution fo#used. *unishments tend to highlight the person .ho #ommitted the a#tion, and they often shame or humiliate the .rong doer. ;&able 79 summari/es these and other differen#es.< &able 79: %ifferen#es bet.een #onsequen#es and punishments ?ocused on future solutions Fo#used on indi idualJs a#tions Fo#used on repairing mista)es Fo#used on restoring positi e relationships &end to redu#e emotional pain and #onfli#t ?ocused on past mista5es Fo#used on #hara#ter of student or #hild Fo#used on establishing blame Fo#used on isolating .rong-doer &end to impose emotional pain or #onfli#t
Classroom examples of the differen#es bet.een #onsequen#es and punishment are plentiful. If a student fails to listen to the tea#herDs instru#tions, then a #onsequen#e is that he or she misses important information, but a punishment may be that the tea#her #riti#i/es or reprimands the student. If a student spea)s rudely to the tea#her, a #onsequen#e may be that the tea#her does not respond to the #omment, or simply reminds the student to spea) #ourteously. " punishment may be that the tea#her s#olds the student in the presen#e of others , or e en imposes a detention ;=!tay after s#hool for 7@ minutes?<.
Confli#t resolution and problem sol ing

4hen a student misbeha es persistently and disrupti ely, you .ill need strategies that are more a#ti e and asserti e than the ones dis#ussed so far, and that fo#us on conflict resolutionLthe redu#tion of disagreements that persist o er time. Confli#t resolution strategies that edu#ators and tea#hers tend to use usually ha e t.o parts ;(ones, E11F<. First, they in ol e .ays of identifying .hat =the? problem is pre#isely. !e#ond, they remind the student of #lassroom expe#tations and rules .ith simple #larity and asserti eness, but ithout apology or harshness. 4hen used together, the t.o strategies not only redu#e #onfli#ts bet.een a tea#her and an indi idual student, but also pro ide a model for other students to follo. .hen they ha e disagreements of their o.n. &he next se#tions dis#uss the nature of assertion and #larifi#ation for #onfli#t resolution in more detail.
Ste% C2 clarifying and focusing2 %ro(lem o nershi%

Classrooms #an be emotional pla#es e en though their primary purpose is to promote thin)ing rather than expression of feelings. &he emotions #an be quite desirable: they #an gi e tea#hers and students =passion? for learning and a sense of #are among members of the #lass. 6ut feelings #an also #ause trouble if students misbeha e: at those moments negati e feelingsLannoyan#e, anger, dis#omfortL#an interfere .ith understanding exa#tly .hat
7FC
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. !lassroom management and the learning environment is .rong and ho. to set things right again. 'aining a bit of distan#e from the negati e feelings is exa#tly .hat those moments need, espe#ially on the part of the tea#her, the person .ith ;presumably< the greatest maturity. In a .idely #ited approa#h to #onfli#t resolution #alled Teacher Effectiveness Training, the edu#ator &homas 'ordon des#ribes this #hallenge as an issue of problem o1nership, or de#iding .hose problem a beha ior or #onfli#t it really is ;'ordon, E110<. &he =o.ner? of the problem is the primary person .ho is troubled or bothered by it. &he o.ner #an be the student #ommitting the beha ior, the tea#her, or another student .ho merely happens to see the beha ior. !in#e the o.ner of a problem needs to ta)e primary responsibility for sol ing it, identifying o.nership ma)es a differen#e in ho. to deal .ith the beha ior or problem effe#ti ely. !uppose, for example, that a student named %a id ma)es a remar) that the tea#her finds offensi e ;li)e =!ean is fat?<. Is this remar) the studentDs problem or the tea#herDs> If %a id made the #omment pri ately to the tea#her and is unli)ely to repeat it, then maybe it is only the tea#herDs problem. If he is li)ely to repeat it to other students or to !ean himself, ho.e er, then maybe the problem is really %a idDs. Bn the other hand, suppose that a different student, !arah, #omplains repeatedly that #lassmates refuse to let her into group pro,e#ts. &his is less li)ely to be the tea#herJs problem rather than !arahDs: her diffi#ulty may affe#t her ability to do her o.n .or), but not really affe#t the tea#her or #lassmates dire#tly. "s you might suspe#t, too, a problem may sometimes affe#t se eral people at on#e. %a id, .ho #riti#i/ed !ean, may dis#o er that he offended not only the tea#her, but also #lassmates, .ho therefore a oid .or)ing .ith him. "t that point the .hole #lass begins to share in some aspe#t of =the? problem: not only is %a id pre ented from .or)ing .ith others #omfortably, but also #lassmates and the tea#her begin dealing .ith bad feelings about %a id.
Ste% D2 active, em%athetic listening

%iagnosing a##urately .ho really has a problem .ith a beha iorL.ho =o.ns? itLis helped by a number of strategies. Bne is active listeningLattending #arefully to all aspe#ts of .hat a student says and attempting to understand or empathi/e as fully as possible, e en if you do not agree .ith .hat is being said ;Cooper P !imonds, E110<. "#ti e listening in ol es as)ing questions in order #ontinually to #he#) your understanding. It also in ol es en#ouraging the student to elaborate on his or her remar)s, and paraphrasing and summari/ing .hat the student says in order to #he#) your per#eptions of .hat is said. It is important not to mo e too fast to.ard sol ing the problem .ith ad i#e, instru#tions, or s#olding, e en if these are responses that you might, as a tea#her, feel responsible for ma)ing. +esponding too soon .ith solutions #an shut do.n #ommuni#ation prematurely, and lea e you .ith ina##urate impressions of the sour#e or nature of the problem.
Ste% <2 assertive disci%line and .4messages

Bn#e you ha e listened .ell to the studentJs point of ie., it helps to frame your responses and #omments in terms of ho. the studentJs beha ior affe#ts you in parti#ular, espe#ially in your role as the tea#her. &he #omments should ha e se eral features:
&hey should be assertiveLneither passi e and apologeti#, nor unne#essarily hostile and aggressi e ;Cantor,
7889<. !tate the problem as matter-of-fa#tly as possible: =(oe, you are tal)ing .hile IJm explaining something?, instead of either =(oe, do you thin) you #ould be quiet no.>? or =(oe, be quietM?
&he #omments should emphasi/e &.messages ;'ordon, 78C7<, .hi#h are #omments that fo#us on ho. the
problem beha ior is affe#ting the tea#herJs ability to tea#h, as .ell as ho. the beha ior ma)es the tea#her feel. &hey are distin#t from you4messages, .hi#h fo#us on e aluating the mista)e or problem .hi#h the 7F8
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense student has #reated. "n I-message might be, =Nour tal)ing is ma)ing it hard for me to remember .hat IJm trying to say.? " you-message might be, =Nour tal)ing is rude.?
&he #omments should en#ourage the student to thin) about the effe#ts of his or her a#tions on othersLa
strategy that in effe#t en#ourages the student to #onsider the ethi#al impli#ations of the a#tions ;'ibbs, E110<. Instead of simply saying: =4hen you #ut in line ahead of the other )ids, that .as not fair to them?, you #an try saying, =5o. do you thin) the other )ids feel .hen you #ut in line ahead of them>?
Ste% ?2 negotiation
&he first three steps des#ribe .ays of intera#ting that are desirable, but also fairly spe#ifi# in s#ope and limited in duration. 6ut in themsel es, they may not be enough .hen #onfli#t persists o er time and de elops a number of #ompli#ations or #onfusing features. " student may persist in being late for #lass, for example, in spite of efforts by the tea#her to modify this beha ior. Br t.o students may repeatedly spea) rudely to ea#h other, e en though the tea#her has mediated this #onfli#t in the past. Br a student may fail to #omplete home.or), time after time. 6e#ause these problems de elop o er time, and be#ause they may in ol e repeated disagreements, they #an e entually be#ome stressful for the tea#her, the student, and any #lassmates .ho may be affe#ted. &heir persisten#e #an tempt a tea#her simply to di#tate a resolutionLa de#ision that #an lea e e eryone feeling defeated, in#luding the tea#her. Bften in these situations it is better to negotiate a solution, .hi#h means systemati#ally dis#ussing options and #ompromising on one if possible. "lthough negotiation al.ays requires time and effort, it is often less time or effort than #ontinuing to #ope .ith the original problem, and the results #an be benefi#ial to e eryone. " number of experts on #onfli#t resolution ha e suggested strategies for negotiating .ith students about persistent problems ;%a idson P 4ood, E11F<. &he suggestions ary in detail, but usually in#lude some #ombination of the steps .e ha e already dis#ussed abo e, along .ith a fe. others:
!ecide as accurately as %ossi(le
hat the %ro(lem is. 3sually this step in ol es a lot of the a#ti e listening
des#ribed abo e.
-rainstorm %ossi(le solutions, and then consider their effectiveness. +emember to in#lude students in
this stepI other.ise you end up simply imposing a solution on others, .hi#h is not .hat negotiation is supposed to a#hie e.
.f %ossi(le, choose a solution (y consensus. Complete agreement on the #hoi#e may not be possible, but
stri e for it as best you #an. +emember that ta)ing a ote may be a demo#rati#, a##eptable .ay to settle differen#es in some situations, but if feelings are running high, oting does not .or) as .ell. In that #ase oting may simply allo. the ma,ority to impose its .ill on the minority, lea ing the underlying #onfli#t unresol ed.
Pay attention to ho
ell the solution
or&s after it is under ay. For many reasons, things may not .or)
out the .ay you or students hope or expe#t. Nou may need to renegotiate the solution at a later time.
Keeping management issues in perspective

&here are t.o primary messages from this #hapter. Bne is that management issues are important, #omplex, and deser ing of serious attention. &he other is that strategies exist that #an redu#e, if not eliminate, management problems .hen and if they o##ur. 4e ha e explained some of those strategiesLin#luding some intended to pre ent problems and others intended to remedy problems.
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. !lassroom management and the learning environment 6ut there is an underlying assumption about management that this #hapter emphasi/ed fully: that good #lassroom management is not an end in itself, but a means for #reating a #lassroom .here learning happens and students are moti ated. "midst the stresses of handling a problem beha ior, there is a ris) of losing sight of this idea. &elling a student to be quiet is ne er a goal in itself, for exampleI it is desirable only be#ause ;or .hen< it allo.s all students to hear the tea#herJs instru#tions or #lassmatesJ spo)en #omments, or be#ause it allo.s students to #on#entrate on their .or). &here may a#tually be moments .hen studentsD )eeping quiet is not appropriate, su#h as during a =free #hoi#e? time in an elementary #lassroom or during a group .or) tas) in a middle s#hool #lassroom. "s tea#hers, .e need to )eep this perspe#ti e firmly in mind. Classroom management should ser e studentsJ learning, and not the other .ay around. &he next #hapter is based on this idea, be#ause it dis#usses .ays not ,ust to set the stage for learning, as this #hapter has done, but .ays to plan dire#tly for studentsD learning.
Chapter summary
Classroom management is the #oordination of lessons and a#ti ities to ma)e learning as produ#ti e as possible. It is important be#ause #lassrooms are #omplex and some.hat unpredi#table, be#ause students respond to tea#hersJ a#tions in di erse .ays, and be#ause so#iety requires that students attend s#hool. &here are t.o ma,or features of management: pre enting problems before they o##ur and responding to them after they o##ur. $any management problems #an be pre ented by attending to ho. #lassroom spa#e is used, by establishing daily pro#edures, routines, and rules, by pa#ing and stru#turing a#ti ities appropriately, and by #ommuni#ating the importan#e of learning and of positi e beha ior to students and parents. &here are se eral .ays of dealing .ith a management problem after it o##urs, and the #hoi#e depends on the nature of the problem. " tea#her #an simply ignore a misbeha ior, gesture or #ue students non erbally, rely on natural and logi#al #onsequen#es, or engage #onfli#t resolution strategies. 4hate er ta#ti#s the tea#her uses, it is important to )eep in mind their ultimate purpose: to ma)e learning possible and effe#ti e.
Further resour#es
Ihttp:KKtea#hingedpsy#h..i)ispa#es.#omKClassroomVmanagement J &his is the starting page for a number of materials and lin)s about #lassroom management, in both its positi e forms ;fostering of a positi e learning en ironment< and negati e forms ;dealing .ith undesirable beha iors<. &he lin)s on this page lead to additional .ebsites de oted to #lassroom management, .hi#h themsel es ha e many additional a#ti ities and pra#ti#al tips.
Key terms
"#ti e listening Classroom management Confli#t resolution I-messages 2earning en ironment 2ogi#al #onsequen#es Aatural #onsequen#es Aegotiation B erlapping *ortfolio *roblem o.nership *ro#edures +ipple effe#t +ules 4ithitness
+eferen#es
6enson, 6. P 6arnett, !. ;E11@<. Student4led conferencing using sho case %ortfolios. &housand Ba)s, C": Cor.in *ress.
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&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense 6la#), *., 5arrison, C., 2ee C., $arshall, 6., P 4iliam, %. ;E11F<. 4or)ing inside the bla#) box: "ssessment for learning in the #lassroom. Phi !elta Ka%%an, B;;7<, C-E7. 6othmer, !. ;E110<. Creating the %eacea(le classroom. &us#on, "-: -ephyr *ress. 6ritt, &. ;E11@<. Effe#ts of identity-rele an#e and tas) diffi#ulty on tas) moti ation, stress, and performan#e. Aotivation and Emotion, DG;0<, 7C8-E1E. 6rophy, (. ;E11F<. Aotivating students to learn, Dnd edition. $ah.ah, A(: Erlbaum. 6roo)field, !. ;E119<. The s&illful teacher2 9n techni)ue, trust, and res%onsiveness in the classroom, Dnd edition. !an Fran#is#o: (ossey-6ass. 6ro.n, %. ;E11F<. 3rban tea#hersJ professed #lassroom management strategies: +efle#tions of #ulturally responsi e tea#hing. Ir(an Education, <G;0<, E99-EC8. Chesebro, (. ;E110<. Effe#ts of tea#her #larity and non erbal immedia#y on student learning, re#ei er apprehension, and affe#t. Communication Education, @D;E<, 70@-7F:. Cooper, *. P !imonds, C. ;E110<. Communication for the classroom teacher, >th edition. 6oston: "llyn P 6a#on. %a idson, (. P 4ood, C. ;E11F<. " #onfli#t resolution model. Theory into Practice, ?<;7<, 9-70. Emmer, E. P !tough, 2. ;E117<. Classroom management: " #riti#al part of edu#ational psy#hology, .ith impli#ations for tea#her edu#ation. Educational Psychologist, <;;E<, 710-77E. 'ibbs, (. ;E110<. Aoral develo%ment and reality2 -eyond the theories of Kohl(erg and :offman. &housand Ba)s, C": !age. 'ood, &. P 6rophy, (. ;E11E<. #oo&ing in classrooms, Gth edition. 6oston: "llyn P 6a#on. 'ordon, &. ;E110<. Teacher effectiveness training. Ae. Nor): &hree +i ers *ress. 'uerrero, 2. P Floyd, K. ;E11@<. $onver(al communication in close relationshi%s. $ah.ah, A(: Erlbaum. 5eimann , $. !trid, K., !mith , 2., &,us , &., 3l und , !. P $elt/off, ". ;E119<. Exploring the relation bet.een memory, gestural #ommuni#ation, and the emergen#e of language in infan#y: a longitudinal study. .nfant and Child !evelo%ment, 7@;0<, E00-EF8. (ones, &. ;E11F<. Confli#t resolution edu#ation: &he field, the findings, and the future. Conflict Resolution Uuarterly, DD;7-E<, E00-E9:. (ones, G. P (ones, 2. ;E119<. Com%rehensive classroom management2 Creating communities of su%%ort and solving %ro(lems, ;th edition. 6oston: "llyn P 6a#on. Kohn, ". ;E119<. -eyond disci%line2 8rom com%liance to community. +eston, G": "sso#iation for !uper ision and Curri#ulum %e elopment. Kounin, (. ;78:1<. !isci%line and grou% management in classrooms. Ae. Nor): 5olt, +inehart P 4inston. $ar)s, 2. ;E110<. Instru#tional management tips for tea#hers of students .ith autism-spe#trum disorder. Teaching E5ce%tional Children, <@;F<, @1-@F. $arsh, "., Elfenbein, 5. P "mbady, A. ;E110<. Aon erbal Ha##entsH: #ultural differen#es in fa#ial expressions of emotion. Psychological Science, C?;0<, 0:0-0:9. $ar/ano, +. P $ar/ano, (. ;E11F<. &he )ey to #lassroom management. Educational #eadershi%, ;D, pp. E-:. $#Cafferty, !., (a#obs, '., P Iddings, !. ;Eds.<. ;E119<. Coo%erative learning and second language teaching. Ae. Nor): Cambridge 3ni ersity *ress.
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. !lassroom management and the learning environment $orit/, (. P Christie, ". ;E11@<. ItJs elementary: 3sing elementary portfolios .ith young students. In C. Cra.ford ;Ed.<, Proceedings of the Society for .nformation Technology and Teacher Education .nternational Conference D==@ ;pp. 7FF-7@7<. Chesapea)e, G": "sso#iation for the "d an#ement of Computing in Edu#ation. Aations, !. P 6oyett, !. ;E11E<. So much stuff, so little s%ace2 Creating and managing the learner4centered classroom. 'aines ille, F2: $aupin 5ouse. +eynolds, ". ;788E<. 4hat is #ompetent beginning tea#hing> Revie !elta Ka%%an, B?;:<, @E7-@E@. !tiggins, +. P Chappuis, (. ;E11@<. 3sing student-in ol ed #lassroom assessment to #lose a#hie ement gaps. Theory into Practice ??;7<, 77-7C. &horson, !. ;E110<. #istening to students2 Reflections on secondary classroom management. 6oston: "llyn P 6a#on. &uriel, E. ;E119<. &he de elopment of morality. In 4. %amon, +. 2erner, P A. Eisenberg ;Eds.<, :and(oo& of child %sychology, vol. <, %%. >BG4B@>. Ae. Nor): 4iley. Gan $eerionboer, (., Kirs#hner, *., P Kester, 2. ;E110<. &a)ing the #ogniti e load off a learnerJs mind: Instru#tional design for #omplex learning. Educational Psychologist, <B;7<, @-70. 4hite, C. ;E11@<. !tudent portfolios: "n alternati e .ay of en#ouraging and e aluating student learning. In $. "#ha#oso P A. ! ini#)i ;Eds.<, Alternative Strategies for Evaluating Student #earning ;pp. 0:-FE<. !an Fran#is#o: (ossey-6ass. 4einstein, C.,&omlinson-Clar)e, !., P Curran, $. ;E11F<. &o.ard a #on#eption of #ulturally responsi e #lassroom management. Journal of Teacher Education, @@;7<, E@-0C. of Educational Research, ;D;7<, 7-0@. !te ens, 6. P &ollafield, ". ;E110<. Creating #omfortable and produ#ti e parentKtea#her #onferen#es. Phi
7@0
=. The nature of classroom communication

*-e sincereL (e (riefL (e seated., 38ran&lin !elano Roosevelt) Fran)lin +oose elt .as a former president of the 3nited !tates, and he ad ised being brief and sin#ere .hen #ommuni#ating. In ad ising to be seated, he .as being some.hat more indire#tI perhaps he .as suggesting that #on ersation and dialog .ould be impro ed by redu#ing the po.er differen#es bet.een indi iduals. If so, he .as gi ing good ad i#e, though perhaps it .as also a bit misleading in its simpli#ity. "s tea#hers, .e fa#e almost #ontinual tal) at s#hool, supplemented by ample amounts of non erbal #ommuni#ationLgestures, fa#ial expressions, and other =body language?. Bften the tal) in ol es many people at on#e, or e en an entire #lass, and indi iduals ha e to ta)e turns spea)ing .hile also listening to others ha ing their turns, or sometimes ignoring the others if a #on ersation does not #on#ern them. "s the tea#her, therefore, you find yourself playing an assortment of roles .hen #ommuni#ating in #lassrooms: $aster of Ceremonies, refereeLand of #ourse sour#e of ne. )no.ledge. Nour #hallenge is to sort the roles out so that you are playing the right ones in the right #ombinations at the right times. "s you learn to do this, interestingly, mu#h of your #ommuni#ation .ith students .ill indeed a#quire the qualities re#ommended by Fran)lin +oose elt. Bften, you .ill indeed be more sin#ere and brief, and you .ill find that minimi/ing po.er differen#es bet.een you and students is a good idea. In this #hapter .e loo) at ho. you might begin to mo e to.ard these goals. 4e des#ribe briefly se eral ma,or features of #lassroom #ommuni#ation that distinguish it from #ommuni#ation in other familiar situations. &hen .e explain se eral te#hniques, both erbal and non erbal, that #ontribute to effe#ti e #ommuni#ation, and des#ribe ho. these manifest themsel es in se eral #ommon a#ti ity settings, .hi#h .e #all structures of %artici%ation. "s you .ill see, ho. an a#ti ity is organi/edLits stru#ture of parti#ipationLhas a ma,or effe#t on ho. students #ommuni#ate .ith ea#h other and .ith the tea#her.
Communication in classrooms vs communication else#here

Classroom e ents are often so #omplex that ,ust tal)ing .ith students #an be#ome #onfusing. It helps to thin) of the #hallenge as a problem in communicationor as one expert put it, of =.ho says .hat to .hom, and .ith .hat effe#t? ;2ass.ell, 789F<. In #lassrooms, things often do not happen at an e en pa#e or in a logi#al order, or .ith ,ust the tea#her and one student intera#ting .hile others listen or .ait patiently. 4hile su#h moments do o##ur, e ents may sometimes instead be more li)e a )aleidos#ope of o erlapping intera#tions, disruptions, and de#isionLe en .hen a#ti ities are generally going ell. Bne student finishes a tas) .hile another is still only half.ay done. " third student loo)s li)e she is reading, but she may really be dreaming. Nou begin to bring her ba#) on tas) by spea)ing to her, only to be interrupted by a fourth student .ith a question about an assignment. 4hile you ans.er the fourth student, a fifth .al)s in .ith a message from the offi#e requiring a responseI so the bored ;third< student is o erloo)ed a.hile longer. $ean.hile, the first studentLthe one .ho finished the #urrent tas)Lno. Educational Psychology 7@F " 'lobal &ext
". The nature of classroom communication begins telling a ,o)e to a sixth student, ,ust to pass the time. Nou .onder, =!hould I spea) no. to the bored, quiet reader or to the ,o)e-telling student> Br should I mo e on .ith the lesson>? 4hile you are .ondering this, a se enth student raises his hand .ith a question, and so on. Bne .ay to manage situations li)e these is to understand and be#ome #omfortable .ith the )ey features of #ommuni#ation that are #hara#teristi# of #lassrooms. Bne set of features has to do .ith the fun#tions or purposes of #ommuni#ation, espe#ially the balan#e among tal) related to #ontent, to pro#edures, and to #ontrolling beha ior. "nother feature has to do .ith the nature of non erbal #ommuni#ationLho. it supplements and sometimes e en #ontradi#ts .hat is said erbally. " third feature has to do .ith the un.ritten expe#tations held by students and tea#hers about ho parti#ipation. to parti#ipate in parti#ular )inds of #lass a#ti itiesL.hat .e .ill later #all the stru#ture of
Fun#tions of tal): #ontent, pro#edures, and beha ior #ontrol

Classrooms are different from many other group situations in that #ommuni#ation ser es a unique #ombination of three purposes at on#e: #ontent, pro#edures, or beha ior #ontrol ;4ells, E119<. Content tal5 fo#uses on hat is being learnedI it happens .hen a tea#her or student states or as)s about an idea or #on#ept, for example, or .hen someone explains or elaborates on some bit of ne. )no.ledge ;6urns P $yhill, E11F<. 3sually #ontent tal) relates in some ob ious .ay to the #urri#ulum or to #urrent learning ob,e#ti es, as .hen a tea#her tells a high s#hool history #lass, ="s the text explains, there .ere se eral ma,or #auses of the "meri#an Ci il 4ar.? 6ut #ontent tal) #an also digress from the #urrent learning ob,e#ti esI a first-grade student might unexpe#tedly bring a #aterpillar to s#hool and as) about ho. it transforms into a butterfly. rocedural tal), as its name implies, is about administrati e rules or routines needed to a##omplish tas)s in a #lassroom. It happens, for example, .hen the tea#her says, =4hen you are done .ith your spelling boo)s, put them in the bins at the side of the room?, or .hen a student as)s, =%o you .ant us to print our names at the top of page>? *ro#edural tal) pro ides information that students need to #oordinate their a#ti ities in .hat #an be a relati ely #ro.ded spa#eLthe #lassroomLand under #onditions in .hi#h time may be relati ely short or tightly s#heduled. It generally )eeps a#ti ities organi/ed and flo.ing smoothly. *ro#edural tal) is not primarily about remo ing or #orre#ting un.anted beha ior, although #ertain administrati e pro#edures might sometimes annoy a parti#ular student, or students might sometimes forget to follo. a pro#edure. Instead it is intended to pro ide the guidan#e that students need to #oordinate .ith ea#h other and .ith the tea#her. Control tal5 is about pre enting or #orre#ting misbeha iors .hen they o##ur, parti#ularly .hen the misbeha iors are not be#ause of ignoran#e of pro#edures. It happens, for example, .hen a tea#her says, =(ill, you .ere tal)ing .hen you should ha e been listening?, or =(ason, you need to .or) on your math instead of doodling.? $ost #ontrol tal) originates .ith the tea#her, but students sometimes engage in it .ith ea#h other, if not .ith the tea#her. Bne student may loo) at a nearby #lassmate .ho is .hispering out of turn and quietly say, =!hhhM? in an attempt to silen#e the beha ior. Br a student may respond to being teased by a #lassmate by saying simply, =!top itM? 4hether originating from the tea#her or a student, #ontrol tal) may not al.ays be fully effe#ti e. 6ut its purpose is, by definition, to influen#e or #ontrol inappropriate beha ior. !in#e #ontrol tal) is ob iously important for managing #lass effe#ti ely, .e dis#ussed it at length in Chapter :. 4hat #an ma)e #lassroom dis#ourse #onfusing is that t.o of its fun#tionsL#ontent and pro#eduresLoften be#ome #ombined .ith the third, #ontrol tal), in the same remar) or intera#tion. " tea#her may as) a #ontent-
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&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense related question, for example, as a form of #ontrol tal). !he may, for example, as), =(eremy, .hat did you thin) of the film .e ,ust sa.>? &he question is apparently about #ontent, but the tea#her may also be trying to end (eremyJs daydreaming and to get him ba#) on tas)Lan example of #ontrol tal). Br a tea#her may state a rule: =4hen one person is tal)ing, others need to be listening.? &he rule is pro#edural in that it helps to #oordinate #lassroom dialogue, but it may also #ontrol inattenti e beha ior. %ouble fun#tions li)e these #an sometimes #onfuse students be#ause of their ambiguity, and lead to misunderstandings bet.een #ertain students and tea#hers. " student may hear only the #ontent or pro#edural fun#tion of a tea#herJs #omment, and miss an implied request or #ommand to #hange inappropriate beha ior ;Collins P $i#haels, E119<. 6ut double fun#tions #an also help lessons to flo. smoothly by minimi/ing the disruption of attending to a minor beha ior problem and by allo.ing more #ontinuous attention to #ontent or pro#edures.
Gerbal, non erbal, and unintended #ommuni#ation

"nother .ay to understand #lassroom #ommuni#ation is to distinguish erbal from non erbal #ommuni#ation, and intended both unintended forms of #ommuni#ation. "s the name suggests, verbal communication is a message or information expressed in .ords, either orally or in .riting. Classrooms ob iously ha e lots of erbal #ommuni#ationI it happens e ery time a tea#her explains a bit of #ontent, as)s a question, or .rites information or instru#tions on the #hal)board. Kon.verbal communications are gestures or beha iors that #on ey information, often simultaneously .ith spo)en .ords ;'uerrero, E119<. It happens, for example, .hen a tea#her loo)s dire#tly at students to emphasi/e a point or to assert her authority, or .hen the tea#her raises her eyebro.s to #on ey disappro al or disagreement. Aon erbal beha iors are ,ust as plentiful as erbal #ommuni#ations, and .hile they usually add to a #urrent erbal message, they sometimes #an also #ontradi#t it. " tea#her #an state erbally, =&his math lesson .ill be fun?, and a non erbal t.in)le in the eye #an send the #onfirm message non erbally. 6ut a simultaneous non erbal sigh or slou#h may send the opposite messageLthat the lesson .ill not, in fa#t be fun, in spite of the tea#herJs erbal #laim. 4hether erbal or non erbal, ho.e er, #lassroom #ommuni#ations often #on ey more meaning than is intended. Lnintended communications are the ex#ess meanings of utteran#esI they are the messages re#ei ed by students .ithout the tea#herJs a.areness or desire. " tea#her may say, =&his se#tion of the text .onJt be on the test, but read it any.ay for ba#)ground.? 6ut a student may instead hear the message, =%o not read this se#tion of the text.? 4hat is heard is not .hat the tea#her intended to be heard. 2i)e many publi# settings that in ol e a di ersity of people, #lassrooms tend to rely hea ily on expli#it, erbal #ommuni#ation, .hile at the same time re#ogni/ing and allo.ing non erbal #ommuni#ations to o##ur ;Aeill, 7887<. &his priority a##ounts for the #hara#teristi#ally businessli)e style of tea#her tal)La style that .e dis#uss in detail in the next #hapter. " ma,or reason for relying on an expli#it, businessli)e erbal style is that di ersity among indi iduals in#reases the #han#es of their misinterpreting ea#h other. 6e#ause of differen#es in ba#)ground, the partners may differ in ho. they expe#t to stru#ture #on ersation as .ell as other )inds of dialog. $isunderstandings may resultLsometimes .ithout the partners being able to pinpoint the #ause. 2ater in this #hapter .e suggest ho. to minimi/e these problems.
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". The nature of classroom communication
Effective verbal communication

Communi#ating effe#ti ely requires using all forms of #lassroom tal) in #ombinations appropriate for parti#ular utteran#es and intera#tions. In arious pla#es earlier in this boo), .e ha e suggested .ays of doing so, though in those pla#es .e usually did not frame the dis#ussion around the term communication as su#h.
Effe#ti e #ontent tal)

In Chapter C, for example, .e suggested .ays of tal)ing about #ontent so that it is most li)ely to be understood #learly, but in that #hapter .e des#ribed these as instru#tional strategies. In explaining ideas, for example, .hether briefly or as a extended le#ture, .e pointed out that it helps to offer, in ad an#e, organi/ing ideas, to relate ne. #ontent to prior )no.ledge, and to organi/e and elaborate on ne. information. In the same #hapter, .e also suggested strategies about #ontent tal) intended for students, so that students understand their o.n thin)ing as .ell as possible. 4e espe#ially highlighted t.o .ays of learning: inquiry learning and #ooperati e learning. &able 7:summari/es instru#tional strategies both for students and for tea#hers, and indi#ates ho. they #ontribute to effe#ti e erbal #ommuni#ation about #ontent. &able 7:: !trategies for supporting #ontent tal) Content tal5 by teachers Strategy 3sing ad an#e organi/ers Definition !tatements or ideas that gi e a #on#ise o er ie. of ne. material 9o1 it helps communication Brients studentsJ attention to ne. ideas about to be learnedI assists in understanding and remembering ne. material +elating ne. material to prior )no.ledge Expli#it #onne#tions of ne. ideas to studentsJ existing )no.ledge Elaborating and extending ne. information Explanations of ne. ideas in full, #omplete terms " oids ambiguities and misunderstandings about ne. ideas or #on#epts Brgani/ing ne. information *ro iding and follo.ing a #lear stru#ture .hen explaining ne. material Content tal5 by students Inquiry learning !tudents pursue problems that they help to formulate for themsel es Cooperati e learning !tudents .or) in small groups to sol e a #ommon problem or tas) &o formulate and and in estigate a problem, students need to express #learly .hat they .ish to find out. &o .or) together, students need to explain ideas and questions to fello. students #learly. "ssists in understanding and remembering ne. material Fa#ilitates dis#ussion of ne. material by ma)ing it more meaningful to students
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&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense &able 7C: $a,or strategies of effe#ti e pro#edural and #ontrol tal) &hese strategies are also dis#ussed in Chapter : as features of #lassroom management, rather than of #ommuni#ation. Aote, too, that the differen#e bet.een pro#edural and #ontent tal) is arbitrary to some extentI in many situations one )ind of tal) ser es the needs of the other )ind. Strategy for procedural tal5 Creating and dis#ussing pro#edures for daily routines Strategy for control tal5 Creating and dis#ussing #lassroom rules of appropriate beha ior "nnoun#ing transitions bet.een a#ti ities *ro iding #lear instru#tions and guidan#e for a#ti ities +eminding students periodi#ally of pro#edures for #ompleting a tas) 3sing I-messages Clarifying problem o.nership 2istening a#ti ely and empatheti#ally
Effe#ti e pro#edural and #ontrol tal)

In addition to #ommuni#ating about #ontent, tea#hers need to #ommuni#ate pro#edures and expe#tations about appropriate #lassroom beha ior. In Chapter : .e des#ribed quite a fe. .ays to #ommuni#ate .ith students about these matters, though, in that #hapter .e did not refer to them as methods of #ommuni#ation, but as methods of #lassroom management, of #reating a positi e learning en ironment, and of resol ing #onfli#ts in the #lass . &able 7C summari/es se eral of the ma,or strategies des#ribed in that #hapter.< 6y framing #ommuni#ation in these .ays, .e #alled attention to their importan#e as forms of #ommuni#ation. "s .e pointed out, pro#edural tal) and #ontrol tal) matter are used in tea#hing simply be#ause #lear pro#edures and appropriate #lassroom beha ior are ne#essary students are to learn.
Effective nonverbal communication

In spite of their importan#e, .ords are not the only .ay that tea#hers and students #ommuni#ate. 'estures and beha iors #on ey information as .ell, often supporting a tea#herJs .ords, but sometimes also #ontradi#ting them. !tudents and tea#hers express themsel es non erbally in all #on ersations, so freely and automati#ally in fa#t that this form of #ommuni#ation #an easily be o erloo)ed.
Eye #onta#t
Bne important non erbal beha ior is eye contact* .hi#h is the extent and timing of .hen a spea)er loo)s dire#tly at the eyes of the listener. In #on ersations bet.een friends of equal status, for example, most nati e spea)ers of English tend to loo) dire#tly at the spea)er .hen listening, but to a ert their ga/e .hen spea)ing ;Klein)e, 78C9<. +e-engaging eye #onta#t, in fa#t, often signals that a spea)er is about to finish a turn and is in iting a response from the listener. 6ut #on ersations follo. different rules if they in ol e someone of greater authority tal)ing .ith someone of lesser authority, su#h as bet.een a tea#her and a student. In that #ase, the person in authority signals greater status by ga/ing dire#tly at the listener almost #ontinuously, .hether listening or spea)ing. &his alternate pattern #an sometimes pro e a.).ard if either party is not expe#ting it. For students unused to #ontinuous eye #onta#t, it #an
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". The nature of classroom communication feel li)e the tea#her is staring ex#essi ely, intrusi ely, or inappropriatelyI an ironi# effe#t #an be for the student to feel more self-#ons#ious rather than more engaged, as intended. For similar reasons, inexperien#ed or first-time tea#hers #an also feel un#omfortable .ith ga/ing at students #ontinuously. Ae ertheless resear#h about the effe#ts of eye #onta#t suggests that it may help anyone, .hether a student or tea#her, to remember .hat they are seeing and hearing ;$ason, 5ood, P $a#rae, E11F<. Communi#ation problems result less from eye #onta#t as su#h than from differen#es in expe#tations about eye #onta#t. If studentsJ expe#tations differ ery mu#h from the tea#herJs, one party may misinterpret the other partyJs moti ations. "mong some non-.hite ethni# groups, for example, eye #onta#t follo.s a pattern that re erses the #on entional .hite, English-language pattern: they tend to loo) more intently at a partner .hen tal&ing, and a ert ga/e .hen listening ;+a/a#), 788C<. &he alternati e pattern .or)s perfe#tly .ell as long as both parties expe#t it and use it. "s you might imagine, though, there are problems if the t.o partners use opposite patterns of eye #onta#t. In that #ase one person may interpret a dire#t ga/e as an in itation to start tal)ing, .hen really it is an in itation to stop tal)ing. E entually the #on ersational partner may find himself interrupting too mu#h, or simply tal)ing too long at a turn. &he #on erse #an also happen: if the first person loo)s a.ay, the partner may ta)e the gesture as in iting the partner to )eep listening, .hen really the first person is in iting the partner to start tal)ing. ".).ard gaps bet.een #omments may result. In either #ase, if the #on ersational partners are a tea#her and student, rapport may deteriorate gradually. In the first #ase, the tea#her may e en #on#lude, .rongly, that the student is so#ially inept be#ause the student interrupts so mu#h. In the se#ond #ase, the tea#her may #on#ludeLalso .ronglyLthat the student is ery shy or e en la#)ing in language s)ill. &o a oid su#h misunderstandings, a tea#her needs to note and remember studentsJ preferred ga/e patterns at times .hen students are free to loo) .here er and at .home er they please. &raditional seats-in-a-ro. des) arrangements do not .or) .ell for this purposeI as you might suppose, and as resear#h #onfirms, sitting in ro.s ma)es students more li)ely to loo) either at the tea#her or to loo) at nothing in parti#ular ;+osenfeld, 2ambert, P 6la#), 78C@I +a/a#), 788C<. "lmost any other seating arrangement, su#h as sitting in #lusters or in a #ir#le, en#ourages freer patterns of eye #onta#t. $ore #omfortable eye #onta#t, in turn, ma)es for erbal #ommuni#ation that is more #omfortable and produ#ti e.
4ait time
"nother important non erbal beha ior is 1ait time* .hi#h is the pause bet.een #on ersational turns. 4ait time mar)s .hen a #on ersational turn begins or ends. If a tea#her as)s a question, for example, the .ait time both allo.s and prompts students to formulate an appropriate response. !tudies on #lassroom intera#tion generally sho. that .ait times in most #lasses are remar)ably shortLless than one se#ond ;'ood P 6rophy, E11E<. 3nfortunately .ait times this short #an a#tually interfere .ith most studentsJ thin)ingI in one se#ond, most students either #annot de#ide .hat to say or #an only re#all a simple, automati# fa#t ;&obin, 78C:<. In#reasing .ait times to se eral se#onds has se eral desirable effe#ts: students gi e longer, more elaborate responses, they express more #omplex ideas, and a .ider range of students parti#ipate in dis#ussion. For many tea#hers, ho.e er, learning to in#rease .ait time this mu#h ta)es #ons#ious effort, and may feel un#omfortable at first. ;" tri#), if you are trying to .ait longer, is to #ount silently to fi e before #alling on anyone.< "fter a fe. .ee)s of pra#ti#e, dis#omfort .ith longer .ait times usually subsides, and the a#ademi# benefits of .aiting be#ome more e ident.
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&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense "s .ith eye #onta#t, preferred .ait times ary both among indi iduals and among groups of students, and the differen#es in expe#ted .ait times #an sometimes lead to a.).ard #on ersations. &hough there are many ex#eptions, girls tend to prefer longer .ait times than boysLperhaps #ontributing to an impression that girls are unne#essarily shy or that boys are self-#entered or impulsi e. !tudents from some ethni# and #ultural groups tend to prefer a mu#h longer .ait time than is typi#ally a ailable in a #lassroom, espe#ially .hen English is the studentJs se#ond language ;&oth, E11F<. 4hen a tea#her #on erses .ith a member of su#h a group, therefore, .hat feels to the student li)e a respe#tful pause may seem li)e hesitation or resistan#e to the tea#her. Net other #ultural groups a#tually prefer o erlapping #ommentsLa sort of negati e .ait time. In these situations, one #on ersational partner .ill begin at exa#tly the same instant as the pre ious spea)er, or e en (efore the spea)er has finished ;Chami!ather P Krets#hmer, E11@<. &he negati e .ait time is meant to signal li ely interest in the #on ersation. " tea#her .ho is used to a one-se#ond gap bet.een #omments, ho.e er, may regard o erlapping #omments as rude interruptions, and may also ha e trouble getting #han#es to spea). E en though longer .ait times are often preferable, they do not al.ays .or) .ell .ith #ertain indi iduals or groups. For tea#hers, the most .idely useful ad i#e is to mat#h .ait time to the studentsJ preferen#es as #losely as possible, regardless of .hether these are slo.er or faster than .hat the tea#her normally prefers. &o the extent that a tea#her and students #an mat#h ea#h otherJs pa#e, they .ill #ommuni#ate more #omfortably and fully, and a larger proportion of students .ill parti#ipate in dis#ussions and a#ti ities. "s .ith eye #onta#t, obser ing studentsJ preferred .ait times is easier in situations that gi e students some degree of freedom about .hen and ho. to parti#ipate, su#h as open-ended dis#ussions or informal #on ersations throughout the day.
!o#ial distan#e
4hen t.o people intera#t, the physi#al spa#e or distan#e bet.een themLtheir social distanceLoften indi#ates something about ho. intimate or personal their relationship is ;Aoller, E119<. !o#ial distan#e also affe#ts ho. people des#ribe others and their a#tionsI someone .ho habitually is more distant physi#ally is apt to be des#ribed in more general, abstra#t terms than someone .ho often approa#hes more #losely ;Fu,ita, et al., E119<. In .hite "meri#an so#iety, a distan#e of approximately half a meter to a meter is .hat most people prefer .hen tal)ing fa#eto-fa#e .ith a personal friend. &he #loser end of this range is more #ommon if the indi iduals turn side.ays to ea#h other, as .hen riding on an ele atorI but usually the #losest distan#es are reser ed for truly intimate friendships, su#h as bet.een spouses. If the relationship is more businessli)e, indi iduals are more li)ely to situate themsel es in the range of approximately one meter to a three meters. &his is a #ommon distan#e, for example, for a tea#her tal)ing .ith a student or tal)ing .ith a small group of students. For still more formal intera#tions, indi iduals tend to allo. more than three metersI this distan#e is typi#al, for example, .hen a tea#her spea)s to an entire #lass. (ust as .ith eye #onta#t and .ait time, ho.e er, indi iduals differ in the distan#es they prefer for these different le els of intima#y, and #ompli#ations happen if t.o people expe#t different distan#es for the same )ind of relationship. " student .ho prefers a shorter so#ial distan#e than her partner #an seem pushy or o erly familiar to the partner. &he latter, in turn, #an seem aloof or unfriendlyLliterally =distant?. &he sour#es of these effe#ts are easy to o erloo) sin#e by definition the partners ne er dis#uss so#ial distan#e erbally, but they are real. &he best remedy, again, is for tea#hers to obser e studentsJ naturally o##urring preferen#es as #losely as possible, and to respe#t them as mu#h as possible: students .ho need to be #loser should be allo.ed to be #loser, at least .ithin reasonable limits, and those .ho need to be more distant should be allo.ed to be more distant.
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Structures of participation) effects on communication

$any #lass a#ti ities ta)e on patterns that guide #ommuni#ation in .ays that #lass members learn to expe#t, often .ithout e en being reminded. Ea#h pattern is a participation structure* a set of rights and responsibilities expe#ted from students and tea#her during an a#ti ity. !ometimes the tea#her announ#es or explains the rights and responsibilities expli#itly, though often they are ,ust implied by the a#tions of #lass members, and indi idual students learn them simply by .at#hing others. " le#ture, for example, has a parti#ular parti#ipation stru#ture: students are responsible for listening, for raising a hand to spea), and for )eeping #omments brief and rele ant if #alled on. &he tea#her, on the other hand, has the right to tal) at length, but also the responsibility to )eep the tal) rele ant and #omprehensible. In prin#iple, a host of parti#ipation stru#tures are possible, but ,ust a handful a##ount for most #lass a#ti ities ;Ca/den, E117<. 5ere are some of the most #ommon:
2e#turingLthe tea#her tal)s and students listen. $aybe students ta)e notes, but maybe not. Questions and ans.ersLthe tea#her as)s a series of questions, #alling on one student at a time to ans.er
ea#h of them. !tudents raise their hands to be re#ogni/ed and gi e ans.ers that are brief and =#orre#t?. In earlier times this parti#ipation stru#ture .as sometimes #alled re#itation.
%is#ussionLthe tea#her briefly des#ribes a topi# or problem and in ites students to #omment on it.
!tudents say something rele ant about the topi#, but also are supposed to respond to pre ious spea)ers if possible.
'roup .or)Lthe tea#her assigns a general tas), and a small group of students .or) out the details of
implementing it. &he tea#her may #he#) on the groupJs progress before they finish, but not ne#essarily. Ea#h of these stru#tures influen#es ho. #ommuni#ation among tea#hers and students tends to o##urI in fa#t ea#h is itself sort of an implied message about ho., .hen, and .ith .hom to intera#t. &o see ho. this influen#e .or)s, loo) in the next se#tions at ho. the parti#ipation stru#tures affe#ted #lassroom #ommuni#ation for one of us authors ;Kel in !eifert< as he taught one parti#ular topi#L#hildrenJs playLo er a t.enty-year period. &he topi# .as part of a uni ersity-le el #ourse for future tea#hers. %uring this time, Kel inJs goals about the topi# remained the same: to stimulate studentsJ thin)ing about the nature and purposes of play. 6ut o er time he tried se eral different stru#tures of parti#ipation, and studentsJ .ays of #ommuni#ating #hanged as a result.
2e#ture
&he first time Kel in taught about #hildrenJs play, he le#tured about it. 5e used this stru#ture of parti#ipation not be#ause he belie ed on prin#iple that it .as the best, but be#ause it .as #on enient and used .idely by his fello. uni ersity tea#hers. "n ex#erpt from Kel inJs le#ture notes is sho.n in &able 78, and gi es a sense of .hat he #o ered at that time. In some .ays the le#ture pro ed effe#ti e: Kel in #o ered the material effi#iently ;in about E1 minutes<, related the topi# to other ones in the #ourse, defined and explained all )ey terms #learly, and did his best to relate the material to .hat he thought .ere studentsJ o.n interests. &hese .ere all mar)s of good le#turing ;Christensen, E119<. !tudents .ere mostly quiet during the le#ture, but sin#e only about one-third of them too) notes, Kel in had to assume that the rest had #ommitted the material to memory .hile listening. &he students quietness bothered him a little, but as a ne.#omer to uni ersity tea#hing, Kel in .as relie ed simply to get through the #lass .ithout embarrassment or a#ti e resistan#e from the students.
797
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense 6ut there .ere also some negati e signs. In spite of their #ourtesy, fe. students lingered after #lass to tal) about #hildrenJs play or to as) questions. 4orse yet, fe. students #hose #hildrenJs play as a term paper topi#, e en though it might ha e made a highly interesting and en,oyable one. Bn the final exam fe. seemed able to relate #on#epts about play to their o.n experien#es as tea#hers or leaders of re#reational a#ti ities. &here .as an e en more subtle problem. &he le#ture about play fo#used o ertly on a topi# ;play< that praised a#tion, intrinsi# moti ation, and self-#hoi#e. 6ut by presenting these ideas as a le#ture, Kel in also implied an opposite message unintentionally: that learning is something done passi ely, and that it follo.s an intelle#tual path set only by the tea#her. E en the physi#al layout of the #lassroom sent this messageLdes)s fa#ed for.ard, as if to remind students to loo) only at the person le#turing. &hese are features of le#turing, as Kel in later dis#o ered, that are .idely #riti#i/ed in edu#ational resear#h ;$#Kea#hie P ! ini#)i, E11@I 6enedi#t P 5oag, E11F<. &o some students the le#ture format might e en ha e implied that learning is equi alent to daydreaming, sin #e both a#ti ities require sitting quietly and sho.ing little expression. "n ob ious solution might ha e been to in ite students to #omment from time to time during the le#ture, relating the topi# to experien#es and )no.ledge of their o.n. 6ut during Kel inJs first year of tea#hing about play, he did little of this. &he le#ture medium, ironi#ally, #ontradi#ted the le#ture message, or at least it assumed that students .ould thin) a#ti ely about the material .ithout e er spea)ing.
Questions and ans.ers

6e#ause of these problems, Kel in modified his approa#h after a fe. years of tea#hing to in#lude more as)ing of questions .hi#h students .ere in ited to ans.er. &his turned the le#ture on #hildrenJs play into something more li)e a series of explanations of )ey ideas, interrupted by as)ing students to express their beliefs, )no.ledge, or experien#e about #hildrenJs play. Kel inJs preparation notes #hanges in appearan#e as a result ;see &able E1<. "s)ing questions and in iting brief responses .as reassuring be#ause it ga e indi#ations of .hether students .ere listening and understanding the material. Questions ser ed both to moti ate students to listen and to assess ho. mu#h and ho. .ell they )ne. the material. In this regard Kel in .as using a form of #ommuni#ation that .as and #ontinues to be ery popular .ith many tea#hers ;Ca/den, E117<. 6ut there .ere also ne. #hallenges and problems. For one thing the topi# of #hildrenJs play too) longer to #o er than before, sin#e Kel in no. had to allo. time for students to respond to questions. &his fa#t for#ed him to lea e out a fe. points that he used to in#lude. $ore serious, though, .as his impression that students often did not listen to ea#h otherJs responsesI they only listened #arefully to Kel in, the tea#her. &he intera#tions often be#ome simply t.o-.ay ex#hanges bet.een the tea#her and one student at a time: Kel in as)ed, one student responded, Kel in a#)no.ledged or ;sometimes< e aluated. ;$ehan, 78:8I +i#hards, E119<. !ome of the ex#hanges #ould in prin#iple ha e happened ,ust as easily .ithout any #lassmates present. In general students still had little #ontrol o er the #ourse of dis#ussion. Kel in .ondered if he .as #ontrolling parti#ipation too mu#hLin fa#t .hether the question-and-ans.er strategy attempted the impossible tas) of #ontrolling studentsJ ery thought pro#esses. 6y as)ing most of the questions himself and allo.ing students only brief responses, .as Kel in trying to insure e that students thought about #hildrenJs play in the =right? .ay, his .ay> &o gi e students more influen#e in dis#ussion, it seemed that Kel in .ould ha e to be#ome less #on#erned about pre#isely .hat ideas about #hildrenJs play he #o ered.
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Classroom dis#ussion
"fter se eral more years of tea#hing, Kel in quit le#tures altogether, e en ones interspersed .ith questions and ans.ers. 5e began simply leading general dis#ussions about #hildrenJs play. &he #hange again affe#ted his planning for this topi#. Instead of outlining detailed #ontent, he no. ,ust made #on#ise notes that listed issues about #hildrenJs play that students needed to #onsider ;some of the notes are sho.n in &able EE<. &he shift in parti#ipation stru#ture led to se eral ma,or #hanges in #ommuni#ation bet.een tea#her and students as .ell as among students. !in#e students spo)e more freely than before, it be#ame easier to see .hether they #ared about the topi#. Ao., too, more students seemed moti ated to thin) and learn about #hildrenJs playI quite a fe. sele#ted this topi#, for example, for their term pro,e#ts. Aeedless to say, these #hanges .ere all to the good. 6ut there .ere also #hanges that limited the effe#ti eness of #lassroom #ommuni#ation, e en though students .ere nominally freer to spea) than e er. Kel in found, for example, that #ertain students spo)e more than their share of the timeLalmost too freely, in fa#t, in effe#t pre enting more hesitant students from spea)ing. !ometimes, too, it seemed as if #ertain students did not listen to othersJ #omments, but instead ,ust passed the time .aiting for their turn to spea), their hands propped permanently in the air. $ean.hile there .ere still others .ho passed the time apparently hoping not to spea)I they .ere busy doodling or staring out the .indo.. !in#e the pre#ise fo#us of dis#ussion .as no longer under Kel inJs #ontrol, furthermore, dis#ussions often did not #o er all of the ideas about #hildrenJs play that Kel in #onsidered important. Bn one o##asion, for example, he meant for students to dis#uss .hether play is al.ays moti ated intrinsi#ally, but instead they ended up tal)ing about .hether play #an really be used to tea#h e ery possible sub,e#t area. In itself the shift in fo#us .as not bad, but it did ma)e Kel in .onder .hether he .as #o ering the material adequately. In ha ing these misgi ings, as it happened, he .as supported by other edu#ators .ho ha e studied the effe#ts of #lass dis#ussions on learning ;$#Keat#hie P ! in#i)i, E11@<.
'roup .or)
6y the time he had taught about #hildrenJs play for t.enty years, Kel in had de eloped enough #on#erns about dis#ussion as a #ommuni#ation strategy that he shifted approa#h again. &his time he began using a form of collaborative group 1or5: small teams of students #arrying out pro,e#ts on aspe#ts of #hildrenJs play that interested them, ma)ing obser ations of #hildren at play, reporting on their results to the #lass, and .riting a #ommon report about their .or). ;Kel inJs .or) guidelines gi en to the groups are sho.n in &able E7.< Kel in hoped that by gi ing students a #ommon fo#us, #ommuni#ation among them .ould impro e. Con ersations .ould deal .ith the tas)s at hand, students .ould ne#essarily listen to ea#h other, and no one #ould afford either to dominate tal) ex#essi ely or to fall silent. In some .ays these benefits did ta)e pla#e. 4ith a bit of en#ouragement from Kel in, students listened to ea#h other more of the time than before. &hey also di ersified their tas)s and responsibilities .ithin ea#h group, and they seemed to learn from ea#h other in the #ourse of preparing pro,e#ts. *arti#ipation in the unit about #hildrenJs play rea#hed an all-time high in Kel inJs t.enty years of tea#hing at uni ersity. Net e en still there .ere problems. !ome groups seemed mu#h more produ#ti e than others, and obser ing them #losely suggested that differen#es .ere related to ease of #ommuni#ation .ithin groups. In some groups, one or t.o people dominated #on ersations unduly. If they listened to others at all, they seemed immediately to forget that they had done so and pro#eeded to implement their o.n ideas. In other groups, members all .or)ed hard, but they did not often share ideas or ne.s about ea#h otherJs progressI essentially they .or)ed independently in spite of belonging to the group. 5ere, too,
790
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense Kel inJs experien#e #orroborated other, more systemati# obser ations of #ommuni#ation .ithin #lassroom .or) groups ;!la in, 788@<. 4hen all groups .ere planning at the same time, furthermore, #ommuni#ation bro)e do.n for a ery pra#ti#al reason: the olume of sound in the #lassroom got so high that e en simple #on ersation be#ame diffi#ult, let alone the expression of subtle or #omplex ideas.
Communication styles in the classroom

&ea#hers and students ha e identifiable styles of tal)ing to ea#h other that linguists #all a register. " register is a pattern of o#abulary, grammar, and expressions or #omments that people asso#iate .ith a so#ial role. " familiar example is the =baby-tal)? register often used to spea) to an infant. Its featuresLsimple repeated .ords and nonsense syllables, and exaggerated #hanges in pit#hLmar) the spea)er as an adult and mar) the listener as an infant. &he #lassroom language register .or)s the same .ayI it helps indi#ate .ho the tea#her is and .ho the student is. &ea#hers and students use the register more in some situations than in others, but its use is #ommon enough that most people in our so#iety ha e no trouble re#ogni/ing it .hen they hear it ;Ca/den, E117<. In the follo.ing s#ene, for example, the spea)ers are labeled only .ith letters of the alphabetI yet figuring out .ho is the tea#her and .ho are the students is not diffi#ult: A2 All right no , . going to try a ne long division is/ C, C2 !ivision ant your eyes u% here. All eyes on me, %lease. -, are you ready to hat do you thin& it is/ or&/ Fe are hat &ind of math %ro(lem today. .t+s called long division. !oes anyone &no
ith (igger num(ers/
A2 Any other ideas/ !/ E 3not !)2 !ivision (y t o digits. A2 E. only call on %eo%le !2 !ivision ho raise their hands. !, can you hel% ith the ans er/ ith remainders.
A2 Close. Actually you+re (oth %artly right. In this s#ene *erson " must surely be the tea#her be#ause he or she uses a lot of pro#edural and #ontrol tal), and be#ause he or she introdu#es a ne. #urri#ulum topi#, long di ision. &he other *ersons ;6, C, %, and E< must be students be#ause they only respond to questions, and be#ause they indi idually say relati ely little #ompared to *erson ". In general, effe#ti e #lassroom #ommuni#ation depends on understanding ho. features of the #lassroom tal) register li)e these operate during a#tual #lass times. In the follo.ing se#tions therefore .e des#ribe details of #lassroom tal), and then follo. .ith suggestions about ho. to use the register as effe#ti ely as possible. In both of these se#tions .e assume that the better the #ommuni#ation, the better the learning and thin)ing displayed by students. For #on enien#e .e di ide #lassroom tal) into t.o parts, tea#her tal) and student tal).
5o. tea#hers tal)

"lthough tea#her tal) aries some.hat .ith the tas)s or purposes at hand, it also has uniformities that o##ur a#ross a range of situations. 3sing detailed obser ations of dis#ourse in s#ien#e a#ti ities, for example, (ay 2em)e identified all of the follo.ing strategies from obser ations of tea#hersJ #lassroom tal) ;7881<. Ea#h strategy simultaneously influen#es the #ourse of dis#ussion and fo#uses studentsJ attention, and in these .ays also helps indire#tly to insure appropriate #lassroom beha ior:
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$ominating, terminating, and interru%ting s%ea&ers2 &ea#hers often #hoose .ho gets to spea). ;=(ose,
.hat do you thin) about [>?<. Bn the other hand, they often bring an end to a studentJs turn at spea)ing or e en interrupt the student before he or she finishes. ;=&han)sI .e need to mo e on no..?<
Aar&ing im%ortance or irrelevance2 &ea#hers sometimes indi#ate that an idea is important ;=&hatJs a good
idea, 2yla.?<. Bn the other hand, they sometimes also indi#ate that an idea is not #ru#ial or important ;=Nour right, but thatJs not quite the ans.er I .as loo)ing for.?<, or fully rele ant ;=4eJre tal)ing about the boo) Futhering :eights, not the mo ie that you may ha e seen.?<. $ar)ing importan#e and rele an#e ob iously helps a tea#her to reinfor#e )ey #ontent. 6ut the strategy #an also ser e to impro e relationships among students if the tea#her deliberately mar)s or highlights an idea offered by a quiet or shy student ;BJConnor P $i#haels, 7889I Cohen, et al., E11F<. In that #ase mar)ing importan#e #an build both a studentJs #onfiden#e and the studentJs status in the eyes of #lassmates.
Signaling (oundaries (et een activities2 &ea#hers de#lare .hen an a#ti ity is o er and a ne. one is
startingLan example of the pro#edural tal) that .e dis#ussed earlier. ;=4e need to mo e on. *ut a.ay your spelling and find your math boo)s.?< In addition to #larifying pro#edures, though, signaling boundaries #an also insure appropriate #lassroom beha ior. Ending an a#ti ity #an sometimes help restore order among students .ho ha e be#ome o erly energeti#, and shifting to a ne. a#ti ity #an sometimes restore moti ation to students .ho ha e be#ome bored or tired.
"s)ing =test? questions and e aluating studentsJ responses: &ea#hers often as) test questionsLquestions to
.hi#h they already )no. the ans.er. &hen they e aluate the quality or #orre#tness of the studentsJ ans.ers ;&ea#her: =5o. mu#h is 9 x : >? !tudent: =FE.? &ea#her: =&hatJs right.?<. &est questions ob iously help tea#hers to assess studentsJ learning, but they also mar) the tea#her as the expert in the #lassroom, and therefore as a person entitled to #ontrol the flo. of dis#ourse. &here are additional features of tea#her-tal) that are not unique to tea#hers. &hese primarily fun#tion to ma)e tea#hersJ #omments more #omprehensible, espe#ially .hen spo)en to a group, but they also help to mar) a person .ho uses them as a tea#her ;Ca/den, E117I 6la#), E11F<:
E5aggerated changes in %itch2 4hen busy tea#hing, tea#hers tend to exaggerate #hanges in the pit#h of
their oi#eLreminis#ent of the =sing-song? style of adults .hen dire#ting spee#h to infants. Exaggerated pit#h #hanges are espe#ially #hara#teristi# of tea#hers of young students, but they happen at all grade le els.
Careful enunciation2 In #lass tea#hers tend to spea) more slo.ly, #learly, and #arefully than .hen
#on ersing .ith a friend. &he style ma)es a spea)er sound some.hat formal, espe#ially .hen #ombined .ith formal o#abulary and grammar, mentioned next.
8ormal voca(ulary and grammar2 &ea#hers tend to use o#abulary and grammar that is more formally
polite and #orre#t, and that uses relati ely fe. slang or #asual expressions. ;Instead of saying ='et out your stuff?, they more li)ely say, =*lease get out your materials.?< &he formality #reates a businessli)e distan#e bet.een tea#hers and studentsLhopefully one #ondu#i e to getting .or) done, rather than one that seems simply #old or un#aring. &he tou#h of formality also ma)es tea#hers sound a bit more intelligent or intelle#tual than in #asual #on ersation, and in this .ay reinfor#es their authority in the #lassroom.
79@
5o. students tal)

Children and youth also use a #hara#teristi# spee#h register .hen they are in a #lassroom and playing the role of students in the presen#e of a tea#her. &heir registerLstudent tal)Ldiffers some.hat from the tea#herJs be#ause of their ob ious differen#es in responsibilities, le els of )no.ledge, and relationships .ith ea#h other and .ith the tea#her. !tudent-tal) and tea#her-tal) are similar in that both in ol e language strategies that guide #ontent and pro#edures, and that sometimes see) to limit the inappropriate beha ior of others. Compared to tea#hersJ, though, studentsJ language strategies often pursue these goals a bit more indire#tly.
Agenda enforcement2 !ometimes students interrupt a dis#ussion to as) about or remind others, and
espe#ially the tea#her, of an agreed-on agenda. If the tea#her tells students to open their text to an in#orre#t page, for example, a student may raise her hand to #orre#t the tea#herLor e en do so .ithout raising a hand. &his #ommuni#ation strategy is one of more publi#, dire#t .ays that students influen#e a#ti ities in the #lassroom, but its po.er is limited, sin#e it does not #reate ne. a#ti ities, but simply returns the #lass to a#ti ities agreed on pre iously.
!igression attem%ts2 %uring a dis#ussion or a#ti ity, a student as)s a question or ma)es a statement that is
not rele ant to the tas) at hand. 4hile the tea#her is leading students in a dis#ussion of a story that they read, for example, a student raises his hand and as)s, =$r [, .hen does re#ess begin>?
Side tal&2 Bne student tal)s to another student, either to be so#iable ;=%id you see that mo ie last .ee)>?<
or to get information needed for the #urrent assigned tas) ;=4hat page are .e on>?<. !ometimes side tal) also ser es to #ontrol or limit fello. studentsJ beha ior, and in this .ay fun#tions li)e #ontrol-tal) by tea#hers ;as .hen a student .hispers, =!hhhM IJm trying to listen? or ='o ahead and as) herM?<. &he ability of su#h tal) to influen#e #lassmatesJ beha ior is real, but limited, sin#e students generally do not ha e as mu#h authority as tea#hers.
Calling out2 " student spea)s out of turn .ithout being re#ogni/ed by the tea#her. &he studentJs #omment
may or may not be rele ant to the ongoing tas) or topi#, and the tea#her may or may not a#)no.ledge or respond to it. 4hether ignored or not, ho.e er, #alling out may #hange the dire#tion of a dis#ussion by influen#ing fello. studentsJ thin)ing or beha ior, or by triggering pro#edural and #ontrol tal) by the tea#her. ;=(ason, itJs not your turnI I only #all on students .ho raise their hands.?<
Ans ering a )uestion
ith a )uestion2 Instead of ans.ering a tea#herJs =test? question dire#tly, the
student responds .ith a question of her o.n, either for #larifi#ation or as a stalling ta#ti# ;=%o you mean [>?<. Either .ay, the effe#t is to shift the dis#ussion or questioning to #ontent or topi#s that are safer and more familiar.
Silence2 &he student says nothing in response to a spea)erJs #omments or to an in itation to spea). &he
spea)er #ould be either the tea#her or a fello. student. &he silen#e ma)es the spea)er less li)ely to #ontinue the #urrent topi#, and more li)ely to see) a ne. one.
Eye contact, ga1e aversion, and %osture2 &he student loo)s dire#tly at the tea#her .hile the tea#her is
spea)ing, or else deliberately a erts ga/e. &he student may also adopt any ariety of postures .hile sitting ;sit up straight s slou#hing<. "s .e dis#ussed earlier in this #hapter, the timing of eye ga/e depends partly on #ultural expe#tations that the student brings to s#hool. 6ut it may also represent a deliberate #hoi#e by the studentLa message to the tea#her and to #lassmates. &he same #an be said about sitting posture. In #lassroom situations, listening is #on entionally indi#ated by loo)ing dire#tly at the tea#her, and either Educational Psychology 799 " 'lobal &ext
". The nature of classroom communication sitting up straight or leaning slightly for.ard. "lthough these beha iors #an be fa)ed, they tend to indi#ate, and to be ta)en as, a sho. of interest in and a##eptan#e of .hat a spea)er is saying. 6y engaging in or a oiding these beha iors, therefore, students #an sometimes influen#e the length and dire#tion of a dis#ussion or a#ti ity.
,sing classroom tal1 to stimulate students% thin1ing

&he arious features of #lassroom tal) #hara#teri/e the #ommuni#ation of most tea#hers and students, at least .hen they are in a #lassroom and =doing s#hool?. ;Communi#ation outside of s#hool is a different matter: then tea#hers as .ell as students may spea), listen, and beha e quite differentlyM< "s you might suppose, the extent and balan#e among the features aries depending on grade le el, #urri#ulum area, and personalities of students or tea#hers. 6ut failing to use a #lassroom register at all #an easily #reate #ommuni#ation problems. !uppose, for example, that a tea#her ne er as)s informal test questions. In that #ase the tea#her .ill learn mu#h less than other.ise about her studentsJ )no.ledge of the #urrent material. &hen also suppose that a student does not understand tea#hersJ questions as test questions. &hat student may easily respond in .ays that seem disrespe#tful ;&ea#her: =5o. mu#h is E0 x FE>? !tudent: =I donJt )no.I ho. mu#h do you thin) it is>?< ;6loome, et al., E11@<. &here #an also be problems e en .hen students understand the usual expe#tations about #lassroom #ommuni#ation, simply be#ause the expe#tations #an sometimes #onstrain #ertain a#ti ities indire#tly. " #ase in point is s#ien#e edu#ation. (ay 2em)e has studied dialogue during s#ien#e lessons among students and bet.een students and tea#hers ;7881<. 5e #on#luded that mu#h of it is in#onsistent .ith genuine s#ientifi# pra#ti#e. 2ab experiments, for example, are not a#tually #ondu#ted in a spirit of open s#ientifi# inquiry, be#ause students ;and their tea#her< are more intent on mat#hing results to pre iously pro en findings and #on#lusions. %is#ussion of both pro#edures and results is framed around this not-so-hidden goal. &he goal is to pro e .hat is already )no.n, not the more genuine goal of exploring or dis#o ering .hat is not )no.n. &he misunderstanding of s#ien#e that results is not the fault of tea#hers, ho.e er, but of the #onstraints of #lassroom and #urri#ulum, and of the )inds of #ommuni#ation that #lassrooms and #urri#ula require. "s pointed out in the se#tions abo e, the tea#herDs ,ob is to manage #on ersation .hile also fo#using it on spe#ifi# lesson goalsI the studentsD ,ob is to indi#ate #ooperation or else to ignore the tea#herDs goals .ithout #reating ex#essi e trouble for himself or others. In the #ase of student laboratory a#ti ities, the result is often dialogue that is some.hat more dire#ted, and less open-ended, than =real? s#ientifi# dialogue. Aote, though, that some edu#ators ha e disagreed .ith this some.hat dis#ouraging ie. of #lassroom-based s#ien#e ;for example, 'allas, 788@<, though e en these edu#ators ha e do#umented that en#ouraging genuine inquiry in a #lassroom setting requires spe#ial effort on the part of the tea#her. &he #lassroom tal) register, then, #onstrains ho. #ommuni#ation bet.een tea#hers and students #an ta)e pla#e, but it also gi es tea#hers and students a =language? for tal)ing about tea#hing and learning. 'i en this doubleedged reality, ho. #an tea#hers use the #lassroom tal) register to good ad antage> 5o., in parti#ular, #an tea#hers #ommuni#ate in .ays that stimulate more and better thin)ing and dis#ussion> In the next, final se#tion of the #hapter, .e offer some suggestions for ans.ering these questions. "s you .ill see, the suggestions often reinfor#e ea#h other. &hey are more li)e a net.or) of ideas, not a list of priorities to be #onsidered or follo.ed in sequen#e.
*robing for learner understanding

5o. do you )no. .hether a student understands .hat you are saying> Bne #lue, of #ourse, is by .hether the student is loo)ing at and #on#entrating on you and your #omments. 6ut this #lue is not foolproofI .e ha e all had 79:
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense moments of staring at a spea)er .hile daydreaming, only to reali/e later that .e ha e not heard anything that the spea)er said. It is sometimes important, therefore, to probe more a#ti ely ho. mu#h students are a#tually understanding during lessons or other a#ti ities. !trategies for probing understanding generally in ol e mixing instru#tion .ith #on ersation ;+ensha., E11F<. In explaining a ne. topi#, for example, you #an #he#) for understanding by as)ing preliminary questions #onne#ting the topi# to studentsJ prior experien#es and )no.ledge about the topi#. Aote that this strategy #ombines qualities of both instru#tion and #on ersation, in the sense that it in ol es #ombining =test? questions, to .hi#h you already )no. the ans.er, .ith real questions, to .hi#h you do not. 4hen introdu#ing a s#ien#e lesson about density to )indergarten #hildren, for example, the tea#her might reasonably as) both of the follo.ing: Teacher2 Fhich of these o('ects that . have do you e5%ect )uestion0the teacher already ill &no the ans er.) the ans er.) ill sin& and hich ones ill float/ 3A test
Teacher2 Fhat other things have you seen that float/ 9r that sin&/ 3A real )uestion0the teacher is as&ing a(out their e5%erience and does not &no 6y as)ing both )inds of questions, the tea#her s#affolds the #hildrenJs learning, or #reates a 1one of %ro5imal develo%ment, .hi#h .e des#ribed in Chapter E as part of Gygots)yJs theory of learning. Aote that this /one has t.o important features, both of .hi#h #ontribute to #hildrenJs thin)ing. Bne is that it stimulates studentsJ thin)ing ;by as)ing them questions<, and the other is that it #reates a supporti e and #aring atmosphere ;by honoring their personal experien#es .ith real questions<. &he resulting mix of .armth and #hallenge #an be espe#ially moti ating ;'oldstein, 7888<. 4hen .armth and #hallenge are both present in a dis#ussion, it sometimes e en be#omes possible to do .hat may at first seem ris)y: #alling on indi idual students randomly .ithout the studentsJ olunteering to spea). In a study of =#old #alling? as a te#hnique in uni ersity #lass dis#ussions, the resear#hers found that students did not find the pra#ti#e espe#ially stressful or puniti e, as the tea#hers feared they might, and that spontaneous parti#ipation in dis#ussion a#tually impro ed as a result ;%allimore, et al., E119<. &he benefit .as most li)ely to happen, ho.e er, .hen #ombined .ith gestures of respe#t for students, su#h as .arning indi iduals ahead of #lass that they might be #alled on, or allo.ing students to formulate ideas in small groups before beginning to #all on indi iduals.
5elping students to arti#ulate their ideas and thin)ing

&he #lassroom tal) register is .ell designed to help students arti#ulate ideas and thoughts, parti#ularly .hen used in the #ontext of dis#ussion. In addition to the #on ersational probes, li)e the ones .e des#ribed in the pre ious se#tion, there are other .ays to support students in expressing their ideas fully and #learly. Bne .ay is for the tea#her to #he#) repeatedly on her o.n understanding of studentsJ #ontributions as a dis#ussion unfolds. Consider this ex#hange: Student 3during a class discussion)2 .t seems to me that a(out/ !till another strategy for helping students to arti#ulate their ideas is to in#rease the ait time bet.een .hen the tea#her as)s a question and .hen the tea#her expe#ts a student to ans.er. "s .e pointed out earlier, .ait times that are longer than a erageLlonger than one se#ond, that isLgi e students more time to formulate ideas and therefore e all need to learn more climate change. hat %arts of it are you thin&ing Teacher2 Fhat do you mean (y *learn more,/ .t+s a (ig to%icL
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". The nature of classroom communication to express themsel es more #ompletely and pre#isely ;'ood P 6rophy, E11E<. In addition, longer .ait times ha e the added ad antage of indire#tion: instead of telling a student to say more, the tea#her needs only to .ait for the student to say more. In general any #ommuni#ation strategy .ill help students be#ome more arti#ulate if it both allo.s and in ites further #omment and elaboration on their ideas. &a)en together, the in itations #losely resemble a des#ription of #lass dis#ussion, though they #an a#tually be used singly at any time during tea#hing. Consider these possible #on ersational mo es:
&he tea#her as)s the student to explain his initial idea more #ompletely. &he tea#her rephrases a #omment made by a student. &he tea#her #ompares the studentJs idea to another, related idea, and as)s the student to #omment. &he tea#her as)s for e iden#e supporting the studentJs idea. &he tea#her as)s the student ho. #onfident he is in his idea. &he tea#her as)s another student to #omment on the first studentJs idea.
*romoting a#ademi# ris)-ta)ing and problem-sol ing

In Chapter C .e des#ribed ma,or features of problem sol ing, as .ell as three te#hniques that assist in sol ing problemsLproblem analysis, .or)ing ba#).ards from the beginning, and analogi#al thin)ing. 4hile all of the te#hniques are helpful, they do not .or) if a student .ill not ta)e the ris) of attempting a solution to a problem in the first pla#e. For arious reasons students may sometimes a oid su#h ris)s, espe#ially if he or she has sometimes failed at a tas) in the past, and is therefore #on#erned about negati e e aluations again ;5ope P Bli er, E11@<. 4hat #an a tea#her say or do to #ountera#t su#h hesitation> &here are se eral strategies, all of .hi#h in ol e fo#using attention on the pro#ess of doing an a#ti ity rather than on its out#ome or e aluation.
4here possible, call attention to the intrinsic interest or satisfaction of an activity . Consider, for example,
an elementary-le el a#ti ity of .riting a (apanese hai&u0a poem .ith exa#tly se enteen syllables. &his a#ti ity #an be satisfying in itself, regardless of ho. it is e aluated. Casually reminding indi iduals of this fa#t #an #ontribute to studentsJ sense of ease about .riting the hai)u and en#ourage them indire#tly to do better .or).
Ainimi1e the im%ortance of grades .here possible. &his strategy supports the one abo eI by gi ing
students less to .orry about, they be#ome freer to experien#e the intrinsi# satisfa#tions of an a#ti ity. In .riting that hai)u mentioned abo e, for example, you #an try saying something li)e: =%onJt .orry too mu#h about your gradeI ,ust do the best you #an and you .ill #ome out .ell enough in the end.?
Aa&e sure students &no
that they have am%le time to com%lete an activity. If students need to rushLor
merely ,ust thin)s they doLthen they are more li)ely to #hoose the safest, most familiar responses possible. In .riting an amusing story from their early #hildhood, for example, middle years students may need time to #onsider and #hoose among story possibilities. &hen they may need additional time to experiment .ith .ays of expressing the story in .riting. In this #ase, to ma)e sure students )no. that they ha e su#h time, try saying something li)e: =4riting a good story .ill ta)e time, and you may ha e to return to it repeatedly. !o .e .ill start .or)ing on it today, but do not expe#t to finish today. 4eJll be #oming ba#) to it se eral times in the next #ouple of .ee)s.?
798

Sho
that you value unusual ideas and elegant solutions to %ro(lems. 4hen a student does something out
of the ordinary, sho. your enthusiasm for it. " isually appealing dra.ing, a .ell-#rafted essay, a different solution to a math problem than the one you expe#tedLall of these deser e an expli#it #ompliment. Expressing your interest and respe#t does more than support the spe#ifi# a#hie ement. It also expresses a more general, underlying message that in your #lassroom, it is safe and re.arding to find and share the unusual and elegant. Aote that these #ommuni#ation strategies support problem-sol ing and the related s)ills of creativity that .e dis#ussed in Chapter C. In des#ribing #reati ity in that #hapter, in parti#ular, .e #alled attention to the differen#e and importan#e of divergent ;open-ended< thin)ing. "s .ith problem-sol ing, though, di ergent thin)ing may seem ris)y to some students unless they are en#ouraged to do so expli#itly. &he strategies for boosting a#ademi# ris)-ta)ing #an help to #ommuni#ate this en#ouragementLthat pro#ess matters more than produ#t, that there .ill be time enough to .or), and that you, as tea#her, indeed alue their efforts.
*romoting a #aring #ommunity

" caring community is one in .hi#h all members ha e a respe#ted pla#e, in .hi#h di ersity among indi iduals is expe#ted, and in .hi#h indi iduals assist ea#h other .ith their .or) or a#ti ities .here er appropriate. Classrooms and e en entire s#hools #an be #aring #ommunities, though mo ing them in this dire#tion ta)es .or) on the part of tea#hers and other s#hool staff ;Aoddings, 788E, E11F<. &he )ey .or) in promoting a #aring #ommunity in ol es arranging for students to .or) together on tas)s, .hile at the same time #ommuni#ating the tea#herJs #ommitment to mutual respe#t among students and bet.een students and tea#hers. $any of the instru#tional strategies dis#ussed earlier in this boo), su#h as #ooperati e learning and inquiry learning ;in Chapter C<, therefore #ontribute to #ommunity in the #lassroom. $ore spe#ifi#ally, you #an, as a tea#her, en#ourage #ommunity by doing any or all of the follo.ing:
&ell students that you alue mutual respe#t, and des#ribe some of the .ays that students #an sho. respe#t
for ea#h other and for s#hool staff. 6etter yet, in ite students themsel es to des#ribe ho. they might sho. respe#t.
2oo) for .ays to sustain relationships among students and tea#hers for extended times. &hese .ays may be
easier to find in elementary s#hool, .here a tea#her and #lass normally remain together for an entire year, than in middle and se#ondary s#hool, .here students learn from many tea#hers and tea#hers tea#h many students. 6ut still there are .ays. *arti#ipating in extra-#urri#ular a#ti ities ;li)e sports teams or drama #lub<, for example, #an sometimes pro ide settings .here relationships de elop for relati ely long periods of timeLe en more than a single s#hool year.
"s) for input from students about .hat they .ant to learn, ho. they .ant to learn it, and .hat )ind of
e aluation they #onsider fair. "lthough using their ideas may feel at first as if you are gi ing up your responsibility as the tea#her, as)ing for studentsJ input indi#ates respe#t for students. It is li)ely that many of their suggestions need #larifi#ation or re ision to be#ome .or)able, espe#ially if the #lass must also #o er a parti#ular #urri#ulum during a set time. 6ut e en ,ust the as)ing for input sho.s respe#t, and #an #ontribute to #ommunity in the #lassroom.
If #onfli#ts arise bet.een students or bet.een a student and tea#her, en#ourage respe#tful #ommuni#ation
as expli#itly as you #an. !ome #ommuni#ation strategies about #onfli#t resolution .ere des#ribed in Chapter
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". The nature of classroom communication : and are helpful in this regard: identifying true problem o.nership, listening a#ti ely, asserti e ;not aggressi e< I-messages, and negotiation.
Find times and .ays for the #lass to experien#e itself as a #ommunity. &his suggestion may loo) a bit ague
at first glan#e, but in pra#ti#e it is a#tually quite #on#rete. "ny a#tion builds #ommunity if it is #arried out by the group as a .hole, espe#ially if it is done regularly and repeatedly and if it truly in#ludes e ery member of the #lass. !u#h a#tions be#ome rituals, not in the negati e sense of empty or mindless repetitions, but in the positi e sense of #onfirmations by group members of their #ommitment to ea#h other ;Ehrenrei#h, E11:<. In the elementary grades, an ob ious example of a ritual is re#iting the *ledge of "llegian#e ;or its equi alent in #lassrooms outside the 3nited !tates<. 6ut there are many other examples of #lassroom routines that gradually a#quire the ;positi e< qualities of ritual or #ommunity-affirmation, often .ithout deliberate intention or effort. " daily, regular time to .or) through home.or) problems together in #lass, for example, may ser e ob ious a#ademi# purposes. 6ut it may also gradually #ontribute to a #lassroomJs identity as a #lass. 4ith time and familiarity the group home.or) time may e entually #ome to represent =.ho .e are? and of =.hat .e do here? for that #lass.
The bottom line) messages sent+ messages reconstructed

"s .e ha e explained in this #hapter, tea#hers and students #ommuni#ate in multiple, o erlapping .ays. Communi#ations may often be expressed in .ordsLbut not ne#essarily and not #ompletely. &hey may be organi/ed into le#tures, questions, dis#ussions, or group pro,e#ts. &hey tend to be expressed in parti#ular language registers that .e ha e #alled simply teacher tal& and student tal&. "ll things #onsidered, #ommuni#ation ob iously ser es a .ide range of tea#hing and learning tas)s and a#ti ities, from stimulating studentsJ thin)ing, to or#hestrating #lassroom routines, to managing inappropriate beha iors. It is an intrinsi# part of the parts of tea#hing that in ol e intera#tion among #lass members. Aote, though, that tea#hing #onsists of more than intera#tion among #lass members. &here are times .hen tea#hers prepare lessons or a#ti ities, for example, .ithout tal)ing to students or anyone else. &here are also times .hen they de elop their o.n s)ills as tea#hersLfor example, by reading and refle#ting, or by attending professional de elopment seminars or .or)shopsL.hi#h may in ol e #ommuni#ation, but not in the sense dis#ussed in this #hapter. It is to these other parts of tea#hing that .e turn in the next #hapter. &able 78: Near one: Kel inJs le#ture notes Kature and urposes of Children%s lay 7. Introdu#tion to topi#: 4hat do .e mean by play>

ex#ess energy see)ing stimulationLrelie e boredom es#ape from .or)
E. !ix qualities defining play

intrinsi# moti ation attention to the pro#ess, not the produ#t non-literal beha iorLma)e-belie e no external rules 7:7

self-go erned a#ti e engagement
0. Impli#ations for tea#hing

de ise a#ti ities .ith play-li)e qualities learn by .at#hing #hildren playing
&able E1: Near three: Kel inJs question-and-ans.er notes Kature and urposes of Children%s lay 7. Introdu#tion to topi#: 4hat do .e mean by play> W8irst as& C4D students for their o n ans ers to )uestion.X

ex#ess energy WAs&2 Fhat evidence is there for this/X see)ing stimulationLrelie e boredom WEor for this/X es#ape from .or)
E. !ix qualities of #hildrenJs play W.nvite students+ definitions, (ut &ee% them (rief.X
intrinsi# moti ation nonliteral beha iorLma)e-belie e no external rules self-go erned
attention to the pro#ess, not the produ#t
a#ti e engagement
WCan you thin) of examples andKor #ounterexamples of ea#h quality>X 0. Impli#ations for tea#hing

de ise a#ti ities .ith playli)e qualities WFhat activities have you already seen as a student teacher/X learn by .at#hing #hildren playing W:o could you do this/ .nvite suggested strategies from students.X
&able E7: Near eight: Kel inJs dis#ussion notes Kature and urposes of Children%s lay
%is#uss possible explanations for playL.hat do students thin) are its true purposes> ;71 minutes>< Can .e define play> 6rainstorm defining qualities, .ith examples. ;01 minutes< Important question for all defining qualities: "re there ex#eptionsLexamples of play that do not sho.
#ertain defining qualities, but are still play> ;7@ minutes<

4hat is important about play for tea#hing> ;71 minutes V< ^for the .elfare of #hildren> ;71 minutes V< Et#. ;anything else brought up by students<
&able EE: Near t.enty: Kel inJs guidelines for group .or) Kature and urposes of Children%s lay
7:E
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$a)e sure you listen to e eryone, and not ,ust to the people you agree .ith the most. *art of the
#hallenge of this pro,e#t is to in#lude all team members.

Nou do not ha e to be best friends .ith someone in order to be partners. 6ut you do ha e to get the .or)
done.
+emember that it ta)es many s)ills and abilities to do this pro,e#t .ell. "mong other things, you need to:
7< find and understand resear#h and other publi#ations about #hildrenJs play, E< obser e #hildren s)illfully .hen they are playing, 0< ha e #onfiden#e in des#ribing .hat you learn to group mates, F< .rite about .hat you learn, and @< be ta#tful and respe#tful .hen listening and tal)ing .ith partners.
Chapter summary
6e#ause #ommuni#ation in #lassrooms is more #omplex and unpredi#table than in many other situations, it is important for tea#hers to understand its unique features and fun#tions. It is helpful to thin) of #lassroom #ommuni#ation as ser ing a mixture of three purposes at on#e: #ontent tal), pro#edural tal), and beha ior #ontrol tal). It is also helpful to re#ogni/e that #lassroom #ommuni#ation has elements that are not only erbal, but also non erbal and unintended. &o be effe#ti e in using erbal #ommuni#ation, tea#hers need to use appropriate instru#tional strategies related to #ontent, su#h as using ad an#e organi/ers, relating ne. information to prior )no.ledge, and organi/ing ne. information on behalf of students. It in#ludes strategies that assist students to #ommuni#ate, su#h as inquiry learning and #ooperati e learning. &o #ommuni#ate .ell about pro#edures and about the beha iors expe#ted of students, tea#hers need a ariety of management te#hniques, su#h as those dis#ussed in Chapter : and summari/ed again in &able 7C. &o be effe#ti e in using non erbal #ommuni#ation, tea#hers need to use appropriate eye #onta#t, allo. ample .ait time bet.een spea)ing turns, and be a.are of the effe#ts of so#ial distan#e on students. !tru#tures of parti#ipation influen#e #ommuni#ation by fa#ilitating parti#ular patterns of spea)ing and listening, .hile at the same time ma)ing other patterns less #on enient or disappro ed. Four #ommon parti#ipation stru#tures are le#tures, questions-and-ans.ers, #lassroom dis#ussions, and group .or).
Further resour#es
Rhttp:KK....uu.eduK#entersKfa#ultyKresour#esKindex.#fm>CatI%]70S &his 3+2 offers tips for enhan#ing #lassroom #ommuni#ation. It is organi/ed around ten basi# topi#s ;e.g. =Brgani/ing Effe#ti e %is#ussions?< and fo#uses primarily on erbal #ommuni#ation. It is part of the more general .ebsite for 3nion 3ni ersity of (a#)son, &ennessee. Rhttp:KK....responsi e#lassroom.orgKindex.htmlS &his .ebsite #ontains many resour#es, among .hi#h are arti#les about #lassroom management and #ommuni#ation, in#luding non erbal #ommuni#ation. It is intended stri#tly for publi# s#hool tea#hers. Bn#e you get to the homepage, #li#) on their =Ae.sletter? for the arti#les. Ihttp:KKtea#hingedpsy#h..i)ispa#es.#omK!o#ialVrelationships J "lthough this page is about so#ial relationships in general, it #ontains se eral a#ti ities related to #ommuni#ation in parti#ular. !ee espe#ially the a#ti ities #alled =!o#ial distan#e and its effe#t on #ommuni#ation?, ="n experiment in #lassroom demo#ra#y?, and ='etting along .ith a diffi#ult parent?. 7:0
Key terms
Caring #ommunity Class dis#ussions Collaborati e group .or) Communi#ation Content tal) Control tal) Eye #onta#t 2e#ture Aon erbal #ommuni#ation *arti#ipation stru#tures *ro#edural tal) Questions-and-ans.er +egister !o#ial distan#e !tudent tal) register &ea#her tal) register 3nintended #ommuni#ation Gerbal #ommuni#ation 4ait time
+eferen#es
6enedi#t, $. P 5oag, (. ;E11F<. !eating lo#ation in large le#tures: Is lo#ation related to performan#e> Journal of Economics Eduction, <@;0<, E7@-E07. 6la#), 2. ;E11F<. &ea#her-pupil tal) in .hole-#lass dis#ussions and pro#esses of so#ial positioning in primary #lassrooms. #anguage and Education, CB;7<, 0F:-091. 6loome, %., Carter, !., Christian, 6., Btto, !., P !huart-Faris, A. ;E11@<. !iscourse analysis and the study of classroom language. $ah.ah, A(: Erlbaum. 6urns, C. P $yhill, %. ;E11F<. Intera#ti e or ina#ti e> " #onsideration of the nature of intera#tion in .hole#lass instru#tion. Cam(ridge Journal of Education, <?;7<, 0@-F8. Ca/den, C. ;E117<. Classroom discourse2 The language of teaching and learning, D nd edition. 4estport, C&: 5einemann. Chami-!ather, '. P Krets#hmer, +. ;E11@<. 2ebaneseK"rabi# and "meri#an #hildrenJs dis#ourse in groupsol ing situations. #anguage and Education, CG;7<, 71-EE. Christensen, A. ;E119<. &he nuts and bolts of running a le#ture #ourse. In ". %eAeef P C. 'ood.in ;Eds.<, The academic+s hand(oo&, <rd edition, pp. 7:8-7C9. %urham, AC: %u)e 3ni ersity *ress. Cohen, E., 6rody, C., P !apon-!he in, $. ;E11F<. Teaching coo%erative learning. "lbany, AN: !tate 3ni ersity of Ae. Nor) *ress. Collins, (. P $i#haels, !. ;E119<. !pea)ing and .riting: %is#ourse strategies and the a#quisition of litera#y. In (. Coo)-'umper/ ;Ed.<, The social construction of literacy, Dnd edition,EF@-E90. Ae. Nor): Cambridge 3ni ersity *ress. %allimore, E., 5ertenstein, (., P *latt, $. ;E119<. Aon oluntary #lass parti#ipation in graduate dis#ussion #ourses: Effe#ts of grading and #old #alling. Journal of Aanagement Education, <=;E<, 0@F-0::. %e*aulo, 6., 2indsay, (., $alone, 6., $uhlenbru#), 2., Charlton, K., P Cooper, 5. ;E110<. Cues to de#eption. Psychological -ulletin, CDG, :F-77C. Ehrenrei#h, 6. ;E11:<. !ancing in the streets. Ae. Nor): 5enry 5oltK$etropolitan 6oo)s. Fu,ita, K., 5enderson, $., Eng, (., &rope, N., P 2iberman, A. ;E119<. !patial distan#e and mental #onstrual of e ents. Psychological Science, C>;F<, E:C-ECE. 'allas, K. ;788@<. Tal&ing their ay into science2 :earing childrenMs )uestions and theories, res%onding ith curricula. Ae. Nor): &ea#hersD College *ress.
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". The nature of classroom communication 'lobal %e#eption +esear#h &eam. ;E119<. " .orld of lies. Journal of Cross4cultural Psychology, <> ;9<, 91:F. 'oldstein, 2. ;7888<. &he relational /one: &he role of #aring relationships in the #o-#onstru#tion of mind. American Educational Research Journal, <;;0<, 9F:-9:0. 'ood, &. P 6rophy, (. ;E11E<. #oo&ing in Classrooms, Gth edition. 6oston: "llyn P 6a#on. 'uerrero, 2. ;E119<. $onver(al communication in close relationshi%s. $ah.ah, A(: Erlbaum. 5ope, ". P Bli er, *. ;E11@<. Ris&, education, and culture. 6urlington, G&: "shgate *ublishing Company. Klein)e, C. ;78C9<. 'a/e and eye #onta#t: " resear#h re ie.. Psychological -ulletin, C==;7<, :C-711. 2ass.ell, 5. ;789F<. &he stru#ture and fun#tion of #ommuni#ation in so#iety. In 4. !#hramm ;Ed.<, Aass communications. 3rbana, I2: 3ni ersity of Illinois *ress. 2em)e, (. ;7881<. Tal&ing science2 #anguage, learning, and values. 4estport, C&: 'reen.ood *ublishing 'roup. $ason, $., 5ood, 6., P $a#rae, C. ;E11F<. 2oo) into my eyes: 'a/e dire#tion and person memory. Aemory, CD;@<, 90:-9F0. $#Carthy, "., 2ee, K., Ita)ura, !., P $uir, %. ;E119<. Cultural display rules dri e eye ga/e during thin)ing. Journal of Cross4cultural Psychology, <>;9<, :7:-:EE. $#Keat#hie, 4. P ! ini#)i, $. ;E11@<. Teaching ti%s2 Strategies, research, and theory for college teachers, CDth edition. 6oston: 5oughton $ifflin. $ehan, 5. ;78:8<. #earning lessons2 Social organi1ation of the classroom. Cambridge, $": 5ar ard 3ni ersity *ress. Aeill, !. ;7887<. Classroom nonver(al communication. Ae. Nor): +outledge. Aoddings, A. ;788E<. The challenge to care in schools2 An alternative a%%roach to education. Ae. Nor): &ea#hers College *ress. Aoddings, A. ;E11F<. :a%%iness and education. Ae. Nor): Cambridge 3ni ersity *ress. Aoller, *. ;E119<. Aon erbal #ommuni#ation in #lose relationships. In G. $ansuno P $. *atterson ;Eds.<, :and(oo& of nonver(al communication, pp. F10-FE1. BJConnor, $. P $i#hael, !. ;7889<. !hifting parti#ipant frame.or)s: Br#hestrating thin)ing pra#ti#es in group dis#ussion. In %. 5i#)s ;Ed.<, !iscourse, learning, and schooling ;pp. 90-710<. Ae. Nor): Cambridge 3ni ersity *ress. +a/a#), !. ;788C<. #oo&ing Fhite %eo%le in the eye2 Kender, race, and culture in courtrooms and classrooms. &oronto, Bntario: 3ni ersity of &oronto *ress. +ensha., *. ;E11F<. %ialogi# tea#hing, learning, and instru#tion: &heoreti#al roots and analyti# perspe#ti es. In (. an der 2inden P *. +ensha. ;Eds.<, !ialogic learning2 Shifting %ers%ectives to learning, instruction, and teaching. Aor.ell, $": Klu.er "#ademi#. +i#hards, K. ;E119<. \6eing the tea#herJ: Identity and #lassroom dis#ourse. A%%lied #inguistics, D>;7<, @7-::. +osenfeld, *., 2ambert, A., P 6la#), ". ;78C@<. %es) arrangement effe#ts on pupil #lassroom beha ior. Journal of Educational Psychology, >> ;7<, 717-71C. !la in, +. ;788@<. Coo%erative learning2 Theory, research, and %ractice, Dnd edition. 6oston: "llyn P 6a#on. &obin, K. ;78C:<. &he role of .ait time in higher #ogniti e fun#tions. Revie 98-8@. 7:@ of Educational Research, @>;7<,
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense &oth, *. ;E11F<. 4hen grammar instru#tion undermines #ohesion in 2E !panish #lassroom dis#ourse. The Aodern #anguage Journal, BB;7<, 7F-01. 4ells, '. ;E119<. &he language experien#e of #hildren at home and at s#hool. In (. Coo)-'umper/ ;Ed.<, The social construction of literacy, Dnd edition, :9-718. Ae. Nor): Cambridge 3ni ersity *ress.
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>. ?acilitating comple4 thin1ing

A fe years ago one of us 3Kelvin) had the %rivilege of co4teaching hat Kelvin sa hen As Eaton ith an e5%erienced first grade ith Joey. They teacher, Carolyn Eaton. As %art of a research %ro'ect, As Eaton allo ed some of her reading lessons to (e o(served. :ere is as having a conference are reading a (oo& *together,, e5ce%t that As Eaton ants Joey to do as much reading as %ossi(le himself. Joey+s comments are ca%itali1ed, and As Eaton+s are in lo ercase. J9EO2 8.RST O9I REA!0T:E$ AE. T:.S .S F:AT O9I :A"E T9 !9. . REA! A8TER O9I, 9K/ As Eaton2 9K. WAs Eaton (egins.X *.n the great green room there and a %icture ofE, Are you going to read, or OES. *.n the great green room there *Ethere asE, ordsX asE, Are you ready yet/ Ready to read/ 9K. *.$ T:E KREAT KREE$ R99AE, *T:ERE FAS AE, W%auses, loo&ing at As Eaton rather than at the *Ea tele%honeE, OES, T:AT+S .T, A TE#EP:9$E7 *.$ T:E KREAT KREE$ R99A T:ERE FAS A TE#EP:9$E, A RE! -A##99$E, *and a %icture ofE, *A$! A P.CTIRE 98, W%auses, staring at the *a co Joey, :o 'um%ing over the moon,. hat does this say/ WShe %oints to the a(out here/ WShe %oints to ne5t %age, ord tele%hone.X hich reads *And there ere three little (ears, sitting on allXEA C9F JIAP.$K/, hat/ as a tele%hone, a red (alloon,
*9"ER A99$, Wsmiles from (oth Joey and As EatonX. *T:ERE FAS A TE#EP:9$E,. chairs,.X *T:ERE FERE -EARS, T:REE -EARS, A$! T:EO SAT 9$ C:A.RS,. Can you read the SIRE7 9K, then you start this time. WJoey loo&s at first %age, alternately at the %icture and at the WActual te5t2 *.n the great green room, there as a tele%hone,,X ords.X *.$ T:E KREAT KREE$ R99A T:ERE FAS A TE#EP:9$E,. hole (oo&/
7::
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#. $acilitating comple% thin&ing *A$! T:ERE FAS A RE! -A##99$,, WActual te5t2 *Eand a red (alloon,,X *A$! A P.CTIRE 98 T:E C9F JIAP.$K 9"ER T:E A99$,. WActual te5t2 *Eand a %icture of the co WActual te5t2 *And there Could you read this (oo& 'um%ing over the moon,.X *A$! T:ERE FEREE, T:REE -EARS/E *#.TT#E -EARS S.TT.$K 9$ C:A.RS,. ere three little (ears, sitting on chairs,E,X ith you eyes closed/ ithout the %ictures, 'ust loo&ing at the
SIREL FA$T T9 SEE AE !9 .T/7 Fell, not right no L may(e another time. Could you read it ords/ That+s ho . do (est0 hen . see the ords instead of the %ictures. ords on a large sheet for Joey to *read, later.X
WJoey %auses to consider this.X AAO-E, -IT $9T UI.TE S9 FE##. #et+s try it. WAs Eaton %roceeds to co%y the "s Carolyn EatonJs beha ior suggests, there are de#isions to ma)e =on the fly?, e en during the ery a#t of tea#hing. $s Eaton .onders .hen to #hallenge (oey, and .hen to support him. !he also .onders .hen to pause and as) (oey to ta)e sto#) of .hat he has read, and .hen to mo e him on aheadL.hen to #onsolidate a studentJs learning, and .hen to nudge the student for.ard. &hese are questions about instru#tional strategies .hi#h facilitate com%le5 learning, either dire#tly or indire#tly. In this #hapter .e re ie. as many strategies as spa#e allo.s, in order to gi e a sense of the ma,or instru#tional options and of their effe#ts. 4e #on#entrate espe#ially on t.o broad #ategories of instru#tion, .hi#h .e #all direct instruction and student4centered instruction. "s .e hope that you .ill see, ea#h approa#h to tea#hing is useful for #ertain purposes. 4e begin, though, by loo)ing at the .ays students thin), or at least ho. tea#hers .ould li)e students to thin). 4hat does it mean for students to thin) #riti#ally ;astutely or logi#ally<> Br to thin) #reati ely> Br to be s)illful problem sol ers> "s .e .ill indi#ate in this #hapter repeatedly, forms of thin)ing require #hoi#es among instru#tional strategies. &o support this idea, .e begin the #hapter by dis#ussing three )inds of #omplex thin)ing in turn: #riti#al thin)ing, #reati ity and problem sol ing. 4e #onsider ho. ea#h #an be fa#ilitated by appropriate tea#hing strategies. &hen .e dis#uss se eral broad strategies for en#ouraging #omplex thin)ing, in#luding some that are tea#her-dire#ted and others that rely more hea ily on studentsD initiati e.
?orms of thin1ing associated #ith classroom learning

"lthough instru#tional strategies differ in their details, they ea#h en#ourage parti#ular forms of learning and thin)ing. &he forms ha e distin#ti e edu#ational purposes, e en though they sometimes o erlap, in the sense that one form may #ontribute to su##ess .ith another form. Consider three some.hat #omplex forms of thin)ing that are #ommonly pursued in #lassroom learning: ;7< #riti#al thin)ing, ;E< #reati e thin)ing, and ;0< problem-sol ing.
Critical thin1ing
Critical thin5ing requires s)ill at analy/ing the reliability and alidity of information, as .ell as the attitude or disposition to do so. &he s)ill and attitude may be displayed .ith regard to a parti#ular sub,e#t matter or topi#, but in prin#iple it #an o##ur in any realm of )no.ledge ;5alpern, E110I 4illiams, Bli er, P !to#)ade, E11F<. " #riti#al thin)er does not ne#essarily ha e a negati e attitude in the e eryday sense of #onstantly #riti#i/ing someone or something. Instead, he or she #an be thought of as astute: the #riti#al thin)er as)s )ey questions, e aluates the e iden#e for ideas, reasons for problems both logi#ally and ob,e#ti ely, and expresses ideas and #on#lusions #learly 7:C
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense and pre#isely. 2ast ;but not least<, the #riti#al thin)er #an apply these habits of mind in more than one realm of life or )no.ledge. 4ith su#h a broad definition, it is not surprising that edu#ators ha e suggested a ariety of spe#ifi# #ogniti e s)ills as #ontributing to #riti#al thin)ing. In one study, for example, the resear#her found ho. #riti#al thin)ing #an be refle#ted in regard to a published arti#le .as stimulated by annotationL.riting questions and #omments in the margins of the arti#le ;2iu, E119<. In this study, students .ere initially instru#ted in .ays of annotating reading materials. 2ater, .hen the students #ompleted additional readings for assignments, it .as found that some students in fa#t used their annotation s)ills mu#h more than othersLsome simply underlined passages, for example, .ith a highlighting pen. 4hen essays .ritten about the readings .ere later analy/ed, the ones .ritten by the annotators .ere found to be more .ell reasonedLmore #riti#ally astuteLthan the essays .ritten by the other students. In another study, on the other hand, a resear#her found that #riti#al thin)ing #an also in ol e oral dis#ussion of personal issues or dilemmas ;5a.)ins, E119<. In this study, students .ere as)ed to erbally des#ribe a re#ent, personal in#ident that disturbed them. Classmates then dis#ussed the in#ident together in order to identify the pre#ise reasons .hy the in#ident .as disturbing, as .ell as the assumptions that the student made in des#ribing the in#ident. &he original studentLthe one .ho had first told the storyLthen used the results of the group dis#ussion to frame a topi# for a resear#h essay. In one story of a troubling in#ident, a student told of a time .hen a store #ler) has snubbed or re,e#ted the student during a re#ent shopping errand. &hrough dis#ussion, #lassmates de#ided that an assumption underlying the studentJs disturban#e .as her suspi#ion that she had been a i#tim of ra#ial profiling based on her s)in #olor. &he student then used this idea as the basis for a resear#h essay on the topi# of =ra#ial profiling in retail stores?. &he oral dis#ussion thus stimulated #riti#al thin)ing in the student and the #lassmates, but it also relied on their prior #riti#al thin)ing s)ills at the same time. Aoti#e that in both of these resear#h studies, as in others li)e them, .hat made the thin)ing =#riti#al? .as studentsJ use of metacognitionLstrategies for thin)ing a(out thin)ing and for monitoring the su##ess and quality of oneJs o.n thin)ing. &his #on#ept .as dis#ussed in the #hapter, =&he learning pro#ess?, as a feature of #onstru#ti ist ie.s about learning. &here .e pointed out that .hen students a#quire experien#e in building their o.n )no.ledge, they also be#ome s)illed both at )no.ing ho they learn, and at )no.ing hether they ha e learned something .ell. &hese are t.o defining qualities of meta#ognition, but they are part of #riti#al thin)ing as .ell. In fostering #riti#al thin)ing, a tea#her is really fostering a studentJs ability to #onstru#t or #ontrol his or her o.n thin)ing and to a oid being #ontrolled by ideas unrefle#ti ely. 5o. best to tea#h #riti#al thin)ing remains a matter of debate. Bne issue is .hether to infuse #riti#al s)ills into existing #ourses or to tea#h them through separate, free-standing units or #ourses. &he first approa#h has the potential ad antage of integrating #riti#al thin)ing into studentsJ entire edu#ations. 6ut it ris)s diluting studentsJ understanding and use of #riti#al thin)ing simply be#ause #riti#al thin)ing ta)es on a different form in ea#h learning #ontext. Its details and appearan#e ary among #ourses and tea#hers. &he free-standing approa#h has the opposite qualities: it stands a better #han#e of being understood #learly and #oherently, but at the #ost of obs#uring ho. it is related to other #ourses, tas)s, and a#ti ities. &his dilemma is the issueLagainLof transfer* dis#ussed in the #hapter, =&he learning pro#ess?. 3nfortunately, resear#h to #ompare the different strategies for tea#hing #riti#al thin)ing does not settle the matter. &he resear#h suggests simply that either infusion or free-standing approa#hes #an .or) as long as it is implemented thoroughly and tea#hers are #ommitted to the alue of #riti#al thin)ing ;5alpern, E110<. Educational Psychology 7:8 " 'lobal &ext
#. $acilitating comple% thin&ing " related issue about tea#hing #riti#al thin)ing is about de#iding .ho needs to learn #riti#al thin)ing s)ills the most. !hould it be all students, or only some of them> &ea#hing all students seems the more demo#rati# alternati e and thus appropriate for edu#ators. !ur eys ha e found, ho.e er, that tea#hers sometimes fa or tea#hing of #riti#al thin)ing only to high-ad antage studentsLthe ones .ho already a#hie e .ell, .ho #ome from relati ely highin#ome families, or ;for high s#hool students< .ho ta)e #ourses intended for uni ersity entran#e ;4arburton P &orff, E11@<. *resumably the rationale for this bias is that high-ad antage students #an benefit andKor understand and use #riti#al thin)ing better than other students. Net, there is little resear#h e iden#e to support this idea, e en if it .ere not ethi#ally questionable. &he study by 5a.)ins ;E119< des#ribed abo e, for example, is that #riti#al thin)ing .as fostered e en .ith students #onsidered lo.-ad antage.
Creative thin1ing
Creativity is the ability to ma)e or do something ne. that is also useful or alued by others ;'ardner, 7880<. &he =something? #an be an ob,e#t ;li)e an essay or painting<, a s)ill ;li)e playing an instrument<, or an a#tion ;li)e using a familiar tool in a ne. .ay<. &o be #reati e, the ob,e#t, s)ill, or a#tion #annot simply be bi/arre or strangeI it #annot be ne. .ithout also being useful or alued, and not simply be the result of a##ident. If a person types letters at random that form a poem by #han#e, the result may be beautiful, but it .ould not be #reati e by the definition abo e. Gie.ed this .ay, #reati ity in#ludes a .ide range of human experien#e that many people, if not e eryone, ha e had at some time or other ;Kaufman P 6aer, E119<. &he experien#e is not restri#ted to a fe. geniuses, nor ex#lusi e to spe#ifi# fields or a#ti ities li)e art or the #omposing of musi#. Espe#ially important for tea#hers are t.o fa#ts. &he first is that an important form of #reati ity is creative thin5ing* the generation of ideas that are ne. as .ell as useful, produ#ti e, and appropriate. &he se#ond is that #reati e thin)ing #an be stimulated by tea#hersJ efforts. &ea#hers #an, for example, en#ourage studentsJ divergent thin5ingLideas that are open-ended and that lead in many dire#tions ;&orran#e, 788EI Kim, E119<. %i ergent thin)ing is stimulated by open-ended questionsLquestions .ith many possible ans.ers, su#h as the follo.ing:
5o. many uses #an you thin) of for a #up> %ra. a pi#ture that someho. in#orporates all of these .ords: #at, fire engine, and banana. 4hat is the most unusual use you #an thin) of for a shoe>
Aote that ans.ering these questions #reati ely depends partly on ha ing already a#quired )no.ledge about the ob,e#ts to .hi#h the questions refer. In this sense di ergent thin)ing depends partly on its #on erse, convergent thin5ing* .hi#h is fo#used, logi#al reasoning about ideas and experien#es that lead to spe#ifi# ans.ers. 3p to a point, then, de eloping studentsJ #on ergent thin)ingLas s#hool.or) often does by emphasi/ing mastery of #ontentLfa#ilitates studentsJ di ergent thin)ing indire#tly, and hen#e also their #reati ity ;!ternberg, E110I +un#o, E11FI Cropley, E119<. 6ut #arried to extremes, ex#essi e emphasis on #on ergent thin)ing may dis#ourage #reati ity. 4hether in s#hool or out, #reati ity seems to flourish best .hen the #reati e a#ti ity is its o.n intrinsi# re.ard, and a person is relati ely un#on#erned .ith .hat others thin) of the results. 4hate er the a#ti ityL#omposing a song, .riting an essay, organi/ing a party, or .hate erLit is more li)ely to be #reati e if the #reator fo#uses on and en,oys the a#ti ity in itself, and thin)s relati ely little about ho. others may e aluate the a#ti ity ;6rophy, E11F<. 3nfortunately, en#ouraging students to ignore othersD responses #an sometimes pose a #hallenge for tea#hers. Aot only is it the tea#hersD ,ob to e aluate studentsJ learning of parti#ular ideas or s)ills, but also they ha e to do so
7C1
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense .ithin restri#ted time limits of a #ourse or a s#hool year. In spite of these #onstraints, though, #reati ity still #an be en#ouraged in #lassrooms at least some of the time ;Claxton, Ed.ards, P !#ale-Constantinou, E119<. !uppose, for example, that students ha e to be assessed on their understanding and use of parti#ular o#abulary. &esting their understanding may limit #reati e thin)ingI students .ill understandably fo#us their energies on learning =right? ans.ers for the tests. 6ut assessment does not ha e to happen #onstantly. &here #an also be times to en#ourage experimentation .ith o#abulary through .riting poems, ma)ing .ord games, or in other thought-pro o)ing .ays. &hese a#ti ities are all potentially #reati e. &o some extent, therefore, learning #ontent and experimenting or playing .ith #ontent #an both find a pla#eLin fa#t one of these a#ti ities #an often support the other. 4e return to this point later in this #hapter, .hen .e dis#uss student-#entered strategies of instru#tion, su#h as #ooperati e learning and play as a learning medium.
Problem;solving
!ome.hat less open-ended than #reati e thin)ing is problem solving* the analysis and solution of tas)s or situations that are #omplex or ambiguous and that pose diffi#ulties or obsta#les of some )ind ;$ayer P 4ittro#), E119<. *roblem sol ing is needed, for example, .hen a physi#ian analy/es a #hest [-ray: a photograph of the #hest is far from #lear and requires s)ill, experien#e, and resour#efulness to de#ide .hi#h foggy-loo)ing blobs to ignore, and .hi#h to interpret as real physi#al stru#tures ;and therefore real medi#al #on#erns<. *roblem sol ing is also needed .hen a gro#ery store manager has to de#ide ho. to impro e the sales of a produ#t: should she put it on sale at a lo.er pri#e, or in#rease publi#ity for it, or both> 4ill these a#tions a#tually in#rease sales enough to pay for their #osts>
*roblem sol ing in the #lassroom

*roblem sol ing happens in #lassrooms .hen tea#hers present tas)s or #hallenges that are deliberately #omplex and for .hi#h finding a solution is not straightfor.ard or ob ious. &he responses of students to su#h problems, as .ell as the strategies for assisting them, sho. the )ey features of problem sol ing. Consider this example, and studentsJ responses to it. 4e ha e numbered and named the paragraphs to ma)e it easier to #omment about them indi idually:
Scene HC2 a %ro(lem to (e solved

A teacher gave these instructions2 *Can you connect all of the dots (elo lines/, She dre the follo ing dis%lay on the chal&(oard2 using only four straight
Exhibit :: &he tea#her ga e these instru#tions: HCan you #onne#t these dots .ith only four lines
7C7
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#. $acilitating comple% thin&ing The %ro(lem itself and the %rocedure for solving it seemed very clear2 sim%ly e5%eriment different arrangements of four lines. -ut t o volunteers tried doing it at the (oard, (ut unsuccessful. Several others or&ed at it at their seats, (ut also ithout success. ith ere
Scene HD2 coa5ing students to re4frame the %ro(lem

Fhen no one seemed to (e getting it, the teacher as&ed, *Thin& a(out ho in your mind0a(out assum%tions a(out ho or&ing7, you+ve set u% the %ro(lem hat you (elieve the %ro(lem is a(out. 8or instance, have you made any long the lines ought to (e/ !on+t stay stuc& on one a%%roach if it+s not
Scene H<2 Alicia a(andons a fi5ed res%onse

After the teacher said this, Alicia indeed continued to thin& a(out ho several more solutions, (ut none of them The teacher or&ed either. hat Alicia as doing. She re%eated her earlier long the lines ought to (e/, she sa the %ro(lem. *The lines need to (e no longer than the distance across the s)uare,, she said to herself. So she tried al&ed (y Alicia+s des& and sa
comment2 *:ave you assumed anything a(out ho
Alicia stared at the teacher (lan&ly, (ut then smiled and said, *:mm7 Oou didn+t actually say that the lines could (e no longer than the matri57 Fhy not ma&e them longer/, So she e5%erimented again using oversi1ed lines and soon discovered a solution2
Exhibit C: "li#iaDs solution
!#ene OF: 4illemJs and +a#helDs alternati e strategies

Aean hile, Fillem had am%le e5%erience ere not or&ed on the %ro(lem. As it ha%%ened, Fillem loved %u11les of all &inds, and ith them. :e had not, ho ever, seen this %articular %ro(lem. *.t must (e a from e5%erience that %ro(lems %osed in this ay often
tric&,, he said to himself, (ecause he &ne tell youE, And that
hat they first a%%eared to (e. :e mused to himself2 *Thin& outside the (o5, they al ays as 'ust the hint he needed2 he dre ith this solution2 lines outside the (o5 (y ma&ing them
longer than the matri5 and soon came u%
7CE
Exhibit 8: 4illemDs and +a#helDs solution Fhen Rachel ent to or&, she too& one loo& at the %ro(lem and &ne the ans er immediately2 she
had seen this %ro(lem (efore, though she could not remem(er dra ing4related %u11les, and &ne
here. She had also seen other a solution
that their solution al ays de%ended on ma&ing the lines longer,
shorter, or differently angled than first e5%ected. After staring at the dots (riefly, she dre faster than Alicia or even Fillem. :er solution loo&ed e5actly li&e FillemMs.
&his story illustrates t.o #ommon features of problem sol ing: the effe#t of degree of stru#ture or #onstraint on problem sol ing, and the effe#t of mental obsta#les to sol ing problems. &he next se#tions dis#uss ea#h of these features, and then loo)s at #ommon te#hniques for sol ing problems.
&he effe#t of #onstraints: .ell-stru#tured ersus ill-stru#tured problems

*roblems ary in ho. mu#h information they pro ide for sol ing a problem, as .ell as in ho. many rules or pro#edures are needed for a solution. " 1ell.structured problem pro ides mu#h of the information needed and #an in prin#iple be sol ed using relati ely fe. #learly understood rules. Classi# examples are the .ord problems often taught in math lessons or #lasses: e erything you need to )no. is #ontained .ithin the stated problem and the solution pro#edures are relati ely #lear and pre#ise. "n ill.structured problem has the #on erse qualities: the information is not ne#essarily .ithin the problem, solution pro#edures are potentially quite numerous, and a multiple solutions are li)ely ;Goss, E119<. Extreme examples are problems li)e =5o. #an the .orld a#hie e lasting pea#e>? or =5o. #an tea#hers insure that students learn>? 6y these definitions, the nine-dot problem is relati ely .ell-stru#turedLthough not #ompletely. $ost of the information needed for a solution is pro ided in Scene HC2 there are nine dots sho.n and instru#tions gi en to dra. four lines. 6ut not all ne#essary information .as gi en: students needed to #onsider lines that .ere longer than implied in the original statement of the problem. !tudents had to =thin) outside the box?, as 4illem saidLin this #ase, literally. 4hen a problem is .ell-stru#tured, so are its solution pro#edures li)ely to be as .ell. " .ell-defined pro#edure for sol ing a parti#ular )ind of problem is often #alled an algorithm; examples are the pro#edures for multiplying or di iding t.o numbers or the instru#tions for using a #omputer ;2eiserson, et al., E117<. "lgorithms are only effe#ti e .hen a problem is ery .ell-stru#tured and there is no question about .hether the algorithm is an appropriate #hoi#e for the problem. In that situation it pretty mu#h guarantees a #orre#t solution. &hey do not .or) .ell, ho.e er, .ith ill-stru#tured problems, .here they are ambiguities and questions about ho. to pro#eed or e en about pre#isely hat the problem is about. In those #ases it is more effe#ti e to use heuristics* .hi#h are general
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#. $acilitating comple% thin&ing strategiesL=rules of thumb?, so to spea)Lthat do not al.ays .or), but often do, or that pro ide at least partial solutions. 4hen beginning resear#h for a term paper, for example, a useful heuristi# is to s#an the library #atalogue for titles that loo) rele ant. &here is no guarantee that this strategy .ill yield the boo)s most needed for the paper, but the strategy .or)s enough of the time to ma)e it .orth trying. In the nine-dot problem, most students began in !#ene O7 .ith a simple algorithm that #an be stated li)e this: =%ra. one line, then dra. another, and another, and another?. 3nfortunately this simple pro#edure did not produ#e a solution, so they had to find other strategies for a solution. &hree alternati es are des#ribed in !#enes O0 ;for "li#ia< and F ;for 4illem and +a#hel<. Bf these, 4illemJs response resembled a heuristi# the most: he )ne. from experien#e that a good general strategy that often .or)ed for su#h problems .as to suspe#t a de#eption or tri#) in ho. the problem .as originally stated. !o he set out to question .hat the tea#her had meant by the .ord line, and #ame up .ith an a##eptable solution as a result.
Common obsta#les to sol ing problems

&he example also illustrates t.o #ommon problems that sometimes happen during problem sol ing. Bne of these is functional fi#edness$ a tenden#y to regard the functions of ob,e#ts and ideas as fi5ed ;'erman P 6arrett, E11@<. B er time, .e get so used to one parti#ular purpose for an ob,e#t that .e o erloo) other uses. 4e may thin) of a di#tionary, for example, as ne#essarily something to erify spellings and definitions, but it also #an fun#tion as a gift, a doorstop, or a footstool. For students .or)ing on the nine-dot matrix des#ribed in the last se#tion, the notion of =dra.ing? a line .as also initially fixedI they assumed it to be #onne#ting dots but not extending lines beyond the dots. Fun#tional fixedness sometimes is also #alled response set* the tenden#y for a person to frame or thin) about ea#h problem in a series in the same .ay as the pre ious problem, e en .hen doing so is not appropriate to later problems. In the example of the nine-dot matrix des#ribed abo e, students often tried one solution after another, but ea#h solution .as #onstrained by a set response not to extend any line beyond the matrix. Fun#tional fixedness and the response set are obsta#les in problem representation* the .ay that a person understands and organi/es information pro ided in a problem. If information is misunderstood or used inappropriately, then mista)es are li)elyLif indeed the problem #an be sol ed at all. 4ith the nine-dot matrix problem, for example, #onstruing the instru#tion to dra. four lines as meaning =dra. four lines entirely .ithin the matrix? means that the problem simply #ould not be sol ed. For another, #onsider this problem: =&he number of .ater lilies on a la)e doubles ea#h day. Ea#h .ater lily #o ers exa#tly one square foot. If it ta)es 711 days for the lilies to #o er the la)e exa#tly, ho. many days does it ta)e for the lilies to #o er exa#tly half of the la)e>? If you thin) that the si/e of the lilies affe#ts the solution to this problem, you ha e not represented the problem #orre#tly. Information about lily si/e is not rele ant to the solution, and only ser es to distra#t from the truly #ru#ial information, the fa#t that the lilies dou(le their #o erage ea#h day. ;&he ans.er, in#identally, is that the la)e is half #o ered in 88 daysI #an you thin) .hy><
!trategies to assist problem sol ing

(ust as there are #ogniti e obsta#les to problem sol ing, there are also general strategies that help the pro#ess be su##essful, regardless of the spe#ifi# #ontent of a problem ;&hagard, E11@<. Bne helpful strategy is problem analysisidentifying the parts of the problem and .or)ing on ea#h part separately. "nalysis is espe#ially useful .hen a problem is ill-stru#tured. Consider this problem, for example: =%e ise a plan to impro e bi#y#le transportation in the #ity.? !ol ing this problem is easier if you identify its parts or #omponent subproblems, su#h 7CF
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense as ;7< installing bi#y#le lanes on busy streets, ;E< edu#ating #y#lists and motorists to ride safely, ;0< fixing potholes on streets used by #y#lists, and ;F< re ising traffi# la.s that interfere .ith #y#ling. Ea#h separate subproblem is more manageable than the original, general problem. &he solution of ea#h subproblem #ontributes the solution of the .hole, though of #ourse is not equi alent to a .hole solution. "nother helpful strategy is 1or5ing bac51ard from a final solution to the originally stated problem. &his approa#h is espe#ially helpful .hen a problem is .ell-stru#tured but also has elements that are distra#ting or misleading .hen approa#hed in a for.ard, normal dire#tion. &he .ater lily problem des#ribed abo e is a good example: starting .ith the day .hen all the la)e is #o ered ;%ay 711<, as) .hat day .ould it therefore be half #o ered ;by the terms of the problem, it .ould ha e to be the day before, or %ay 88<. 4or)ing ba#).ard in this #ase en#ourages reframing the extra information in the problem ;i. e. the si/e of ea#h .ater lily< as merely distra#ting, not as #ru#ial to a solution. " third helpful strategy is analogical thin5ingusing )no.ledge or experien#es .ith similar features or stru#tures to help sol e the problem at hand ;6asso), E110<. In de ising a plan to impro e bi#y#ling in the #ity, for example, an analogy of #ars .ith bi#y#les is helpful in thin)ing of solutions: impro ing #onditions for both ehi#les requires many of the same measures ;impro ing the road.ays, edu#ating dri ers<. E en sol ing simpler, more basi# problems is helped by #onsidering analogies. " first grade student #an partially de#ode unfamiliar printed .ords by analogy to .ords he or she has learned already. If the #hild #annot yet read the .ord screen, for example, he #an note that part of this .ord loo)s similar to .ords he may already )no., su#h as seen or green, and from this obser ation deri e a #lue about ho. to read the .ord screen. &ea#hers #an assist this pro#ess, as you might expe#t, by suggesting reasonable, helpful analogies for students to #onsider.
9road instructional strategies that stimulate comple4 thin1ing

6e#ause the forms of thin)ing ,ust des#ribedL#riti#al thin)ing, #reati ity and problem sol ingLare broad and important edu#ationally, it is not surprising that edu#ators ha e identified strategies to en#ourage their de elopment. !ome of the possibilities are sho.n in &able E0 and group se eral instru#tional strategies along t.o dimensions: ho. mu#h the strategy is student-#entered and ho. mu#h a strategy depends on group intera#tion. It should be emphasi/ed that the t.o-.ay #lassifi#ation in &able E0 is not ery pre#ise, but it gi es a useful frame.or) for understanding the options a ailable for planning and implementing instru#tion. &he more important of the t.o dimensions in the table is the first oneLthe extent to .hi#h an instru#tional strategy is either dire#ted by the tea#her or initiated by students. 4e ta)e a #loser loo) at this dimension in the next part of this #hapter, follo.ed by dis#ussion of group-oriented tea#hing strategies. &able E0: $a,or instru#tional strategies grouped by le el of tea#her dire#tion and student fo#us Directed by student7s/ more "mphasi-es groups some1hat more Cooperati e learning Inquiry %is#o ery learning 2e#tures %ire#t instru#tion !elf-refle#tion Independent study Con#ept maps $astery learning &extboo) readings "mphasi-es individuals some1hat more
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#. $acilitating comple% thin&ing $adeline 5unterDs =Effe#ti e &ea#hing? "d an#e organi/ers Butlining +e#alling, relating, and elaborating Directed by teacher more
Definitions of @erms in @able G.1 #ecture Assigned reading Advance organi1ers &elling or explaining pre iously organi/ed informationLusually to a group +eading, usually indi idually, of pre iously organi/ed information 6rief o er ie., either erbally or graphi#ally, of material about to be #o ered in a le#ture or text 9utlining Ta&ing notes 4riting important points of a le#ture or reading, usually in a hierar#hi#al format 4riting important points of a le#ture or reading, often organi/ed a##ording to the learning needs of an indi idual student Conce%t ma%s 'raphi# depi#tion of relationships among a set of #on#epts, terms, or ideasI usually organi/ed by the student, but not al.ays Aadeline :unter+s *Effective Teaching, " set of strategies that emphasi/es #lear presentation of goals, the explanation and modeling of tas)s to students and #areful monitoring of studentsJ progress to.ard the goals
Teacher;directed instruction
"s the name implies, tea#her-dire#ted instru#tion in#ludes any strategies initiated and guided primarily by the tea#her. " #lassi# example is exposition or le#turing ;simply telling or explaining important information to students< #ombined .ith assigning reading from texts. 6ut tea#her-dire#ted instru#tion also in#ludes strategies that in ol e more a#ti e response from students, su#h as en#ouraging students to elaborate on ne. )no.ledge or to explain ho. ne. information relates to prior )no.ledge. 4hate er their form, tea#her-dire#ted instru#tional methods normally in#lude the organi/ing of information on behalf of students, e en if tea#hers also expe#t students to organi/e it further on their o.n. !ometimes, therefore, tea#her-dire#ted methods are thought of as transmitting )no.ledge from tea#her to student as #learly and effi#iently as possible, e en if they also require mental .or) on the part of the student.
2e#tures and readings

2e#tures and readings are traditional staples of edu#ators, parti#ularly .ith older students ;in#luding uni ersity students<. "t their best, they pre-organi/e information so that ;at least in theory< the student only has to remember .hat .as said in the le#ture or .ritten in the text in order to begin understanding it ;Exley P %enni#), E11F<. &heir 7C9
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense limitation is the ambiguity of the responses they require: listening and reading are by nature quiet and stationary, and do not in themsel es indi#ate .hether a student is #omprehending or e en attending to the material. Edu#ators sometimes #omplain that =students are too passi e? during le#tures or .hen reading. 6ut physi#al quietness is intrinsi# to these a#ti ities, not to the students .ho do them. " boo) ,ust sits still, after all, unless a student ma)es an effort to read it, and a le#ture may not be heard unless a student ma)es the effort to listen to it.
"d an#e organi/ers

In spite of these problems, there are strategies for ma)ing le#tures and readings effe#ti e. " tea#her #an be espe#ially #areful about organi/ing information for students, and she #an turn part of the mental .or) o er to students themsel es. "n example of the first approa#h is the use of advance organi-ersLbrief o er ie.s or introdu#tions to ne. material before the material itself is presented ;"usubel, 78:C<. &extboo) authors ;in#luding oursel es< often try deliberately to insert periodi# ad an#e organi/ers to introdu#e ne. se#tions or #hapters in the text. 4hen used in a le#ture, ad an#e organi/ers are usually statements in the form of brief introdu#tory remar)s, though sometimes diagrams sho.ing relationships among )ey ideas #an also ser e the same purpose ;+obinson, et al., E110<. 4hate er their form, ad an#e organi/ers partially organi/e the material on behalf of the students, so that they )no. .here to put it all, so to spea), as they learn them in more detail.
+e#alling and relating prior )no.ledge

"nother strategy for impro ing tea#her-dire#ted instru#tion is to en#ourage students to relate the ne. material to prior familiar )no.ledge. 4hen one of us ;Kel in< first learned a foreign language ;in his #ase Fren#h<, for example, he often noti#ed similarities bet.een Fren#h and English o#abulary. " Fren#h .ord for pi#ture, for example, .as image, spelled exa#tly as it is in English. &he Fren#h .ord for s%lendid .as s%lendide, spelled almost the same as in English, though not quite. +elating the Fren#h o#abulary to English o#abulary helped in learning and remembering the Fren#h. "s #hildren and youth be#ome more experien#ed in their a#ademi#s, they tend to relate ne. information to pre iously learned information more frequently and automati#ally ;'ood.in, 7888I Ba)hill, 5artt, P !amols, E11@<. 6ut tea#hers #an also fa#ilitate studentsJ use of this strategy. 4hen presenting ne. #on#epts or ideas, the tea#her #an relate them to pre iously learned ideas deliberatelyLessentially modeling a memory strategy that students learn to use for themsel es. In a s#ien#e #lass, for example, she #an say, =&his is another example of^, .hi#h .e studied before?I in so#ial studies she #an say, =+emember .hat .e found out last time about the gro.th of the railroads> 4e sa. that^? If students are relati ely young or are struggling a#ademi#ally, it is espe#ially important to remind them of their prior )no.ledge. &ea#hers #an periodi#ally as) questions li)e =4hat do you already )no. about this topi#>? or =5o. .ill your ne. )no.ledge about this topi# #hange .hat you )no. already>? 4hate er the age of students, #onne#ting ne. .ith prior )no.ledge is easier .ith help from someone more )no.ledgeable, su#h as the tea#her. 4hen learning algorithms for multipli#ation, for example, students may not at first see ho. multipli#ation is related to addition pro#esses .hi#h they probably learned pre iously ;6urns, E117<. 6ut if a tea#her ta)es time to explain the relationship and to gi e students time to explore it, then the ne. s)ill of multipli#ation may be learned more easily.
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#. $acilitating comple% thin&ing
Elaborating information
Elaborating ne. information means as)ing questions about the ne. material, inferring ideas and relationships among the ne. #on#epts. !u#h strategies are #losely related to the strategy of re#alling prior )no.ledge as dis#ussed abo e: elaboration enri#hes the ne. information and #onne#ts it to other )no.ledge. In this sense elaboration ma)es the ne. learning more meaningful and less arbitrary. " tea#her #an help students use elaboration by modeling this beha ior. &he tea#her #an interrupt his or her explanation of an idea, for example, by as)ing ho. it relates to other ideas, or by spe#ulating about .here the ne. #on#ept or idea may lead. 5e or she #an also en#ourage students to do the same, and e en gi e students questions to guide their thin)ing. 4hen gi ing examples of a #on#ept, for example, a tea#her #an hold ba#) from offering all of the examples, and instead as) students to thin) of additional examples themsel es. &he same ta#ti# #an .or) .ith assigned readingsI if the reading in#ludes examples, the tea#her #an instru#t students to find or ma)e up additional examples of their o.n.
Brgani/ing ne. information

&here are many .ays to organi/e ne. information that are espe#ially .ell-suited to tea#her-dire#ted instru#tion. " #ommon .ay is simply to as) students to outline information read in a text or heard in a le#ture. Butlining .or)s espe#ially .ell .hen the information is already organi/ed some.hat hierar#hi#ally into a series of main topi#s, ea#h .ith supporting subtopi#s or subpoints. Butlining is basi#ally a form of the more general strategy of ta5ing notes, or .riting do.n )ey ideas and terms from a reading or le#ture. +esear#h studies find that that the pre#ise style or #ontent of notes is less important that the quantity of notes ta)en: more detail is usually better than less ;4ard P &atsu)a.a, E110<. 4ritten notes insure that a student thin)s about the material not only .hile .riting it do.n, but also .hen reading the notes later. &hese benefits are espe#ially helpful .hen students are relati ely inexperien#ed at s#hool learning in general ;as in the earlier grade le els<, or relati ely inexperien#ed about a spe#ifi# topi# or #ontent in parti#ular. Aot surprisingly, su#h students may also need more guidan#e than usual about hat and ho to .rite notes. It #an be helpful for the tea#her to pro ide a note-ta)ing guide, li)e the ones sho.n in Exhibit C.
7CC
Aotes on !#ien#e Experiment 7. *urpose of the experiment ;in one senten#e<:
'uide to Aotes "bout Tale of T o Cities2 7. $ain #hara#ters ;list and des#ribe in ,ust a fe. .ords<: a<
E. Equipment needed ;list ea#h item and define any spe#ial terms<: 7< E< 0< F< 0. *ro#edure used ;be spe#ifi#M<: F. F. +esults ;in#lude ea#h measurement, rounded to the nearest integer<:
b< #< d< E. !etting of the story ;time and pla#e<:
0. 3nfamiliar o#abulary in the story ;list and define<: a< b< #< d<
Bbser ation O7 Bbser ation OE Bbser ation O0 Bbser ation OF " erage measurement, O7-F:
F. *lot ;.rite do.n only the main e ents<: a< b< #< d< @. &heme ;or underlying =message?< of the story:
Exhibit 71: &.o note ta)ing guides In learning expository material, another helpful strategyLone that is more isually orientedLis to ma)e
concept maps, or diagrams of the #onne#tions among #on#epts or ideas. Exhibit : sho.s #on#ept maps made by t.o indi iduals that graphi#ally depi#t ho. a )ey idea, child develo%ment, relates to learning and edu#ation. Bne of the maps .as dra.n by a #lassroom tea#her and the other by a uni ersity professor of psy#hology ;!eifert, 7887<. &hey suggest possible differen#es in ho. the t.o indi iduals thin) about #hildren and their de elopment. Aot surprisingly, the tea#her ga e more prominen#e to pra#ti#al #on#erns ;for example, #lassroom learning and #hild abuse<, and the professor ga e more prominen#e to theoreti#al ones ;for example, Eri) Eri)son and *iaget<. &he Educational Psychology 7C8 " 'lobal &ext
#. $acilitating comple% thin&ing differen#es suggest that these t.o people may ha e something different in mind .hen they use the same term, child develo%ment. &he differen#es ha e the potential to #reate misunderstandings bet.een them ;!eifert, 7888I !uper P 5ar)ness, E110<. 6y the same to)en, the t.o maps also suggest .hat ea#h person might need to learn in order to a#hie e better understanding of the other personJs thin)ing and ideas.
Exhibit 77: $aps of personal definitions of =#hild de elopment?
$astery learning
&his term refers to an instru#tional approa#h in .hi#h all students learn material to an identi#ally high le el, e en if some students require more time than others to do so ;'entile, E11F<. In mastery learning, the tea#her dire#ts learning, though sometimes only in the sense of finding, .riting, and or#hestrating spe#ifi# modules or units for students to learn. In one typi#al mastery learning program, the tea#her introdu#es a fe. ne. #on#epts or topi#s through a brief le#ture or tea#her-led demonstration. &hen she gi es an ungraded assignment or test immediately 781
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense in order to assess ho. .ell students ha e learned the material, and .hi#h ones still need help. &he students .ho ha e already learned the unit are gi en enri#hment a#ti ities. &hose needing more help are pro ided indi idual tutoring or additional self-guiding materials that #larify the initial #ontentI they .or) until they ha e in fa#t mastered the #ontent ;hen#e the name mastery learning<. "t that point students ta)e another test or do another assignment to sho. that they ha e in fa#t learned the material to the expe#ted high standard. 4hen the system is .or)ing .ell, all students end up .ith high s#ores or grades, although usually some ta)e longer to do so than others. "s you might suspe#t, mastery learning poses t.o #hallenges. &he first is ethi#al: is it really fair to gi e enri#hment only to faster students and remediation only to slo.er students> &his pra#ti#e #ould deteriorate into #ontinually pro iding the fast .ith an interesting edu#ation, .hile #ontinually pro iding the slo. only .ith boring, repetitious material. In using the approa#h, therefore, it is important to ma)e all materials interesting, .hether enri#hment or remedial. It is also important to ma)e sure that the basi# learning goals of ea#h unit are truly importantLe en #ru#ialLfor e eryone to learn, so that e en slo.er indi iduals spend their time .ell. &he other #hallenge of mastery learning is more pra#ti#al: the approa#h ma)es strong demands for detailed, highly organi/ed #urri#ulum. If the approa#h is to .or), the tea#her must either lo#ate su#h a #urri#ulum, .rite one herself, or assemble a suitable mixture of published and self-authored materials. 5o.e er the #urri#ulum is #reated, the end result has to be a program filled .ith small units of study as .ell as ample enri#hment and remedial materials. !ometimes pro iding these pra#ti#al requirements #an be #hallenging. 6ut not al.ays: some sub,e#ts ;li)e mathemati#s< lend themsel es to detailed, sequential organi/ation espe#ially .ell. In many #ases, too, #ommer#ial publishers ha e produ#ed #urri#ula already organi/ed for use in mastery learning programs ;Fox, E11F<.
%ire#t instru#tion
"lthough the term direct instruction is sometimes a synonym for teacher4directed instruction, more often it refers to a ersion of mastery learning that is highly s#ripted, meaning that it not only organi/es the #urri#ulum into small modules or units as des#ribed abo e, but also di#tates ho tea#hers should tea#h and sometimes e en the .ords they should spea) ;"dams P Engelmann, 7889I $agliaro, 2o#)ee, P 6urton, E11@<. %ire#t instru#tion programs are usually based on a mix of ideas from beha iorism and #ogniti e theories of learning. In )eeping .ith beha iorism, the tea#her is supposed to praise students immediately and expli#itly .hen they gi e a #orre#t ans.er. In )eeping .ith #ogniti e theory, she is supposed to state learning ob,e#ti es in ad an#e of tea#hing them ;pro iding a sort of mini-ad an#e organi/er<, pro ide frequent re ie.s of materials, and #he#) deliberately on ho. .ell students are learning. %ire#t instru#tion usually also introdu#es material in small, logi#al steps, and #alls for plenty of time for students to pra#ti#e. %ire#t instru#tion programs share one of the #hallenges of other mastery learning approa#hes: be#ause they hold all students to the same high standard of a#hie ement, they must deal .ith differen#es in ho. long students require to rea#h the standard. 6ut dire#t instru#tion has an additional #hallenge, in that they often rely on small-group intera#tion more hea ily than other mastery learning programs, and use self-guiding materials less. &his differen#e has the benefit that dire#t instru#tion .or)s espe#ially .ell .ith younger students ;espe#ially )indergarten through third grade<, .ho may ha e limited s)ills at .or)ing alone for extended periods. &he #hallenge is that relian#e on small-group intera#tion #an ma)e it impra#ti#al to use dire#t instru#tion .ith an entire #lass or for an entire s#hool
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#. $acilitating comple% thin&ing day. In spite of these limits, ho.e er, resear#h has found dire#t instru#tion to be ery effe#ti e in tea#hing basi# s)ills su#h as early reading and arithmeti# ;"dams P Engelmann, 7889<.
$adeline 5unterJs effe#ti e tea#hing model

" number of dire#t instru#tion strategies ha e been #ombined by $adeline 5unter into a single, relati ely #omprehensi e approa#h that she #alls mastery teaching ;not to be #onfused .ith the related term mastery learning) or the effective teaching model ;$. 5unter, 78CEI +. 5unter, E11F<. Important features of the model are summari/ed in &able EF. "s you #an see, the features span all phases of #onta#t .ith studentsLbefore, during, and after lessons. &able EF: $adeline 5unterDs =Effe#ti e &ea#hing $odel? *repare students to learn.
$a)e good use of time at the beginning of a lesson or a#ti ity, .hen attention is best %ire#t studentsD attention to .hat lies ahead in a lessonLfor example, by offering =ad an#e organi/ers? Explain lesson ob,e#ti es expli#itly
*resent information #learly and expli#itly.

!et a basi# stru#ture to the lesson and stay .ith it throughout 3se familiar terms and examples 6e #on#ise
Che#) for understanding and gi e guided pra#ti#e.

"s) questions that e eryone responds toLfor example, =+aise your hand if you thin) the ans.er is [? In ite #horal responsesLfor example, =Is this a #orre#t ans.er or not>? !ample indi idualsD understandingLfor example, =6arry, .hatDs your example of [>?
*ro ide for independent pra#ti#e.

4or) through the first fe. exer#ises or problems together Keep independent pra#ti#e periods brief and intersperse .ith dis#ussions that offer feedba#)
Source: +. 5unter, E11F
4hat happens e en before a lesson begins> 2i)e many forms of tea#her-dire#ted instru#tion, the effe#ti e tea#hing model requires #urri#ula and learning goals that are tightly organi/ed and di isible into small parts, ideas, or s)ills. In tea#hing about photosynthesis, for example, the tea#her ;or at least her #urri#ulum< needs to identify the basi# elements that #ontribute to this pro#ess, and ho. they relate to ea#h other. 4ith photosynthesis, the elements in#lude the sun, plants, animals, #hlorophyll, oxygen produ#ed by plants and #onsumed by animals, and #arbon dioxide that produ#ed by animals and #onsumed by plants. &he roles of these elements need to be identified and expressed at a le el appropriate for the students. 4ith ad an#ed s#ien#e students, oxygen, #hlorophyll, and #arbon dioxide may be expressed as part of #omplex #hemi#al rea#tionsI .ith first-grade students, though, they may be expressed simply as parts of a pro#ess a)in to breathing or respiration. Bn#e this analysis of the #urri#ulum has been done, the 5unterDs effe#ti e tea#hing model requires ma)ing the most of the lesson time by #reating an anticipatory set* .hi#h is an a#ti ity that fo#uses or orients the attention of 78E
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense students to the up#oming #ontent. Creating an anti#ipatory set may #onsist, for example, of posing one or more questions about studentsJ e eryday )no.ledge or )no.ledge of prior lessons. In tea#hing about differen#es bet.een fruits and egetables, the tea#her #ould start by as)ing: =If you are ma)ing a salad stri#tly of fruit, .hi#h of these .ould be BK to use: apple, tomato, #u#umber, or orange>? "s the lesson pro#eeds, information needs to be offered in short, logi#al pie#es, using language as familiar as possible to the students. Examples should be plentiful and aried: if the purpose is to define and distinguish fruits and egetables, for example, then features defining ea#h group should be presented singularly or at most ,ust a fe. at a time, .ith #lear-#ut examples presented of ea#h feature. !ometimes models or analogies also help to explain examples. " tea#her #an say: =&hin) of a fruit as a sort of \de#orationJ on the plant, be#ause if you pi#) it, the plant .ill go on li ing.? 6ut models #an also mislead students if they are not used thoughtfully, sin#e they may #ontain features that differ from the original #on#epts. In li)ening a fruit to a de#oration, for example, students may o erloo) the essential role of fruit in plant reprodu#tion, or thin) that lettu#e qualifies as a fruit, sin#e pi#)ing a fe. lettu#e lea es does not usually )ill a lettu#e plant. &hroughout a lesson, the tea#her repeatedly chec5s for understanding by as)ing questions that #all for a#ti e thin)ing on the part of students. Bne .ay is to require all students to respond someho., either .ith an a#tual #horal response ;spea)ing in unison together<, another .ay .ith a non- erbal signal li)e raising hands to indi#ate ans.ers to questions. In tea#hing about fruits and egetables, for example, a tea#her #an as), =5ereJs a list of fruits and egetables. "s I point to ea#h one, raise your hand if itJs a fruit, but not if itJs a egetable.? Br she #an as): =5ereJs a list of fruits and egetables. !ay together .hat ea#h on is as I point to itI you say \fruitJ or \ egetableJ, .hi#he er applies.? E en though some students may hide their ignoran#e by letting more )no.ledgeable #lassmates do the responding, the general le el or quality of response #an still gi e a rough idea of ho. .ell students are understanding. &hese #he#)s #an be supplemented, of #ourse, .ith questions addressed to indi iduals, or .ith questions to .hi#h indi iduals must respond briefly in .riting. " tea#her #an as) e eryone, ='i e me an example of one fruit and one egetable?, and then #all on indi iduals to ans.er. !he #an also say: =I .ant e eryone to ma)e a list .ith t.o #olumns, one listing all the fruits you #an thin) of and the other listing all the egetables you #an thin) of.? "s a lesson dra.s to a #lose, the tea#her arranges for students to ha e further independent practice. &he point of the pra#ti#e is not to explore ne. material or ideas, but to #onsolidate or strengthen the re#ent learning. "t the end of a lesson about long di ision, for example, the tea#her #an ma)e a transition to independent pra#ti#e by pro iding a set of additional problems similar to the ones she explained during the lesson. "fter .or)ing one or t.o .ith students, she #an turn the rest of the tas) o er to the students to pra#ti#e on their o.n. 6ut note that e en though the pra#ti#e is supposedly =independent?, studentsJ understanding still has be #he#)ed frequently. " long set of pra#ti#e problems therefore needs to be bro)en up into small subsets of problems, and .ritten or oral feedba#) offered periodi#ally.
4hat are the limits of tea#her-dire#ted instru#tion>

4hate er the grade le el, most sub,e#ts taught in s#hools ha e at least some features, s)ills, or topi#s that benefit from dire#t instru#tion. E en sub,e#ts usually #onsidered =#reati e? #an benefit from a dire#t approa#h at times: to dra., sing, or .rite a poem, for example, requires s)ills that may be easier to learn if presented sequentially in small units .ith frequent feedba#) from a tea#her. +esear#h supports the usefulness of tea#herdire#ted instru#tion for a ariety of edu#ational #ontexts .hen it is designed .ell and implemented as intended
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#. $acilitating comple% thin&ing ;+osenshine P $esister,788@I 'ood P 6rophy, E11F<. &ea#hers themsel es also tend to support the approa#h in prin#iple ;%emant P Nates, E110<. 6ut there are limits to its usefulness. !ome are the pra#ti#al ones are pointed out abo e. &ea#her-dire#ted instru#tion, .hate er the form, requires .ell-organi/ed units of instru#tion in ad an#e of .hen students are to learn. !u#h units may not al.ays be a ailable, and it may not be realisti# to expe#t busy tea#hers to de ise their o.n. Bther limits of dire#t instru#tion ha e more to do .ith the ery nature of learning. !ome #riti#s argue that organi/ing material on behalf of the students en#ourages students to be passi eLan ironi# and undesirable result if true ;Kohn, E111, E119<. "##ording to this #riti#ism, the mere fa#t that a #urri#ulum or unit of study is #onstru#ted by a tea#her ;or other authority< ma)es some students thin) that they should not bother see)ing information a#ti ely on their o.n, but .ait for it to arri e of its o.n a##ord. In support of this argument, #riti#s point to the fa#t that dire#t instru#tion approa#hes sometimes #ontradi#t their o.n premises by requiring students to do a bit of #ogniti e organi/ational .or) of their o.n. &his happens, for example, .hen a mastery learning program pro ides enri#hment material to faster students to .or) on independentlyI in that #ase the tea#her may be in ol ed in the enri#hment a#ti ities only minimally. Criti#isms li)e these ha e led to additional instru#tional approa#hes that rely more fully on students to see) and organi/e their o.n learning. In the next se#tion .e dis#uss some of these options. "s you .ill see, student-#entered models of learning do sol e #ertain problems of tea#her-dire#ted instru#tion, but they also ha e problems of their o.n.
Student;centered models of learning

!tudent-#entered models of learning shift some of the responsibility for dire#ting and organi/ing learning from the tea#her to the student. 6eing student-#entered does not mean, ho.e er, that a tea#her gi es up organi/ational and leadership responsibilities #ompletely. It only means a relati e shift in the tea#herJs role, to.ard one .ith more emphasis on guiding studentsJ self-#hosen dire#tions. "s .e explained earlier in this #hapter, tea#her-dire#ted strategies do not ta)e o er responsibility for studentsJ learning #ompletelyI no matter ho. mu#h a tea#her stru#tures or dire#ts learning, the students still ha e responsibility for .or)ing and expending effort to #omprehend ne. material. 6y the same to)en, student-#entered models of learning do not mean handing o er all organi/ational .or) of instru#tion to students. &he tea#her is still the most )no.ledgeable member of the #lass, and still has both the opportunity and the responsibility to guide learning in dire#tions that are produ#ti e. "s you might suspe#t, therefore, tea#her-dire#ted and student-#entered approa#hes to instru#tion may o erlap in pra#ti#e. Nou #an see the o erlap #learly, for example, in t.o instru#tional strategies #ommonly thought of as student-#entered, inde%endent study and self4reflection. In independent study* as the name implies, a student .or)s alone a good deal of the time, #onsulting .ith a tea#her only o##asionally. Independent study may be student-#entered in the sense that the student may be learning a topi# or s)illLan exoti# foreign language, for exampleLthat is personally interesting. 6ut the opposite may also be true: the student may be learning a topi# or s)ill that a tea#her or an offi#ial s#hool #urri#ulum has dire#ted the student to learnLa basi# sub,e#t for .hi#h the student is missing a #redit, for example. Either .ay, though, the student .ill probably need guidan#e, support, and help from a tea#her. In this sense e en independent study al.ays #ontain elements of tea#her-dire#tion. !imilarly, self.reflection refers to thin)ing about beliefs and experien#es in order to #larify their personal meaning and importan#e. In s#hool it #an be pra#ti#ed in a number of .ays: for example by )eeping diaries or logs
78F
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense of learning or reading, or by retelling stories of important experien#es or in#idents in a studentJs life, or by #reating #on#ept maps li)e the ones des#ribed earlier in this #hapter. 4hate er form it ta)es, self-refle#tion by definition happens inside a single studentJs mind, and in this sense is al.ays dire#ted by the student. Net most resear#h on self-refle#tion finds that self-refle#tion only .or)s .ell .hen it in ol es and generates responses and intera#tion .ith other students or .ith a tea#her ;!eifert, 7888I Kuit, +eay, P Freeman, E117<. &o be fully self-refle#ti e, students need to ha e a##ess to more than their existing base of )no.ledge and ideasLmore than .hat they )no. already. In one study about studentsJ self-refle#tions of #ultural and ra#ial pre,udi#es ;'ay P Kir)land, E110<, for example, the resear#hers found that students tended to refle#t on these problems in relati ely shallo. .ays if they .or)ed on their o.n. It .as not parti#ularly effe#ti e to .rite about pre,udi#e in a ,ournal that no one read ex#ept themsel es, or to des#ribe beliefs in a #lass dis#ussion in .hi#h neither the tea#her nor #lassmates #ommented or #hallenged the beliefs. $u#h more effe#ti e in both #ases .as for the tea#her to respond thoughtfully to studentsJ refle#ti e #omments. In this sense the use of self-refle#tion, li)e independent study, required elements of tea#herdire#tion to be su##essful. 5o. might a tea#her emphasi/e studentsJ responsibility for dire#ting and organi/ing their o.n learning> &he alternati es are numerous, as they are for tea#her-dire#ted strategies, so .e #an only sample some of them here. 4e #on#entrate on ones that are relati ely .ell )no.n and used most .idely, and espe#ially on t.o: inquiry learning and #ooperati e learning.
0n@uiry learning
&n3uiry learning stands the usual ad i#e about expository ;le#ture-style< tea#hing on its head: instead of presenting .ell-organi/ed )no.ledge to students, the tea#her ;or sometimes fello. students< pose thoughtful questions intended to stimulate dis#ussion and in estigation by students. &he approa#h has been des#ribed, used, and dis#ussed by edu#ators literally for de#ades, though sometimes under other names, in#luding in)uiry method ;*ostman P 4eingartner, 7898<, discovery learning ;6runer, 7891KE119<, or %rogressive education ;%e.ey, 7800I $artin, E110<. For #on enien#e, .e .ill stay .ith the term in)uiry learning. &he questions that begin a #y#le of inquiry learning may be posed either by the tea#her or by students themsel es. &heir #ontent depends not only on the general sub,e#t area being studied, but also on the interests .hi#h students themsel es ha e expressed. In elementary-le el s#ien#e, for example, a question might be =4hy do lea es fall off trees .hen .inter #omes>? In high s#hool so#ial studies #lasses, it might be =4hy do nations get into #onfli#t>? &he tea#her a oids ans.ering su#h questions dire#tly, e en if as)ed to do so. Instead she en#ourages students to in estigate the questions themsel es, for example by elaborating on studentsJ ideas and by as)ing further questions based on studentsJ initial #omments. !in#e studentsJ #omments #an not be predi#ted pre#isely, the approa#h is by nature flexible. &he initial questioning helps students to #reate and #larify questions .hi#h they #onsider .orthy of further in estigation. %is#ussing questions about lea es falling off trees, for example, #an prompt students to obser e trees in the autumn or to lo#ate boo)s and referen#es that dis#uss or explain the biology of tress and lea es. 6ut inquiry is not limited to parti#ular grade le els or topi#s. If initial questions in a high s#hool so#ial studies #lass ha e been about .hy nations get into #onfli#t, for example, the resulting dis#ussions #an lead to in estigating the history of past .ars and the history of pea#e-)eeping efforts around the .orld. 4hether the topi# is high s#hool so#ial studies or elementary s#hool biology, the spe#ifi# dire#tion of in estigations is influen#ed hea ily by students,
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#. $acilitating comple% thin&ing but .ith assistan#e from the tea#her to insure that the studentsJ initiati es are produ#ti e. 4hen all goes .ell, the inquiry and resulting in estigations benefit students in t.o .ays. &he first is that students ;perhaps ob iously< learn ne. )no.ledge from their in estigations. &he se#ond is that students pra#ti#e a #onstru#ti e, moti ating .ay of learning, one appli#able to a ariety of problems and tas)s, both in s#hool and out.
Cooperative learning
E en though inquiry-oriented dis#ussion and in estigation benefits .hen it in ol es the tea#her, it #an also be useful for students to .or) together some.hat independently, relying on a tea#herJs guidan#e only indire#tly. 4or)ing .ith peers is a ma,or feature of cooperative learning ;sometimes also #alled colla(orative learning). In this approa#h, students .or) on a tas) in groups and often are re.arded either partially or #ompletely for the su##ess of the group as a .hole. "spe#ts of #ooperati e learning ha e been part of edu#ation for a long timeI some form of #ooperation has al.ays been ne#essary to parti#ipate on s#hool sports teams, for example, or to produ#e a student-run s#hool ne.spaper. 4hat is a bit ne.er is using #ooperati e or #ollaborati e a#ti ities systemati#ally to fa#ilitate the learning of a range of edu#ational goals #entral to the a#ademi# #urri#ulum ;*rin#e, E11F<. E en though tea#hers usually alue #ooperation in students, #ir#umstan#es at s#hool #an sometimes redu#e studentsJ in#enti es to sho. it. &he traditional pra#ti#e of assessing students indi idually, for example, #an set the stage for #ompetition o er grades, and #ultural and other forms of di ersity #an sometimes inhibit indi iduals from helping ea#h other spontaneously. !trategies exist, ho.e er, for redu#ing su#h barriers so that students truly benefit from ea#h otherJs presen#e, and are more li)ely to feel li)e sharing their s)ills and )no.ledge. 5ere, for example, are se eral )ey features that ma)e #ooperati e learning .or) .ell ;(ohnson P (ohnson, 788CI !mith, et al., E11@<:
Students need time and a %lace to tal& and
or& together. &his may sound ob ious, but it #an be
o erloo)ed if time in #lass be#omes #ro.ded .ith other tas)s and a#ti ities, or .ith interruptions related to s#hool ;li)e assemblies< but not to the #lassroom. It is ne er enough simply to tell students to .or) together, only to lea e them .ondering ho. or .hen they are to do so.
Students need s&ills at
or&ing together. "s an adult, you may feel relati ely able to .or) .ith a ariety of
partners on a group tas). &he same assumption #annot be made, ho.e er, about younger indi iduals, .hether teenagers or #hildren. !ome students may get along .ith a ariety of partners, but others may not. $any .ill benefit from ad i#e and #oa#hing about ho. to fo#us on the tas)s at hand, rather than on the personalities of their partners.
Assessment of activities should hold (oth the grou% and the individuals accounta(le for success. If a final
mar) for a pro,e#t goes only to the group as a .hole, then freeloading is possible: some members may not do their share of the .or) and may be re.arded more than they deser e. Bthers may be re.arded less than they deser e. If, on the other hand, a final grade for a group pro,e#t goes only to ea#h memberJs indi idual #ontribution to a group pro,e#t, then overspeciali-ation #an o##ur: indi iduals ha e no real in#enti e to .or) together, and #ooperati e may deteriorate into a set of smaller indi idual pro,e#ts ;!la in, 788F<.
Students need to (elieve in the value and necessity of coo%eration. Collaboration .ill not o##ur if students
pri ately assume that their partners ha e little to #ontribute to their personal su##ess. !o#ial pre,udi#es from the .ider so#ietyLli)e ra#ial bias or gender sexism, for exampleL#an #reep into the operations of #ooperati e groups, #ausing some members to be ignored unfairly .hile others are o er alued. &ea#hers
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&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense #an help redu#e these problems in t.o .ays: first by pointing out and explaining that a di ersity of talents is ne#essary for su##ess on a group pro,e#t, and se#ond by pointing out to the group ho. under alued indi iduals are #ontributing to the o erall pro,e#t ;Cohen, 6rody, P !apon-!he in, E11F<. "s these #omments imply, #ooperati e learning does not happen automati#ally, and requires monitoring and support by the tea#her. !ome a#ti ities may not lend themsel es to #ooperati e .or), parti#ularly if e ery member of the group is doing essentially the same tas). 'i ing e eryone in a group the same set of arithmeti# problems to .or) on #ollaborati ely, for example, is a formula for #ooperati e failure: either the most s)illed students do the .or) for others ;freeloading< or else members simply di ide up the problems among themsel es in order to redu#e their o erall .or) ;o erspe#iali/ation<. " better #hoi#e for a #ooperati e tas) is one that #learly requires a di ersity of s)ills, .hat some edu#ators #all a rich grou% or& tas& ;Cohen, 6rody, P !apon-!he in, E11F<. *reparing a presentation about medie al #astles, for example, might require ;a< .riting s)ill to #reate a report, ;b< dramati# s)ill to put on a s)it and ;#< artisti# talent to #reate a poster. "lthough a fe. students may ha e all of these s)ills, more are li)ely to ha e only one, and they are therefore li)ely to need and .ant their fello. group membersJ parti#ipation.
E4amples of cooperative and collaborative learning

"lthough this des#ription may ma)e the requirements for #ooperati e learning sound some.hat pre#ise, there are a#tually a ariety of .ays to implement it in pra#ti#e. &able E@ summari/es se eral of them. "s you #an see, the strategies ary in the number of ho. many students they in ol e, the prior organi/ation or planning pro ided by the tea#her, and the amount of #lass time they normally require. &able E@: !trategies for en#ouraging #ooperati e learning Strategy @ype of groups involved$ &hin)-pair-share ;2yman, 78C7< *airs of students, sometimes lin)ed to one other pair :hat the teacher does$ &ea#her poses initial problem or question. :hat the students do$ First, students thin) indi idually of the ans.erI se#ond, they share their thin)ing .ith partnerI third, the partnership shares their thin)ing .ith another partnership. (igsa. #lassroom, ersion O7 ;"ronson, et al., E117< @-9 students per group, and @-9 groups o erall &ea#her assigns students to groups and assigns one aspe#t of a #omplex problem to ea#h group. !tudents in ea#h group .or) together to be#ome experts in their parti#ular aspe#t of the problemI later the expert groups disband, and form ne. groups #ontaining one student from ea#h of the former expert groups.
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#. $acilitating comple% thin&ing (igsa. #lassroom, ersion OE ;!la in, 788F< F-@ students per group, and F-@ groups o erall &ea#her assigns students to groups and or learn about the same entire #omplex problem. !tudents initially .or) in groups to learn about the groups disband and reform as expert groups, .ith ea#h group fo#using on a sele#ted aspe#t of the general problemI still later the expert groups disband and the original general groups reform to learn .hat the expert students #an no. add to their general understanding. !&"% ;!tudent-&eams"#hie ement %i isions< ;!la in, 788F< F-@ students per team ;or group< &ea#her presents a lesson or unit to the entire #lass, and later tests them on itI grades indi iduals and the teamJs impro ement, not ,ust on absolute le el of performan#e. *ro,e#t-6ased 2earning ;Kat/, E111< Garious numbers of #omplexity of the pro,e#t, up to and in#luding the entire #lass. &ea#her or students of interest to other studentsI tea#her helps students to #larify their in estigate the question. !tudents .or) together in estigate the original question or problemI pro,e#t leads to a report, or other produ#t. !tudents .or) together to insure that team mates impro e their performan#e as mu#h as possible. indi iduals.
assigns ea#h group to study the entire problemI later
based partly on indi idualsJ !tudents ta)e tests as
students, depending on the pose a question or problem for extended periods to
interests and ma)e plans to presentation, .ritten
0nstructional strategies) an abundance of choices

2oo)ing broadly at this #hapter, you #an see that #hoi#es among instru#tional strategies are numerous indeed, and that de#iding among them depends on the forms of thin)ing that you .ant to en#ourage, the extent to .hi#h ideas or s)ills need to be organi/ed by you to be understood by students, and the extent to .hi#h students need to ta)e responsibility for dire#ting their o.n learning. "lthough you may ha e personal preferen#es among possible instru#tional strategies, the #hoi#e .ill also be guided by the uniqueness of ea#h situation of tea#hingL.ith its parti#ular students, grade-le el, #ontent, and purposes. If you need to de elop studentsJ problem sol ing s)ills, for example, there are strategies that are espe#ially .ell suited for this purposeI .e des#ribed some ;see, =*roblem 78C
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense sol ing strategies? in this #hapter<. If you need to organi/e #omplex information so that students do not be#ome #onfused by it, there are effe#ti e .ays of doing so. If you .ant the students to ta)e as mu#h initiati e as possible in organi/ing their o.n learning, this too #an be done. Net ha ing this )no.ledge is still not enough to tea#h .ell. 4hat is still needed are ideas or prin#iples for de#iding hat to tea#h. In this #hapter .e ha e still not addressed an ob ious question: 5o. do I find or de ise goals for my tea#hing and for my studentsJ learning> "nd assuming that I #an determine the goals, .here #an I find resour#es that help students to meet them>
Chapter summary
&ea#hing in ol es numerous instru#tional strategies, .hi#h are de#isions and a#tions designed to fa#ilitate learning. &he #hoi#e of strategies depends partly on the forms of thin)ing intended for studentsL.hether the goal is for students to thin) #riti#ally, for example, or to thin) #reati ely, or to sol e problems. " fundamental de#ision in #hoosing instru#tional strategies is ho. mu#h to emphasi/e tea#her-dire#ted instru#tion, as #ompared to student#entered models of learning. &ea#her-dire#ted strategies of instru#tion in#lude le#tures and readings ;expository tea#hing<, mastery learning, s#ripted or dire#t instru#tion, and #omplex tea#her-dire#ted approa#hes su#h as $adeline 5unterJs effe#ti e tea#hing model. !tudent-#entered models of learning in#lude independent study, student self-refle#tion, inquiry learning, and arious forms of #ooperati e or #ollaborati e learning. "lthough for some students, #urri#ulum #ontent and learning goals may lend themsel es to.ard one parti#ular type of instru#tion, tea#hing is often a matter of #ombining different strategies appropriately and #reati ely.
Further resour#es
Q....glossary.plasmalin).#omKglossary.html R &his .eb page lists o er 7111 instru#tional strategiesLo er ten times as many as in this #hapterM &he strategies are arranged alphabeti#ally and range from simple to #omplex. For many strategies there are lin)s to other .eb pages .ith more #omplete explanations and ad i#e for use. &his is also a good page if you ha e heard of a strategy but .ant to find out its definition qui#)ly. ....tea#hingedpsy#h..i)ispa#es.#omKEffe#tsVofVfamiliarityVonVproblemVsol ing J 5ere is an interesting and effe#ti e demonstration of ho. prior experien#e #an affe#t problem sol ing. Ihttp:KKtea#hingedpsy#h..i)ispa#es.#omK&heV+elationshipV6et.eenV%i ergentV&hin)ingVandVCreati ity J &his is a demonstration a#ti ity that highlights the nature of #reati ity by #omparing it to a simpler idea, divergent thin&ing. Ihttp:KKtea#hingedpsy#h..i)ispa#es.#omK*rosVandVConsVofVCooperati eV2earningVbyV$a)ingV*aperV"irp lanesJ &his is a demonstration a#ti ity that illustrates )ey features of #ooperati e learning, in#luding its potential problems of freeloading and o erspe#iali/ation.
Key terms
"d an#e organi/ers "lgorithms "nalogi#al thin)ing Collaborati e learning Con#ept map Con ergent thin)ing Cooperati e learning Creati e thin)ing Criti#al thin)ing %i ergent thin)ing Effe#ti e tea#hing model Freeloading Fun#tional fixedness 5euristi#s Ill-stru#tured problem Independent study
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#. $acilitating comple% thin&ing Instru#tional strategies 2e#tures $astery learning B erspe#iali/ation *roblem analysis *roblem representation *roblem-sol ing +esponse set !elf-refle#tion !tudent-#entered models of learning &ea#her-dire#ted instru#tion &ransfer 4ell-stru#tured problem 4or)ing ba#).ard classroom. 6e erly 5ills, C": !age.
+eferen#es
"ronson, E. ;E117<. .n the 'igsa Cor.in *ress. 6la#), *., 5arrison, C., 2ee C., $arshall, 6., P 4illiam, %. ;E11F<. 4or)ing inside the bla#) box: "ssessment for learning in the #lassroom. Phi !elta Ka%%an, B;;7<, C-E7. 6othmer, !. ;E110<. Creating the %eacea(le classroom. &us#on, "-: -ephyr *ress. 6ritt, &. ;E11@<. Effe#ts of identity-rele an#e and tas) diffi#ulty on tas) moti ation, stress, and performan#e. Aotivation and Emotion, DG;0<, 7C8-E1E. 6rophy, (. ;E11F<. Aotivating students to learn, Dnd edition. $ah.ah, A(: Erlbaum. 6ro.n, %. ;E11F<. 3rban tea#hersJ professed #lassroom management strategies: +efle#tions of #ulturally responsi e tea#hing. Ir(an Education, <G;0<, E99-EC8. 6roo)field, !. ;E119<. The s&illful teacher2 9n techni)ue, trust, and res%onsiveness in the classroom, Dnd edition. !an Fran#is#o: (ossey-6ass. Chesebro, (. ;E110<. Effe#ts of tea#her #larity and non erbal immedia#y on student learning, re#ei er apprehension, and affe#t. Communication Education, @D;E<, 70@-7F:. Cooper, *. P !imonds, C. ;E110<. Communication for the classroom teacher, >th edition. 6oston: "llyn P 6a#on. Cronba#h, 2. P !no., +. ;78::<. A%titudes and instructional methods2 A hand(oo& for research on interaction. Ae. Nor): Ir ington. Crutsinger, C., Knight, %., P Kinley. ;E11@<. 2earning style preferen#es: Impli#ations for 4eb-based instru#tion. Clothing and Te5tiles Research Journal, D<;F<, E99-E:9. %a idson, (. P 4ood, C. ;E11F<. " #onfli#t resolution model. Theory into Practice, ?<;7<, 9-70. Emmer, E. P !tough, 2. ;E117<. Classroom management: " #riti#al part of edu#ational psy#hology, .ith impli#ations for tea#her edu#ation. Educational Psychologist, <;;E<, 710-77E. 'ibbs, (. ;E110<. Aoral develo%ment and reality2 -eyond the theories of Kohl(erg and :offman. &housand Ba)s, C": !age. 'ood, &. P 6rophy, (. ;E11E<. #oo&ing in classrooms, Gth edition. 6oston: "llyn P 6a#on. 'ordon, &. ;E110<. Teacher effectiveness training. Ae. Nor): &hree +i ers *ress. 'uerrero, 2. P Floyd, K. ;E11@<. $onver(al communication in close relationshi%s. $ah.ah, A(: Erlbaum. 5a.)ins, (. ;E119<. "##essing multi#ultural issues through #riti#al thin)ing, #riti#al inquiry, and the student resear#h pro#ess. Ir(an Education, ?C;E<, 798-7F7. 6enson, 6. P 6arnett, !. ;E11@<. Student4led conferencing using sho case %ortfolios. &housand Ba)s, C":
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&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense 5eimann , $. !trid, K., !mith , 2., &,us , &., 3l und , !. P $elt/off, ". ;E119<. Exploring the relation bet.een memory, gestural #ommuni#ation, and the emergen#e of language in infan#y: a longitudinal study. .nfant and Child !evelo%ment, 7@;0<, E00-EF8. 5unter, +. ;E11F<. Aadeline :unterMs Aastery Teaching, Revised Edition. &housand Ba)s, C": Cor.in *ress. (ones, &. ;E11F<. Confli#t resolution edu#ation: &he field, the findings, and the future. Conflict Resolution Uuarterly, DD;7-E<, E00-E9:. (ones, G. P (ones, 2. ;E119<. Com%rehensive classroom management2 Creating communities of su%%ort and solving %ro(lems, ;th edition. 6oston: "llyn P 6a#on. Kat/, 2. ;E111<. Engaging childrenMs minds2 The %ro'ect a%%roach. Aor.ood, A(: "blex *ublishers. Kohn, ". ;E119<. -eyond disci%line2 8rom com%liance to community. +eston, G": "sso#iation for !uper ision and Curri#ulum %e elopment. Kounin, (. ;78:1<. !isci%line and grou% management in classrooms. Ae. Nor): 5olt, +inehart P 4inston. 2yman, F. &. ;78C7<. &he responsi e #lassroom dis#ussion: &he in#lusion of all students. In ". "nderson ;Ed.<, Aainstreaming !igest ;pp. 718-770<. College *ar): 3ni ersity of $aryland *ress. $ar)s, 2. ;E110<. Instru#tional management tips for tea#hers of students .ith autism-spe#trum disorder. Teaching E5ce%tional Children, <@;F<, @1-@F. $arsh, "., Elfenbein, 5. P "mbady, A. ;E110<. Aon erbal Ha##entsH: #ultural differen#es in fa#ial expressions of emotion. Psychological Science, C?;0<, 0:0-0:9. $ar/ano, +. P $ar/ano, (. ;E11F<. &he )ey to #lassroom management. Educational #eadershi%, ;D, pp. E-:. $#Cafferty, !., (a#obs, '., P Iddings, !. ;Eds.<. ;E119<. Coo%erative learning and second language teaching. Ae. Nor): Cambridge 3ni ersity *ress. $orit/, (. P Christie, ". ;E11@<. ItJs elementary: 3sing elementary portfolios .ith young students. In C. Cra.ford ;Ed.<, Proceedings of the Society for .nformation Technology and Teacher Education .nternational Conference D==@ ;pp. 7FF-7@7<. Chesapea)e, G": "sso#iation for the "d an#ement of Computing in Edu#ation. Aations, !. P 6oyett, !. ;E11E<. So much stuff, so little s%ace2 Creating and managing the learner4centered classroom. 'aines ille, F2: $aupin 5ouse. *eterson, &. ;E11F<. !o youJre thin)ing of trying problem-based learning>: &hree #riti#al su##ess fa#tors for implementation. Journal of Aanagement Education, DB;@<, 901-9F:. +eynolds, ". ;788E<. 4hat is #ompetent beginning tea#hing> Revie
nd
of Educational Research, ;D;7<, 7-0@.
!la in. +. ;788F<. Coo%erative learning, D edition. 6oston: "llyn P 6a#on. !no., +. ;78C8<. "ptitude-treatment intera#tion as a frame.or) for resear#h on indi idual differen#es in learning. In *. "#)erman, +. !ternberg, P +. 'laser ;Eds.<, #earning and individual differences, pp. 7091. Ae. Nor): 4. 5. Freeman. !ternberg, +. P 'rigoren)o, E. ;E11F<. !u##essful intelligen#e in the #lassroom. Theory into Practice, ?<;F<, E:F-EC1. !te ens, 6. P &ollafield, ". ;E110<. Creating #omfortable and produ#ti e parentKtea#her #onferen#es. Phi !elta Ka%%an, B?;:<, @E7-@E@.
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#. $acilitating comple% thin&ing !tiggins, +. P Chappuis, (. ;E11@<. 3sing student-in ol ed #lassroom assessment to #lose a#hie ement gaps. Theory into Practice ??;7<, 77-7C. &horson, !. ;E110<. #istening to students2 Reflections on secondary classroom management. 6oston: "llyn P 6a#on. &uriel, E. ;E119<. &he de elopment of morality. In 4. %amon, +. 2erner, P A. Eisenberg ;Eds.<, :and(oo& of child %sychology, vol. <, %%. >BG4B@>. Ae. Nor): 4iley. Gan $eerionboer, (., Kirs#hner, *., P Kester, 2. ;E110<. &a)ing the #ogniti e load off a learnerJs mind: Instru#tional design for #omplex learning. Educational Psychologist, <B;7<, @-70. 4hite, C. ;E11@<. !tudent portfolios: "n alternati e .ay of en#ouraging and e aluating student learning. In $. "#ha#oso P A. ! ini#)i ;Eds.<, Alternative Strategies for Evaluating Student #earning ;pp. 0:-FE<. !an Fran#is#o: (ossey-6ass. 4einstein, C.,&omlinson-Clar)e, !., P Curran, $. ;E11F<. &o.ard a #on#eption of #ulturally responsi e #lassroom management. Journal of Teacher Education, @@;7<, E@-0C.
E1E
1A. Planning instruction

*.f you don+t &no here you+re going, you could end u% some%lace else., 3Casey Stengel) 4hen Casey !tengelLa mu#h-admired baseball #oa#hLmade the remar) abo e, he .as tal)ing about baseball, but he #ould easily ha e been tal)ing about tea#hing. "lmost by definition, edu#ation has purposes, goals, and ob,e#ti es, and a #entral tas) of tea#hing is to )no. .hat these are and to transform the most general goals into spe#ifi# ob,e#ti es and tas)s for students. Bther.ise, as Casey !tengel said, students may end up =somepla#e else? that neither they nor the tea#her intends. " lot of the #larifi#ation and spe#ifi#ation of goals needs to happen before a #y#le of instru#tion a#tually begins, but the benefits of planning happen throughout all phases of tea#hing. If students )no. pre#isely .hat they are supposed to learn, they #an fo#us their attention and effort more effe#ti ely. If the tea#her )no.s pre#isely .hat students are supposed to learn, then the tea#her #an ma)e better use of #lass time and #hoose and design assessments of their learning that are more fair and alid. In the long run e eryone benefits. &his #hapter is therefore about instructional planning* the systemati# sele#tion of edu#ational goals and ob,e#ti es and their design for use in the #lassroom. 4e .ill di ide this purpose into four parts, and dis#uss them one at a time. First is the problem of sele#ting general goals to tea#hI .here #an a tea#her find these, and .hat do they loo) li)e> !e#ond is the problem of transforming goals into spe#ifi# ob,e#ti es, or statements #on#rete enough to guide daily a#ti ity in #lassI .hat .ill students a#tually do or say into order to learn .hat a tea#her .ants them to learn> &hird is the problem of balan#ing and relating goals and ob,e#ti es to ea#h otherI sin#e .e may .ant students to learn numerous goals, ho. #an .e #ombine or integrate them so that the o erall #lassroom program does not be#ome fragmented or biased> Fourth is the #hallenge of relating instru#tional goals to studentsJ prior experien#es and )no.ledge. 4e ha e dis#ussed this #hallenge before from the perspe#ti e of learning theory ;in Chapter E<, but in this #hapter .e loo) at it from the perspe#ti e of #urri#ulum planning.
Selecting general learning goals

"t the most general or abstra#t le el, the goals of edu#ation in#lude important philosophi#al ideas li)e =de eloping indi iduals to their fullest potential? and =preparing students to be produ#ti e members of so#iety?. Fe. tea#hers .ould disagree .ith these ideas in prin#iple, though they might disagree about their .ording or about their relati e importan#e. "s a pra#ti#al matter, ho.e er, tea#hers might ha e trouble translating su#h generalities into spe#ifi# lesson plans or a#ti ities for the next dayJs #lass. 4hat does it mean, #on#retely, to =de elop an indi idual to his or her fullest potential?> %oes it mean, for example, that a language arts tea#her should as) students to .rite an essay about their personal interests, or does it mean that the tea#her should help students learn to .rite as .ell as possible on any topi#, e en ones that are not of immediate interest> 4hat exa#tly should a tea#her do, from day to day, to =prepare students to be produ#ti e members of so#iety? as .ell> "ns.ers to questions li)e these are needed to plan instru#tion effe#ti ely. 6ut the ans.ers are not ob ious simply by examining statements of general edu#ational goals.
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1'. Planning instruction
Aational and state learning standards

!ome ;but not all< of the .or) of transforming su#h general purposes into more pre#ise tea#hing goals and e en more pre#ise ob,e#ti es has been performed by broad 3! organi/ations that represent edu#ators and other experts about parti#ular sub,e#ts or types of tea#hing ;+iley, E11E<. &he groups ha e proposed national standards, .hi#h are summaries of .hat students #an reasonably be expe#ted to learn at parti#ular grade le els and in parti#ular sub,e#ts areas. In the 3nited !tates, in addition, all state go ernments #reate state standards that ser e mu#h the same purpose: they express .hat students in the state should ;and hopefully #an< learn at all grade le els and in all sub,e#ts. Examples of organi/ations that pro ide national standards are listed in &able E9, and examples of state standards are listed in &able E: for one parti#ular state, Bhio, in the area of language arts. &able E9: Brgani/ations .ith statements of 3! edu#ational standards Sub!ect English and 2anguage "rts )rgani-ation Coun#il of &ea#hers of English "meri#an Coun#il on the &ea#hing of Foreign 2anguages $athemati#s *hysi#al Edu#ation and 5ealth Aational Coun#il of &ea#hers of $athemati#s Aational "sso#iation for !port and *hysi#al Edu#ation "meri#an Can#er !o#iety !#ien#e Aational "#ademies of !#ien#e "meri#an "sso#iation for the "d an#ement of !#ien#e !o#ial !tudies Aational Coun#il for the !o#ial !tudies Center for Ci i# Edu#ation Aational Coun#il on E#onomi# Edu#ation Aational 'eographi# !o#iety Aational Center for 5istory in the !#hools &e#hnology )ther Speciali-ed Standards Statements$ "meri#an Indian Content !tandards Center for Edu#ational &e#hnology in Indian "meri#a Ethi#al !tandards for !#hool Counselors Information 2itera#y !tandards "meri#an !#hool Counselors "sso#iation "meri#an "sso#iation of !#hool 2ibrarians International !o#iety for &e#hnology in Edu#ation
E1F
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense 6usiness Edu#ation *arent Edu#ation and In ol ement Aational 6usiness Edu#ation "sso#iation *arent-&ea#her "sso#iation ;*&"<
Source2 Rhttp:KK....edu#ation-.orld.#omKstandardsS, a##essed %e#ember @, E119. !ummaries of all of these standards, as .ell as a##ess to the rele ant .eb pages of the #orresponding organi/ations, #an be found at this .ebsite. 6e#ause standards are re ised #ontinually, and be#ause of the dynami# nature of .ebsites, the information may differ slightly from the abo e .hen you a#tually a##ess it.
&able E:: Examples of state #urri#ulum standards about language arts ,rade.level$ Kindergarten-'rade 0: +ead a##urately highfrequen#y sight .ords. 'rade F-:: Infer .ord meaning through identifi#ation and analysis of analogies and other .ord relationships. 'rade C-71: +e#ogni/e the importan#e and fun#tion of figurati e language. Classroom e#ample$ *lay a game: =5o. many .ords #an you see around the #lassroom that you #an read already>? 5a e students )eep a ,ournal of unfamiliar .ords .hi#h they en#ounter and of .hat they thin) the .ords mean. 5a e students .rite a brief essay explaining the meaning of a #ommon figure of spee#h, and spe#ulating on .hy it be#ame #ommon usage. 'rade 77-7E: Gerify meanings of .ords by the authorJs use of definition, restatement, example, #omparison, #ontrast and #ause and effe#t. 5a e students analy/e an essay that in#ludes unfamiliar terms using #lues in the essay to determine their meaning.
Source for standards2 Bhio %epartment of Edu#ation, E110, p. 01-07
6e#ause they fo#us on grade le els and sub,e#t areas, general statements of edu#ational standards tend to be a bit more spe#ifi# than the broader philosophi#al goals .e dis#ussed abo e. "s a rule of thumb, too, state standards tend to be more #omprehensi e than national standards, both in #o erage of grade le els and of sub,e#ts. &he differen#e refle#ts the broad responsibility of states in the 3nited !tates for all aspe#ts of publi# edu#ationI national organi/ations, in #ontrast, usually assume responsibility only for a parti#ular sub,e#t area or parti#ular group of students. Either type of standards pro ides a first step, ho.e er, to.ard transforming the grandest purposes of s#hooling ;li)e de eloping the indi idual or preparing for so#iety< into pra#ti#al #lassroom a#ti ities. 6ut they pro ide a first step only. $ost statements of standards do not ma)e numerous or detailed suggestions of a#tual a#ti ities or tas)s for students, though some might in#lude brief #lassroom examplesLenough to #larify the meaning of a standard, but not enough to plan an a#tual #lassroom program for extended periods of time. For these latter purposes, tea#hers rely on more the detailed do#uments, the ones often #alled curriculum frame or&s and curriculum guides.
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Curri#ulum frame.or)s and #urri#ulum guides

&he terms curriculum frame or& and curriculum guide sometimes are used almost inter#hangeably, but for #on enien#e .e .ill use them to refer to t.o distin#t )inds of do#uments. &he more general of the t.o is curriculum frame1or5, .hi#h is a do#ument that explains ho. #ontent standards #an or should be organi/ed for a parti#ular sub,e#t and at arious grade le els. !ometimes this information is referred to as the scope and se3uence for a #urri#ulum. " #urri#ulum frame.or) do#ument is li)e a standards statement in that it does not usually pro ide a lot of detailed suggestions for daily tea#hing. It differs from a standards statement, though, in that it analy/es ea#h general standard in a #urri#ulum into more spe#ifi# s)ills that students need to learn, often a do/en or more per standard. &he language or terminology of a frame.or) statement also tends to be some.hat more #on#rete than a standards statement, in the sense that it is more li)ely to name beha iors of studentsLthings that a tea#her might see them do or hear them say. !ometimes, but not al.ays, it may suggest .ays for assessing .hether students ha e in fa#t a#quired ea#h s)ill listed in the do#ument. &able EC sho.s a page from a #urri#ulum frame.or) published by the California !tate 6oard of Edu#ation ;Curri#ulum %e elopment and !upplemental $aterials Committee, 7888<. In this #ase the frame.or) explains the state standards for learning to read, and the ex#erpt in &able EC illustrates ho. one parti#ular standard, that =students spea) and .rite .ith #ommand of English #on entions appropriate to this grade le el?, is bro)en into nine more spe#ifi# s)ills. Aote that the ex#erpt names obser able beha iors of students ;.hat they do or say<I .e .ill dis#uss this feature again, more fully, in the next part of this #hapter, be#ause it is helpful in #lassroom planning. In spite of this feature, though, the frame.or) do#ument does not lay out detailed a#ti ity plans that a tea#her #ould use on a daily basis. ;&hough e en so, it is o er 011 pages longM< &able EC: "n ex#erpt from readingKlanguage arts frame.or) for California publi# s#hools Comments$ :ritten and oral "nglish language conventions* third grade $ore general standards statement !tudents .rite and spea) .ith a #ommand of standard English #on entions appropriate to this grade le el. $ore spe#ifi# or #on#rete frame.or) statements ;stated as relati ely spe#ifi# s)ills or beha iors< !enten#e !tru#ture 7.7 3nderstand and be able to use #omplete and #orre#t de#larati e, interrogati e, imperati e, and ex#lamatory senten#es in .riting and spea)ing. 'rammar 7.E Identify sub,e#ts and erbs that are in agreement and identify and use pronouns, ad,e#ti es, #ompound .ords, and arti#les #orre#tly in .riting and spea)ing. 7.0 Identify and use past, present, and future erb tenses properly in .riting and spea)ing. 7.F Identify and use sub,e#ts and erbs #orre#tly in E19
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense spea)ing and .riting simple senten#es. *un#tuation 7.@ *un#tuate dates, #ity and state, and titles of boo)s #orre#tly. 7.9 3se #ommas in dates, lo#ations, and addresses and for items in a series. Capitali/ation 7.: Capitali/e geographi#al names, holidays, histori#al periods, and spe#ial e ents #orre#tly. !pelling 7.C !pell #orre#tly one-syllable .ords that ha e blends, #ontra#tions, #ompounds, orthographi# patters, and #ommon homophones. 7.8 "rrange .ords in alphabeti#al order.
&ea#hersJ need for detailed a#ti ity suggestions is more li)ely to be met by a curriculum guide* a do#ument de oted to graphi# des#riptions of a#ti ities that foster or en#ourage the spe#ifi# s)ills explained in a #urri#ulum frame.or) do#ument. &he des#riptions may mention or list #urri#ulum goals ser ed by an a#ti ity, but they are also li)ely to spe#ify materials that a tea#her needs, time requirements, requirements for grouping students, dra.ings or diagrams of )ey equipment or materials, and sometimes e en suggestions for .hat to say to students at different points during the a#ti ity. In these .ays the des#riptions may resemble lesson plans. !in#e #lassroom a#ti ities often support more than one spe#ifi# s)ill, a#ti ities in a #urri#ulum guide may be organi/ed differently than they might be in a frame.or) do#ument. Instead of highlighting only one standard at a time, as the frame.or) do#ument might, a#ti ities may be grouped more looselyLfor example, a##ording to the dominant purpose or goal of an a#ti ity ;="#ti ities that en#ourage the pra#ti#e of math fa#ts?< or a##ording to a dominant pie#e of equipment or material ;=&en a#ti ities .ith tin #ans?<. &able E8 sho.s a des#ription of a )indergarten-le el a#ti ity about =autumn lea es? that might appear in a #urri#ulum guide. Aote that the a#ti ity meets se eral edu#ational ob,e#ti es at on#eLtra#ing shapes, )no.ledge of lea es and of #olors, des#ripti e language s)ill. Ea#h of these s)ills may refle#t a different #urri#ulum standard. &able E8: !ample #urri#ulum guide a#ti ity Curri#ulum guides pro ide graphi# des#riptions of a#ti ities that #an be used fairly dire#tly in the #lassroom. "lthough they are rele ant to standards and frame.or) statements, they often are not organi/ed around standards and ob,e#ti es as su#h.
&hemes and Curri#ulum Conne#tions: trees, autumn, #olor naming, #olor #omparisons, si/e #omparisons,
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1'. Planning instruction fun#tions of lea es, gro.th, the life #y#le. !ee also !tandards Oxx-yy. 6est time to do it: Fall ;B#tober<, or .hene er lea es are a ailable $aterials needed: ;7< small paper ;9 x 9 in#hes<I ;E< a##ess to lea esI ;0< .hite glueI ;F< felt pens or #olored pen#ils 4hat to do: 'i e one pie#e of the small paper to ea#h #hild. In ite #hildren to #olor the sheet so that the entire sheet is de#orated. In ite #hildren to #hoose one leaf. *la#e leaf under the #olored ;de#orated< paper and tra#e the shape of the leaf lightly in pen#il. &hen in ite #hildren to #ut out the #olored paper in the shape that has been tra#ed of the leaf. Cautions: ;7< !ome #hildren may need indi idual help .ith tra#ing or #utting. ;E< &ry to use lea es that are still some.hat pliable, be#ause some ery old lea es ;dried out< may #rumble .hen tra#ed. &hings to tal) about: "re some lea es bigger than others> %o they #hange shape as they gro., or only their si/e> 5o. do lea es benefit trees> 5o. many different #olors #an real lea es be>
?ormulating learning objectives

'i en #urri#ulum frame.or)s and guides li)e the ones ,ust des#ribed, ho. do you #hoose and formulate a#tual learning ob,e#ti es> 6asi#ally there are t.o approa#hes: either start by sele#ting #ontent or topi#s that .hat you .ant students to )no. ;the #ogniti e approa#h< or start .ith .hat you .ant students to do ;the beha ioral approa#h<. In effe#t the #ogniti e approa#h mo es from the general to the spe#ifi#, and the beha ioral approa#h does the opposite. Ea#h approa#h has ad o#ates, as .ell as inherent strengths and problems. In pra#ti#e, tea#hers often #ombine or alternate bet.een them in order to gi e students some of the ad antages of ea#h.
From general to spe#ifi#: sele#ting #ontent topi#s

&he #ogniti e approa#h assumes that tea#hers normally ha e a number of long-term, general goals for students, and it begins .ith those goals. It also assumes that ea#h student .or) to.ard long-term, general goals along different path.ays and using different styles of learning. 6e#ause of these assumptions, it is ne#essary to name indicators* .hi#h are examples of spe#ifi# beha iors by .hi#h students might sho. su##ess at rea#hing a general learning goal. 6ut it is neither desirable nor possible for a list of indi#ators to be #ompleteLonly for it to be representati e ;'ronlund, E11F<. Consider this example from tea#hing middle-s#hool biology. For this sub,e#t you might ha e a general goal li)e the follo.ing, .ith a##ompanying indi#ators: Koal2 The student .ndicators2 7. explains the purpose of photosynthesis and steps in the pro#ess E. diagrams steps in the #hemi#al pro#ess 0. des#ribes ho. plant photosynthesis affe#ts the animal .orld F. .rites a plan for ho. to test lea es for presen#e of photosynthesis @. ma)es an oral presentation and explains ho. the experiment .as #ondu#ted ill understand the nature and %ur%ose of %hotosynthesis.
E1C
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense 3sing a stri#tly #ogniti e approa#h to planning, therefore, a tea#herJs ,ob has t.o parts. First she must identify, find, or #hoose a manageable number of general goalsLperhaps ,ust a half do/en or so. ;!ometimes these #an be ta)en or adapted from a #urri#ulum frame.or) do#ument su#h as dis#ussed earlier.< &hen the tea#her must thin) of a handful of spe#ifi# examples or beha ioral indi#ators for ea#h goalL,ust a half do/en or so of these as .ell. &he beha ioral indi#ators #larify the meaning of the general goal, but are not meant to be the only .ay that students might sho. su##ess at learning. &hen, at last, thoughtful planning for indi idual lessons or a#ti ities #an begin. &his approa#h .or)s espe#ially .ell for learning goals that are relati ely long-termLgoals that ta)e many lessons, days, or .ee)s to rea#h. %uring su#h long periods of tea#hing, it is impossible to spe#ify the exa#t, detailed beha iors that e ery student #an or should display to pro e that he or she has rea#hed a general goal. It is possible, ho.e er, to spe#ify general dire#tions to.ard .hi#h all students should fo#us their learning and to explain the nature of the goals .ith a sample of .ell-#hosen indi#ators or examples ;*opham, E11E<. &he #ogniti e, general-to-spe#ifi# approa#h is reasonable on the fa#e of it, and in fa#t probably des#ribes ho. many tea#hers thin) about their instru#tional planning. 6ut #riti#s ha e argued that indi#ators used as examples may not in fa#t #larify the general goal enoughI students therefore end up unexpe#tedlyLas Casey !tengel said at the start of this #hapterL=somepla#e else?. 'i en the general goal of understanding photosynthesis des#ribed abo e, for example, ho. are .e to )no. .hether the fi e indi#ators that are listed really allo. a tea#her to grasp the full meaning of the goal> *ut differently, ho. else might a student sho. understanding of photosynthesis, and ho. is a tea#her to )no. that a studentJs a#hie ement is s a legitimate display of understanding> &o some edu#ators, grasping the meaning of goals from indi#ators is not as ob ious as it should be, and in any #ase is prone to misunderstanding. &he solution, they say, is not to start planning .ith general goals, but .ith spe#ifi# beha iors that identify studentsJ su##ess.
From spe#ifi# to general: beha ioral ob,e#ti es

Compared to the #ogniti e approa#h, the beha ioral approa#h to instru#tional planning re erses the steps in planning. Instead of starting .ith general goal statements a##ompanied by indi#ator examples, it starts .ith the identifi#ation of spe#ifi# beha iorsL#on#rete a#tions or .ordsLthat students should perform or display as a result of instru#tion ;$ager, E11@<. Colle#ti ely, the spe#ifi# beha iors may des#ribe a more general edu#ational goal, but unli)e the indi#ators used in the #ogniti e approa#h, they are not a mere sampling of the possible spe#ifi# out#omes. Instead they represent all the intended spe#ifi# out#omes. Consider this sampling of beha ioral ob,e#ti es: 9('ectives2 #earning to use in4line roller (lade s&ates 3(eginning level) 7. !tudent ties boots on #orre#tly. E. !tudent puts on safety gear #orre#tly, in#luding helmet, )nee and elbo. pads. 0. !tudent s)ates 7@ meters on le el ground .ithout falling. F. !tudent stops on demand .ithin a three meter distan#e, .ithout falling. &he ob,e#ti es listed are not merely a representati e sample of ho. students #an demonstrate su##ess .ith roller-blading. Instead they are beha iors that e ery student should a#quire in order to meet the goal of using roller blades as a beginner. &here simply are no other .ays to display learning of this goalI getting 711 per #ent on a .ritten test about roller blading, for example, .ould not qualify as su##ess .ith this goal, though it might sho. su##ess at some other goal, su#h as erbal )no.ledge about roller blading. E en adding other s)ating beha iors ;li)e =!tudent s)ates ba#).ards? or =!tudent s)ates in #ir#les?< might not qualify as su##ess .ith this parti#ular
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1'. Planning instruction goal, be#ause it #ould reasonably be argued that the additional s)ating beha iors are about s)ating at an ad an#ed le el, not a beginning le el. In the most #ommonly used ersion of this approa#h, originated by +obert $ager ;789E, E11@<, a good beha ioral ob,e#ti e should ha e three features. First, it should spe#ify a beha ior that #an in fa#t be obser ed. In pra#ti#e this usually means identifying something that a student does or says, not something a student thin)s or feels. Compare the follo.ing examplesI the one on the left names a beha ior to be performed, but the one on the right names a thin)ing pro#ess that #annot, in prin#iple, be seen: (ehavioral ob!ective &he student .ill ma)e a list of animal spe#ies that li e in the .ater but breathe air and a separate list of spe#ies that li e in the .ater but do not require air to breathe. &he se#ond feature of a good beha ioral ob,e#ti e is that it des#ribes #onditions of performan#e of the beha ior. 4hat are the spe#ial #ir#umstan#es to be pro ided .hen the student performs the ob,e#ti e> Consider these t.o examples: Special condition of performance is specified 'i en a list of @1 spe#ies, the student .ill #ir#le those that li e in .ater but breathe air and underline those that li e in .ater but do not breathe air. 2 special condition of performance is not specified "fter three days of instru#tion, the student .ill identify spe#ies that li e in .ater but breathe air, as .ell as spe#ies that li e in .ater but do not breathe air. &he ob,e#ti e on the left names a spe#ial #ondition of performan#eLthat the student .ill be gi en a parti#ular )ind of list to .or) fromL.hi#h is not part of the instru#tion itself. &he ob,e#ti e on the right appears to name a #onditionL=three days of instru#tion?. 6ut the #ondition really des#ribes .hat the tea#her .ill do ;she .ill instru#t<, not something spe#ifi# to studentsJ performan#e. &he third feature of a good beha ioral ob,e#ti e is that it spe#ifies a minimum le el or degree of a##eptable performan#e. Consider these t.o examples: Specifies minimum level Does not specify minimum level 'i en a list of @1 spe#ies, the student .ill #ir#le all of those that li e in .ater but breathe air and underline all of those that li e in .ater but do not breathe air. &he student .ill do so .ithin fifteen minutes. &he ob,e#ti e on the left spe#ifies a le el of performan#eL711 per #ent a##ura#y .ithin 7@ minutes. &he ob,e#ti e on the right lea es this information out ;and in#identally it also omits the #ondition of performan#e mentioned on the left<. 6eha ioral ob,e#ti es ha e ob ious ad antages be#ause of their #larity and pre#ision. &hey seem espe#ially .ell suited for learning that by their nature they #an be spelled out expli#itly and fully, su#h as .hen a student is learning to dri e a #ar, to use safety equipment in a s#ien#e laboratory, or install and run a parti#ular #omputer program. $ost of these goals, as it happens, also tend to ha e relati ely short learning #y#les, meaning that they #an be learned as a result of ,ust one lesson or a#ti ity, or of ,ust a short series of them at most. !u#h goals tend not to E71 &he student .ill #ir#le names of spe#ies that li e in .ater but breathe air and underline those that li e in .ater but do not breathe air. !ot behavioral ob!ect &he student .ill understand the differen#e bet.een fish and mammals that li e in the .ater.
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense in#lude the larger, more abstra#t goals of edu#ation. In pra#ti#e, both )inds of goalsL the general and the spe#ifi#L form a large part of edu#ation at all grade le els.
Finding the best in both approa#hes

4hen it #omes to tea#hing and learning the large or ma,or goals, then, beha ioral ob,e#ti es #an seem un.ieldy. 5o., a tea#her might as), #an you spell out all of the beha iors in ol ed in a general goal li)e (ecoming a good citi1en/ 5o. #ould you name in ad an#e the numerous #onditions under .hi#h good #iti/enship might be displayed, or the minimum a##eptable le el of good #iti/enship expe#ted in ea#h #ondition> !pe#ifying these features seems impra#ti#al at best, and at times e en undesirable ethi#ally or philosophi#ally. ;4ould .e really .ant any students to be#ome =minimum #iti/ens?>< 6e#ause of these #onsiderations, many tea#hers find it sensible to #ompromise bet.een the #ogniti e and beha ioral approa#hes. 5ere are some features that are often part of a #ompromise:
4hen planning, thin) about 6B&5 long-term, general goals "A% short-term, immediate ob,e#ti es. "
thorough, balan#ed loo) at most s#hool #urri#ula sho.s that they are #on#erned .ith the general as .ell as the spe#ifi#. In tea#hing elementary math, for example, you may .ant students to learn general problem sol ing strategies ;a general goal<, but you may also .ant them to learn spe#ifi# math fa#ts ;a spe#ifi# ob,e#ti e<. In tea#hing !ha)espeareJs plays in high s#hool, you may .ant students to be able to #ompare the plays #riti#ally ;a general goal<, but doing so may require that they learn details about the #hara#ters and plots of the ma,or plays ;a spe#ifi# ob,e#ti e<. !in#e general goals usually ta)e longer to rea#h than spe#ifi# ob,e#ti es, instru#tional planning has to in#lude both time frames.
*lan for .hat students do, not .hat the tea#her does. &his idea may seem ob ious, but it is easy to o erloo)
it .hen de ising lesson plans. Consider that example again about tea#hing !ha)espeare. If you .ant students to learn the details about !ha)espeareJs plays, it is tempting to plan ob,e#ti es li)e =!ummari/e the plot of ea#h play to students?, or =4rite and hand out to students an outline of the plays?. 3nfortunately these ob,e#ti es des#ribe only .hat the tea#her does, and ma)es the assumption ;often un.arranted< that students .ill remember .hat the tea#her says or puts in .riting for them. " better ersion of the same ob,e#ti e should fo#us on the a#tions of students, not of tea#hersLfor example, =!tudents .ill .rite a summary, from memory, of ea#h of the ma,or plays of !ha)espeare?. &his ersion fo#uses on .hat students do instead of .hat the tea#her does. ;Bf #ourse you may still ha e to de ise a#ti ities that help students to rea#h the ob,e#ti e, su#h as pro iding guided pra#ti#e in .riting summaries of plays.<
&o insure di ersity of goals and ob,e#ti es .hen planning, #onsider organi/ing goals and ob,e#ti es by using
a systemati# #lassifi#ation s#heme of edu#ational ob,e#ti es. "t the beginning of this se#tion .e stated that there is a need, .hen de ising goals and ob,e#ti es, for both the spe#ifi# and the general. "#tually a more a##urate statement is that there is a need for goals and ob,e#ti es that refer to a ariety of #ogniti e pro#esses and that ha e arying degrees of spe#ifi#ity or generality. Bne .idely used #lassifi#ation s#heme that does so, for example, is one proposed @1 years ago by 6en,amin 6loom ;78@9< and re ised re#ently by his asso#iates ;"nderson P Krath.ohl, E117<. 4e des#ribe this system, #alled a taxonomy of ob,e#ti es, in the next se#tion.
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&axonomies of edu#ational ob,e#ti es

4hen edu#ators ha e proposed taxonomies of edu#ational ob,e#ti es, they ha e tended to fo#us on one of three areas or domains of psy#hologi#al fun#tioning: either studentsJ #ognition ;thought<, studentsJ feelings and emotions ;affe#t<, or studentsJ physi#al s)ills ;psy#homotor abilities<. Bf these three areas, they ha e tended to fo#us the most attention on #ognition. &he taxonomy originated by 6en,amin 6loom, for example, deals entirely .ith #ogniti e out#omes of instru#tion.
-loom+s Ta5onomy2
In its original form, (loom%s @a#onomy of edu#ational ob,e#ti es referred to forms of #ognition or thin)ing, .hi#h .ere di ided into the six le els ;6loom, et al., 78@9<. &able 01 summari/es the le els, and offers t.o )inds of examplesLsimple ones based on the #hildrenJs story Koldiloc&s and the Three -ears, and #omplex ones more typi#al of goals and ob,e#ti es used in #lassrooms. &he le els form a loose hierar#hy from simple to #omplex thin)ing, at least .hen applied to some sub,e#ts and topi#s. 4hen planning for these sub,e#ts it #an therefore be helpful not only for insuring di ersity among learning ob,e#ti es, but also for sequen#ing materials. In learning about geography, for example, it may sometimes ma)e sense to begin .ith information about spe#ifi# pla#es or so#ieties ;)no.ledge and #omprehension<, and .or) gradually to.ard #omparisons and assessments among the pla#es or so#ieties ;analysis and synthesis<. &able 01: 6loomJs &axonomy of ob,e#ti es: #ogniti e domain @ype or level of learning Kno1ledge$ re#all of information, .hether it is simple or #omplex in nature Simple e#ample =Aame three things that 'oldilo#)s did in the house of the three bears.? Classroom e#ample =2ist all of the planets of the solar system.? =!tate fi e )ey features of life in the middle ages.? Comprehension$ grasping the meaning of information, by interpreting it or translating it from one form to another =Explain .hy 'oldilo#)s preferred the little bearJs #hair.? =Con ert the follo.ing arithmeti# .ord problem to a mathemati#al equation.? =%es#ribe ho. plants #ontribute to the .elfare of animal life.? 2pplication$ using information in ne., #on#rete situations =*redi#t some of the things 'oldilo#)s might ha e used if she had entered your house.? =Illustrate ho. positi e reinfor#ement might affe#t the beha ior of a pet dog.? =3se examples from the plot to illustrate the theme of no el.? 2nalysis$ brea)ing information into its #omponents to understand its stru#ture =!ele#t the part of Koldiloc&s and the Three -ears .here you thin) 'oldilo#)s felt most #omfortable.? =Compare the beha ior of domesti# dogs .ith the beha ior of .ol es.?
E7E
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense =%iagram the effe#ts of .eather patterns on plant metabolism.? Synthesis$ putting parts of .hole =&ell ho. the story .ould ha e fishes.? =%esign an experiment to test the effe#ts of gra ity on root gro.th.? =4rite an a##ount of ho. humans .ould be different if life had originated on $ars instead of Earth.? "valuation$ ,udging the alue of information for a parti#ular purpose =(ustify this statement: Koldiloc&s as a (ad girl., ="ppraise the rele an#e of the no el for modern life.? ="ssess the alue of information pro#essing theory for planning instru#tion.?
information together into a #oherent been different if it had been three
!u#h a sequen#e does not .or) .ell, ho.e er, for all possible topi#s or sub,e#ts. &o learn #ertain topi#s in mathemati#s, for example, students may sometimes need to start .ith general ideas ;li)e =4hat does it mean to multiply>?< than .ith spe#ifi# fa#ts ;li)e =5o. mu#h is F x 9>?< ;Egan, E11@<. "t other times, though, the re erse sequen#e may be preferable. 4hate er the #ase, a taxonomy of #ogniti e ob,e#ti es, li)e 6loomJs, #an help to remind tea#hers to set a ariety of ob,e#ti es and to a oid relying ex#essi ely on ,ust one le el, su#h as simple re#all of fa#tual )no.ledge ;Aotar, et al., E11F<.
-loom+s Ta5onomy revised

" fe. years ago t.o of 6en,amin 6loomJs original #olleagues, 2inda "nderson and %a id Krath.ohl, re ised his taxonomy so as to #larify its terms and to ma)e it more #omplete ;"nderson P Krath.ohl, E117I $ar/ano, E119<. &he resulting #ategories are summari/ed and #ompared to the original #ategories in &able 07. "s the #hart sho.s, se eral #ategories of ob,e#ti es ha e been renamed and a se#ond dimension added that des#ribes the )ind of thin)ing or #ogniti e pro#essing that may o##ur. &he result is a mu#h ri#her taxonomy than before, sin#e e ery le el of the ob,e#ti es #an no. ta)e four different forms. Remem(ering, for example, #an refer to four different )inds of memory: memory for fa#ts, for #on#epts, for pro#edures, or for meta#ogniti e )no.ledge. &able 07 gi es examples of ea#h of these )inds of memory. &able 07: 6loomJs &axonomy of #ogniti e ob,e#ti esLre ised )riginal term from (loom%s @a#onomy 71DFH/ +evised term emphasi-ing cognitive processing 72001/ 2 ne1 dimension added$ types of 5no1ledge learned 72001/ "#ample of cognitive process remembering combined 1ith possible types of 5no1ledge
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1'. Planning instruction Kno.ledge Comprehension "ppli#ation "nalysis E aluation !ynthesis +emembering 3nderstanding "pplying "naly/ing E aluating Creating
fa#tual )no.ledge #on#eptual
<emory for facts$ recalling the names of each %art of a living cell <emory for concepts$ recalling the functions of each %art of a living cell <emory for procedures$ recalling ho to vie a cell under a microsco%e <emory for metacognition$ re#alling not the names of the parts, but a techni)ue for remembering the names of the parts of a li ing #ell
)no.ledge
pro#edural
)no.ledge
meta#ogniti e
)no.ledge
Ca%tion2 &he re ision to 6loomJs &axonomy distinguishes bet.een #ogniti e pro#esses ;left-hand #olumn in the table< and types of )no.ledge learned ;right-hand #olumn<. &he original ersion has terms similar to the #ogniti e pro#essing terms in the re ised ersion. "##ording to the re ised ersion, any type of )no.ledge ;from the right-hand #olumn< #an, in prin#iple, o##ur .ith any type of #ogniti e pro#essing ;left-hand #olumn<.
Ta5onomies of affective o('ectives and %sychomotor o('ectives

"lthough taxonomies related to affect, or the feelings and emotions of students, are used less #ommonly than #ogniti e taxonomies for planning instru#tion, arious edu#ators ha e #onstru#ted them. Bne of the most .idely )no.n .as also published by #olleagues of 6en,amin 6loom and #lassifies affe#t a##ording to ho. #ommitted a student feels to.ard .hat he is learning ;Krath.ohl, 6loom, P $asia, 789FK7888<. &able 0E summari/es the #ategories and gi es brief examples. &he lo.est le el, #alled receiving, simply in ol es .illingness to experien#e ne. )no.ledge or a#ti ities. 5igher le els in ol e embra#ing or adopting experien#es in .ays that are in#reasingly organi/ed and that represent in#reasingly stable forms of #ommitment. &able 0E: &axonomies of ob,e#ti es: affe#ti e domain and psy#homotor domain 2ffective domain +e#ei ing 4illingness to attend to parti#ular experien#e sychomotor domain Imitation +epeating a simple a#tion that has been demonstrated +esponding 4illingness to parti#ipate a#ti ely in an experien#e E7F $anipulation *ra#ti#e of an a#tion that has been imitated but
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense only learned partially
Galuing
*er#eption of experien#e as .orth.hile
*re#ision
Qui#), smooth exe#ution of an a#tion that has been pra#ti#ed
Brgani/ation
Coordination of alued experien#es into partially #oherent .holes
"rti#ulation
Exe#ution of an a#tion not only .ith pre#ision, but also .ith modifi#ations appropriate to ne. #ir#umstan#es
Chara#teri/ation by a alue #omplex
Coordination of alued experien#es and of organi/ed sets of experien#es into a single #omprehensi e alue hierar#hy
Aaturali/ation
In#orporation of an a#tion into the motor repertoire, along .ith experimentation .ith ne. motor a#tions
&axonomies related to abilities and s)ills that are physi#al, or psy#homotor, ha e also been used less .idely than affe#ti e taxonomies, .ith the notable ex#eption of one area of tea#hing .here they are ob iously rele ant: physi#al edu#ation. "s you might expe#t, taxonomi# #ategories of motor s)ills extend from simple, brief a#tions to #omplex, extended a#tion sequen#es that #ombine simpler, pre iously learned s)ills smoothly and automati#ally ;5arro., 78:EI !impson, 78:E<. Bne su#h #lassifi#ation s#heme is sho.n in &able 0E. "n example of a ery basi# psy#homotor s)ill might be imitating the a#tion of thro.ing a ball .hen modeled by someone elseI an example of the latter might be performing a 71 minute gymnasti#s routine .hi#h the student has de ised for himself or herself. Aote, though, that many examples of psy#homotor s)ills also exist outside the realm of physi#al edu#ation. In a s#ien#e #ourse, for example, a student might need to learn to operate laboratory equipment that requires using deli#ate, fine mo ements. In art #lasses, students might learn to dra., and in musi# they might learn to play an instrument ;both are partly motor s)ills<. $ost first graders are #hallenged by the motor s)ills of learning to .rite. For students .ith #ertain physi#al disabilities, furthermore, motor s)ill de elopment is an important priority for the studentJs entire edu#ation.
3ifferentiated instruction and response to intervention

!o far in this dis#ussion .e ha e ignored the ob ious ariety among students. Net their di ersity is a reality that e ery tea#her re#ogni/es. 4hate er goals and plans .e ma)e, some students learn the material sooner or better than others. For any gi en goal or ob,e#ti e, some students need more time than others in order to learn. "nd any Educational Psychology E7@ " 'lobal &ext
1'. Planning instruction parti#ular tea#hing strategy .ill pro e more effe#ti e .ith some students than others. Effe#ti e tea#hing requires differentiated instructionpro iding different materials, arrangements, and strategies .ith different students. &he differentiation #an in#lude unique stru#tural arrangements in the s#hool, su#h as spe#ial tutoring for indi iduals or spe#ial #lasses for small groups needing parti#ular extra help. %ifferentiation #an also in#lude extra attention or #oa#hing .ithin a #lassroom for indi idual students or small groups ;&omlinson, E119I 'oddard, 'oddard, P &s#hannen-$oran, E11:<. Bne of the more .idely used approa#hes for differentiating instru#tion is #alled response to intervention ;or +@&<. 2i)e other forms of differentiation, +&I begins .ith the premise that students differ .idely in ho. they learn and the extent of their learning. It also assumes that a #entral part of tea#hing is respond to these differen#es, and to do so as promptly as possible. &o a#hie e this purpose, +&I programs typi#ally frame edu#ational inter entions around three le els #alled tiers. Tier C instruction in ol es efforts to tea#h an entire #lass in the most effe#ti e .ays L.ays that are good bets for being effe#ti e .ith the ma,ority of students. 3sing &ier 7 strategies, for example, a tea#her might sometimes explain ne. ideas to the .hole #lass, but also put students into small groups for sele#ted pro,e#ts and gi e them indi idual seat .or) or home.or) to do. Tier D instruction in ol es additional time or materials for the relati ely small number of students .ho do not learn from &ier 7 methods. &ypi#ally it in ol es additional .or) in small groups or e en indi idual tutoring .ithin the #lassroom by the tea#her, an edu#ational assistant, or adult olunteer. Tier < instruction is reser ed for the e en smaller number of students .ho still do not learn e en from &ier E instru#tion. It is li)ely to in ol e spe#ial #lasses or indi idual tutoring outside of the #lassroom, using spe#ial edu#ation tea#hers or edu#ational assistants hired for the purpose. &ier 0 instru#tion is therefore more resour#e intensi e than &ier E instru#tion, .hi#h is in turn more resour#e intensi e than &ier 7 instru#tion. "lthough the three-tiered system of +&I resembles a traditional =tra#)ing? system of edu#ation, it is mu#h more effe#ti e ;and fair to students< than traditional tra#)ing be#ause it also emphasi/es the importan#e of assessing learnersD su##esses and needs continually. E en &ier 7 instru#tion in ol es detailed s#reening of learnersD progressL all learnersD progressLthrough brief, short-term tests and obser ations. !in#e brief assessments #an sometimes pro e ina##urate, many ad o#ates of +&I also propose s#reening all learners not on#e, but se eral times follo.ing initial instru#tion ;Fu#hs P %eshler, E11:<. &he tests and obser ations help to identify students .ho are not responding to instru#tion and therefore may need &ier E instru#tion. "t &ier E and &ier 0, assessment is also #ontinual and short-term, and instru#tion fo#uses as mu#h as possible on the same goals and ob,e#ti es as in &ier 7 ;"llan P 'oddard, E171<. 4hen implemented properly, therefore, it is diffi#ult for a student to get pla#ed at &ier E or &ier 0, only to be in effe#t abandoned at those le els edu#ationally. "s this des#ription implies, +&I is often used to organi/e ser i#es for students .ith spe#ial edu#ational needs ;for additional strategies see: =!tudents .ith spe#ial edu#ational needs?<. $any boo)s ha e been published to help spe#ial edu#ators .ith implementing its ideas ;see for example, $ellard P (ohnson, E11CI or Campbell, 4ang, P "lgo//ine, E171<. +&I differs from some alternati e approa#hes to spe#ial edu#ation in ad o#ating an espe#ially in#lusi e approa#h .hen responding to di ersity: essentially the same approa#h is proposed for tea#hing the entire #lass as is used for tea#hing students .ho are struggling. In either #ase, the )ey to the approa#h are t.o-fold: 7< use a ariety of the best a ailable tea#hing pra#ti#es, and E< assess students frequently, spe#ifi#ally, and briefly to )eep tra#) of their progress.
E79
Students as a source of instructional goals

&he dis#ussion of instru#tional planning so far has des#ribed goals and ob,e#ti es as if they are sele#ted primarily by edu#ators and tea#hers, and not by students themsel es. &he assumption may be #orre#t in many #ases, but there are problems .ith it. Bne problem is that #hoosing goals and ob,e#ti es for students, rather than (y students, pla#es a ma,or burden on e eryone in ol ed in edu#ationL#urri#ulum .riters, tea#hers, and students. &he #urri#ulum .riters ha e to ma)e sure that they spe#ify standards, goals, and ob,e#ti es that are truly important for students to learn ;.hat if it really does not matter, for example, .hether a s#ien#e student learns about the periodi# table of the elements><. &ea#hers ha e to ma)e sure that students a#tually be#ome moti ated to learn the spe#ified goals and ob,e#ti es, e en if the students are not moti ated initially. !tudents ha e to master pre-set goals and ob,e#ti es e en if they might not ha e #hosen them personally. !ome #riti#s of edu#ation ha e argued that these requirements #an be serious impediments to learning ;Kohn, E11F<. &he problems are .idespread and espe#ially noti#eable in t.o forms of tea#hing. Bne is .ith the youngest students, .ho may espe#ially la#) patien#e .ith an edu#ational agenda set by others ;Kohn, 7888I !eit/, E119<. &he other is .ith #ulturally di erse #lassrooms, .here students and their families may hold a ariety of legitimate, but un#on entional expe#tations about .hat they should learn ;(. 6an)s P C. 6an)s, E11@<. In response to #on#erns li)e these, some edu#ators ad o#ate planning instru#tion around goals set or expressed either by students themsel es or by the #ultures or #ommunities .ith .hi#h students identify. &heir suggestions ary in detail, but #an be organi/ed into t.o broad #ategories: ;7< emergent #urri#ulum and ;E< multi#ultural and anti-bias #urri#ulum.
Emergent #urri#ulum
"n emergent curriculum is one that expli#itly builds on interests expressed by students, rather than goals set by #urri#ulum .riters, #urri#ulum do#uments, or tea#hers. "s you might suspe#t, therefore, instru#tional planning for an emergent #urri#ulum does not ha e the same meaning that the term has had in the #hapter up to no.. Instead, sin#e an emergent #urri#ulum by definition unfolds spontaneously and flexibly, studentsJ interests may be predi#table, but usually not ery far in ad an#e ;*eterson, E11E<. !uppose, for example, that a first-grade tea#her plans a unit around 5allo.een, and that as one of the a#ti ities for this unit she reads a boo) about 5allo.een. In listening to the boo), ho.e er, the students turn out to be less interested in its 5allo.een #ontent than in the fa#t that one of the illustrations in the boo) sho.s a pi#ture of a full moon partially hidden by #louds. &hey begin as)ing about the moon: .hy it is full sometimes but not other times, .hy it rises in different pla#es ea#h month, and .hether the moon really mo es behind #louds or .hether the #louds a#tually do the mo ing. &he tea#her en#ourages their questions and their interest in moon astronomy. B er the next days or .ee)s, she arranges further a#ti ities and experien#es to en#ourage studentsJ interest: she sets aside her original plans about 5allo.een and finds boo)s about the moon and about ho. the solar system .or)s. !he in ites a lo#al amateur astronomer to isit the group and tal) about his obser ations of the moon. !e eral #hildren build models of the moon out of paper ma#hT. !ome find boo)s des#ribing trips of the spa#e shuttles to the moon. Bthers ma)e a large mural depi#ting a moons#ape. "nd so onI the original goals about 5allo.een are not so mu#h re,e#ted, as set aside or forgotten in fa or of something more immediately interesting and moti ating. 4hile these a#ti ities #ould in prin#iple happen be#ause of re#ommendations from a #urri#ulum do#ument, the )ey point about emergent #urri#ulum is that they happen for a ery different reason: these a#ti ities happen and the
E7:
" 'lobal &ext
1'. Planning instruction goals emerge be#ause the #hildren ant them. " tea#herJs #hallenge is therefore not planning a#ti ities that mat#h
predetermined #urri#ulum goals or ob,e#ti es, but to respond flexibly and sensiti ely as studentsJ interests be#ome )no.n and expli#it. &ea#hersJ responsi eness is fa#ilitated by t.o pra#ti#es that are espe#ially prominent .hen a tea#her adopts an emergent approa#h to #urri#ulum. &he first is #areful, #ontinuous o(servation of students. &he tea#her .at#hes and listens, and may )eep informal .ritten re#ords of studentsJ #omments and a#ti ities. &he information allo.s her to respond more effe#ti ely to the interests they express, and at the same time it pro ides a type of assessment of studentsJ progressLinformation about .hat the students are a#tually learning. " se#ond strategy that fa#ilitates tea#hersJ su##ess is curriculum e((ing, a pro#ess of brainstorming #onne#tions among initiati es suggested by students and ideas suggested by the tea#her. In some #ases .ebs #an be #reated ,ointly .ith students by brainstorming .ith them about .here their #urrent interests may lead. In other #ases they #an be #reated independently by the tea#herJs o.n refle#tions. In still others, .hen a #lassroom has more than one adult responsible for it, they #an be #reated ,ointly .ith fello. tea#hers or tea#her assistants. &he latter approa#h .or)s espe#ially .ell in pres#hool, )indergartens, or spe#ial edu#ation #lassrooms, .hi#h often ha e more than one adult responsible for the #lass ;Gartuli P +ohs, E119<. &o some, emergent #urri#ulum may seem li)e a formula for #urri#ulum and management disasters. 6ut the approa#h has often pro ed quite su##essful, parti#ularly in early #hildhood edu#ation and the earliest grade le els of elementary s#hool ;!eit/, E119I 4urm, E11@<. !omething a)in to emergent #urri#ulum is quite possible, in prin#iple, e en .ith older students. In Chapter C, for example, .e des#ribed a high s#hool program in .hi#h students began .ith problems and experien#es that .ere personally rele ant, and dis#ussed the problems .ith #lassmates to formulate resear#h problems .hi#h they then studied more formally and systemati#ally ;5a.)ins, E119<. In essen#e this strategy #reated an emergent #urri#ulum analogous to the ones des#ribed abo e for young #hildren. 4hat the high s#hool students studied .as not predetermined, but emerged from their o.n expressed interests.
$ulti#ultural and anti-bias edu#ation

" culture is an all-en#ompassing set of alues, beliefs, pra#ti#es and #ustoms of a group or #ommunityLits total .ay of life. Cultures may be shared .idely, e en by mu#h if not all of an entire nation, or they may be shared by relati ely fe., su#h as a small #ommunity .ithin a large #ity. !ometimes the term culture is e en applied to the .ay of life of an indi idual family or of a spe#iali/ed group in so#ietyI some might argue, for example, that there is a #ulture of s#hooling shared by tea#hers, though not ne#essarily by all students. 6e#ause #ulture by definition tou#hes on all aspe#ts of li ing, it is li)ely to affe#t studentsJ perspe#ti es about s#hool, their .ays of learning and their moti ations to learn. &he differen#es go beyond ob ious differen#es in holidays, language, or food preferen#es. In some #ultures, for example, indi iduals )eep good eye #onta#t .ith someone to .hom they are spea)ing, and expe#t the same from others. In other #ultures, su#h beha ior is #onsidered intrusi e or o erly aggressi e, and a oiding eye #onta#t .hile spea)ing is #onsidered more respe#tful. Br another example: in some #ultures it is expe#ted that indi iduals .ill be pun#tual ;or on time<, .hereas in others pun#tuality is #onsidered o erly #ompulsi e, and a more #asual approa#h to time is the norm. !tudents regularly bring differen#es li)e these to s#hool, .here they #ombine .ith expe#tations from tea#hers and other s#hool staff, and #ontribute indire#tly to differen#es in a#hie ement and satisfa#tion among students.
E7C
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense &o be fully effe#ti e, therefore, instru#tional planning has to ta)e into a##ount the di ersity in studentsJ #ultural ba#)grounds, .hether the differen#es are obser able or subtle. *lanning also has to .or) deliberately to redu#e the so#ial biases and pre,udi#es that sometimes de elop about #ultural differen#es. <ulticultural education and anti.bias education are t.o terms referring to these purposes. &heir meanings often o erlap signifi#antly, depending on the #ontext or on .ho is using the terms. 'enerally, though, the first termLmulti#ultural edu#ationL has some.hat more to do .ith understanding the differen#es among #ultures. &he latter termLanti-bias edu#ation Lhas more to do .ith o er#oming so#ial pre,udi#es and biases resulting from #ultural differen#es. For #on enien#e in this #hapter, .e .ill use the single term multicultural education to refer to both understanding differen#es and o er#oming pre,udi#es. Fully effe#ti e multi#ultural edu#ation has se eral features. &he most ob ious and familiar one is content integration$ the #urri#ulum uses examples and information from different #ultures to illustrate arious #on#epts or ideas already #ontained in the #urri#ulum ;Ga rus, E11E<. In studying holidays, for example, an elementarys#hool tea#her in#ludes a#ti ities and information about K.an/aa as .ell as Christmas, 5anu))ah, or other holidays happening at about the same time. In studying the 3! Ci il 4ar, another example, a middle-years tea#her in#ludes material .ritten from the perspe#ti e of "fri#an-"meri#an sla es and !outhern lando.ners. In tea#hing language arts, students learn basi# o#abulary of any non-English languages spo)en by some members of the #lass. 6ut there is more to multi#ultural edu#ation than integrating #ontent from di erse #ultures. "mong other features, it also requires an e3uity pedagogy* .hi#h is an effort to allo. or e en en#ourage, a ariety of learning stylesLstyles at .hi#h students may ha e be#ome s)illful be#ause of their #ultural ba#)grounds ;Cro., E11@I C. 6an)s P (. 6an)s, 788@<. In elementary language arts, for example, there may be more than one =best? .ay to tell a story. !hould a student ne#essarily ha e to tell it alone and standing in front of the .hole #lass, or might the student tell it ,ointly .ith a friend or in a smaller group> In learning to .rite a story, is legitimate ariety also possible there> !hould a .ritten story ne#essarily begin .ith a topi# senten#e that announ#es .hat the story is about, or #an it sa e a statement of topi# for the ending or e en it lea e it out altogether in order to stimulate readers to thin)> &he best #hoi#e is related in part to the nature and purpose of the story, of #ourse, but partly also to differen#es in #ultural expe#tations about story telling. Choosing a story form also points to.ard another feature of multi#ultural edu#ation, the 5no1ledge construction process* .hi#h is the unstated, un#ons#ious pro#ess by .hi#h a #ultural group #reates )no.ledge or information. &he popular media, for example, often portray 5ispani#"meri#ans in .ays that are stereotypi#al, either subtly or blatantly ;2ester P +oss, E110<. " fully multi#ultural #urri#ulum finds .ay to #all these images to the attention of students and to engage them in thin)ing about ho. and .hy the images o ersimplify reality. Net there is e en more to a fully multi#ultural edu#ation. In addition to #ontent integration, equity pedagogy, and )no.ledge #onstru#tion, it fosters pre!udice reduction, or a#ti ities, dis#ussions and readings that identify studentsJ negati e e aluations of #ultural groups ;(a#obson, E110I (. 6an)s P C. 6an)s, E11F<. &he a#ti ities and dis#ussions #an of #ourse ta)e a some.hat philosophi#al approa#hLexamining ho. students feel in general, .hat experien#es they remember ha ing in ol ing pre,udi#e, and the li)e. 6ut the a#ti ities and dis#ussions #an also ta)e a more indire#t and subtle form, as .hen a tea#her periodi#ally spea)s in a studentJs nati e language as a publi# sign of respe#t for the student. 'estures and dis#ussions li)e these are espe#ially effe#ti e if they #ontribute to the fifth element of multi#ultural edu#ation, empo1ering the school and social structure* in .hi#h all tea#hers and staff members find .ays to #on ey respe#t for #ultural differen#es, in#luding e en during extra-#urri#ular and Educational Psychology E78 " 'lobal &ext
1'. Planning instruction sports a#ti ities. " sports team or a debate #lub should not be limited to students from one #ultural ba#)ground and ex#lude those from anotherLor more subtly, a##ept e eryone but gi e the more desirable roles only to indi iduals .ith parti#ular so#ial ba#)grounds. &o the extent that #ultural respe#t and in#lusion are s#hool-.ide, tea#hing and learning both be#ome easier and more su##essful, and instru#tional planning in parti#ular be#omes more rele ant to studentsJ needs.
Enhancing student learning through a variety of resources

4hether instru#tional goals originate from #urri#ulum do#uments, studentsJ expressed interests, or a mixture of both, students are more li)ely to a#hie e the goals if tea#hers dra. on a .ide ariety of resour#es. "s a pra#ti#al matter, this means loo)ing for materials and experien#es that supplementLor o##asionally e en repla#eLthe most traditional forms of information, su#h as textboo)s. *re#isely .hat resour#es to use depend on fa#tors unique to ea#h #lass, s#hool, or #ommunity, but they might in#lude one or more of the follo.ing.
&he Internet as a learning tool

&he Internet has be#ome a fixture of modern so#iety, and it offers a huge ariety of information on irtually any topi#, in#luding any s#hool sub,e#t and any possible grade le el from )indergarten through uni ersity. "t the time of .riting this boo) ;E11:<, about t.o-thirds of all households in the 3nited !tates and Canada ha e at least some sort of Internet a##ess, and irtually 711 per #ent of publi# and pri ate s#hools ha e some a##ess ;*arsad P (ones, E119<. &hese #ir#umstan#es ma)e the Internet a potential ma,or resour#e for tea#hers and studentsLa irtual library many times larger than e en the largest physi#al ;or =bri#)s and mortar?< libraries in the .orld. 6ut the astness of the Internet is not entirely a blessing. " ma,or problem is that the sheer olume of information a ailable, .hi#h #an sometimes ma)e sear#hing for a spe#ifi# topi#, arti#le, or do#ument o er.helming and ineffi#ient. &he ne.er sear#h engines ;su#h as 'oogle at Rhttp:KK....google.#omS< #an help .ith this problem, though they do not sol e it #ompletely. 4hen sear#hing the term %hotosynthesis, for example, 'oogle and other similar sear#h engines return o er six million .eb pages that dis#uss or refer this topi# in some .ayM If a tea#her is planning a unit about photosynthesis, or if a student is .riting an essay about it, .hi#h of these .eb pages .ill pro e most helpful> Choosing among .eb pages is a ne., some.hat spe#iali/ed form of com%uter literacy, one that #an be learned partially by trial-and-error online, but that also benefits from assistan#e by a tea#her or by more experien#ed peers ;+agains, E119<. "nother problem .ith the Internet is inequity of a##ess. E en though, as .e mentioned abo e, irtually all s#hools no. ha e a##ess of some sort, the a##ess is distributed quite une enly a#ross #ommunities and in#ome groups ;!)inner, 6is#ope, P *oland, E110I *arsad P (ones, E11@<. For one thing, the large ma,ority of 4eb pages are posted in English, and this fa#t naturally poses a #hallenge for any students .ho still learning to read or .rite English. For another, s#hools ary .idely in ho. mu#h Internet ser i#e they #an pro ide. In general, .ell-to-do s#hools and those in #ities pro ide more a##ess than those lo#ated in less .ell-off areas or in rural areasLthough there are many ex#eptions. " ri#hly endo.ed s#hool might ha e an Internet #onne#tion in e ery #lassroom as .ell as multiple #onne#tions in a s#hool library or in spe#iali/ed #omputer rooms. !tudents as .ell as fa#ulty .ould be able to use these fa#ilities, and one or more tea#hers might ha e spe#ial training in Internet resear#h to help .hen problems arise. "t the other extreme, a s#hool might ha e only a fe. Internet #onne#tions for the entire s#hool, or e en ,ust one, lo#ated in a #entral pla#e li)e the library or the s#hool offi#e. 3sage by students .ould #onsequently
EE1
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense be limited, and tea#hers .ould essentially tea#h themsel es ho. to sear#h the Internet and ho. to troubleshoot te#hni#al problems .hen they o##ur. In spite of these problems, the Internet has #onsiderable potential for enhan#ing studentsJ learning, pre#isely (ecause of its flexibility and near uni ersality. !ome of the best re#ent su##esses in ol e the #reation of a learning commons ;sometimes also #alled an information commons or teaching commons), a #ombination of a .ebsite and an a#tual, physi#al pla#e in a s#hool or library that brings together information, students and tea#hers so that both ;though perhaps espe#ially students< #an learn ;5aas P +obertson, E11FI 6eagle, E119<. " learning #ommons in#ludes an online library #atalogue and online Internet ser i#e, but it also offers other ser i#es: online information and ad i#e about study s)ills, for example, as .ell as a##ess to peer tutors and support groups, either online or in person, that #an help .ith diffi#ulties about .riting or doing assignments. "s you might suspe#t, using a learning #ommons effe#ti ely sometimes requires reorgani/ing #ertain features of tea#hing and learning, #hiefly to.ard greater expli#it #ollaboration among students and tea#hers.
3sing lo#al experts and field trips

&.o other .ays of enhan#ing learning in#lude bringing lo#al experts to the #lassroom and ta)ing the #lass on field trips outside the #lassroom. 6oth of these strategies help to ma)e learning more i id, as .ell as more rele ant to the parti#ular #ommunity and li es that students lead.
#ocal e5%erts
Classroom isits by persons .ith )ey experien#e #an often add a lot to many #urri#ulum sub,e#ts and topi#s. In one tenth grade s#ien#e #lass studying en ironmental issues, for example, the tea#her in ited the #ity forester, the person responsible for the health of trees planted in #ity par)s and along #ity boule ards. &he forester had spe#ial )no.ledge of the stresses on trees in urban en ironments, and he .as able to explain and gi e examples of parti#ular problems that had o##urred and their solutions. In a se#ond grade #lass .ith many 5ispani# students, on the other hand, a tea#her aide .as able to ser e as an expert isitor by des#ribing her memories of #hildhood in a !panish-spea)ing #ommunity in Ae. $exi#o. 2ater she also re#ruited an older 5ispani# friend and relati e to the #lass to des#ribe their experien#es gro.ing up in Central "meri#a. !he also a#ted as their English-!panish interpreter. In all of these examples, the experts made the learning more real and immediate. &heir presen#e #ountera#ted the tenden#y to equate s#hool learning .ith boo)-based )no.ledgeLa #ommon ha/ard .hen basing instru#tional planning primarily on #urri#ulum do#uments.
8ield tri%s
In addition to bringing the .orld to the #lassroom by in iting isitors, tea#hers #an do the #on erse, they #an ta)e the #lassroom to the .orld by leading students on field trips. !u#h trips are not #onfined to any parti#ular grade le el. In the early grades of elementary s#hool, for example, one #ommon goal of the #urri#ulum is to learn about #ommunity helpersLthe poli#e, firefighters, store o.ners, and others .ho ma)e a #ommunity safe and li able. "s indi#ated already, representati es of these groups #an isit the #lass and tell about their .or). 6ut the #lass #an also isit the pla#es .hi#h these people tell about: a poli#e station, a fire hall, a lo#al retail store, and the li)e. !u#h trips offer a more #omplete pi#ture of the #ontext in .hi#h #ommunity professionals .or) than is possible simply from hearing and reading about it. &he benefits are possible for older students as .ell. In learning about .ater-borne diseases as part of a biology #lass, for example, one middle-s#hool #lass too) a field trip to the
EE7
" 'lobal &ext
1'. Planning instruction lo#al .ater-treatment fa#ility, .here staff members explained .here the to.nJs .ater #ame from and ho. the .ater .as #leaned to be#ome drin)able at any tap. From a tea#herJs point of ie., of #ourse, there are #ertain ris)s about arranging #lassroom isitors or field trips. Bne is that a isitor may turn out not to #ommuni#ate .ell .ith #hildren or young peopleLhe or she may assume too mu#h prior )no.ledge, for example, or eer off the #hosen topi#. "nother problem is that field trips often require additional funds ;for admission fees or to pay for a bus<, and require support from additional adultsLoften parentsLto super ise students outside of s#hool. !ome of these problems are by-passed by arranging = irtual? field trips and hearing from = irtual? isitors: using #omputer soft.are or media to sho. students pla#es and a#ti ities .hi#h they #annot isit in person ;Clar), E119<. 'enerally, though, a #omputer-based experien#e #annot #ompare .ith a real trip or isitor in i idness, and the benefits of a#tual, in-person field trips or isitors often therefore out.eigh the #hallenges of arranging them.
!er i#e learning

!till another .ay to enhan#e learning is to in#orporate service learning* .hi#h is a#ti ity that #ombines real #ommunity ser i#e .ith analysis and refle#tion on the signifi#an#e of the ser i#e ;(ohnson P BJ'rady, E119I &homsen, E119<. *i#)ing up trash in an urban stream bed, for example, is a #ommunity ser i#e .hi#h students #an perform. &o transform this ser i#e into ser i#e learning, students also need to note and refle#t on the trash that they findI tal) and .rite about the e#ologi#al en ironment of the stream and of the #ommunityI and e en ma)e re#ommendations for impro ing the lo#al en ironment. &o a##omplish these ob,e#ti es, ser i#e learning a#ti ities should not be sporadi#, nor used as a punishmentLas .hen a tea#her or prin#ipal assigns trash pi#)-up as an afters#hool detention a#ti ity. 3nder good #onditions, ser i#e learning enhan#es instru#tional plans both morally and intelle#tually. $orally, it pla#es students in the role of creating good for the #ommunity, and #ountera#ts studentsJ per#eption that being =good? simply means #omplying .ith tea#hersJ or parentsJ rules passi ely. Intelle#tually, ser i#e learning pla#es so#ial and #ommunity issues in a i id, li ed #ontext. &he en ironment, e#onomi# inequality, or ra#e relations, for example, are no longer ,ust ideas that people merely tal) about, but problems that people a#tually a#t upon ;%i#)lit#h, E11@<. "s you might suspe#t, though, ma)ing ser i#e learning su##essful is not automati#. For one thing, ser i#e learning lends itself .ell only to #ertain #urri#ulum areas ;for example, #ommunity studies or so#ial studies<. For another, some students may initially resist ser i#e learning, .ondering .hether it benefits them personally as students ;(ones, 'ilbride-6ro.n, P 'asiors)i, E11@<. "lso, some ser i#e pro,e#ts may inad ertently be in ented only to benefit students, .ithout adequate #onsultation or ad i#e from #ommunity members. 6ringing food hampers to lo.-in#ome families may seem li)e a good idea to middle-#lass students or instru#tors, but some families may per#ei e this a#tion less as a benefit than as an a#t of #harity .hi#h they therefore resent. 6ut none of these problems are insurmountable. E aluations generally find that ser i#e learning, .hen done .ell, in#reases studentsJ sense of moral empo.erment as .ell as their )no.ledge of so#ial issues ;6u#hanan, 6ald.in, P +udisill, E11E<. 2i)e many other edu#ational pra#ti#es, insuring su##ess .ith ser i#e learning requires doing it .ell.
Creating bridges among curriculum goals and students% prior e4periences

&o su##eed, then, instru#tional plans do require a ariety of resour#es, li)e the ones dis#ussed in the pre ious se#tion. 6ut they also require more: they need to #onne#t .ith studentsJ prior experien#es and )no.ledge. EEE
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense !ometimes the #onne#tions #an de elop as a result of using the Internet, ta)ing field trips, or engaging in ser i#e learning, parti#ularly if students are already familiar .ith these a#ti ities and pla#es. $ore often than not, though, tea#hers need to find additional .ays to #onne#t #urri#ulum .ith studentsJ experien#esL.ays that fit more thoroughly and #ontinuously into the daily .or) of a #lass. Fortunately, su#h te#hniques are readily at handI they simply require the tea#her to de elop a habit of loo)ing for opportunities to use them. "mong the possibilities are four that deser e spe#ial mention: ;7< modeling beha ior and modeling re%resentations of ideas, ;E< activating %rior &no ledge already familiar to students, ;0< antici%ating %reconce%tions held by students, and ;F< pro iding guided and inde%endent %ractice, in#luding its most traditional form, home or&.
$odeling
&he term modeling #an mean either a demonstration of a desired beha ior or a representation of an important theory, idea, or ob,e#t. Ea#h of these meanings #an lin) #urri#ulum goals .ith studentsJ prior )no.ledge and experien#e.
Aodeling as a demonstration
In the first meaning, modeling refers to performing or demonstrating a desired ne. beha ior or s)ill, as .hen a tea#her or #lassmate demonstrates polite beha iors or the #orre#t solution to a math problem. In this #ase .e say that the tea#her or #lassmate models the desired beha ior, either deliberately or in the #ourse of other ongoing a#ti ity. !tudents obser e the modeled beha ior and ;hopefully< imitate it themsel es. +esear#h repeatedly sho.s that modeling desired beha iors is an effe#ti e .ay to learn ne. beha iors, espe#ially .hen the model is per#ei ed as important ;li)e the tea#her<, similar to the learner ;li)e a studentJs best friend<, or has a .arm, positi e relationship .ith the learner ;li)e the tea#her or the studentJs friend< ;6andura, E11EI 'ibson, E11F<. $odeling in this sense is sometimes also #alled o(servational learning. It has many of the same properties as the #lassi# operant #onditioning dis#ussed in Chapter E, ex#ept that reinfor#ement during obser ational learning is .itnessed in others rather than experien#ed by the learner dire#tly. 4at#hing others being reinfor#ed is sometimes #alled vicarious reinforcement. &he idea is that if, for example, a student obser es a #lassmate .ho beha es politely .ith the tea#her and then sees that #lassmate re#ei e praise for the beha ior ; i#arious reinfor#ement<, the student is more li)ely to imitate the polite beha ior that he sa.. "s in #lassi# operant #onditioning, furthermore, if the student obser es that politeness by #lassmates is ignored ;extin#tion or no reinfor#ement<, then the student is mu#h less li)ely to imitate the politeness. 4orse yet, if the student obser es that negati e beha iors in others lead to positi e #onsequen#es ;li)e attention from peers<, then the student may imitate the negati e beha iors ;+ebellon, E119<. Cursing and s.earing, and e en bullying or andalism, #an be reinfor#ed i#ariously, ,ust as #an more desired beha iors. $odelingLin this first sense of a demonstrationL#onne#ts instru#tional goals to studentsJ experien#es by presenting real, i id examples of beha iors or s)ills in a .ay that a student #an pra#ti#e dire#tly, rather than merely tal) about. &here is often little need, .hen imitating a model, to translate ideas or instru#tions from erbal form into a#tion. For students struggling .ith language and litera#y, in parti#ular, this feature #an be a real ad antage.
Aodeling0as sim%lified re%resentation

In a se#ond meaning of modeling, a model is a simplified representation of a phenomenon that in#orporates the important properties of the phenomenon. $odels in this sense may sometimes be quite tangible, dire#t #opies Educational Psychology EE0 " 'lobal &ext
1'. Planning instruction of realityI .hen I .as in fourth grade gro.ing up in California, for example, .e made s#ale models of the !panish missions as part of our so#ial studies lessons about California history. 6ut models #an also be imaginary, though still based on familiar elements. In a s#ien#e #urri#ulum, for example, the beha ior of gas mole#ules under pressure #an be modeled by imagining the mole#ules as ping pong balls flying about and #olliding in an empty room. +edu#ing the spa#e a ailable to the gas by ma)ing the room smaller, #auses the ping pong balls to #ollide more frequently and igorously, and thereby in#reases the pressure on the .alls of the room. In#reasing the spa#e has the opposite effe#t. Creating an a#tual room full of ping pong balls may be impra#ti#al, of #ourse, but the model #an still be imagined. $odeling in this se#ond sense is not about altering studentsJ beha ior, but about in#reasing their understanding of a ne.ly learned idea, theory, or phenomenon. &he model itself uses ob,e#ts or e ents that are already familiar to studentsLsimple balls and their beha ior .hen #ollidingLand in this .ay supports studentsJ learning of ne., unfamiliar material. Aot e ery ne. #on#ept or idea lends itself to su#h modeling, but many do: students #an #reate models of unfamiliar animals, for example, or of medie al #astles, or of e#ologi#al systems. &.o-dimensional modelsLessentially dra.ingsL#an also be helpful: students #an illustrate literature or histori#al e ents, or ma)e maps of their o.n neighborhoods. &he #hoi#e of model depends largely on the spe#ifi# #urri#ulum goals .hi#h the tea#her needs to a##omplish at a parti#ular time.
"#ti ating prior )no.ledge

"nother .ay to #onne#t #urri#ulum goals to studentsJ experien#e is by activating prior 5no1ledge, a term that refers to en#ouraging students to re#all .hat they )no. already about ne. material being learned. Garious formats for a#ti ating prior )no.ledge are possible. 4hen introdu#ing a unit about ho. biologists #lassify animal and plant spe#ies, for example, a tea#her #an in ite students to dis#uss ho. they already #lassify different )inds of plants and animals. 5a ing highlighted this informal )no.ledge, the tea#her #an then explore ho. the same spe#ies are #lassified by biologi#al s#ientists, and #ompare the s#ientistsJ #lassifi#ation s#hemes to the studentsJ o.n s#hemes. &he a#ti ation does not ha e to happen orally, as in this exampleI a tea#her #an also as) students to .rite do.n as many distin#t types of animals and plants that they #an thin) of, and then as) students to diagram or map their relationshipsLessentially #reating a conce%t ma% li)e the ones .e des#ribed in Chapter C ;'urlitt, et al., E119<. 4hate er the strategy used, a#ti ation helps by ma)ing studentsJ prior )no.ledge or experien#e #ons#ious and therefore easier to lin) to ne. #on#epts or information.
"nti#ipating pre#on#eptions of students

Ironi#ally, a#ti ating studentsJ prior )no.ledge #an be a mixed blessing if some of the prior )no.ledge is misleading or do.nright .rong. $isleading or erroneous )no.ledge is espe#ially #ommon among young students, but it #an happen at any grade le el. " )indergarten #hild may thin) that the sun literally =rises? in the morning, sin#e she often hears adults use this expression, or that the earth is flat be#ause it ob iously loo&s flat. 6ut a high s#hool student may mista)enly belie e that large ob,e#ts ;a boulder< fall faster than small ones ;a pebble<, or that a hea y ob,e#t dropped ;not thro.n< from a mo ing #ar .indo. .ill fall straight do.n instead of tra eling laterally alongside the #ar .hile it falls. 6e#ause mis#on#eptions are quite #ommon among students and e en among adults, tea#hers are more effe#ti e if they #an anticipate preconceptions of students .here er possible. &he tas) is t.ofold. First the tea#her must )no. or at least guess studentsJ pre#on#eptions as mu#h as possible in ad an#e, so that she #an design EEF
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense learning a#ti ities to #ountera#t and re ise their thin)ing. !ome pre#on#eptions ha e been .ell-do#umented by edu#ational resear#h and therefore #an in prin#iple be anti#ipated easilyLthough they may still sometimes ta)e a tea#her by surprise during a busy a#ti ity or lesson ;&anner P "llen, E11@I Chiu P 2in, E11@<. Exhibit 8.C lists a fe. of these #ommon pre#on#eptions. Bthers may be unique to parti#ular students, ho.e er, and a tea#her may only by able to learn of them through experien#eLby listening #arefully to .hat students say and .rite and by .at#hing .hat they do. " fe. pre#on#eptions may be so ingrained or tied to other, more deeply held beliefs that students may resist gi ing them up, either #ons#iously or un#ons#iously. It may be hard, for example, for some students to gi e up the idea that girls are less talented at math or s#ien#e than are boys, e en though resear#h generally finds this is not the #ase ;5yde P 2inn, E119<. &able 00: !e eral mis#on#eptions about s#ien#e <isconception !tars and #onstellations appear in the same pla#e in the s)y e ery night. &he .orld is flat, #ir#ular li)e a pan#a)e. :hat to do "s) students to obser e #arefully the lo#ations of a bright star on#e a .ee) for se eral .ee)s. 3se a globe or ball to find #ountries lo#ated o er the hori/onI use #omputer soft.are ;e.g. 'lobal Earth< to illustrate ho. a round Earth #an loo) flat up #lose. %inosaurs disappeared at the same time that human beings appeared and be#ause of human a#ti ity. +i ers al.ays flo. from Aorth to !outh. Constru#t a timeline of ma,or periods of %ar.inian e olution. Identify ri ers that flo. !outh to Aorth ;e.g. the +ed +i er in Aorth %a)ota and Canada<I tal) about ho. !outhern lo#ations are not ne#essarily =lo.er?. For#e is needed not only to start an ob,e#t mo ing, but to )eep it mo ing. Explain the #on#ept of inertiaL demonstrate inertia using lo.-fri#tion motion ;e.g. .ith a ho er#raft or dryi#e pu#)<. Golume, .eight, and si/e are identi#al #on#epts. 5a e students .eigh ob,e#ts of different si/es or olumes, and #ompare the results. !easons happen be#ause the Earth #hanges distan#e from the sun. Explain the tilt of EarthJs axis using a globe and light as a modelI demonstrate redu#ed heating of surfa#es by pla#ing similar surfa#es outdoors at different angles to the sunJs rays. Sources: Chi, E11@I %. Clar), E119I !lotta P Chi, E119I B.ens, E110. &he se#ond tas) .hen anti#ipating pre#on#eptions is to treat studentsJ existing )no.ledge and beliefs .ith respe#t e en .hen they do in#lude mis#on#eptions or errors. &his may seem ob ious in prin#iple, but it needs remembering .hen students persist .ith mis#on#eptions in spite of a tea#herJs efforts to tea#h alternati e ideas or #on#epts. $ost of usLin#luding most studentsLha e reasons for holding our beliefs, e en .hen the beliefs do not
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1'. Planning instruction agree .ith tea#hers, textboo)s, or other authorities, and .e appre#iate ha ing our beliefs treated .ith respe#t. !tudents are no different from other people in this regard. In a high s#hool biology #lass, for example, some students may ha e personal reasons for not agreeing .ith the theory of e olution asso#iated .ith Charles %ar.in. For religious reasons they may support explanations of the origins of life that gi e a more a#ti e, inter entionist role to 'od ;6rumfiel, E11@<. If their beliefs disagree .ith the tea#herJs or the textboo), then the disagreement needs to be a#)no.ledged, but a#)no.ledged respe#tfully. For some students ;and perhaps some tea#hers<, expressing fundamental disagreement respe#tfully may feel a.).ard, but it needs to be done nonetheless.
'uided pra#ti#e, independent pra#ti#e, and home.or)

!o far, .e ha e fo#used on bridging the goals or #ontent of a #urri#ulum to e ents, beliefs, and ideas from studentsJ li es. In studying human gro.th in a health #lass, for example, a tea#her might as) students to bring photos of themsel es as a mu#h younger #hild. In this #ase a #on#ept from the #urri#ulumLhuman gro.thLthen is related to a personal e ent, being photographed as a youngster, that the student finds meaningful. 6ut tea#hers #an also #reate bridges bet.een #urri#ulum and studentsJ experien#es in another .ay, by relating the %rocess of learning in s#hool .ith the %rocess of learning outside of s#hool. $u#h of this tas) in ol es helping students to ma)e the transition from super ised learning to self-regulated learningLor put differently, from pra#ti#e that is relati ely guided to pra#ti#e that is relati ely independent.
Kuided %ractice
4hen students first learn a ne. s)ill or a ne. set of ideas, they are espe#ially li)ely to en#ounter problems and ma)e mista)es that interfere .ith the ery pro#ess of learning. In figuring out ho. to use a ne. soft.are program, for example, a student may un)no.ingly press a .rong button that pre ents further fun#tioning of the program. In translating senten#es from !panish into English in language #lass, for another example, a student might misinterpret one parti#ular .ord or grammati#al feature. &his one mista)e may #ause many senten#es to be translated in#orre#tly, and so on. !o students initially need guided practiceopportunities to .or) some.hat independently, but .ith a tea#her or other expert #lose at hand pre ent or fix diffi#ulties .hen they o##ur. In general, edu#ational resear#h has found that guided pra#ti#e helps all learners, but espe#ially those .ho are struggling ;6ryan P 6urstein, E11F: 4ood.ard, E11F<. " first-grade #hild has diffi#ulty in de#oding printed .ords, for example, benefits from guidan#e more than one .ho #an de#ode easily. 6ut both students benefit in the initial stages of learning, sin#e both may ma)e more mista)es then. 'uided pra#ti#e, by its nature, sends a dual message to students: it is important to learn ne. material .ell, but it is also important to be#ome able to use learning assistan#e, beyond the lesson .here it is learned and e en beyond the #lassroom. 'uided pra#ti#e is mu#h li)e the #on#epts of the 1one of %ro5imal develo%ment ;or TP!) and instructional scaffolding that .e dis#ussed in Chapter E in #onne#tion .ith Gygots)yJs theory of learning. In essen#e, during guided pra#ti#e the tea#her #reates a -*% or s#affold ;or frame.or)< in .hi#h the student #an a##omplish more .ith partial )no.ledge or s)ill than the student #ould a##omplish alone. 6ut .hate er its nameLguided pra#ti#e, a -*%, or a s#affoldLinsuring su##ess of guidan#e depends on se eral )ey elements: fo#using on the tas) at hand, as)ing questions that brea) the tas) into manageable parts, reframing or restating the tas) so that it be#omes more understandable, and gi ing frequent feedba#) about the studentJs progress ;+ogoff, E110<. Combining the elements appropriately ta)es sensiti ity and impro isational s)illLe en artfulnessLbut these ery #hallenges are among the true ,oys of tea#hing. EE9 ithout
.nde%endent %ractice
"s students gain fa#ility .ith a ne. s)ill or ne. )no.ledge, they tend to need less guidan#e and more time to #onsolidate ;or strengthen< their ne. )no.ledge .ith additional pra#ti#e. !in#e they are less li)ely to en#ounter mista)es or problems at this point, they begin to benefit from independent practiceLopportunities to re ie. and repeat their )no.ledge at their o.n pa#e and .ith fe.er interruptions. "t this point, therefore, guided pra#ti#e may feel less li)e help than li)e an interruption, e en if it is .ell-intentioned. " student .ho already )no.s ho. to use a ne. #omputer program, for example, may be frustrated by .aiting for the tea#her to explain ea#h step of the program indi idually. If a student is already s)illful at translating !panish senten#es into English in a language #lass, it #an be annoying for the tea#her to =help? by pointing out minor errors that the student is li)ely to #at#h for herself. 6y definition, the purpose of independent pra#ti#e is to pro ide more self-regulation of learning than .hat #omes from guided pra#ti#e. It implies a different message for students than .hat is #on eyed by guided pra#ti#e, a message that goes beyond the earlier one: that it is no. time to ta)e more #omplete responsibility for o.n learning. 4hen all goes .ell, independent pra#ti#e is the e entual out#ome of the /one of proximal de elopment #reated during the earlier phase of guided pra#ti#e des#ribed abo e: the student #an no. do on his or her o.n, .hat originally required assistan#e from someone else. Br stated differently, independent pra#ti#e is a .ay of en#ouraging self4determination about learning, in the sense that .e dis#ussed this idea in Chapter 9. In order to .or) independently, a student must set his or her o.n dire#tion and monitor his or her o.n su##essI by definition, no one #an do this for the student.
:ome or&
&he #han#es are that you already ha e experien#ed many forms of home.or) in your o.n edu#ational #areer. &he .idespread pra#ti#e of assigning re ie. .or) to do outside of s#hool is a .ay of supplementing s#ar#e time in #lass and of pro iding independent pra#ti#e for students. 5ome.or) has generated #ontro ersy throughout most of its history in publi# edu#ation, partly be#ause it en#roa#hes on studentsJ personal and family-oriented time, and partly be#ause resear#h finds no #onsistent benefits of doing home.or) ;'ill P !#hlossman, E11FI Kohn, E11F<. In spite of these #riti#isms, though, parents and tea#hers tend to fa or home.or) .hen it is used for t.o main purposes. Bne purpose is to re ie. and pra#ti#e material that has already been introdu#ed and pra#ti#ed at s#hoolI a sheet of arithmeti# problems might be a #lassi# example. 4hen used for this purpose, the amount of home.or) is usually minimal in the earliest grades, if any is assigned at all. Bne edu#ational expert re#ommends only ten minutes per day in first grade at most, and only gradual in#reases in amount as students get older ;Cooper P Galentine, E117<. &he se#ond purpose for supporting home.or) is to #on ey the idea of s#hool.or) being the =,ob? of #hildhood and youth. (ust as on an adult ,ob, students must #omplete home.or) tas)s .ith minimal super ision and sometimes e en minimal training. %oing the tas)s, furthermore, is a .ay to get ahead or further along in the .or) pla#e ;for an adult< or at s#hool ;for a #hild<. Bne study in .hi#h resear#hers inter ie.ed #hildren about these ideas, in fa#t, found that #hildren do indeed regard home.or) as .or) in the same .ay that adults thin) of a ,ob ;Cornu P [u, E11F<. In the #hildrenJs minds, home.or) tas)s .ere not =fun?, in spite of tea#hersJ frequent efforts to ma)e them fun. Instead they .ere ,obs that needed doing, mu#h li)e household #hores. 4hen it #ame to home.or), #hildren regarded parents as the tea#hersJ assistantsLpeople merely #arrying out the .ishes of the tea#her. 2i)e any
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1'. Planning instruction ,ob, the ,ob of doing home.or) aried in stressfulnessI .hen required at an appropriate amount and le el of diffi#ulty, and .hen #hildren reported ha ing good =bosses? ;parents and tea#hers<, the ,ob of home.or) #ould a#tually be satisfying in the .ay that many adultsJ ,obs #an be satisfying .hen .ell-done.
Planning for instruction as well as for learning

&his #hapter started .ith one premise but ended .ith another. It started .ith the idea that tea#hers need to lo#ate #urri#ulum goals, usually from a state department of edu#ation or a publisher of a #urri#ulum do#ument. In mu#h of the #hapter .e des#ribed .hat these authorities pro ide for indi idual #lassroom tea#hers, and ho. their do#uments #an be #larified and rendered spe#ifi# enough for #lassroom use. In the middle of the #hapter, ho.e er, the premise shifted. 4e began noting that instru#tion #annot be planned simply for studentsI tea#hers also need to #onsider in ol ing students themsel es in influen#ing or e en #hoosing their o.n goals and .ays of rea#hing the goals. Instru#tional planning, in other .ords, should not be ,ust for students, but also (y students, at least to some extent. In the final parts of the #hapter .e des#ribed a number of .ays of a#hie ing a reasonable balan#e bet.een tea#hersJ and studentsJ influen#e on their learning. 4e suggested #onsidering relati ely strong measures, su#h as an emergent or an anti-bias #urri#ulum, but .e also #onsidered more moderate ones, li)e the use of the Internet, of lo#al experts and field trips, of ser i#e learning, and of guided and independent pra#ti#e. "ll things #onsidered, then, tea#hersJ planning is not ,ust about organi/ing tea#hingI it is also about fa#ilitating learning. Its dual purpose is e ident in many features of publi# edu#ation, in#luding the one .e dis#uss in the next t.o #hapters, the assessment of learning.
Chapter summary
In the 3nited !tates, broad edu#ational goals for most sub,e#t areas are published by many national professional asso#iations and by all state departments of edu#ation. 3sually the state departments of edu#ation also publish #urri#ulum frame.or) or #urri#ulum guides that offer some.hat more spe#ifi# explanations of edu#ational goals, and ho. they might be taught. &ransforming the goals into spe#ifi# learning ob,e#ti es, ho.e er, remains a responsibility of the tea#her. &he formulation #an fo#us on #urri#ulum topi#s that #an analy/ed into spe#ifi# a#ti ities, or it #an fo#us on spe#ifi# beha iors expe#ted of students and assembled into general types of out#omes. &axonomies of edu#ational ob,e#ti es, su#h as the ones originated by 6en,amin 6loom, are a useful tool .ith either approa#h to instru#tional planning. !in#e students normally are di erse, tea#hing requires differentiated instru#tion, or ad,ustments to studentsD learning needs, ba#)grounds, and #apa#ities. " .idely used frame.or) for doing is #alled response to inter ention, and in ol es #ontinual short-term assessment of studentsD response to tea#hing, #oupled .ith a system of more intense instru#tion for the relati ely small number of students .ho need it. In addition to planning instru#tion on studentsJ behalf, many tea#hers organi/e instru#tion so that students themsel es #an influen#e the #hoi#e of goals. Bne .ay to do so is through emergent #urri#ulumI another .ay is through multi#ultural and anti-bias #urri#ulum. 4hate er planning strategies are used, learning is enhan#ed by using a .ide ariety of resour#es, in#luding the Internet, lo#al experts, field trips, and ser i#e learning, among others. It is also enhan#ed if the tea#her #an build bridges bet.een #urri#ulum goals and studentsJ experien#es through ,udi#ious use of modeling, a#ti ation of prior )no.ledge, anti#ipation of studentsJ pre#on#eptions, and an appropriate blend of guided and independent pra#ti#e. EEC
Further resour#es
Rhttp:KK....adprima.#omKob,e#ti es.htmS &his is one of many .ebsites that explains .hat beha ioral ob,e#ti es are and ho. to .rite them. It gi es more detail than is possible in this #hapter. Rhttp:KKtea#hingedpsy#h..i)ispa#es.#omK"ssessmentVofVK-7EVlearningS &his page has se eral items related to instru#tional planning. !ee espe#ially the lin)s to se eral .ebsites about 6loomDs &axonomy, as .ell as the page about simple #lassroom obser ation te#hniques, .hi#h is a potentially useful part of +&I inter entions.
Key terms
"ffe#ti e ob,e#ti es "nti-bias edu#ation 6loomJs taxonomy Content integration Curri#ulum frame.or) Curri#ulum guide %ifferentiated instru#tion Edu#ational goals Emergent #urri#ulum Equity pedagogy 'uided pra#ti#e Independent pra#ti#e Indi#ators Instru#tional planning 2earning #ommons 2earning ob,e#ti es $odeling as demonstration $odeling as simplified representation $ulti#ultural edu#ation Aational standards *sy#homotor ob,e#ti es +esponse to inter ention ;+&I< !#ope and sequen#e !er i#e learning !tate standards &axonomy of edu#ational ob,e#ti es or&,
+eferen#es
"llan, !. P 'oddard, N. ;E171<. %ifferentiated instru#tion and +&I: " natural fit. .nterventions that ;B;E<. "nderson, 2. P Krath.ohl, %. ;E117<. A ta5onomy for learning, teaching, and assessing. Ae. Nor): 2ongman. 6andura, ". ;E11E<. !o#ial #ogniti e theory in #ultural #ontext. Journal of A%%lied Psychology2 An .nternational Revie , @C, E98-E81. 6an)s, C. P 6an)s, (. ;788@<. Equity pedagogy: "n essential #omponent of multi#ultural edu#ation. Theory into Practice, <?;0<, 7@E-7@C. 6an)s, (. P 6an)s, C. ;E11@<. Aulticultural education2 .ssues and %ers%ectives, @th edition. Ae. Nor): 4iley. 6eagle, %. 6ailey, +., P &ierney, 6. ;E11F<. The information commons hand(oo&. Ae. Nor): Aeal-!human *ublishers. 6loom, 6. ;78@9<. Ta5onomy of educational o('ectives. Ae. Nor): %a id $#Kay *ublishers. 6rumfiel, '. ;E11@<. Intelligent design: 4ho has designs on your studentsJ minds> $ature, ?<?, 719E-719@. 6ryan, &. P 6urstein, K. ;E11F<. Impro ing home.or) #ompletion and a#ademi# performan#e: 2essons from spe#ial edu#ation. Theory into Practice, ?<;0<, E70-E78. 6u#hanan, "., 6ald.in, !., P +udisill, $. ;E11E<. !er i#e learning as s#holarship in tea#her edu#ation. Educational Researcher <D;C<, EC-0F. Campbell, *., 4ang, "., P "lgo//ine, 6. ;E171<. @@ tactics for im%lementing RT. in inclusive settings. &housand Ba)s, C": Cor.in.
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1'. Planning instruction Chi, $. ;E11@<. Commonsense #on#eptions of emergent pro#esses: 4hy some mis#on#eptions are robust. Journal of the #earning Sciences, C?;E<, 797-788. Chiu, $. P 2in, (. ;E11@<. *romoting Fth-gradersJ #on#eptual #hange of their understanding of ele#tri#al #urrent ia multiple analogies. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, ?D;F<, FE8-F9F. Clar), %. ;E119<. 2ongitudinal #on#eptual #hange in studentsJ understanding of thermal equilibrium: "n examination of the pro#ess of #on#eptual restru#turing. Cognition and .nstruction, D?;F<, F9:-@90. Clar), K. ;E119<. Computer 6ased Girtual Field &rips in the K-7E Classroom. In C. Cra.ford et al. ;Eds.<, Proceedings of Society for .nformation Technology and Teacher Education .nternational Conference D==;, pp. 08:F-08C1. Chesapea)e, G": ""CE. Cooper, 5. P Galentine, (. ;E117<. 3sing resear#h to ans.er pra#ti#al questions about home.or). Educational Psychology, <;;0<, 7F0-7@0. Corno, 2. P [u, (. ;E11F<. 5ome.or) as the ,ob of #hildhood. Theory into Practice, ?<;0<, EE:-E00. Cro., C. ;E11@<. Aulticultural education2 E)uity %edagogy on %ers%ectives and %ractices of secondary teachers. 3npublished do#toral dissertation. 4a#o, &[: 6aylor 3ni ersity. Curri#ulum %e elopment and !upplemental materials Commission. ;7888<. ReadingY#anguage Arts 8rame or& for California Pu(lic Schools . !a#ramento, C": California %epartment of Edu#ation. %erman-!par)s, 2. ;788F<. Empo.ering #hildren to #reate a #aring #ulture in a .orld of differen#es. Childhood Education, >=, 99-:7. %i#)lit#h, !. ;E11@<. 5uman rightsLhuman .rongs: $a)ing politi#al s#ien#e real through ser i#e-learning. In %. 6utin ;Ed.<, Service4learning in higher education2 Critical issues and directions. Ae. Nor): *algra e $a#millan. Egan, K. ;E11@<. An imaginative a%%roach to teaching. !an Fran#is#o: (ossey-6ass. Fu#hs, %. P %eshler, %. ;E11:<. 4hat .e need to )no. about responsi eness to inter ention ;and shouldnDt be afraid to as)<. #earning disa(ilities research and %ractice, DD;E<, 7E8-709. 'ibson, !. ;E11F<. !o#ial learning ;#ogniti e< theory and impli#ations for human resour#es de elopment. Advances in !evelo%ing :uman Resources, ;;E<, 78E-E71. 'ill, 6. P !#hlossman, !. ;E11F<. Gillain or sa ior> &he "meri#an dis#ourse on home.or), 7C@1-E110. Theory into %ractice, ?<;0<, 7:F-7C7. 'oddard, N. , 'oddard, +., P &s#hannen-$oran, $. ;E11:<, " theoreti#al and empiri#al in estigation of tea#her #ollaboration for s#hool impro ement and student a#hie ement in publi# elementary s#hools. TeachersM College Record, C=G, C::-C89. 'ronlund, A. ;E11F<. Friting instructional o('ectives for teaching and assessment, ; th edition. 3pper !addle +i er, A(: *earson. 'ulitt, (., +en)l, "., $otes, $., P 5auser, !. ;E119<. 5o. #an .e use #on#ept maps for prior )no.ledge a#ti ation> Proceedings of the >th .nternational Conference on #earning Sciences, E7:-EE1. 5aas, 2. P +obertson, (. ;Eds<. ;E11F<. The information commons. 4ashington, %.C.: "sso#iation of +esear#h 2ibraries. 5arro., ". ;78:E<. A ta5onomy of the %sychomotor domain. Ae. Nor): %a id $#Kay.
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&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense 5a.)ins, (. ;E119<. "##essing multi#ultural issues through #riti#al thin)ing, #riti#al inquiry, and the student resear#h pro#ess. Ir(an Education, ?C;E<, 798-7F7. 5ay.ood, K. P 'et#hell, A. ;E11@<. #ife s%an motor develo%ment, ?th edition. Champaign, I2: 5uman Kineti#s *ress. 5yde, (. P 2ynn, $. ;E119<. 'ender similarities in mathemati#s and s#ien#e. Science, <C?;@:88<, @88-911. (a#obson, &. ;E110<. Confronting out discomfort2 Clearing the *ortsmouth, A5: 5einemann. (ohnson, 6. P BJ'rady, C. ;Eds.<. ;E119<. The s%irit of service2 E5%loring faith, service, and social 'ustice in higher education. 6olton, $": "n)er *ublishers. (ones, !., 'ilbride-6ro.n, (., P 'asiors)i, ". ;E11@<. 'etting inside the =underside? of ser i#e-learning: !tudent resistan#e and possibilities. In %. 6utin ;Ed.<, Service4learning in higher education2 Critical issues and directions. Ae. Nor): *algra e $a#millan. Kohn, ". ;7888<. The schools our children deserve. 6oston: 5oughton $ifflin. Kohn, ". ;E11F<. Challenging students, and ho. to ha e more of them. Phi !elta Ka%%an,B;;0<, 7CF-78F. 2ester, *. P +oss, !. ;E110<. .mages that in'ure2 Pictorial stereoty%es in the media. 4estport, C&: *raeger. $ager, +. ;E11@<. Pre%aring instructional o('ectives, <rd edition. "tlanta, '": Center for Effe#ti e *erforman#e. $ar/ano, +. ;E119<. !esigning a ne 6oo)s. $ellard, %. P (ohnson, E. ;E11C<. RT.2 A %ractitionerMs guide to im%lementing res%onse to intervention. &housand Ba)s, C": Cor.in. Aotar, C., 4ilson, (., Nun)er, 6., P -uel)e, %. ;E11F<. &he table of spe#ifi#ations: Insuring a##ountability in tea#her-made tests. Journal of .nstructional Psychology, <C;0<. Bhio %epartment of Edu#ation. ;E110<. Academic Content Standards. Columbus, Bhio: "uthor. B.ens, C. ;E110<. Aonsense, sense and s#ien#e: $is#on#eptions and illustrated trade boo)s. Journal of children+s literature, DG;7<, @@-9E. *arsad, 6. P (ones, (. ;E11@<. .nternet access in I.S. %u(lic schools and classrooms2 CGG?4D==<. 4ashington, %.C.: 3nited !tates %epartment of Edu#ation, Aational Center for Edu#ation !tatisti#s. *er)ins, %. P $ebert, C. ;E11@<. Effi#a#y of multi#ultural edu#ation for pres#hool #hildren. Journal of Cross4 Cultural Psychology, <;;F<, F8:-@7E. *eterson, E. ;E11E<. A %ractical guide to early childhood curriculum2 #in&ing thematic, emergent, and s&ill4(ased %lanning to children+s outcomes, Dnd edition. 6oston: "llyn P 6a#on. *opham, (. ;E11E<. Fhat every teacher should &no A(: *earson. +agains, *. ;E119<. .nformation literacy instruction that or&s. Ae. Nor): Aeal-!#human *ublishers. +ebellon, C. ;E119<. %o adoles#ents engage in delinquen#y to attra#t the so#ial attention of peers> "n extension and longitudinal test of the so#ial reinfor#ement hypothesis. Journal of Research in Crime and !elin)uency, ?<;F<, 0C:-F77. +iley, +. ;E11E<. Edu#ation reform through standards and partnerships, 7880-E111. Phi !elta Ka%%an, B<;8<, :11-:1:. Educational Psychology E07 " 'lobal &ext a(out educational assessment. 3pper !addle +i er, ta5onomy of educational o('ectives. &housand Ba)s, C": Cor.in ay for anti4(ias in early childhood.
1'. Planning instruction +ogoff, 6. ;E110<. Cultural nature of human develo%ment, Chapter :, =&hin)ing .ith the tools and institutions of #ulture,? pp. E09-EC7. !eit/, 5. ;E119<. &he plan: building on #hildrenJs interests. Ooung Children, ;C;E<, 09-F7. !)inner, 5., 6is#ope, !., P *oland, 6. ;E110<. Uuality of .nternet access2 -arriers (ehind .nternet use statistics, @>;@<, C:@-CC1. !lotta, (. P Chi, $. ;E119<. 5elping students understand #hallenging topi#s in s#ien#e through ontology training. Cognition and .nstruction, D?;E<, E97-EC8. &anner, K. P "llen, %. ;E11@<. "pproa#hes to biology tea#hing and learningLunderstanding the .rong ans.ers: &ea#hing to.ard #on#eptual #hange. Cell -iology Education, ?, 77E-77:. &homsen, K. ;E119<. Service4learning in grades K4B2 E5%eriential learning that (uilds character and motivation. &housand Ba)s, C": Cor.in. &omlinson, C. P $#&ighe, (. ;E119<. .ntegrating differentiated instruction and understanding (y design. "lexandria, G": "sso#iation for !uper ision and Curri#ulum %e elopment. Gartuli, !. P +ohs, (. ;E119<. Con#eptual organi/ers of early #hildhood #urri#ulum #ontent. Early Childhood Education Journal, <<;F<, E07-E0:. Ga rus, $. ;E11E<. Transforming the multicultural education of teachers. Ae. Nor): &ea#hersJ College *ress. 4ood.ard, (. ;E11F<. $athemati#s edu#ation in the 3nited !tates: *ast to present Journal of #earning !isa(ilities, 0:, pp. 79-07. 4urm, (. ;E11@<. For&ing in the Reggio ay. !t. *aul, $A: +edleaf *ress.
E0E
11. Teacher;made assessment strategies

Kym teaches si5th grade students in an ur(an school live (elo here most of the families in the community the %overty line. Each year the ma'ority of the students in her school fail the state4 ide tests. Kym follo s school district teaching guides and ty%ically uses direct instruction in her #anguage Arts and Social Studies classes. The classroom assessments are designed to mirror those on the state4 ide tests so the students (ecome familiar ith the assessment format. Fhen Kym is in a graduate summer course on motivation she reads an article called, *Teaching strategies that honor and motivate inner4city African American students, 3Teel, !e(rin4Parec&i, S Covington, CGGB) and she decides to change her instruction and assessment in fall in four ays. 8irst, she stresses an or& several incremental a%%roach to a(ility focusing on effort and allo s students to revise their oral %resentation, art %ro'ect, creative
times until the criteria are met. Second, she gives students choices in %erformance assessments 3e.g. riting). Third, she encourages res%onsi(ility (y as&ing students to assist in classroom tas&s such as setting u% video e)ui%ment, handing out %a%ers etc. 8ourth, she validates student+ cultural heritage (y encouraging them to read (iogra%hies and historical fiction from their o n cultural (ac&grounds. Kym re%orts that the changes in her students+ effort and demeanor in class are dramatic2 students are more enthusiastic, than the %revious year. KymJs story illustrates se eral themes related to assessment that .e explore in this #hapter on tea#her-made assessment strategies and in the Chapter 7E on standardi/ed testing. First, #hoosing effe#ti e #lassroom assessments is related to instru#tional pra#ti#es, beliefs about moti ation, and the presen#e of state-.ide standardi/ed testing. !e#ond, some tea#her-made #lassroom assessments enhan#e student learning and moti ation Lsome do not. &hird, tea#hers #an impro e their tea#hing through a#tion resear#h. &his in ol es identifying a problem ;e.g. lo. moti ation and a#hie ement<, learning about alternati e approa#hes ;e.g. reading the literature<, implementing the ne. approa#hes, obser ing the results ;e.g. studentsJ effort and test results<, and #ontinuing to modify the strategies based on their obser ations. 6est pra#ti#es in assessing student learning ha e undergone dramati# #hanges in the last E1 years. 4hen +osemary .as a mathemati#s tea#her in the 78:1s, she did not assess studentsJ learning she tested them on the mathemati#s )no.ledge and s)ills she taught during the pre ious .ee)s. &he tests aried little in format and students al.ays did them indi idually .ith pen#il and paper. $any tea#hers, in#luding mathemati#s tea#hers, no. use a .ide ariety of methods to determine .hat their students ha e learned and also use this assessment or& harder, and %roduce (etter %roducts. At the end of the year t ice as many of her students %ass the State4 ide test
E00
" 'lobal &ext
11. Teacher(made assessment strategies information to modify their instru#tion. In this #hapter the fo#us is on using #lassroom assessments to impro e student learning, and .e begin .ith some basi# #on#epts.
9asic concepts
"ssessment is an integrated pro#ess of gaining information about studentsJ learning and ma&ing value 'udgments about their progress ;2inn P $iller, E11@<. Information about studentsJ progress #an be obtained from a ariety of sour#es in#luding pro,e#ts, portfolios, performan#es, obser ations, and tests. &he information about studentsJ learning is often assigned spe#ifi# numbers or grades and this in ol es measurement. $easurement ans.ers the question, =5o. mu#h>? and is used most #ommonly .hen the tea#her s#ores a test or produ#t and assigns numbers ;e.g. EC K01 on the biology testI 81K711 on the s#ien#e pro,e#t<. #valuation is the pro#ess of ma)ing ,udgments about the assessment information ;"irasian, E11@<. &hese ,udgments may be about indi idual students ;e.g. should (a#obJs #ourse grade ta)e into a##ount his signifi#ant impro ement o er the grading period><, the assessment method used ;e.g. is the multiple #hoi#e test a useful .ay to obtain information about problem sol ing<, or oneJs o.n tea#hing ;e.g. most of the students this year did mu#h better on the essay assignment than last year so my ne. tea#hing methods seem effe#ti e<. &he primary fo#us in this #hapter is on assessment for learning* .here the priority is designing and using assessment strategies to enhan#e student learning and de elopment. "ssessment for learning is often formative assessment* i.e. it ta)es pla#e during the #ourse of instru#tion by pro iding information that tea#hers #an use to re ise their tea#hing and students #an use to impro e their learning ;6la#), 5arrison, 2ee, $arshall P 4iliam, E11F<. Formati e assessment in#ludes both informal assessment in ol ing spontaneous unsystemati# obser ations of studentsJ beha iors ;e.g. during a question and ans.er session or .hile the students are .or)ing on an assignment< and formal assessment in ol ing pre-planned, systemati# gathering of data. 2ssessment of learning is formal assessment that in ol es assessing students in order to #ertify their #ompeten#e and fulfill a##ountability mandates. "ssessment of learning is typi#ally summative* that is, administered after the instru#tion is #ompleted ;e.g. a final examination in an edu#ational psy#hology #ourse<. !ummati e assessments pro ide information about ho. .ell students mastered the material, .hether students are ready for the next unit, and .hat grades should be gi en ;"irasian, E11@<. It is the primary fo#us of Chapter 7E: =!tandardi/ed and other formal assessments?, but it is also dis#ussed indire#tly in this #hapter in se eral pla#es.
ssessment for learning) an overvie# of the process

3sing assessment to ad an#e studentsJ learning not ,ust #he#) on learning requires ie.ing assessment as a pro#ess that is integral to the all phases of tea#hing in#luding planning, #lassroom intera#tions and instru#tion, #ommuni#ation .ith parents, and self-refle#tion ;!tiggins, E11E<. Essential steps in assessment for learning in#lude: Ste% C2 :aving clear instructional goals and communicating them to students In the pre ious #hapter .e do#umented the importan#e of tea#hers thin)ing #arefully about the purposes of ea#h lesson and unit. &his may be hard for beginning tea#hers. For example, Ganessa, a middle s#hool so#ial studies tea#her, might say that the goal of her next unit is: =!tudents .ill learn about the C il 4ar.? Clearer goals require that Ganessa de#ides .hat it is about the 3! Ci il 4ar she .ants her students to learn, e.g. the dates and names of battles, the #auses of the 3! Ci il 4ar, the differing perspe#ti es of those li ing in the Aorth and the !outh, or the
E0F
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense day-to-day experien#es of soldiers fighting in the .ar. Ganessa #annot de ise appropriate assessments of her studentsJ learning about the 3! Ci il 4ar until she is #lear about her o.n purposes. For effe#ti e tea#hing Ganessa also needs to #ommuni#ate #learly the goals and ob,e#ti es to her students so they )no. .hat is important for them to learn. Ao matter ho. thorough a tea#herJs planning has been, if students do not )no. .hat they are supposed to learn they .ill not learn as mu#h. 6e#ause #ommuni#ation is so important to tea#hers a spe#ifi# #hapter is de oted to this topi# ;Chapter C<, and so #ommuni#ation is not #onsidered in any detail in this #hapter. Ste% D2 Selecting a%%ro%riate assessment techni)ues !ele#ting and administrating assessment te#hniques that are appropriate for the goals of instru#tion as .ell as the de elopmental le el of the students are #ru#ial #omponents of effe#ti e assessment for learning. &ea#hers need to )no. the #hara#teristi#s of a .ide ariety of #lassroom assessment te#hniques and ho. these te#hniques #an be adapted for arious #ontent, s)ills, and student #hara#teristi#s. &hey also should understand the role reliability, alidity, and the absen#e of bias should play is #hoosing and using assessment te#hniques. $u#h of this #hapter fo#uses on this information. Ste% <2 Ising assessment to enhance motivation and confidence !tudentsJ moti ation and #onfiden#e is influen#ed by the type of assessment used as .ell as the feedba#) gi en about the assessment results. Consider, !amantha a #ollege student .ho ta)es a history #lass in .hi#h the professorJs le#tures and text boo) fo#us on really interesting ma,or themes. 5o.e er, the assessments are all multiple #hoi#e tests that as) about fa#ts and !amantha, .ho initially en,oys the #lasses and readings, be#omes angry, loses #onfiden#e she #an do .ell, and begins to spend less time on the #lass material. In #ontrast, some instru#tors ha e obser ed that that many students in edu#ational psy#hology #lasses li)e the one you are no. ta)ing .ill .or) harder on assessments that are #ase studies rather than more traditional exams or essays. &he type of feedba#) pro ided to students is also important and .e elaborate on these ideas later in this #hapter. Ste% F: Ad'usting instruction (ased on information "n essential #omponent of assessment for learning is that the tea#her uses the information gained from assessment to ad,ust instru#tion. &hese ad,ustments o##ur in the middle of a lesson .hen a tea#her may de#ide that studentsJ responses to questions indi#ate suffi#ient understanding to introdu#e a ne. topi#, or that her obser ations of studentsJ beha ior indi#ates that they do not understand the assignment and so need further explanation. "d,ustments also o##ur .hen the tea#her refle#ts on the instru#tion after the lesson is o er and is planning for the next day. 4e pro ide examples of ad,usting instru#tion in this #hapter and #onsider tea#her refle#tion in more detail in "ppendix C.. Ste% @2 Communicating ith %arents and guardians !tudentsJ learning and de elopment is enhan#ed .hen tea#hers #ommuni#ate .ith parents regularly about their #hildrenJs performan#e. &ea#hers #ommuni#ate .ith parents in a ariety of .ays in#luding ne.sletters, telephone #on ersations, email, s#hool distri#t .ebsites and parent-tea#hers #onferen#es. Effe#ti e #ommuni#ation requires that tea#hers #an #learly explain the purpose and #hara#teristi#s of the assessment as .ell as the meaning of studentsJ performan#e. &his requires a thorough )no.ledge of the types and purposes of tea#her made and standardi/ed assessments ;this #hapter and Chapter 7E< and .ell as #lear #ommuni#ation s)ills ;Chapter C<. 4e no. #onsider ea#h step in the pro#ess of assessment for learning in more detail. In order to be able to sele#t and administer appropriate assessment te#hniques tea#hers need to )no. about the ariety of te#hniques that #an Educational Psychology E0@ " 'lobal &ext
11. Teacher(made assessment strategies be used as .ell as .hat fa#tors ensure that the assessment te#hniques are high quality. 4e begin by #onsidering high quality assessments.
Selecting appropriate assessment techni@ues 0) high @uality assessments

For an assessment to be high quality it needs to ha e good alidity and reliability as .ell as absen#e from bias.
Galidity
Galidity is the e aluation of the =adequa#y and appropriateness of the interpretations and uses of assessment results? for a gi en group of indi iduals ;2inn P $iller, E11@, p. 9C<. For example, is it appropriate to #on#lude that the results of a mathemati#s test on fra#tions gi en to re#ent immigrants a##urately represents their understanding of fra#tions> Is it appropriate for the tea#her to #on#lude, based on her obser ations, that a )indergarten student, (asmine, has "ttention %efi#it %isorder be#ause she does not follo. the tea#hers oral instru#tions> Bb iously in ea#h situation other interpretations are possible that the immigrant students ha e poor English s)ills rather than mathemati#s s)ills, or that (asmine may be hearing impaired. It is important to understand that alidity refers to the inter%retation and uses made of the results of an assessment pro#edure not of the assessment pro#edure itself. For example, ma)ing ,udgments about the results of the same test on fra#tions may be alid if the students all understand English .ell. " tea#her #on#luding from her obser ations that the )indergarten student has "ttention %efi#it %isorder ;"%%< may be appropriate if the student has been s#reened for hearing and other disorders ;although the #lassifi#ation of a disorder li)e "%% #annot be made by one tea#her<. Galidity in ol es ma)ing an o erall ,udgment of the degree to .hi#h the interpretations and uses of the assessment results are ,ustified. Galidity is a matter of degree ;e.g. high, moderate, or lo. alidity< rather than all-or none ;e.g. totally alid s in alid< ;2inn P $iller, E11@<. &hree sour#es of e iden#e are #onsidered .hen assessing alidityL#ontent, #onstru#t and predi#ti e. Content validity e iden#e is asso#iated .ith the question: 5o. .ell does the assessment in#lude the #ontent or tas)s it is supposed to> For example, suppose your edu#ational psy#hology instru#tor de ises a mid-term test and tells you this in#ludes #hapters one to se en in the text boo). Bb iously, all the items in test should be based on the #ontent from edu#ational psy#hology, not your methods or #ultural foundations #lasses. "lso, the items in the test should #o er #ontent from all se en #hapters and not ,ust #hapters three to se enLunless the instru#tor tells you that these #hapters ha e priority. &ea#hersJ ha e to be #lear about their purposes and priorities for instru#tion (efore they #an begin to gather e iden#e related #ontent alidity. Content alidation determines the degree that assessment tas)s are rele ant and representati e of the tas)s ,udged by the tea#her ;or test de eloper< to represent their goals and ob,e#ti es ;2inn P $iller, E11@<. It is important for tea#hers to thin) about #ontent alidation .hen de ising assessment tas)s and one .ay to help do this is to de ise a &able of !pe#ifi#ations. "n example, based on *ennsyl aniaJs !tate standards for grade 0 geography, is in . In the left hand #olumn is the instru#tional #ontent for a E1-item test the tea#her has de#ided to #onstru#t .ith t.o )inds of instru#tional ob,e#ti es: identifi#ation and uses or lo#ates. &he se#ond and third #olumns identify the number of items for ea#h #ontent area and ea#h instru#tional ob,e#ti e. Aoti#e that the tea#her has de#ided that six items should be de oted to the sub area of geographi# representations- more than any other sub area. %e ising a table of spe#ifi#ations helps tea#hers determine if some #ontent areas or #on#epts are o er-sampled ;i.e. there are too many items< and some #on#epts are under-sampled ;i.e. there are too fe. items<.
E09
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense &able 0F: Example of &able of !pe#ifi#ations: grade 0 basi# geography litera#y Content &nstructional ob!ective &dentifies Lses or locates Identify geography tools and their uses 'eographi# representations: e.g. maps, globe, diagrams and photographs !patial information: s)et#h P themati# maps $ental maps Identify and lo#ate pla#es and regions *hysi#al features ;e.g. la)es, #ontinents< 5uman features ;#ountries, states, #ities< +egions .ith unifying geographi# #hara#teristi#s e.g. ri er basins Aumber of items *er#entage of items 7 0 7 71 @1Y E E 7 71 @1Y 0 @ E E1 711Y 7@Y E@Y 71Y 0 0 9 01Y @otal number of items er cent of items
7 7
7 7
E E
71Y 71Y
Constru#t alidity e iden#e is more #omplex than #ontent alidity e iden#e. Bften .e are interested in ma)ing broader ,udgments about studentJs performan#es than spe#ifi# s)ills su#h as doing fra#tions. &he fo#us may be on #onstru#ts su#h as mathemati#al reasoning or reading #omprehension. " #onstru#t is a #hara#teristi# of a person .e assume exists to help explain beha ior. For example, .e use the #on#ept of test anxiety to explain .hy some indi iduals .hen ta)ing a test ha e diffi#ulty #on#entrating, ha e physiologi#al rea#tions su#h as s.eating, and perform poorly on tests but not in #lass assignments. !imilarly mathemati#s reasoning and reading #omprehension are #onstru#ts as .e use them to help explain performan#e on an assessment. Constru#t alidation is the pro#ess of determining the extent to .hi#h performan#e on an assessment #an be interpreted in terms of the intended #onstru#ts and is not influen#ed by fa#tors irrele ant to the #onstru#t. For example, ,udgments about re#ent immigrantsJ performan#e on a mathemati#al reasoning test administered in English .ill ha e lo. #onstru#t alidity if the results are influen#ed by English language s)ills that are irrele ant to mathemati#al problem sol ing. !imilarly, #onstru#t alidity of end-of-semester examinations is li)ely to be poor for those students .ho are highly anxious .hen ta)ing ma,or tests but not during regular #lass periods or .hen doing assignments. &ea#hers #an help in#rease #onstru#t alidity by trying to redu#e fa#tors that influen#e performan#e but are irrele ant to the #onstru#t being assessed. &hese fa#tors in#lude anxiety, English language s)ills, and reading speed ;2inn P $iller E11@<.
E0:
" 'lobal &ext
11. Teacher(made assessment strategies " third form of alidity e iden#e is #alled criterion.related validity. !ele#ti e #olleges in the 3!" use the "C& or !"& among other #riteria to #hoose .ho .ill be admitted be#ause these standardi/ed tests help predi#t freshman grades, i.e. ha e high #riterion-related alidity. !ome K-7E s#hools gi e students math or reading tests in the fall semester in order to predi#t .hi#h are li)ely to do .ell on the annual state tests administered in the spring semester and .hi#h students are unli)ely to pass the tests and .ill need additional assistan#e. If the tests administered in fall do not predi#t studentsJ performan#es a##urately then the additional assistan#e may be gi en to the .rong students illustrating the importan#e of #riterion-related alidity.
Reliability
+eliability refers to the #onsisten#y of the measurement ;2inn P $iller E11@<. !uppose $r 'ar#ia is tea#hing a unit on food #hemistry in his tenth grade #lass and gi es an assessment at the end of the unit using test items from the tea#hersJ guide. +eliability is related to questions su#h as: 5o. similar .ould the s#ores of the students be if they had ta)en the assessment on a Friday or $onday> 4ould the s#ores ha e aried if $r 'ar#ia had sele#ted different test items, or if a different tea#her had graded the test> "n assessment pro ides information about students by using a spe#ifi# measure of performan#e at one parti#ular time. 3nless the results from the assessment are reasonably #onsistent o er different o##asions, different raters, or different tas)s ;in the same #ontent domain< #onfiden#e in the results .ill be lo. and so #annot be useful in impro ing student learning. Bb iously .e #annot expe#t perfe#t #onsisten#y. !tudentsJ memory, attention, fatigue, effort, and anxiety flu#tuate and so influen#e performan#e. E en trained raters ary some.hat .hen grading assessment su#h as essays, a s#ien#e pro,e#t, or an oral presentation. "lso, the .ording and design of spe#ifi# items influen#e studentsJ performan#es. 5o.e er, some assessments are more reliable than others and there are se eral strategies tea#hers #an use to in#rease reliability First, assessments .ith more tas)s or items typi#ally ha e higher reliability. &o understand this, #onsider t.o tests one .ith fi e items and one .ith @1 items. Chan#e fa#tors influen#e the shorter test more then the longer test. If a student does not understand one of the items in the first test the total s#ore is ery highly influen#ed ;it .ould be redu#ed by E1 per #ent<. In #ontrast, if there .as one item in the test .ith @1 items that .ere #onfusing, the total s#ore .ould be influen#ed mu#h less ;by only E per#ent<. Bb iously this does not mean that assessments should be inordinately long, but, on a erage, enough tas)s should be in#luded to redu#e the influen#e of #han#e ariations. !e#ond, #lear dire#tions and tas)s help in#rease reliability. If the dire#tions or .ording of spe#ifi# tas)s or items are un#lear, then students ha e to guess .hat they mean undermining the a##ura#y of their results. &hird, #lear s#oring #riteria are #ru#ial in ensuring high reliability ;2inn P $iller, E11@<. 2ater in this #hapter .e des#ribe strategies for de eloping s#oring #riteria for a ariety of types of assessment.
bsence of bias
6ias o##urs in assessment .hen there are #omponents in the assessment method or administration of the assessment that distort the performan#e of the student be#ause of their personal #hara#teristi#s su#h as gender, ethni#ity, or so#ial #lass ;*opham, E11@<. &.o types of assessment bias are important: offensiveness and unfair %enali1ation. "n assessment is most li)ely to be offensi e to a subgroup of students .hen negati e stereotypes are in#luded in the test. For example, the assessment in a health #lass #ould in#lude items in .hi#h all the do#tors .ere men and all the nurses .ere .omen. Br, a series of questions in a so#ial studies #lass #ould portray 2atinos and
E0C
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense "sians as immigrants rather than nati e born "meri#ans. In these examples, some female, 2atino or "sian students are li)ely to be offended by the stereotypes and this #an distra#t them from performing .ell on the assessment. 3nfair penali/ation o##urs .hen items disad antage one group not be#ause they may be offensi e but be#ause of differential ba#)ground experien#es. For example, an item for math assessment that assumes )no.ledge of a parti#ular sport may disad antage groups not as familiar .ith that sport ;e.g. "meri#an football for re#ent immigrants<. Br an assessment on team .or) that as)s students to model their #on#ept of a team on a symphony or#hestra is li)ely to be easier for those students .ho ha e attended or#hestra performan#es Lprobably students from affluent families. 3nfair penali/ation does not o##ur ,ust be#ause some students do poorly in #lass. For example, as)ing questions about a spe#ifi# sport in a physi#al edu#ation #lass .hen information on that sport had been dis#ussed in #lass is not unfair penali/ation as long as the questions do not require )no.ledge beyond that taught in #lass that some groups are less li)ely to ha e. It #an be diffi#ult for ne. tea#hers tea#hing in multi-ethni# #lassrooms to de ise interesting assessments that do not penali/e any groups of students. &ea#hers need to thin) seriously about the impa#t of studentsJ differing ba#)grounds on the assessment they use in #lass. 2istening #arefully to .hat students say is important as is learning about the ba#)grounds of the students.
Selecting appropriate assessment techni@ues 00) types of teacher;made assessments

Bne of the #hallenges for beginning tea#hers is to sele#t and use appropriate assessment te#hniques. In this se#tion .e summari/e the .ide ariety of types of assessments that #lassroom tea#hers use. First .e dis#uss the informal te#hniques tea#hers use during instru#tion that typi#ally require instantaneous de#isions. &hen .e #onsider formal assessment te#hniques that tea#hers plan before instru#tion and allo. for refle#ti e de#isions.
&ea#hersJ obser ation, questioning, and re#ord )eeping

%uring tea#hing, tea#hers not only ha e to #ommuni#ate the information they planned but also #ontinuously monitor studentsJ learning and moti ation in order to determine .hether modifi#ations ha e to be made ;"irasian, E11@<. 6eginning tea#hers find this more diffi#ult than experien#ed tea#hers be#ause of the #omplex #ogniti e s)ills required to impro ise and be responsi e to students needs .hile simultaneously )eeping in mind the goals and plans of the lesson ;6or)o P 2i ingston, 78C8<. &he informal assessment strategies tea#hers most often use during instru#tion are o(servation and )uestioning.
9(servation
Effe#ti e tea#hers obser e their students from the time they enter the #lassroom. !ome tea#hers greet their students at the door not only to .el#ome them but also to obser e their mood and moti ation. "re 5annah and Aaomi still not tal)ing to ea#h other> %oes Ethan ha e his materials .ith him> 'aining information on su#h questions #an help the tea#her foster student learning more effe#ti ely ;e.g. suggesting Ethan goes ba#) to his lo#)er to get his materials before the bell rings or a oiding assigning 5annah and Aaomi to the same group<. %uring instru#tion, tea#hers obser e studentsJ beha ior to gain information about studentsJ le el of interest and understanding of the material or a#ti ity. Bbser ation in#ludes loo)ing at non- erbal beha iors as .ell as listening to .hat the students are saying. For example, a tea#her may obser e that a number of students are loo)ing out of the .indo. rather than .at#hing the s#ien#e demonstration, or a tea#her may hear students ma)ing #omments in their group indi#ating they do not understand .hat they are supposed to be doing. Bbser ations also help tea#hers de#ide .hi#h student to #all on next, .hether to speed up or slo. do.n the pa#e of the lesson, .hen more examples Educational Psychology E08 " 'lobal &ext
11. Teacher(made assessment strategies are needed, .hether to begin or end an a#ti ity, ho. .ell students are performing a physi#al a#ti ity, and if there are potential beha ior problems ;"irasian, E11@<. $any tea#hers find that mo ing around the #lassroom helps them obser e more effe#ti ely be#ause they #an see more students from a ariety of perspe#ti es. 5o.e er, the fast pa#e and #omplexity of most #lassrooms ma)es it diffi#ult for tea#hers to gain as mu#h information as they .ant.
Uuestioning
&ea#hers as) questions for many instru#tional reasons in#luding )eeping studentsJ attention on the lesson, highlighting important points and ideas, promoting #riti#al thin)ing, allo.ing studentsJ to learn from ea#h others ans.ers, and pro iding information about studentsJ learning. %e ising good appropriate questions and using studentsJ responses to ma)e effe#ti e instantaneous instru#tional de#isions is ery diffi#ult. !ome strategies to impro e questioning in#lude planning and .riting do.n the instru#tional questions that .ill be as)ed, allo.ing suffi#ient .ait time for students to respond, listening #arefully to .hat students say rather than listening for .hat is expe#ted, arying the types of questions as)ed, ma)ing sure some of the questions are higher le el, and as)ing follo.-up questions. 4hile the informal assessment based on spontaneous obser ation and questioning is essential for tea#hing there are inherent problems .ith the alidity, reliability and bias in this information ;"irasian, E11@I !tiggins E11@<. 4e summari/e these issues and some .ays to redu#e the problems in &able 0F. &able 0@: Galidity and reliability of obser ation and questioning roblem &ea#hers la#) of ob,e#ti ity about o erall #lass in ol ement and understanding &enden#y to fo#us on pro#ess rather than learning Strategies to alleviate problem &ry to ma)e sure you are not only seeing .hat you .ant to see. &ea#hers typi#ally .ant to feel good about their instru#tion so it is easy to loo) for positi e student intera#tions. B##asionally, tea#hers .ant to see negati e student rea#tions to #onfirm their beliefs about an indi idual student or #lass. +emember to #on#entrate on student learning not ,ust in ol ement. $ost of tea#hersJ obser ations fo#us on pro#essLstudent attention, fa#ial expressions postureLrather than pupil learning. !tudents #an be a#ti e and engaged but not de eloping ne. s)ills. 2imited information and sele#ti e sampling $a)e sure you obser e a ariety of studentsLnot ,ust those .ho are typi#ally ery good or ery bad. 4al) around the room to obser e more students =up #lose? and ie. the room from multiple perspe#ti es. Call on a .ide ariety of studentsLnot ,ust those .ith their hands up, or those .ho are s)illed as the sub,e#t, or those .ho sit in a parti#ular pla#e in the room. Keep re#ords Fast pa#e of #lassrooms inhibits #orroborati e e iden#e If you .ant to )no. if you are missing important information as) a peer to isit your #lassroom and obser e the studentsJ beha iors. Classrooms are #omplex and fast pa#ed and one tea#her #annot see mu#h of .hat is going on .hile trying to
EF1
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense also tea#h. Cultural and indi idual differen#es in the meaning of erbal and non erbal beha iors 6e #autious in the #on#lusions that you dra. from your obser ations and questions. +emember that the meaning and expe#tations of #ertain types of questions, .ait time, so#ial distan#e, and role of =small tal)? aries a#ross #ultures ;Chapter F<. !ome students are quiet be#ause of their personalities not be#ause they are unin ol ed, nor )eeping up .ith the lesson, nor depressed or tired.
Record &ee%ing
Keeping re#ords of obser ations impro es reliability and #an be used to enhan#e understanding of one student, a group, or the .hole #lassD intera#tions. !ometimes this requires help from other tea#hers. For example, "lexis, a beginning s#ien#e tea#her is a.are of the resear#h do#umenting that longer .ait time enhan#es studentsJ learning ;e.g. +o.e, E110< but is unsure of her beha iors so she as)s a #olleague to obser e and re#ord her .ait times during one #lass period. "lexis learns her .ait times are ery short for all students so she starts pra#ti#ing silently #ounting to fi e .hene er she as)s students a question. &ea#hers #an )eep anecdotal records about students .ithout help from peers. &hese re#ords #ontain des#riptions of in#idents of a studentJs beha ior, the time and pla#e the in#ident ta)es pla#e, and a tentati e interpretation of the in#ident. For example, the des#ription of the in#ident might in ol e (oseph, a se#ond grade student, .ho fell asleep during the mathemati#s #lass on a $onday morning. " tentati e interpretation #ould be the student did not get enough sleep o er the .ee)end, but alternati e explanations #ould be the student is si#) or is on medi#ations that ma)e him dro.sy. Bb iously additional information is needed and the tea#her #ould as) (oseph .hy he is so sleepy and also obser e him to see if he loo)s tired and sleepy o er the next #ouple of .ee)s. "ne#dotal re#ords often pro ide important information and are better than relying on oneJs memory but they ta)e time to maintain and it is diffi#ult for tea#hers to be ob,e#ti e. For example, after seeing (oseph fall asleep the tea#her may no. loo) for any signs of (osephJs sleepinessLignoring the days he is not sleepy. "lso, it is hard for tea#hers to sample a .ide enough range of data for their obser ations to be highly reliable. &ea#hers also #ondu#t more formal o(servations espe#ially for students .ith spe#ial needs .ho ha e IE*Js. "n example of the importan#e of informal and formal obser ations in a pres#hool follo.s: The class of %reschoolers in a su(ur(an neigh(orhood of a large city has eight s%ecial needs students and four students0the %eer models0 ho have (een selected (ecause of their language and social s&ills. Some of the s%ecial needs students have (een diagnosed language, some mat ith (ehavior disorders, and several ho has a (o5 ith the teacher ell develo%ed ith delayed
ith autism. The students are sitting on the ho
ith sets of three *cool, things of varying si1e 3e.g. toy %andas)
and the students are as&ed to %ut the things in order (y si1e, (ig, medium and small. Students
are a(le are also re)uested to %oint to each item in turn and say *This is the (ig one,, *This is the medium one, and *This is the little one,. 8or some students, only t o choices 3(ig and little) are offered (ecause that is a%%ro%riate for their develo%mental level. The teacher informally o(serves that one of the (oys is having trou(le &ee%ing his legs still so she )uietly as&s the aid for a eighted %ad that she %laces on the (oy+s legs to hel% him &ee% them still. The activity continues and the aide Educational Psychology EF7 " 'lobal &ext
11. Teacher(made assessment strategies carefully o(serves students (ehaviors and records on .EP %rogress cards hether a child meets ill %oint to the
s%ecific o('ectives such as2 *Fhen given t o %icture or o('ect choices, Aar&
a%%ro%riate o('ect in B= %er cent of the o%%ortunities., The teacher and aides &ee% records of the relevant (ehavior of the s%ecial needs students during the half day they are in %reschool. The daily records are summari1ed ee&ly. .f there are not enough o(servations that have (een recorded for a s%ecific o('ective, the teacher and aide focus their o(servations more on that child, and if necessary, try to create s%ecific situations that relate to that o('ective. At end of each month the teacher calculates hether the s%ecial needs children are meeting their .EP o('ectives.
Selected response items

Common formal assessment formats used by tea#hers are multi%le choice, matching, and trueYfalse items. In sele#ted response items students ha e to sele#t a response pro ided by the tea#her or test de eloper rather than #onstru#ting a response in their o.n .ords or a#tions. !ele#ted response items do not require that students recall the information but rather recogni1e the #orre#t ans.er. &ests .ith these items are #alled o('ective be#ause the results are not influen#ed by s#orersJ ,udgments or interpretations and so are often ma#hine s#ored. Eliminating potential errors in s#oring in#reases the reliability of tests but tea#hers .ho only use ob,e#ti e tests are liable to redu#e the alidity of their assessment be#ause ob,e#ti e tests are not appropriate for all learning goals ;2inn P $iller, E11@<. Effe#ti e assessment for learning as .ell as assessment of learning must be based on aligning the assessment te#hnique to the learning goals and out#omes. For example, if the goal is for students to #ondu#t an experiment then they should be as)ed to do that rather that than being as)ed a(out #ondu#ting an experiment.
Common problems
!ele#ted response items are easy to s#ore but are hard to de ise. &ea#hers often do not spend enough time #onstru#ting items and #ommon problems in#lude: 7. 3n#lear .ording in the items
True or 8alse2 "lthough 'eorge 4ashington .as born into a .ealthy family, his father died .hen he
.as only 77, he .or)ed as a youth as a sur eyor of rural lands, and later stood on the bal#ony of Federal 5all in Ae. Nor) .hen he too) his oath of offi#e in 7:C8. E. Cues that are not related the #ontent being examined.
" #ommon #lue is that all the true statements on a trueKfalse test or the #orre#ti e alternati es on a
multiple #hoi#e test are longer than the untrue statements or the in#orre#t alternati es. 0. 3sing negati es ;or double negati es< the items.
" poor item. =&rue or False: Aone of the steps made by the student .as unne#essary.? " better item. &rue or False: ="ll of the steps .ere ne#essary.?
!tudents often do not noti#e the negati e terms or find them #onfusing so a oiding them is generally re#ommended ;2inn P $iller E11@ ). 5o.e er, sin#e standardi/ed tests often use negati e items, tea#hers sometimes deliberately in#lude some negati e items to gi e students pra#ti#e in responding to that format. F. &a)ing senten#es dire#tly from textboo) or le#ture notes. +emo ing the .ords from their #ontext often ma)es them ambiguous or #an #hange the meaning. For example, a statement from Chapter 0 ta)en out of #ontext suggests all #hildren are #lumsy. =!imilarly .ith EFE
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense ,umping, thro.ing and #at#hing: the large ma,ority of #hildren #an do these things, though often a bit #lumsily.? " fuller quotation ma)es it #learer that this senten#e refers to @-year-olds: For some fi es, running still loo)s a bit li)e a hurried .al), but usually it be#omes more #oordinated .ithin a year or t.o. !imilarly .ith ,umping, thro.ing and #at#hing: the large ma,ority of #hildren #an do these things, though often a bit #lumsily, by the time they start s#hool, and most impro e their s)ills noti#eably during the early elementary years., If the abbre iated form .as used as the stem in a trueKfalse item it .ould ob iously be misleading. @. " oid tri ial questions e.g. Jean Piaget a< 7C89 b< 7811 #< 7CC1 d< 7810 4hile it important to )no. approximately .hen *iaget made his seminal #ontributions to the understanding of #hild de elopment, the exa#t year of his birth ;7CC1< is not important. as (orn in hat year/
!trengths and .ea)nesses

"ll types of sele#ted response items ha e a number of strengths and .ea)nesses. TrueY8alse items are appropriate for measuring fa#tual )no.ledge su#h as o#abulary, formulae, dates, proper names, and te#hni#al terms. &hey are ery effi#ient as they use a simple stru#ture that students #an easily understand, and ta)e little time to #omplete. &hey are also easier to #onstru#t than multiple #hoi#e and mat#hing items. 5o.e er, students ha e a @1 per #ent probability of getting the ans.er #orre#t through guessing so it #an be diffi#ult to interpret ho. mu#h students )no. from their test s#ores. Examples of #ommon problems that arise .hen de ising trueKfalse items are in &able 09. &able 09: Common errors in sele#ted response items @ype of item &rue False Common errors &he statement is not absolutely trueLtypi#ally be#ause it #ontains a broad generali/ation. &he item is opinion not fa#t . "#ample & F &he *resident of the 3nited !tates is ele#ted to that offi#e. &his is usually true but the 3! Gi#e *resident #an su##eed the *resident. & F Edu#ation for K-7E students is impro ed though poli#ies that support #harter s#hools. !ome people belie e this, some do not.
&.o ideas are in#luded in item
& F 'eorge 5 6ush the F1th president of the 3! .as defeated by 4illiam (efferson Clinton in 788E. The Cst idea is falseL the Dnd is true ma&ing it difficult for students to decide hether to circle T or 8.
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11. Teacher(made assessment strategies Irrele ant #ues & F &he *resident of the 3nited !tates is usually ele#ted to
that offi#e. &rue items #ontain the .ords su#h as usually generallyI .hereas false items #ontain the terms su#h as al.ays, all, ne er. $at#hing Columns do not #ontain homogeneous information %ire#tions: Bn the line to the 3! Ci il 4ar 6attle .rite the year or #onfederate general in Column 6. Column " Ft !umter End 6attle of 6ull +un Ft 5enry Column 6 'eneral !tone.all (a#)son 'eneral (ohnson 7C97 7C9E Column 6 is a mixture of generals and dates.
&oo many items in ea#h list +esponses are not in logi#al order
2ists should be relati ely short ;F U :< in ea#h #olumn. $ore than 71 are too #onfusing. In the example .ith !panish and English .ords should be in a logi#al order ;they are alphabeti#al<. If the order is not logi#al, student spend too mu#h time sear#hing for the #orre#t ans.er.
$ultiple Choi#e
*roblem ;i.e. the stem< is not #learly stated problem
Ae. -ealand a< Is the .orldsJ smallest #ontinent b< Is home to the )angaroo #< 4as settled mainly by #olonists from 'reat 6ritain d< Is a di#tatorship &his is really a series of true-false items. 6e#ause the #orre#t ans.er is #< a better ersion .ith the problem in the stem is $u#h of Ae. -ealand .as settled by #olonists from a< 'reat 6ritain b< !pain #< Fran#e d< 5olland
EFF
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense !ome of the alternati es are not plausible 4ho is best )no.n for their .or) on the de elopment of the morality of ,usti#e. 7. 'erald Ford
E. Gygots)y 0. $aslo. F. Kohlberg Bb iously 'erald Ford is not a plausible alternati e.
Irrele ant #ues
Corre#t alternati e is longer In#orre#t alternati es are not grammati#ally #orre#t .ith the stem
&oo many #orre#t alternati es are in position =b? or =#? ma)ing it easier for students to guess. "ll the options ;e.g. a, b, #, d< should be used in approximately equal frequently ;not exa#t as that also pro ides #lues<.
3se of ="ll of abo e?
If all of the =abo e is used? then the other items must be #orre#t. &his means that a student may read the 7st response, mar) it #orre#t and mo e on. "lternati ely, a student may read the 7st t.o items and seeing they are true does nor need to read the other alternati es to )no. to #ir#le =all of the abo e?. &he tea#her probably does not .ant either of these options.
In matching items, t.o parallel #olumns #ontaining terms, phrases, symbols, or numbers are presented and the student is as)ed to mat#h the items in the first #olumn .ith those in the se#ond #olumn. &ypi#ally there are more items in the se#ond #olumn to ma)e the tas) more diffi#ult and to ensure that if a student ma)es one error they do not ha e to ma)e another. $at#hing items most often are used to measure lo.er le el )no.ledge su#h as persons and their a#hie ements, dates and histori#al e ents, terms and definitions, symbols and #on#epts, plants or animals and #lassifi#ations ;2inn P $iller, E11@<. "n example .ith !panish language .ords and their English equi alents is belo.:
EF@
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11. Teacher(made assessment strategies !irections2 9n the line to the left of the S%anish Column - that has the same meaning. Column A ZZZ 7. Casa ZZZ E. 6ebT VVV <. 'ata VVV ?. *erro VVV @. 5ermano Column ". "unt 6. 6aby C. 6rother %. Cat E. %og F. Father '. 5ouse 4hile mat#hing items may seem easy to de ise it is hard to #reate homogenous lists. Bther problems .ith mat#hing items and suggested remedies are in &able 09. Aulti%le Choice items are the most #ommonly used type of ob,e#ti e test items be#ause they ha e a number of ad antages o er other ob,e#ti e test items. $ost importantly they #an be adapted to assess higher le els thin)ing su#h as appli#ation as .ell as lo.er le el fa#tual )no.ledge. &he first example belo. assesses )no.ledge of a spe#ifi# fa#t .hereas the se#ond example assesses appli#ation of )no.ledge. 4ho is best )no.n for their .or) on the de elopment of the morality of ,usti#e> a< Eri)son b< Gygots)y #< $aslo. d< Kohlberg 4hi#h one of the follo.ing best illustrates the la. of diminishing returns a< " fa#tory doubled its labor for#e and in#reased produ#tion by @1 per #ent b< &he demand for an ele#troni# produ#t in#reased faster than the supply of the produ#t #< &he population of a #ountry in#reased faster than agri#ultural self suffi#ien#y d< " ma#hine de#reased in effi#a#y as its parts be#ame .orn out ;"dapted from 2inn and $iller E11@, p, 780<. &here are se eral other ad antages of multiple #hoi#e items. !tudents ha e to re#ogni/e the #orre#t ans.er not ,ust )no. the in#orre#t ans.er as they do in trueKfalse items. "lso, the opportunity for guessing is redu#ed be#ause four or fi e alternati es are usually pro ided .hereas in trueKfalse items students only ha e to #hoose bet.een t.o #hoi#es. "lso, multiple #hoi#e items do not need homogeneous material as mat#hing items do. 5o.e er, #reating good multiple #hoi#e test items is diffi#ult and students ;maybe in#luding you< often be#ome frustrated .hen ta)ing a test .ith poor multiple #hoi#e items. &hree steps ha e to be #onsidered .hen #onstru#ting a multiple #hoi#e item: formulating a #learly stated problem, identifying plausible alternati es, and remo ing irrele ant #lues to the ans.er. Common problems in ea#h of these steps are summari/ed in &able 0: ord in Column A, rite the letter of the English ord in
Constructed response items

Formal assessment also in#ludes #onstru#ted response items in .hi#h students are as)ed to re#all information and #reate an ans.erLnot ,ust re#ogni/e if the ans.er is #orre#tLso guessing is redu#ed. Constru#ted response EF9
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense items #an be used to assess a .ide ariety of )inds of )no.ledge and t.o ma,or )inds are dis#ussed: com%letion or short ans er ;also #alled short response< and e5tended res%onse.
Completion and short ans.er

Completion and short ans.er items #an be ans.ered in a .ord, phrase, number, or symbol. &hese types of items are essentially the same only arying in .hether the problem is presented as a statement or a question ;2inn P $iller E11@<. For example: Completion: &he first traffi# light in the 3! .as in ented by^^^^^. !hort "ns.er: 4ho in ented the first traffi# light in the 3!> &hese items are often used in mathemati#s tests, e.g. 0 V 71 ] ^^^^..> If x ] 9, .hat does x;x-7< ]^^^. %ra. the line of symmetry on the follo.ing shape " ma,or ad antage of these items is they that they are easy to #onstru#t. 5o.e er, apart from their use in mathemati#s they are unsuitable for measuring #omplex learning out#omes and are often diffi#ult to s#ore. Completion and short ans.er tests are sometimes #alled ob,e#ti e tests as the intent is that there is only one #orre#t ans.er and so there is no ariability in s#oring but unless the question is phrased ery #arefully, there are frequently a ariety of #orre#t ans.ers. For example, #onsider the item 4here .as *resident 2in#oln born>.................... &he tea#her may expe#t the ans.er =in a log #abin? but other #orre#t ans.ers are also =on !in)ing !pring Farm?, =in 5ardin County? or =in Kentu#)y?. Common errors in these items are summari/ed in &able 0:. &able 0:: Common errors in #onstru#ted response items @ype of item Completion and short ans.er Common errors &here is more than one possible ans.er. &oo many blan)s are in too diffi#ult or doesnJt ma)e sense. Clues are gi en by length of blan)s in #ompletion items. e.g. &hree states are #ontiguous to Ae. 5ampshire: . ^.is to the 4est, ^îs to the East and ^^^..^. is to the !outh. "#ample e.g. 4here .as 3! *resident 2in#oln born> The ans er could (e in a log ca(in, in Kentuc&y etc. e.g. In ^.. theory, the first stage, ^.. . is .hen infants pro#ess
the #ompletion item so it is through their ^^. and ^.. ^^^
EF:
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11. Teacher(made assessment strategies Extended +esponse "mbiguous questions e.g. 4as the 3! Ci il 4ar a oidable> Students could inter%ret this )uestion in a ide variety of
ays, %erha%s even stating *yes, or *no,. 9ne student may discuss only %olitical causes another moral, %olitical and economic causes. There is no guidance in the )uestion for students. *oor reliability in grading &he tea#her does not use a s#oring rubri# and so is in#onsistent in ho. he s#ores ans.ers espe#ially unexpe#ted responses, irrele ant information, and grammati#al errors. *er#eption of student influen#es grading 6y spring semester the tea#her has de eloped expe#tations of ea#h studentJs performan#e and this influen#es the grading ;numbers #an be used instead of names<. &he test #onsists of three #onstru#ted responses and the tea#her grades the three ans.ers on ea#h studentsJ paper before mo ing to the next paper. &his means that the grading of questions E and 0 are influen#ed by the ans.ers to question 7 ;tea#hers should grade all the 7st question then the End et#<. Choi#es are gi en on the test and some ans.ers are easier than others. &esting experts re#ommend not gi ing #hoi#es in tests be#ause then students are not really ta)ing the same test #reating equity problems.
Extended response
Extended response items are used in many #ontent areas and ans.ers may ary in length from a paragraph to se eral pages. Questions that require longer responses are often #alled essay questions. Extended response items ha e se eral ad antages and the most important is their adaptability for measuring #omplex learning out#omes L parti#ularly integration and appli#ation. &hese items also require that students .rite and therefore pro ide tea#hers a .ay to assess .riting s)ills. " #ommonly #ited ad antage to these items is their ease in #onstru#tionI ho.e er, #arefully .orded items that are related to learning out#omes and assess #omplex learning are hard to de ise ;2inn P $iller, E11@<. 4ell-#onstru#ted items phrase the question so the tas) of the student is #lear. Bften this in ol es pro iding hints or planning notes. In the first example belo. the a#tual question is #lear not only be#ause of the .ording but be#ause of the format ;i.e. it is pla#ed in a box<. In the se#ond and third examples planning notes are pro ided: E5am%le C2 &hird grade mathemati#s: &he o.ner of a boo)store ga e 7F boo)s to the s#hool. &he prin#ipal .ill gi e an equal number of boo)s to ea#h of three #lassrooms and the remaining boo)s to the s#hool library. 5o. many boo)s #ould the prin#ipal gi e to ea#h student and the s#hool>
EFC
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense !ho. all your .or) on the spa#e belo. and on the next page. Explain in .ords ho. you found the ans.er. &ell .hy you too) the steps you did to sol e the problem. From Illinois !tandards "#hie ement &est, E119I ;http:KK....isbe.state.il.usKassessmentKisat.htm< E5am%le D: Fifth grade s#ien#e: &he grass is al.ays greener (ose and $aria noti#ed three different types of soil, bla#) soil, sand, and #lay, .ere found in their neighborhood. &hey de#ided to in estigate the question, =5o. does the type of soil ;bla#) soil, sand, and #lay< under grass sod affe#t the height of grass>? *lan an in estigation that #ould ans.er their ne. question. In your plan, be sure to in#lude:
*redi#tion of the out#ome of the in estigation $aterials needed to do the in estigation *ro#edure that in#ludes: logi#al steps to do the in estigation one ariable )ept the same ;#ontrolled< one ariable #hanged ;manipulated< any ariables being measure and re#orded ho. often measurements are ta)en and re#orded
;From 4ashington !tate E11F assessment of student learning < http:KK....)7E..a.usKassessmentK4"!2Kdefault.aspx< E5am%le <2 'rades 8-77 English: 4riting prompt !ome people thin) that s#hools should tea#h students ho. to #oo). Bther people thin) that #oo)ing is something that ought to be taught in the home. 4hat do you thin)> Explain .hy you thin) as you do. *lanning notes Choose Bne:
` `
I thin) s#hools should tea#h students ho. to #oo) I thin) #oo)ing should l be taught in the home ;s#hool< or ;the home<
I thin) #oo)ing should be taught in ^^^^^^^^^^^..be#ause^^^ ;From Illinois $easure of "nnual 'ro.th in English http:KK....isbe.state.il.usKassessmentKimage.htm< " ma,or disad antage of extended response items is the diffi#ulty in reliable s#oring. Aot only do arious tea#hers s#ore the same response differently but also the same tea#her may s#ore the identi#al response differently on arious o##asions ;2inn P $iller E11@<. " ariety of steps #an be ta)en to impro e the reliability and alidity of s#oring. First, tea#hers should begin by .riting an outline of a model ans.er. &his helps ma)e it #lear .hat students are expe#ted to in#lude. !e#ond, a sample of the ans.ers should be read. &his assists in determining .hat the students #an do and if there are any #ommon mis#on#eptions arising from the question. &hird, tea#hers ha e to de#ide .hat to do about irrele ant information that is in#luded ;e.g. is it ignored or are students penali/ed< and ho. to e aluate me#hani#al errors su#h as grammar and spelling. &hen, a %oint scoring or a scoring ru(ric should be used. Educational Psychology EF8 " 'lobal &ext
11. Teacher(made assessment strategies In point s#oring #omponents of the ans.er are assigned points. For example, if students .ere as)ed: 4hat are the nature, symptoms, and ris) fa#tors of hyperthermia> *oint !#oring 'uide: %efinition ;natures< !ymptoms ;7 pt for ea#h< 4riting E pts @ pts 0 pts
+is) Fa#tors ;7 point for ea#h< @ pts &his pro ides some guidan#e for e aluation and helps #onsisten#y but point s#oring systems often lead the tea#her to fo#us on fa#ts ;e.g. naming ris) fa#tors< rather than higher le el thin)ing that may undermine the alidity of the assessment if the tea#hersJ purposes in#lude higher le el thin)ing. " better approa#h is to use a s#oring rubri# that descri(es the quality of the ans.er or performan#e at ea#h le el.
!#oring rubri#s
!#oring rubri#s #an be holistic or analytical. In holisti# s#oring rubri#s, general des#riptions of performan#e are made and a single o erall s#ore is obtained. "n example from grade E language arts in 2os "ngeles 3nified !#hool %istri#t #lassifies responses into four le els: not profi#ient, partially profi#ient, profi#ient and ad an#ed is on &able 0C. &able 0C: Example of holisti# s#oring rubri#: English language arts grade E "ssignment. 4rite about an interesting, fun, or ex#iting story you ha e read in #lass this year. !ome of the things you #ould .rite about are: 4hat happened in the story ;the plot or e ents< 4here the e ents too) pla#e ;the setting< *eople, animals, or things in the story ; the #hara#ters<
In your .riting ma)e sure you use fa#ts and details from the story to des#ribe e erything #learly. "fter you .rite about the story, explain .hat ma)es the story interesting, fun or ex#iting. Scoring rubric "d an#ed &he response demonstrates .ell-de eloped reading #omprehension s)ills. $a,or story elements ;plot, setting, or #hara#ters< are #learly and a##urately des#ribed. !#ore F !tatements about the plot, setting, or #hara#ters are arranged in a manner that ma)es sense. Ideas or ,udgments ;.hy the story is interesting, fun, or ex#iting< are #learly supported or explained .ith fa#ts and details from the story. *rofi#ient &he response demonstrates solid reading #omprehension s)ills. $ost statements about the plot, setting, or #hara#ters are #learly des#ribed. !#ore 0 $ost statements about the plot, setting, or #hara#ters are arranged in a manner that
E@1
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense ma)es sense. Ideas or ,udgments are supported .ith fa#ts and details from the story. *artially *rofi#ient &he response demonstrates some reading #omprehension s)ills &here is an attempt to des#ribe the plot, setting, or #hara#ters !ome statements about the plot, setting, or #hara#ters are arranged in a manner that !#ore 7 ma)es sense. Ideas or ,udgments may be supported .ith some fa#ts and details from the story. Aot *rofi#ient &he response demonstrates little or no s)ill in reading #omprehension. &he plot, setting, or #hara#ters are not des#ribed, or the des#ription is un#lear. !#ore 7 !tatements about the plot, setting, or #hara#ters are not arranged in a manner that ma)es sense. Ideas or ,udgments are not stated, and fa#ts and details from the text are not used. Source: "dapted from English 2anguage "rts 'rade E 2os "ngeles 3nified !#hool %istri#t, E117 ;http:KK....#se.u#la.eduKresour#esK,ustfortea#hersZset.htm<
"nalyti#al rubri#s pro ide des#riptions of le els of student performan#e on a ariety of #hara#teristi#s. For example, six #hara#teristi#s used for assessing .riting de eloped by the Aorth.est +egional Edu#ation 2aboratory ;A4+E2< are:
ideas and #ontent organi/ation
oi#e
.ord #hoi#e senten#e fluen#y #on entions
%es#riptions of high, medium, and lo. responses for ea#h #hara#teristi# are a ailable from: http:KK....n.rel.orgKassessmentKtool)it8CKtraitsKindex.html<. 5olisti# rubri#s ha e the ad antages that they #an be de eloped more qui#)ly than analyti#al rubri#s. &hey are also faster to use as there is only one dimension to examine. 5o.e er, they do not pro ide students feedba#) about .hi#h aspe#ts of the response are strong and .hi#h aspe#ts need impro ement ;2inn P $iller, E11@<. &his means they are less useful for assessment for learning. "n important use of rubri#s is to use them as tea#hing tools and pro ide them to students (efore the assessment so they )no. .hat )no.ledge and s)ills are expe#ted. &ea#hers #an use s#oring rubri#s as part of instru#tion by gi ing students the rubri# during instru#tion, pro iding se eral responses, and analy/ing these responses in terms of the rubri#. For example, use of a##urate terminology is one dimension of the s#ien#e rubri# in &able 08. "n elementary s#ien#e tea#her #ould dis#uss .hy it is important for s#ientists to use a##urate terminology, gi e examples of ina##urate and a##urate terminology,
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11. Teacher(made assessment strategies pro ide that #omponent of the s#oring rubri# to students, distribute some examples of student responses ;maybe from former students<, and then dis#uss ho. these responses .ould be #lassified a##ording to the rubri#. &his strategy of assessment for learning should be more effe#ti e if the tea#her ;a< emphasi/es to students .hy using a##urate terminology is important .hen learning s#ien#e rather than ho. to get a good grade on the test ;.e pro ide more details about this in the se#tion on moti ation later in this #hapter<I ;b< pro ides an exemplary response so students #an see a modelI and ;#< emphasi/es that the goal is student impro ement on this s)ill not ran)ing students. &able 08: Example of a s#oring rubri#, !#ien#e aBn the 5igh !#hool "ssessment, the appli#ation of a #on#ept to a pra#ti#al problem or real-.orld situation .ill be s#ored .hen it is required in the response and requested in the item stem. 'evel of understanding Lse of accurate scientific terminology F &here is e iden#e in the response that the student has a full and #omplete understanding. &he use of a##urate s#ientifi# terminology enhan#es the response. Lse of supporting details *ertinent and #omplete supporting details demonstrate an integration of ideas. &he response refle#ts a #omplete synthesis of information. "n effe#ti e appli#ation of the #on#ept to a pra#ti#al problem or real-.orld situation re eals an insight into s#ientifi# prin#iples. 0 &here is e iden#e in the response that the student has a good understanding. &he use of a##urate s#ientifi# terminology strengthens the response. &he supporting details are generally #omplete. E &here is e iden#e in the response that the student has a basi# understanding. &he use of a##urate s#ientifi# terminology may be present in the response. &he supporting details are adequate. &he response pro ides little or no synthesis of information. &he response refle#ts some synthesis of information. &he #on#ept has been applied to a pra#ti#al problem or real.orld situation. &he appli#ation of the #on#ept to a pra#ti#al problem or real-.orld situation is inadequate. 7 &here is e iden#e in the response that the student has some understanding. &he use of a##urate not present in the response. &he &he response addresses the &he appli#ation, if attempted, is irrele ant. Synthesis of information 2pplication of informationM
s#ientifi# terminology is supporting minimally
details are only question.
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&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense effe#ti e. 1 &he student has K) LKD"+S@2KD&K, of the question or problem. &he response is #ompletely in#orre#t or irrele ant.
*erforman#e assessments
&ypi#ally in performan#e assessments students #omplete a spe#ifi# tas) .hile tea#hers obser e the pro#ess or pro#edure ;e.g. data #olle#tion in an experiment< as .ell as the produ#t ;e.g. #ompleted report< ;*opham, E11@I !tiggens, E11@<. &he tas)s that students #omplete in performan#e assessments are not simpleLin #ontrast to sele#ted response itemsLand in#lude the follo.ing:
playing a musi#al instrument athleti# s)ills artisti# #reation #on ersing in a foreign language engaging in a debate about politi#al issues #ondu#ting an experiment in s#ien#e repairing a ma#hine .riting a term paper using intera#tion s)ills to play together
&hese examples all in ol e #omplex s)ills but illustrate that the term performan#e assessment is used in a ariety of .ays. For example, the tea#her may not obser e all of the pro#ess ;e.g. she sees a draft paper but the final produ#t is .ritten during out-of-s#hool hours< and essay tests are typi#ally #lassified as performan#e assessments ;"irasian, E111<. In addition, in some performan#e assessments there may be no #lear produ#t ; e.g. the performan#e may be group intera#tion s)ills<. &.o related terms, alternative assessment and authentic assessment are sometimes used instead of performan#e assessment but they ha e different meanings ;2inn P $iller, E11@<. "lternati e assessment refers to tas)s that are not pen#il-and-paper and .hile many performan#e assessments are not pen#il-and paper tas)s some are ;e.g. .riting a term paper, essay tests<. "uthenti# assessment is used to des#ribe tas)s that students do that are similar to those in the =real .orld?. Classroom tas)s ary in le el of authenti#ity ;*opham, E11@<. For example, a (apanese language #lass taught in a high s#hool in Chi#ago #on ersing in (apanese in &o)yo is highly authenti#L but only possible in a study abroad program or trip to (apan. Con ersing in (apanese .ith nati e (apanese spea)ers in Chi#ago is also highly authenti#, and #on ersing .ith the tea#her in (apanese during #lass is moderately authenti#. $u#h less authenti# is a mat#hing test on English and (apanese .ords. In a language arts #lass, .riting a letter ;to an editor< or a memo to the prin#ipal is highly authenti# as letters and memos are #ommon .or) produ#ts. 5o.e er, .riting a fi e-paragraph paper is not as authenti# as su#h papers are not used in the .orld of .or). 5o.e er, a fi e paragraph paper is a #omplex tas) and .ould typi#ally be #lassified as a performan#e assessment.
"d antages and disad antages

&here are se eral ad antages of performan#e assessments ;2inn P $iller E11@<. First, the fo#us is on #omplex learning out#omes that often #annot be measured by other methods. !e#ond, performan#e assessments typi#ally
E@0
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11. Teacher(made assessment strategies assess pro#ess or pro#edure as .ell as the produ#t. For example, the tea#her #an obser e if the students are repairing the ma#hine using the appropriate tools and pro#edures as .ell as .hether the ma#hine fun#tions properly after the repairs. &hird, .ell designed performan#e assessments #ommuni#ate the instru#tional goals and meaningful learning #learly to students. For example, if the topi# in a fifth grade art #lass is one-point perspe#ti e the performan#e assessment #ould be dra.ing a #ity s#ene that illustrates one point perspe#ti e. ;http:KK....sanford-arted entures.#om<. &his assessment is meaningful and #learly #ommuni#ates the learning goal. &his performan#e assessment is a good instru#tional a#ti ity and has good #ontent alidityL#ommon .ith .ell designed performan#e assessments ;2inn P $iller E11@<. Bne ma,or disad antage .ith performan#e assessments is that they are typi#ally ery time #onsuming for students and tea#hers. &his means that fe.er assessments #an be gathered so if they are not #arefully de ised fe.er learning goals .ill be assessedL.hi#h #an redu#e #ontent alidity. !tate #urri#ulum guidelines #an be helpful in determining .hat should be in#luded in a performan#e assessment. For example, Eri#, a dan#e tea#her in a high s#hool in &ennessee learns that the state standards indi#ate that dan#e students at the highest le el should be able to do demonstrate #onsisten#y and #larity in performing te#hni#al s)ills by:
performing #omplex mo ement #ombinations to musi# in a ariety of meters and styles performing #ombinations and ariations in a broad dynami# range demonstrating impro ement in performing mo ement #ombinations through self-e aluation #ritiquing a li e or taped dan#e produ#tion based on gi en #riteria
;http:KK....tennessee.go Kedu#ationK#iKstandardsKmusi#Kdan#e87E.shtml< Eri# de ises the follo.ing performan#e tas) for his ele enth grade modern dan#e #lass . .n grou%s of ?4; students ill %erform a dance at least @ minutes in length. The dance selected should ill videota%e their rehearsals and document ho ill vie they (e multifaceted so that all the dancers can demonstrate technical s&ills, com%le5 movements, and a dynamic range 3.tems C4D). Students im%roved through self evaluation 3.tem <). Each grou% of one other grou% in class 3.tem ?). Eric assessment. The grou%s %ro(a(ly and criti)ue the final %erformance
ould need to scaffold most ste%s in this %erformance
ould need guidance in selecting a dance that allo ed all the
dancers to demonstrate the a%%ro%riate s&illsL criti)uing their o n %erformances constructivelyL or&ing effectively as a team, and a%%lying criteria to evaluate a dance. "nother disad antage of performan#e assessments is they are hard to assess reliably .hi#h #an lead to ina##ura#y and unfair e aluation. "s .ith any #onstru#ted response assessment, s#oring rubri#s are ery important. "n example of holisti# and analyti# s#oring rubri#s designed to assess a #ompleted %roduct are in &able 0C and &able 08. " rubri# designed to assess the %rocess of group intera#tions is in &able F1. &able F1: Example of group intera#tion rubri# Score @ime management 1 'roup did not stay on tas) and so tas) .as not #ompleted. articipation and performance in roles 'roup did not assign or share roles. !ingle indi idual did the tas). Shared involvement
E@F
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense 7 'roup .as off-tas) the ma,ority of the time 'roups assigned roles but members did not use 'roup totally disregarded #omments and ideas from some members.
but tas) .as #ompleted. these roles. E 'roup stayed on tas) most of the time. 'roups a##epted and used some but not all roles. 'roup a##epted some ideas but did not gi e others adequate #onsideration.
'roup stayed on tas) throughout the a#ti ity
'roup a##epted and used roles and a#ti ely
'roups ga e equal #onsideration to all ideas.
and managed time .ell. parti#ipated. F 'roup defined their o.n approa#h in a .ay that more effe#ti ely managed the a#ti ity. 'roup defined and used roles not mentioned to them. +ole #hanges too) pla#e that maximi/ed indi idualsJ expertise. Source: "dapted from 'roup Intera#tion ; 'I< !E&3* ; E110<. Issues, E iden#e and Nou. +on)on)omo, AN 2ab-"ids. ;http:KK#se.ed#.orgKprodu#tsKassessmentKmiddles#hoolKs#orerub.asp<< 'roups made spe#ifi# efforts to in ol e all group members in#luding the reti#ent members.
&his rubri# .as de ised for middle grade s#ien#e but #ould be used in other sub,e#t areas .hen assessing group pro#ess. In some performan#e assessments se eral s#oring rubri#s should be used. In the dan#e performan#e example abo e Eri# should ha e s#oring rubri#s for the performan#e s)ills, the impro ement based on self e aluation, the team .or), and the #ritique of the other group. Bb iously, de ising a good performan#e assessment is #omplex and 2inn and $iller ;E11@< re#ommend that tea#hers should:
Create performan#e assessments that require students to use #omplex #ogniti e s)ills. !ometimes tea#hers
de ise assessments that are interesting and that the students en,oy but do not require students to use higher le el #ogniti e s)ills that lead to signifi#ant learning. Fo#using on high le el s)ills and learning out#omes is parti#ularly important be#ause performan#e assessments are typi#ally so time #onsuming.
Ensure that the tas) is #lear to the students. *erforman#e assessments typi#ally require multiple steps so
students need to ha e the ne#essary prerequisite s)ills and )no.ledge as .ell as #lear dire#tions. Careful s#affolding is important for su##essful performan#e assessments.
!pe#ify expe#tations of the performan#e #learly by pro iding students s#oring rubri#s during the
instru#tion. &his not only helps students understand .hat it expe#ted but it also guarantees that tea#hers are #lear about .hat they expe#t. &hin)ing this through .hile planning the performan#e assessment #an be diffi#ult for tea#hers but is #ru#ial as it typi#ally leads to re isions of the a#tual assessment and dire#tions pro ided to students.
+edu#e the importan#e of unessential s)ills in #ompleting the tas). 4hat s)ills are essential depends on the
purpose of the tas). For example, for a s#ien#e report, is the use of publishing soft.are essential> If the purpose of the assessment is for students to demonstrate the pro#ess of the s#ientifi# method in#luding .riting a report, then the format of the report may not be signifi#ant. 5o.e er, if the purpose in#ludes Educational Psychology E@@ " 'lobal &ext
11. Teacher(made assessment strategies integrating t.o sub,e#t areas, s#ien#e and te#hnology, then the use of publishing soft.are is important. 6e#ause performan#e assessments ta)e time it is tempting to in#lude multiple s)ills .ithout #arefully #onsidering if all the s)ills are essential to the learning goals.
Portfolios
=" portfolio is a meaningful #olle#tion of student .or) that tells the story of student a#hie ement or gro.th? ;"rter, !pandel, P Culham, 788@, p. E<. *ortfolios are a %ur%oseful #olle#tion of student .or) not ,ust folders of all the .or) a student does. *ortfolios are used for a ariety of purposes and de eloping a portfolio system #an be #onfusing and stressful unless the tea#hers are #lear on their purpose. &he aried purposes #an be illustrated as four dimensions ;2inn P $iller E11@<:
"ssessment for 2earning Current "##omplishments 6est 4or) !ho.#ase Finished
"ssessment of learning *rogress %o#umentation 4or)ing
4hen the primary purpose is assessment for learning, the emphasis is on student self-refle#tion and responsibility for learning. !tudents not only sele#t samples of their .or) they .ish to in#lude, but also refle#t and interpret their o.n .or). *ortfolios #ontaining this information #an be used to aid #ommuni#ation as students #an present and explain their .or) to their tea#hers and parents ;!tiggins, E11@<. *ortfolios fo#using on assessment of learning #ontain studentsJ .or) samples that #ertify a##omplishments for a #lassroom grade, graduation, state requirements et#. &ypi#ally, students ha e less #hoi#e in the .or) #ontained in su#h portfolios as some #onsisten#y is needed for this type of assessment. For example, the .riting portfolios that fourth and se enth graders are required to submit in Kentu#)y must #ontain a self-refle#ti e statement and an example of three pie#es of .riting ;refle#ti e, personal experien#e or literary, and transa#ti e<. !tudents do #hoose .hi#h of their pie#es of .riting in ea#h type to in#lude in the portfolio. ;http:KK....)de.state.)y.usKK%EKInstru#tionalV+esour#esKCurri#ulumV%o#umentsVandV+esour#esK!tudent V*erforman#eV!tandardsK<. *ortfolios #an be designed to fo#us on student progress or #urrent a##omplishments. For example, audio tapes of English language learners spea)ing #ould be #olle#ted o er one year to demonstrate gro.th in learning. !tudent progress portfolios may also #ontain multiple ersions of a single pie#e of .or). For example, a .riting pro,e#t may #ontain notes on the original idea, outline, first draft, #omments on the first draft by peers or tea#her, se#ond draft, and the final finished produ#t ;2inn P $iller E11@<. If the fo#us is on #urrent a##omplishments, only re#ent #ompleted .or) samples are in#luded.
E@9
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense *ortfolios #an fo#us on do#umenting student a#ti ities or highlighting important a##omplishments. %o#umentation portfolios are in#lusi e #ontaining all the .or) samples rather than fo#using on one spe#ial strength, best .or), or progress. In #ontrast, sho.#ase portfolios fo#us on best .or). &he best .or) is typi#ally identified by students. Bne aim of su#h portfolios is that students learn ho. to identify produ#ts that demonstrate .hat they )no. and #an do. !tudents are not expe#ted to identify their best .or) in isolation but also use the feedba#) from their tea#hers and peers. " final distin#tion #an be made bet.een a finished portfolioLmaybe used to for a ,ob appli#ationL ersus a .or)ing portfolio that typi#ally in#ludes day-to-day .or) samples. 4or)ing portfolios e ol e o er time and are not intended to be used for assessment of learning. &he fo#us in a .or)ing portfolio is on de eloping ideas and s)ills so students should be allo.ed to ma)e mista)es, freely #omment on their o.n .or), and respond to tea#her feedba#) ;2inn P $iller, E11@<. Finished portfolios are designed for use .ith a parti#ular audien#e and the produ#ts sele#ted may be dra.n from a .or)ing portfolio. For example, in a tea#her edu#ation program, the .or)ing portfolio may #ontain .or) samples from all the #ourses ta)en. " student may de elop one finished portfolio to demonstrate she has mastered the required #ompeten#ies in the tea#her edu#ation program and a se#ond finished portfolio for her ,ob appli#ation.
"d antages and disad antages

*ortfolios used .ell in #lassrooms ha e se eral ad antages. &hey pro ide a .ay of do#umenting and e aluating gro.th in a mu#h more nuan#ed .ay than sele#ted response tests #an. "lso, portfolios #an be integrated easily into instru#tion, i.e. used for assessment for learning. *ortfolios also en#ourage student self-e aluation and refle#tion, as .ell as o.nership for learning ;*opham, E11@<. 3sing #lassroom assessment to promote student moti ation is an important #omponent of assessment for learning .hi#h is #onsidered in the next se#tion. 5o.e er, there are some ma,or disad antages of portfolio use. First, good portfolio assessment ta)es an enormous amount of tea#her time and organi/ation. &he time is needed to help students understand the purpose and stru#ture of the portfolio, de#ide .hi#h .or) samples to #olle#t, and to self refle#t. !ome of this time needs to be #ondu#ted in one-to-one #onferen#es. +e ie.ing and e aluating the portfolios out of #lass time is also enormously time #onsuming. &ea#hers ha e to .eigh if the time spent is .orth the benefits of the portfolio use. !e#ond, e aluating portfolios reliability and eliminating bias #an be e en more diffi#ult than in a #onstru#ted response assessment be#ause the produ#ts are more aried. &he experien#e of the state-.ide use of portfolios for assessment in .riting and mathemati#s for fourth and eighth graders in Germont is sobering. &ea#hers used the same analyti# s#oring rubri# .hen e aluating the portfolio. In the first t.o years of implementation samples from s#hools .ere #olle#ted and s#ored by an external panel of tea#hers. In the first year the agreement among raters ;i.e. inter-rater reliability< .as poor for mathemati#s and readingI in the se#ond year the agreement among raters impro ed for mathemati#s but not for reading. 5o.e er, e en .ith the impro ement in mathemati#s the reliability .as too lo. to use the portfolios for indi idual student a##ountability ;Koret/, !te#her, Klein P $#Caffrey, 788F<. 4hen reliability is lo., alidity is also #ompromised be#ause unstable results #annot be interpreted meaningfully. If tea#hers do use portfolios in their #lassroom, the series of steps needed for implementation are outlined in &able 0@. If the s#hool or distri#t has an existing portfolio system these steps may ha e to be modified. &able F7: !teps in implementing a #lassroom portfolio program 7. $a)e sure students o.n their Educational Psychology &al) to your students about your ideas of the portfolio, the different E@: " 'lobal &ext
11. Teacher(made assessment strategies portfolios. purposes, and the ariety of .or) samples. If possible, ha e them help ma)e de#isions about the )ind of portfolio you implement. E. %e#ide on the purpose. 4ill the fo#us be on gro.th or #urrent a##omplishments> 6est .or) sho.#ase or do#umentation> 'ood portfolios #an ha e multiple purposes but the tea#her and students need to be #lear about the purpose. 0. %e#ide .hat .or) samples to #olle#t, F. Colle#t and store .or) samples, For example, in .riting, is e ery .riting assignment in#luded> "re early drafts as .ell as final produ#ts in#luded> %e#ide .here the .or) sample .ill be stored. For example, .ill ea#h student ha e a file folder in a file #abinet, or a small plasti# tub on a shelf in the #lassroom> @. !ele#t #riteria to e aluate samples, If possible, .or) .ith students to de elop s#oring rubri#s. &his may ta)e #onsiderable time as different rubri#s may be needed for the ariety of .or) samples. If you are using existing s#oring rubri#s, dis#uss .ith students possible modifi#ations after the rubri#s ha e been used at least on#e. 9. &ea#h and require students #ondu#t self e aluations of their o.n .or), 5elp students learn to e aluate their o.n .or) using agreed upon #riteria. For younger students, the self e aluations may be simple ;strengths, .ea)nesses, and .ays to impro e<I for older students a more analyti# approa#h is desirable in#luding using the same s#oring rubri#s that the tea#hers .ill use. :. !#hedule and #ondu#t portfolio #onferen#es , &ea#her-student #onferen#es are time #onsuming but #onferen#es are essential for the portfolio pro#ess to signifi#antly enhan#e learning. &hese #onferen#es should aid studentsJ self e aluation and should ta)e pla#e frequently. C. In ol e parents. *arents need to understand the portfolio pro#ess. En#ourage parents to re ie. the .or) samples. Nou may .ish to s#hedule parent, tea#her-students #onferen#es in .hi#h students tal) about their .or) samples. Source: "dapted from *opham ;E11@<
ssessment that enhances motivation and student confidence

!tudies on testing and learning #ondu#ted more than E1 years ago demonstrated that tests promote learning and that more frequent tests are more effe#ti e than less frequent tests ;%empster P *er)ins, 7880<. Frequent smaller tests en#ourage #ontinuous effort rather than last minute #ramming and may also redu#e test anxiety be#ause the #onsequen#es of errors are redu#ed. College students report preferring more frequent testing than infrequent testing ;6angert-%o.ns, Kuli), Kuli), 7887<. $ore re#ent resear#h indi#ates that tea#hersJ assessment %ur%ose and (eliefs, the ty%e of assessment sele#ted, and the feed(ac& gi en #ontributes to the assessment #limate
E@C
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense in the #lassroom .hi#h influen#es studentsJ #onfiden#e and moti ation. &he use of self-assessment is also important in establishing a positi e assessment #limate.
Teachers% purposes and beliefs

!tudent moti ation #an be enhan#ed .hen the purpose of assessment is promoting student learning and this is #learly #ommuni#ated to students by .hat tea#hers say and do ;5arlen, E119<. &his approa#h to assessment is asso#iated .ith .hat the psy#hologist, Carol %.e#), ;E111< #alls an in#remental ie. of ability or intelligen#e. "n in#remental ie. assumes that ability in#reases .hene er an indi idual learns more. &his means that effort is alued be#ause effort leads to )no.ing more and therefore ha ing more ability. Indi iduals .ith an in#remental ie. also as) for help .hen needed and respond .ell to #onstru#ti e feedba#) as the primary goal is in#reased learning and mastery. In #ontrast, a fixed ie. of ability assumes that some people ha e more ability than others and nothing mu#h #an be done to #hange that. Indi iduals .ith a fixed ie. of ability often ie. effort in opposition to ability ;=!mart people donJt ha e to study?< and so do not try as hard, and are less li)ely to as) for help as that indi#ates that they are not smart. 4hile there are indi idual differen#es in studentsJ beliefs about their ie.s of intelligen#e, tea#hersJ beliefs and #lassroom pra#ti#es influen#e studentsJ per#eptions and beha iors. &ea#hers .ith an in#remental ie. of intelligen#e #ommuni#ate to students that the goal of learning is mastering the material and figuring things out. "ssessment is used by these tea#hers to understand .hat students )no. so they #an de#ide .hether to mo e to the next topi#, re-tea#h the entire #lass, or pro ide remediation for a fe. students. "ssessment also helps studentsJ understand their o.n learning and demonstrate their #ompeten#e. &ea#hers .ith these ie.s say things li)e, =4e are going to pra#ti#e o er and o er again. &hatJs ho. you get good. "nd youJre going to ma)e mista)es. &hatJs ho. you learn.? ;*atri#), "nderman, +yan, Edelin, $idgley, E117, p. F@<. In #ontrast, tea#hers .ith a fixed ie. of ability are more li)ely to belie e that the goal of learning is doing .ell on tests espe#ially outperforming others. &hese tea#hers are more li)ely to say things that imply fixed abilities e.g. =&his test .ill determine .hat your math abilities are?, or stress the importan#e of interpersonal #ompetition, =4e .ill ha e spee#h #ompetition and the top person .ill #ompete against all the other distri#t s#hools and last year the .inner got a big a.ard and their photo in the paper.? 4hen tea#hers stress interpersonal #ompetition some students may be moti ated but there #an only a fe. .inners so there are many more students .ho )no. they ha e no #han#e of .inning. "nother problem .ith interpersonal #ompetition in assessment is that the fo#us #an be#ome .inning rather than understanding the material. &ea#hers .ho #ommuni#ate to their students that ability is in#remental and that the goal of assessment is promoting learning rather that ran)ing students, or a.arding pri/es to those .ho did ery .ell, or #at#hing those .ho did not pay attention, are li)ely to enhan#e studentsJ moti ation.
Choosing assessments
&he #hoi#e of assessment tas) also influen#es studentsJ moti ation and #onfiden#e. First, assessments that ha e #lear #riteria that students understand and #an meet rather than assessments that pit students against ea#h other in interpersonal #ompetition enhan#es moti ation ;6la#), 5arrison, 2ee, $arshall, 4iliam, E11F<. &his is #onsistent .ith the point .e made in the pre ious se#tion about the importan#e of fo#using on enhan#ing learning for all students rather than ran)ing students. !e#ond, meaningful assessment tas)s enhan#e student moti ation. !tudents often .ant to )no. .hy they ha e to do something and tea#hers need to pro ide meaningful ans.ers. For example, Educational Psychology E@8 " 'lobal &ext
11. Teacher(made assessment strategies a tea#her might say, =Nou need to be able to #al#ulate the area of a re#tangle be#ause if you .ant ne. #arpet you need to )no. ho. mu#h #arpet is needed and ho. mu#h it .ould #ost.? 4ell designed performan#e tas)s are often more meaningful to students than sele#ted response tests so students .ill .or) harder to prepare for them. &hird, pro iding #hoi#es of assessment tas)s #an enhan#e student sense of autonomy and moti ation a##ording to self determination theory ;see Chapter 9<. Kym, the sixth grade tea#her .hose story began this #hapter, reports that gi ing students #hoi#es .as ery helpful. "nother middle s#hool so#ial studies tea#her "aron, gi es his students a #hoi#e of performan#e tas)s at the end of the unit on the 3! 6ill of +ights. !tudents ha e to demonstrate spe#ified )ey ideas but #an do that by ma)ing up a board game, presenting a brief play, #omposing a rap song et#. "aron reports that students .or) mu#h harder on this performan#e assessment .hi#h allo.s them to use their strengths than pre iously .hen he did not pro ide any #hoi#es and ga e a more traditional assignment. $easurement experts #aution that a danger of gi ing #hoi#es is that the assessment tas)s are no longer equi alent and so the reliability of s#oring is redu#ed so it is parti#ularly important to use .ell designed s#oring rubri#s. Fourth, assessment tas)s should be #hallenging but a#hie able .ith reasonable effort ;Elliott, $#'regor P &hrash, E11F<. &his is often hard for beginning tea#hers to do, .ho may gi e assessment tas)s that are too easy or too hard, be#ause they ha e to learn to mat#h their assessment to the s)ills of their students.
Providing feedbac1
4hen the goal is assessment for learning, pro iding #onstru#ti e feedba#) that helps students )no. .hat they do and do not understand as .ell as en#ouraging them to learn from their errors is fundamental. Effe#ti e feedba#) should be gi en as soon as possible as the longer the delay bet.een studentsJ .or) and feedba#) the longer students .ill #ontinue to ha e some mis#on#eptions. "lso, delays redu#e the relationship bet.een studentsJ performan#e and the feedba#) as students #an forget .hat they .ere thin)ing during the assessment. Effe#ti e feedba#) should also inform students #learly .hat they did .ell and .hat needs modifi#ation. 'eneral #omments ,ust as =good .or), "?, or =needs impro ement? do not help students understand ho. to impro e their learning. 'i ing feedba#) to students using .ell designed s#oring rubri#s helps #learly #ommuni#ate strengths and .ea)nesses. Bb iously grades are often needed but tea#hers #an minimi/e the fo#us by pla#ing the grade after the #omments or on the last page of a paper. It #an also be helpful to allo. students to )eep their grades pri ate ma)ing sure .hen returning assignments that the grade is not prominent ;e.g. not using red in) on the top page< and ne er as)ing students to read their s#ores aloud in #lass. !ome students #hoose to share their gradesLbut that should be their de#ision not their tea#hers. 4hen grading, tea#hers often be#ome angry at the mista)es that student ma)e. It is easy for tea#hers to thin) something li)e: =4ith all the effort I put into tea#hing, this student #ould not e en be bothered to follo. the dire#tions or spell #he#)M? $any experien#ed tea#hers belie e that #ommuni#ating their anger is not helpful, so rather than saying: =5o. dare you turn in su#h shoddy .or)?, they rephrase it as, =I am disappointed that your .or) on this assignment does not meet the standards set? ;!utton, E110<. +esear#h e iden#e also suggests that #omments su#h as =Nou are so smart? for a high quality performan#e #an be #ounterprodu#ti e. &his is surprising to many tea#hers but if students are told they are smart .hen they produ#e a good produ#t, then if they do poorly on the next assignment the #on#lusion must be they are =not smart? ;%.e#), E111<. $ore effe#ti e feedba#) fo#uses on positi e aspe#ts of the tas) ;not the person<, as .ell as strategies, and effort. &he fo#us of the feedba#) should relate to the #riteria set by the tea#her and ho. impro ements #an be made.
E91
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense 4hen the tea#her and student are from different ra#ialKethni# ba#)grounds pro iding feedba#) that enhan#es moti ation and #onfiden#e but also in#ludes #riti#ism #an be parti#ularly #hallenging be#ause the students of #olor ha e histori#al reasons to distrust negati e #omments from a .hite tea#her. +esear#h by Cohen !teele, +oss ;7888< indi#ates that =.ise? feedba#) from tea#hers needs three #omponents: positi e #omments, #riti#isms, and an assuran#e that the tea#her belie es the student #an rea#h higher standards. 4e des#ribe this resear#h is more detail in =%e#iding for yourself about the resear#h? found in "ppendix OE.
Self and peer assessment

In order to rea#h a learning goal, students need to understand the meaning of the goal, the steps ne#essary to a#hie e a goal, and if they are ma)ing satisfa#tory progress to.ards that goal ;!adler, 78C8<. &his in ol es self assessment and re#ent resear#h has demonstrated that .ell designed self assessment #an enhan#e student learning and moti ation ;6la#) P 4iliam, E119<. For self assessment to be effe#ti e, students need expli#it #riteria su#h as those in an analyti#al s#oring rubri#. &hese #riteria are either pro ided by the tea#her or de eloped by the tea#her in #ollaboration .ith students. 6e#ause students seem to find it easier to understand #riteria for assessment tas)s if they #an examine other studentsJ .or) along side their o.n, self assessment often in ol es peer assessment. "n example of a strategy used by tea#hers in ol es as)ing students to use =traffi# lights? to indi#ate of their #onfiden#e in their assignment or home.or). +ed indi#ates that they .ere unsure of their su##ess, orange that they .ere partially unsure, and green that they .ere #onfident of their su##ess. &he students .ho labeled their o.n .or) as orange and green .or)ed in mixed groups to e aluate their o.n .or) .hile the tea#her .or)ed .ith the students .ho had #hosen red ;6la#) P 4iliam, E119<. If self and peer assessment is used, it is parti#ularly important that the tea#hers establish a #lassroom #ulture for assessment that is based on in#remental ie.s of ability and learning goals. If the #lassroom atmosphere fo#uses on interpersonal #ompetition, students ha e in#enti es in self and peer assessment to inflate their o.n e aluations ;and perhaps those of their friends< be#ause there are limited re.ards for good .or).
djusting instruction based on assessment

3sing assessment information to ad,ust instru#tion is fundamental to the #on#ept of assessment for learning. &ea#hers ma)e these ad,ustments =in the moment? during #lassroom instru#tion as .ell as during refle#tion and planning periods. &ea#hers use the information they gain from questioning and obser ation to ad,ust their tea#hing during #lassroom instru#tion. If students #annot ans.er a question, the tea#her may need to rephrase the question, probe understanding of prior )no.ledge, or #hange the .ay the #urrent idea is being #onsidered. It is important for tea#hers to learn to identify .hen only one or t.o students need indi idual help be#ause they are struggling .ith the #on#ept, and .hen a large proportion of the #lass is struggling so .hole group inter ention is needed. "fter the #lass is o er, effe#ti e tea#hers spend time analy/ing ho. .ell the lessons .ent, .hat students did and did not seem to understand, and .hat needs to be done the next day. E aluation of student .or) also pro ides important information for tea#hers. If many students are #onfused about a similar #on#ept the tea#her needs to retea#h it and #onsider ne. .ays of helping students understand the topi#. If the ma,ority of students #omplete the tas)s ery qui#)ly and .ell, the tea#her might de#ide that the assessment .as not #hallenging enough. !ometimes tea#hers be#ome dissatisfied .ith the )inds of assessments they ha e assigned .hen they are gradingLperhaps be#ause they reali/e there .as too mu#h emphasis on lo.er le el learning, that the dire#tions .ere not #lear enough, or the s#oring rubri# needed modifi#ation. &ea#hers .ho belie e that assessment data pro ides Educational Psychology E97 " 'lobal &ext
11. Teacher(made assessment strategies information about their o.n tea#hing and that they #an find .ays to influen#e student learning ha e high tea#her effi#a#y or beliefs that they #an ma)e a differen#e in studentsJ li es. In #ontrast, tea#hers .ho thin) that student performan#e is mostly due to fixed student #hara#teristi#s or the homes they #ome from ; e.g. =no .onder she did so poorly #onsidering .hat her home life is li)e?< ha e lo. tea#her effi#a#y ;&s#hannen-$oran, 4oolfol) 5oy, P 5oy, 788C<.
Communication #ith parents and guardians

Clear #ommuni#ation .ith parents about #lassroom assessment is importantLbut often diffi#ult for beginning tea#hers. &he same s)ills that are needed to #ommuni#ate effe#ti ely .ith students are also needed .hen #ommuni#ating .ith parents and guardians. &ea#hers need to be able to explain to parents the purpose of the assessment, .hy they sele#ted this assessment te#hnique, and .hat the #riteria for su##ess are. !ome tea#hers send home ne.sletters monthly or at the beginning of a ma,or assessment tas) explaining the purpose and nature of the tas), any additional support that is needed ;e.g. materials, library isits<, and due dates. !ome parents .ill not be familiar .ith performan#e assessments or the use of self and peer assessment so tea#hers need to ta)e time to explain these approa#hes #arefully. $any s#hool distri#ts no. #ommuni#ate though .ebsites that ha e mixtures of publi# information a ailable to all parents in the #lass ;e.g. #urri#ulum and assessment details< as .ell information restri#ted to the parents or guardians of spe#ifi# students ;e.g. the attendan#e and grades<. &ea#hers report this is helpful as parents ha e a##ess to their #hildJs performan#e immediately and .hen ne#essary, #an tal) to their #hild and tea#her qui#)ly. &he re#ommendations .e pro ided abo e on the type of feedba#) that should be gi en to students also apply .hen tal)ing to parents. &hat is, the fo#us should be on studentsJ performan#e on the tas), .hat .as done .ell and .hat needs .or), rather than general #omments about ho. =smart? or =.ea)? the #hild is. If possible, #omments should fo#us on strategies that the #hild uses .ell or needs to impro e ;e.g. reading test questions #arefully, organi/ation in a large pro,e#t<. 4hen the tea#her is .hite and the student or parents are minority, trust #an be an issue so using =.ise? feedba#) .hen tal)ing to parents may help.
ction research) studying yourself and your students

"ssessment for learning emphasi/es de ising and #ondu#ting assessment data in order to impro e tea#hing and learning and so is related to action research ;also #alled teacher research<. In Chapter 7, .e des#ribed a#tion resear#h as studies #ondu#ted by tea#hers of their o.n students or their o.n .or). "#tion resear#h #an lead to de#isions that impro e a tea#herJs o.n tea#hing or the tea#hing of #olleagues. Kym, the tea#her .e des#ribed at the beginning of this #hapter, #ondu#ted a#tion resear#h in her o.n #lassroom as she identified a problem of poor student moti ation and a#hie ement, in estigated solutions during the #ourse on moti ation, tried ne. approa#hes, and obser ed the resulting a#tions.
Cy#les of planning, a#ting and refle#ting

"#tion resear#h is usually des#ribed as a #y#li#al pro#ess .ith the follo.ing stages ;$ertler, E119<. ;" more #omplete des#ription of a#tion resear#h is found in "ppendix C, =&he +efle#ti e *ra#titioner.?<
Planning Stage. *lanning has three #omponents. First, planning in ol es identifying and defining a
problem. *roblems sometimes start .ith some ill defined unease or feeling that something is .rong and it #an ta)e time to identify the problem #learly so that it be#omes a resear#hable question. &he next step, is re ie.ing the related literature and this may o##ur .ithin a #lass or .or)shop that the tea#hers are E9E
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense attending. &ea#hers may also explore the literature on their o.n or in tea#her study groups. &he third step is de eloping a resear#h plan. &he resear#h plan in#ludes .hat )ind of data .ill be #olle#ted ;e.g. student test s#ores, obser ation of one or more students, as .ell as ho. and .hen it .ill be #olle#ted ;e.g. from files, in #ollaboration .ith #olleagues, in spring or fall semester<.
Acting sage. %uring this stage the tea#her is #olle#ting and analy/ing data. &he data #olle#ted and the
analyses do not need to be #omplex be#ause a#tion resear#h, to be effe#ti e, has to be manageable.
!evelo%ing an action %lan. In this stage the tea#her de elops a plan to ma)e #hanges and implements these
#hanges. &his is the a#tion #omponent of a#tion resear#h and it is important that tea#hers do#ument their a#tions #arefully so that they #an #ommuni#ate them to others.
Communicating and reflection. "n important #omponent of all resear#h is #ommuni#ating information.
+esults #an be shared .ith #olleagues in the s#hool or distri#t, in an a#tion resear#h #lass at the lo#al #ollege, at #onferen#es, or in ,ournals for tea#hers. "#tion resear#h #an also in ol e students as a#ti e parti#ipants and if this is the #ase, #ommuni#ation may in#lude students and parents. Communi#ating .ith others helps refine ideas and so typi#ally aids in refle#tion. %uring refle#tion tea#hersKresear#hers as) su#h questions as: =4hat did I learn>? =4hat should I ha e done differently>? =4hat should I do next>? Questions su#h as these often lead to a ne. #y#le of a#tion resear#h beginning .ith planning and then mo ing to the other steps.
Ethi#al issuesLpri a#y, oluntary #onsent

&ea#hers are a##ustomed to #olle#ting studentsJ test s#ores, data about performan#es, and des#riptions of beha iors as an essential #omponent of tea#hing. 5o.e er, if tea#hers are #ondu#ting a#tion resear#h and they plan to #olle#t data that .ill be shared outside the s#hool #ommunity then permission from parents ;or guardians< and students must be obtained in order to prote#t the pri a#y of students and their families. &ypi#ally permission is obtained by an informed #onsent form that summari/es the resear#h, des#ribes the data that .ill be #olle#ted, indi#ates that parti#ipation is oluntary, and pro ides a guarantee of #onfidentiality or anonymity ;5ubbard P *o.er, E11@<. $any large s#hool distri#ts ha e pro#edures for establishing informed #onsent as .ell as person in the #entral offi#e .ho is responsible for the distri#t guidelines and spe#ifi# appli#ation pro#ess. If the a#tion resear#h is supported in some .ay by a #ollege of uni ersity ;e.g. through a #lass< then informed #onsent pro#edures of that institution must be follo.ed. Bne #ommon area of #onfusion for tea#hers is the oluntary nature of student parti#ipation in resear#h. If the data being #olle#ted are for a resear#h study, students #an #hoose not to parti#ipate. &his is #ontrary to mu#h regular #lassroom instru#tion .here tea#hers tell students they ha e to do the .or) or #omplete the tas)s.
2rading and reporting

"ssigning students grades is an important #omponent of tea#hing and many s#hool distri#ts issue progress reports, interim reports, or mid term grades as .ell as final semester grades. &raditionally these reports .ere printed on paper and sent home .ith students or mailed to studentsJ homes. In#reasingly, s#hool distri#ts are using .eb-based grade management systems that allo. parents to a##ess their #hildJs grades on ea#h indi idual assessment as .ell as the progress reports and final grades. 'rading #an be frustrating for tea#hers as there are many fa#tors to #onsider. In addition, report #ards typi#ally summari/e in brief format a ariety of assessments and so #annot pro ide mu#h information about studentsJ Educational Psychology E90 " 'lobal &ext
11. Teacher(made assessment strategies strengths and .ea)nesses. &his means that report #ards fo#us more on assessment of learning than assessment for learning. &here are a number of de#isions that ha e to be made .hen assigning studentsJ grades and s#hools often ha e detailed poli#ies that tea#hers ha e to follo.. In the next se#tion, .e #onsider the ma,or questions asso#iated .ith grading.
5o. are arious assignments and assessments .eighted>

!tudents typi#ally #omplete a ariety of assignments during a grading period su#h as home.or), qui//es, performan#e assessments, et#. &ea#hers ha e to de#ideLpreferably before the grading period beginsLho. ea#h assignment .ill be .eighted. For example, a sixth grade math tea#her may de#ide to .eight the grades in the follo.ing manner: 4ee)ly qui//es 5ome.or) *erforman#e "ssessment Class parti#ipation 0@ per #ent 7@ per #ent 01 per #ent E1 per #ent
%e#iding ho. to .eight assignments should be done #arefully as it #ommuni#ates to students and parents .hat tea#hers belie e is important, and also may be used to de#ide ho. mu#h effort students .ill exert ;e.g. =If home.or) is only .orth @ per #ent, it is not .orth #ompleting t.i#e a .ee)?<. Should social s&ills or effort (e included/ Elementary s#hool tea#hers are more li)ely than middle or high s#hool tea#hers to in#lude some so#ial s)ills into report #ards ;*opham, E11@<. &hese may be in#luded as separate #riteria in the report #ard or .eighted into the grade for that sub,e#t. For example, the grade for mathemati#s may in#lude an assessment of group #ooperation or self regulation during mathemati#s lessons. !ome s#hools and tea#hers endorse in#luding so#ial s)ills arguing that de eloping su#h s)ills is important for young students and that students need to learn to .or) .ith others and manage their o.n beha iors in order to be su##essful. Bthers belie e that grades in sub,e#t areas should be based on the #ogniti e performan#esLand that if assessments of so#ial s)ills are made they should be #learly separated from the sub,e#t grade on the report #ard. Bb iously, #lear #riteria su#h as those #ontained in analyti#al s#oring rubri#s should be used if so#ial s)ills are graded. &ea#hers often find it diffi#ult to de#ide .hether effort and impro ement should be in#luded as a #omponent of grades. Bne approa#h is for tea#hers to as) students to submit drafts of an assignment and ma)e impro ements based on the feedba#) they re#ei ed. &he grade for the assignment may in#lude some #ombination of the s#ore for the drafts, the final ersion, and the amount of impro ement the students made based on the feedba#) pro ided. " more #ontro ersial approa#h is basing grades on effort .hen students try really hard day after day but still #annot #omplete their assignments .ell. &hese students #ould ha e identified spe#ial needs or be re#ent immigrants that ha e limited English s)ills. !ome s#hool distri#ts ha e guidelines for handling su#h #ases. Bne disad antage of using impro ement as a #omponent of grades is that the most #ompetent students in #lass may do ery .ell initially and ha e little room for impro ementLunless tea#hers are s)illed at pro iding additional assignments that .ill help #hallenge these students. &ea#hers often use =hodgepodge grading?, i.e. a #ombination of a#hie ement, effort, gro.th, attitude or #lass #ondu#t, home.or), and #lass parti#ipation. " sur ey of o er C,@11 middle and high s#hool students in the 3! state of Girginia supported the hodgepodge pra#ti#es #ommonly used by their tea#hers ;Cross P Frary, 7888<.
E9F
5o. should grades be #al#ulated>

&.o options are #ommonly used: absolute grading and relati e grading. In a(solute grading grades are assigned based on #riteria the tea#her has de ised. If an English tea#her has established a le el of profi#ien#y needed to obtain an " and no student meets that le el then no "Ds .ill be gi en. "lternati ely if e ery student meets the established le el then all the students .ill get "Ds ;*opham, E11@<. "bsolute grading systems may use letter grades or passKfail. In relative grading the tea#her ran)s the performan#es of students from .orst to best ;or best to .orst< and those at the top get high grades, those in the middle moderate grades, and those at the bottom lo. grades. &his is often des#ribed as =grading on the #ur e? and #an be useful to #ompensate for an examination or assignment that students find mu#h easier or harder than the tea#her expe#ted. 5o.e er, relati e grading #an be unfair to students be#ause the #omparisons are typi#ally .ithin one #lass, so an " in one #lass may not represent the le el of performan#e of an " in another #lass. +elati e grading systems may dis#ourage students from helping ea#h other impro e as students are in #ompetition for limited re.ards. In fa#t, 6ishop ;7888< argues that grading on the #ur e gi es students a personal interest in persuading ea#h other not to study as a serious student ma)es it more diffi#ult for others to get good grades.
4hat )inds of grade des#riptions should be used>

&raditionally a letter grade system is used ;e.g. ", 6, C, %, F < for ea#h sub,e#t. &he ad antages of these grade des#riptions are they are #on enient, simple, and #an be a eraged easily. 5o.e er, they do not indi#ate .hat ob,e#ti es the student has or has not met nor studentsJ spe#ifi# strengths and .ea)nesses ;2inn P $iller E11@<. Elementary s#hools often use a %ass4fail ;or satisfa#tory-unsatisfa#tory< system and some high s#hools and #olleges do as .ell. *ass-fail systems in high s#hool and #ollege allo. students to explore ne. areas and ta)e ris)s on sub,e#ts that they may ha e limited preparation for, or is not part of their ma,or ;2inn P $iller E11@<. 4hile a passfail system is easy to use, it offers e en less information about studentsJ le el of learning. " pass-fail system is also used in #lasses that are taught under a mastery-learning approa#h in .hi#h students are expe#ted to demonstrate mastery on all the ob,e#ti es in order to re#ei e #ourse #redit. 3nder these #onditions, it is #lear that a pass means that the student has demonstrated mastery of all the ob,e#ti es. !ome s#hools ha e implemented a chec&list of the o('ectives in sub,e#t areas to repla#e the traditional letter grade system, and students are rated on ea#h ob,e#ti e using des#riptors su#h as *rofi#ient, *artially *rofi#ient, and Aeeds Impro ement. For example, the #he#)list for students in a fourth grade #lass in California may in#lude the four types of .riting that are required by the English language state #ontent standards ;http:KK....#de.#a.go KbeKstKssKenggradeF.asp<
.riting narrati es .riting responses to literature .riting information reports .riting summaries
&he ad antages of this approa#h are that it #ommuni#ates studentsJ strengths and .ea)nesses #learly, and it reminds the students and parents the ob,e#ti es of the s#hool. 5o.e er, if too many ob,e#ti es are in#luded then the lists #an be#ome so long that they are diffi#ult to understand.
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11. Teacher(made assessment strategies
Chapter summary
Classroom assessment is the pro#ess of gaining information about studentsD learning, and ,udging the quality of their learning. It #an be used either to enhan#e studentsD learning ;assessment for learning< or to erify the extent of studentsD learning ;assessment of learning<. Essential steps of assessment for learning in#lude 7< #ommuni#ating instru#tional goals #learlyI E< sele#ting appropriate, high quality assessments that mat#h the instru#tional goals and studentsJ ba#)groundsI 0< using assessments that enhan#e student moti ation and #onfiden#eI F< ad,usting instru#tion based on results of assessmentI and @< #ommuni#ating assessment results to students, parents, and guardians. %ifferent types of test questions and assessment pra#ti#es affe#t the su##ess of ea#h of these steps. "#tion resear#h #an help tea#hers understand and impro e their tea#hing. " number of questions are important to #onsider .hen de ising grading systems.
Further resour#es
Rhttp:KKtea#hingedpsy#h..i)ispa#es.#omK"ssessmentVofVK-7EVlearningS &he teachinged%sych .i)i has a number of pages and lin)s related to the assessment of learning. !ome o erlap .ith ideas from this #hapter, but others issues or topi#s .hi#h .e .ere unable to in#lude. !ee, for example, the lin)s to a dis#ussion of grade inflation, and the page about an "fri#an-"meri#an =intelligen#e? test.
Key terms
"bsen#e of bias "#tion +esear#h "lternati e assessment "ssessment "ssessment for learning "ssessment of learning "uthenti# assessment Constru#ted response items E aluation Formati e assessment Formal assessment measurement Informal assessment *erforman#e assessment *ortfolios +eliability !ele#ted response items !ummati e assessment &ea#her resear#h Galidity
+eferen#es
"irasian, *. 4. ;E111<. Classroom Assessment2 A concise a%%roach Dnd ed. 6oston: $#'ra. 5ill. "irasian, *. 4. ;E11F<. Classroom Assessment2 Conce%ts and A%%lications <rd ed. 6oston: $#'ra. 5ill. 6angert-%o.ns, +. 2.,Kuli), (. "., P Kuli), C-2, C. ;7887<. Effe#ts of frequent #lassroom testing. Journal of Educational Research, B@ ;E<, C8-88. 6la#), *., 5arrison, C., 2ee, C., $arshall, 6. P 4iliam, %. ;E11F<. 4or)ing inside the bla#) box.: "ssessment for learning in the #lassroom. Phi !elta Ka%%an, B; ;7< 8-E7. 6la#), *., P 4iliam,%. ;E119<. "ssessment for learning in the #lassroom. In (. 'ardner ;Ed.<. Assessment and learning ;pp. 8-E@<. &housand Ba)s, C":!age. 6ishop, (. 5. ;7888<. Aerd harassment, in#enti es, s#hool priorities, and learning.In !. E. $ayer P *. E. *eterson ;Eds.< Earning and learning2 :o Institution *ress. school matters 3pp. E07-EC1<. 4ashington, %C: 6roo)ings
E99
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense 6or)o, 5. P 2i ingston, C. ;78C8< Cognition and Impro isation: %ifferen#es in $athemati#s Instru#tion by Expert and Ao i#e &ea#hers. American Educational Research Journal, D;, F:0-8C. Cross, 2. 5., P Frary, +. 6. ;7888<. 5odgepodge grading: Endorsed by students and tea#hers ali)e. A%%lied Aeasurement in Education, DC;7< @0-:E. %empster, F. A. P *er)ins, *. '. ;7880<. +e itali/ating #lassroom assessment: 3sing tests to promote learning. Journal of .nstructional Psychology, D= ;0< 78:-E10. %.e#), C. !. ;E111< !elf-theories: Their role in motivation, %ersonality, and develo%ment. *hiladelphia, *": *sy#hology *ress. Elliott, "., $#'regor, 5., P &hrash, &. ;E11F<. &he need for #ompeten#e. In E. %e#i P +. +yan ;Eds.<, :and(oo& of self4determination research ;pp. 097-0CC<. +o#hester, AN: 3ni ersity of +o#hester *ress. 5arlen, 4. &he role of assessment in de eloping moti ation for learning. In (. 'ardner ;Ed.<. Assessment and learning ;pp. 97-C1<. &housand Ba)s, C": !age. 5ubbard, +. !., P *o.er, 6. $. ;E110<. &he art of #lassroom inquiry , A hand(oo& for teachers4researchers ;End ed.<. *ortsmith, A5: 5einemann. Koret/, %. !te#her, 6. Klein, !. P $#Caffrey, %. ;788F<. The evolution of a %ortfolio %rogram2 The im%act and )uality of the "ermont %rogram in its second year 3CGGD4<). ;C!E &e#hni#al report 0C@< 2os "ngeles: 3ni ersity of California, Center for +esear#h on E aluation !tandards and student &esting. "##essed (anuary E@, E119 from http:KK....#sr.u#la.edu. 2inn, +. 2., P $iller, $. %. ;E11@<. Aeasurement and Assessment in Teaching 8th ed. 3pper !addle +i er, A(: *earson . $ertler, C. ". ;E119<. Action research2 Teachers as researchers in the classroom. &housand Ba)s, C": !age. *opham, 4. (. ;E11@<. Classroom Assessment2 Fhat teachers need to &no . 6oston, $": *earson. +o.e, $. 6. ;E110<. 4ait-time and re.ards as instru#tional ariables, their influen#e on language, logi# and fate #ontrol: *art one-.ait time. Journal of Research in science Teaching, ?= !upplement, !78-0E. !tiggins, +. (. ;E11E<. Assessment crisis2 The a(sence of assessment 89R learning. *hi %elta Kappan, C0 ;71<, :@C-:9@. !utton, +. E. ;E11F<. Emotional regulation goals and strategies of tea#hers. Social Psychology of Education, >;F<, 0:8-08C.&eel, K. $., %ebrin-*are#)i, "., P Co ington, $. G. ;788C<. &ea#hing strategies that honor and moti ate inner-#ity "fri#an "meri#an students: " s#hoolKuni ersity #ollaboration. Teaching and Teacher Education, C?;@<, F:8-F8@. &s#hannen-$oran, $., 4oolfol)-5oy, "., P 5oy, 4. K. ;788C<. &ea#her effi#a#y: Its meaning and measure. Revie of Educational Research, ;B, E1E-EFC.
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1$. StandardiBed and other formal assessments

6e#ause edu#ation is in#reasingly influen#ed by the #ontent and results of standardi/ed tests, understanding su#h tests has be#ome important for tea#hers. Aot only do tea#hers need to )no. .hat these tests #an ;and #annot< do, but also they need to be able to help parents and students understand test results. Consider, for example, the follo.ing s#enarios:..
"anessa, a ne ly licensed %hysical education teacher, is a%%lying for a 'o( at a middle school.
!uring the 'o( intervie
the %rinci%al as&s ho
she
ould incor%orate &ey si5th grade math
s&ills into her PE and health classes as the si5th grade students in the %revious year did not attain Ade)uate Oearly Progress in mathematics.
!anielle, a first year science teacher in 9hio, is as&ed (y Ar "older ell, a recent immigrant
from Tur&ey and the %arent of a tenth grade son Aarius, to hel% him understand test results. Fhen Aarius first arrived at school he too& the Test of Cognitive S&ills and scored on the eighty4 fifth %ercentile hereas on the state Science Kraduation test he too& later in the school year he as classified as *%roficient, .
James, a third year elementary school teacher, attends a class in gifted education over summer
as standardi1ed tests from the %revious year indicated that
hile overall his class did
ell in
reading the to% D= %er cent of his students did not learn as much as e5%ected.
Aiguel, a Cst grade student, ta&es t o tests in fall and the results indicate that his grade
e)uivalent scores are <.< for reading and <.= for math. Filliam+s %arents
ant him immediately
%romoted into the second grade arguing that the test results indicate that he already can read and do math at the <rd grade level. Kreg, a first grade teacher e5%lains to Filliam+s %arents that a grade e)uivalent score of <.< does not mean Filliam can do third grade or&. 3nderstanding standardi/ed tests is diffi#ult as they use numerous unfamiliar terms and #on#epts, and be#ause re#ent legislati e #hanges in their edu#ational use ha e in#reased the #omplexity of the #on#epts and issues ;3nited !tates 'o ernment *rinting Bffi#e, E11E<. In this #hapter .e #annot #o er all of the rele ant issuesI instead .e fo#us on the basi# information that beginning tea#hers need to )no., starting .ith some basi# #on#epts.
9asic concepts
!tandardi/ed tests are #reated by a teamLusually test experts from a #ommer#ial testing #ompany .ho #onsult #lassroom tea#hers and uni ersity fa#ultyLand are administered in standardi/ed .ays. !tudents not only respond to the same questions they also re#ei e the same dire#tions and ha e the same time limits. Expli#it s#oring #riteria are used. !tandardi/ed tests are designed to be ta)en by many students .ithin a state, pro in#e, or nation, and sometimes a#ross nations. &ea#hers help administer some standardi/ed tests and test manuals are pro ided that #ontain expli#it details about the administration and s#oring. For example, tea#hers may ha e to remo e all the Educational Psychology E9C " 'lobal &ext
12. Standardi)ed and other formal assessments posters and #harts from the #lassroom .alls, read dire#tions out loud to students using a s#ript, and respond to student questions in a spe#ifi# manner. Criterion referen#ed standardi/ed tests measure student performan#e against a spe#ifi# standard or #riterion. For example, ne.ly hired firefighters in the Common.ealth of $assa#husetts in the 3nited !tates ha e to meet physi#al fitness standards by su##essfully #ompleting a standardi/ed physi#al fitness test that in#ludes stair #limbing, using a ladder, ad an#ing a hose, and simulating a res#ue through a door.ay ;5uman +esour#es %i ision, nod.<. Criterion referen#ed tests #urrently used in 3! s#hools are often tied to state #ontent standards and pro ide information about .hat students #an and #annot do. For example, one of the #ontent standards for fourth grade reading in Kentu#)y is =!tudents .ill identify and des#ribe the #hara#teristi#s of fi#tion, nonfi#tion, poetry or plays? ;Combined Curri#ulum %o#ument +eading F.7, E119< and so a report on an indi idual student .ould indi#ate if the #hild #an a##omplish this s)ill. &he report may state that number or per#entage of items that .ere su##essfully #ompleted ;e.g. 7@ out of E1, i.e. :@ per #ent< or in#lude des#riptions su#h as basi#, profi#ient, or ad an#ed .hi#h are based on de#isions made about the per#ent of mastery ne#essary to be #lassified into these #ategories. Aorm referen#ed standardi/ed tests report studentsJ performan#e relati e to others. For example, if a student s#ores on the se enty-se#ond per#entile in reading it means she outperforms :E per#ent of the students .ho .ere in#luded in the testJs norm group. " norm group is a representati e sample of students .ho #ompleted the standardi/ed test .hile it .as being de eloped. For state tests the norm group is dra.n from the state .hereas for national tests the sample is dra.n from the nation. Information about the norm groups is pro ided in a te#hni#al test manual that is not typi#ally supplied to tea#hers but should be a ailable from the person in #harge of testing in the s#hool distri#t. +eports from #riterion and norm referen#ed tests pro ide different information. Imagine a nationali/ed mathemati#s test designed to basi# test s)ills in se#ond grade. If this test is norm referen#ed, and "lisha re#ei es a report indi#ating that she s#ored in the eighty-fifth per#entile this indi#ates that she s#ored better than C@ per #ent of the students in the norm group .ho too) the test pre iously. If this test is #riterion-referen#ed "lishaJs report may state that she mastered 9@ per #ent of the problems designed for her grade le el. &he relati e per#entage reported from the norm-referen#ed test pro ides information about "lishaJs performan#e #ompared to other students .hereas the #riterion referen#ed test attempts to des#ribe .hat "lisha or any student #an or #annot do .ith respe#t to .hate er the test is designed to measure. 4hen planning instru#tion #lassroom tea#hers need to )no. .hat students #an and #annot do so #riterion referen#ed tests are typi#ally more useful ;*opham, E11F<. &he #urrent standard-based a##ountability and AC26 rely predominantly on #riterion based tests to assess attainment of #ontent-based standards. Consequently the use of standardi/ed norm referen#ed tests in s#hools has diminished and is largely limited to diagnosis and pla#ement of #hildren .ith spe#ifi# #ogniti e disabilities or ex#eptional abilities ;5aertel P 5erman, E11@<. !ome re#ent standardi/ed tests #an in#orporate both #riterion-referen#ed and norm referen#ed elements in to the same test ;2inn P $iller, E11@<. &hat is, the test results not only pro ide information on mastery of a #ontent standard but also the per#entage of students .ho attained that le el of mastery. !tandardi/ed tests #an be high sta)es i.e. performan#e on the test has important #onsequen#es. &hese #onsequen#es #an be for students, e.g. passing a high s#hool graduation test is required in order to obtain a diploma or passing *+"[I! II is a prerequisite to gain a tea#her li#ense. &hese #onsequen#es #an be for s#hools, e.g. under E98
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense AC26 an in#reasing per#entage of students in e ery s#hool must rea#h profi#ien#y in math and reading ea#h year. Consequen#es for s#hools .ho fail to a#hie e these gains in#lude redu#ed funding and restru#turing of the s#hool building. 3nder AC26, the #onsequen#es are designed to be for the s#hools not indi idual students ;*opham, E11@< and their test results may not a##urately refle#t .hat they )no. be#ause students may not try hard .hen the tests ha e lo. sta)es for them ;4ise P %e$ars, E11@<.
3ses of standardi/ed tests

!tandardi/ed tests are used for a ariety of reasons and the same test is sometimes used for multiple purposes.
Assessing students+ %rogress in a
ider conte5t
4ell-designed tea#her assessments pro ide #ru#ial information about ea#h studentJs a#hie ement in the #lassroom. 5o.e er, tea#hers ary in the types of assessment they use so tea#her assessments do not usually pro ide information on ho. studentsJ a#hie ement #ompares to externally established #riteria. Consider t.o eighth grade students, 6rian and (oshua, .ho re#ei ed "s in their middle s#hool math #lasses. 5o.e er, on the standardi/ed norm referen#ed math test 6rian s#ored in the fiftieth per#entile .hereas (oshua s#ored in the ninetieth per#entile. &his information is important to 6rian and (oshua, their parents, and the s#hool personnel. 2i)e.ise, t.o third grade students #ould both re#ei e Cs on their report #ard in reading but one may pass E@ per #ent and the other 9@ per #ent of the items on the Criterion +eferen#ed !tate &est. &here are many reasons that studentsJ performan#e on tea#her assessments and standardi/ed assessments may differ. !tudents may perform lo.er on the standardi/ed assessment be#ause their tea#hers ha e easy grading #riteria, or there is poor alignment bet.een the #ontent they .ere taught and that on the standardi/ed test, or they are unfamiliar .ith the type of items on the standardi/ed tests, or they ha e test anxiety, or they .ere si#) on the day of the test. !tudents may perform higher on the standardi/ed test than on #lassroom assessments be#ause their tea#hers ha e hard grading #riteria, or the student does not .or) #onsistently in #lass ;e.g. does not turn in home.or)< but .ill fo#us on a standardi/ed test, or the student is adept at the multiple #hoi#e items on the standardi/ed tests but not at the ariety of #onstru#ted response and performan#e items the tea#her uses. 4e should al.ays be ery #autious about dra.ing inferen#es from one )ind of assessment. In some states, standardi/ed a#hie ement tests are required for home-s#hooled students in order to pro ide parents and state offi#ials information about the studentsJ a#hie ement in a .ider #ontext. For example, in Ae. Nor) home-s#hooled students must ta)e an appro ed standardi/ed test e ery other year in grades four through eight and e ery year in grades nine through t.el e. &hese tests must be administered in a standardi/ed manner and the results filed .ith the !uperintendent of the lo#al s#hool distri#t. If a student does not ta)e the tests or s#ores belo. the thirty-third per#entile the home s#hooling program may be pla#ed on probation ;Ae. Nor) !tate Edu#ation %epartment, E11@<.
!iagnosing student+s strengths and
ea&nesses
!tandardi/ed tests, along .ith inter ie.s, #lassroom obser ations, medi#al examinations, and s#hool re#ords are used to help diagnose studentsJ strengths and .ea)nesses. Bften the standardi/ed tests used for this purpose are administered indi idually to determine if the #hild has a disability. For example, if a )indergarten #hild is ha ing trouble .ith oral #ommuni#ation, a standardi/ed language de elopment test #ould be administered to determine if there are diffi#ulties .ith understanding the meaning of .ords or senten#e stru#tures, noti#ing sound differen#es in similar .ords, or arti#ulating .ords #orre#tly ;*eirangelo P 'uiliani, E11E<. It .ould also be important to Educational Psychology E:1 " 'lobal &ext
12. Standardi)ed and other formal assessments determine if the #hild .as a re#ent immigrant, had a hearing impairment or mental retardation. &he diagnosis of learning disabilities typi#ally in ol es the administration of at least t.o types of standardi/ed testsLan aptitude test to assess general #ogniti e fun#tioning and an a#hie ement test to assess )no.ledge of spe#ifi# #ontent areas ;*eirangelo P 'uiliani, E119<. 4e dis#uss the differen#e bet.een aptitude and a#hie ement tests later in this #hapter.
Selecting students for s%ecific %rograms

!tandardi/ed tests are often used to sele#t students for spe#ifi# programs. For example, the !"& ;!#holasti# "ssessment &est< and "C& ;"meri#an College &est< are norm referen#ed tests used to help determine if high s#hool students are admitted to sele#ti e #olleges. Aorm referen#ed standardi/ed tests are also used, among other #riteria, to determine if students are eligible for spe#ial edu#ation or gifted and talented programs. Criterion referen#ed tests are used to determine .hi#h students are eligible for promotion to the next grade or graduation from high s#hool. !#hools that pla#e students in ability groups in#luding high s#hool #ollege preparation, a#ademi#, or o#ational programs may also use norm referen#ed or #riterion referen#ed standardi/ed tests. 4hen standardi/ed tests are used as an essential #riteria for pla#ement they are ob iously high sta)es for students.
Assisting teachers+ %lanning

Aorm referen#ed and #riterion referen#ed standardi/ed tests, among other sour#es of information about students, #an help tea#hers ma)e de#isions about their instru#tion. For example, if a so#ial studies tea#her learns that most of the students did ery .ell on a norm referen#ed reading test administered early in the s#hool year he may adapt his instru#tion and use additional primary sour#es. " reading tea#her after re ie.ing the poor end-ofthe-year #riterion referen#ed standardi/ed reading test results may de#ide that next year she .ill modify the te#hniques she uses. " biology tea#her may de#ide that she needs to spend more time on geneti#s as her students s#ored poorly on that se#tion of the standardi/ed #riterion referen#ed s#ien#e test. &hese are examples of assessment for learning .hi#h in ol es data-based de#ision ma)ing. It #an be diffi#ult for beginning tea#hers to learn to use standardi/ed test information appropriately, understanding that test s#ores are important information but also remembering that there are multiple reasons for studentsJ performan#e on a test.
Accounta(ility
!tandardi/ed tests results are in#reasingly used to hold tea#hers and administrators a##ountable for studentsJ learning. *rior to E11E, many !tates required publi# dissemination of studentsJ progress but under AC26 s#hool distri#ts in all states are required to send report #ards to parents and the publi# that in#lude results of standardi/ed tests for ea#h s#hool. *ro iding information about studentsJ standardi/ed tests is not ne. as ne.spapers began printing summaries of studentsJ test results .ithin s#hool distri#ts in the 78:1s and 78C1s ;*opham, E11@<. 5o.e er, publi# a##ountability of s#hools and tea#hers has been in#reasing in the 3! and many other #ountries and this in#reased a##ountability impa#ts the publi# per#eption and .or) of all tea#hers in#luding those tea#hing in sub,e#ts or grade le els not being tested. For example, Erin, a middle s#hool so#ial studies tea#her, said: *As a teacher in a Mnon4testingM su('ect area, . s%end su(stantial instructional time su%orting the standardi1ed testing re)uirements. 8or e5am%le, our school has instituted M ord of the dayM, hich encourages teachers to use, define, and incor%orate terminology often used in the tests 3e.g. Zcom%areZ, Zo5ymoronZ etc.). . use the terms in my class as often as %ossi(le and incor%orate them E:7
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense into ritten assignments. . also often use test )uestions of similar formats to the standardi1ed tests ith dou(le negatives, short ans er ill hel%
in my o n su('ect assessments 3e.g. multi%le choice )uestions
and e5tended res%onse )uestions) as . (elieve that %ractice in the test )uestion formats students (e more successful in those su('ects that are (eing assessed.,
"##ountability and standardi/ed testing are t.o #omponents of !tandards 6ased +eform in Edu#ation that .as initiated in the 3!" in 78C1s. &he t.o other #omponents are a#ademi# #ontent standards .hi#h are des#ribed later in this #hapter and tea#her quality .hi#h .as dis#ussed in Chapter 7.
&ypes of standardi/ed tests Achievement tests

!ummari/ing the past: K-7E a#hie ement tests are designed to assess .hat students ha e learned in a spe#ifi# #ontent area. &hese tests in#lude those spe#ifi#ally designed by states to a##ess mastery of state a#ademi# #ontent standards ;see more details belo.< as .ell as general tests su#h as the California "#hie ement &ests, &he Comprehensi e &ests of 6asi# !)ills, Io.a &ests of 6asi# !)ills, $etropolitan "#hie ement &ests, and the !tanford "#hie ement &ests. &hese general tests are designed to be used a#ross the nation and so .ill not be as #losely aligned .ith state #ontent standards as spe#ifi#ally designed tests. !ome states and Canadian *ro in#es use spe#ifi#ally designed tests to assess attainment of #ontent standards and also a general a#hie ement test to pro ide normati e information. !tandardi/ed a#hie ement tests are designed to be used for students in )indergarten though high s#hool. For young #hildren questions are presented orally, and students may respond by pointing to pi#tures, and the subtests are often not timed. For example, on the Io.a &est of 6asi# !)ills ;http:KK....ri erpub.#omK< designed for students are young as )indergarten the o#abulary test assesses listening o#abulary. &he tea#her reads a .ord and may also read a senten#e #ontaining the .ord. !tudents are then as)ed to #hoose one of three pi#torial response options. "#hie ement tests are used as one #riterion for obtaining a li#ense in a ariety of professions in#luding nursing, physi#al therapy, and so#ial .or), a##ounting, and la.. &heir use in tea#her edu#ation is re#ent and is part of the in#reased a##ountability of publi# edu#ation and most !tates require that tea#her edu#ation students ta)e a#hie ement tests in order to obtain a tea#hing li#ense. For those see)ing middle s#hool and high s#hool li#ensure these are tests are in the #ontent area of the ma,or or minor ;e.g. mathemati#s, so#ial studies<I for those see)ing li#enses in early #hildhood and elementary the tests fo#us on )no.ledge needed to tea#h students of spe#ifi# grade le els. &he most #ommonly used tests, the *+"[I! series, tests I and II, de eloped by Edu#ational &esting !er i#e, in#lude three types of tests ;....ets.org<:
!ub,e#t "ssessments, these test on general and sub,e#t-spe#ifi# tea#hing s)ills and )no.ledge. &hey in#lude
both multiple-#hoi#e and #onstru#ted-response test items.

*rin#iples of 2earning and &ea#hing ;*2&< &ests assess general pedagogi#al )no.ledge at four grade le els:
Early Childhood, K-9, @-8, and :-7E. &hese tests are based on #ase studies and in#lude #onstru#ted-response and multiple-#hoi#e items. $u#h of the #ontent in this textboo) is rele ant to the *2& tests.
&ea#hing Foundations &ests assess pedagogy in fi e areas: multi-sub,e#t ;elementary<, English, 2anguage
"rts, $athemati#s, !#ien#e, and !o#ial !#ien#e.
E:E
" 'lobal &ext
12. Standardi)ed and other formal assessments &hese tests in#lude #onstru#ted-response and multiple-#hoi#e items .hi#h tests tea#her edu#ation students. &he s#ores needed in order to pass ea#h test ary and are determined by ea#h state.
!iagnostic tests
rofiling s5ills and abilities$ !ome standardi/ed tests are designed to diagnose strengths and .ea)nesses in s)ills, typi#ally reading or mathemati#s s)ills. For example, an elementary s#hool #hild may ha e diffi#ult in reading and one or more diagnosti# tests .ould pro ide detailed information about three #omponents: ;7< .ord re#ognition, .hi#h in#ludes phonologi#al a.areness ;pronun#iation<, de#oding, and spellingI ;E< #omprehension .hi#h in#ludes o#abulary as .ell as reading and listening #omprehension, and ;0< fluen#y ;(oshi E110<. %iagnosti# tests are often administered indi idually by s#hool psy#hologists, follo.ing standardi/ed pro#edures. &he examiner typi#ally re#ords not only the results on ea#h question but also obser ations of the #hildJs beha ior su#h as distra#tibility or frustration. &he results from the diagnosti# standardi/ed tests are used in #on,un#tion .ith #lassroom obser ations, s#hool and medi#al re#ords, as .ell as inter ie.s .ith tea#hers, parents and students to produ#e a profile of the studentJs s)ills and abilities, and .here appropriate diagnose a learning disability.
A%titude tests
*redi#ting the future: "ptitude tests, li)e a#hie ement tests, measure .hat students ha e learned, but rather than fo#using on spe#ifi# sub,e#t matter learned in s#hool ;e.g. math, s#ien#e, English or so#ial studies<, the test items fo#us on erbal, quantitati e, problem sol ing abilities that are learned in s#hool or in the general #ulture ;2inn P $iller, E11@<. &hese tests are typi#ally shorter than a#hie ement tests and #an be useful in predi#ting general s#hool a#hie ement. If the purpose of using a test is to predi#t su##ess in a spe#ifi# sub,e#t ;e.g. language arts< the best predi#tion is past a#hie ement in language arts and so s#ores on a language arts a#hie ement test .ould be useful. 5o.e er .hen the predi#tions are more general ;e.g. su##ess in #ollege< aptitude tests are often used. "##ording to the test de elopers, both the "C& and !"& +easoning tests, used to predi#t su##ess in #ollege, assess general edu#ational de elopment and reasoning, analysis and problem sol ing as .ell as questions on mathemati#s, reading and .riting ;http:KK....#ollegeboard.#omI http:KK....a#t.orgK<. &he !"& !ub,e#t &ests that fo#us on mastery of spe#ifi# sub,e#ts li)e English, history, mathemati#s, s#ien#e, and language are used by some #olleges as entran#e #riteria and are more appropriately #lassified as a#hie ement tests than aptitude tests e en though they are used to predi#t the future. &ests designed to assess general learning ability ha e traditionally been #alled Intelligen#e &ests but are no. often #alled learning ability tests, #ogniti e ability tests, s#holasti# aptitude tests, or s#hool ability tests. &he shift in terminology refle#ts the extensi e #ontro ersy o er the meaning of the term intelligen#e and that its traditional use .as asso#iated .ith inherited #apa#ity ;2inn P $iller E11@<. &he more #urrent terms emphasi/e that tests measure de eloped ability in learning not innate #apa#ity. &he Cogniti e "bilities &est assesses K-7E studentsD abilities to reason .ith .ords, quantitati e #on#epts, and non erbal ;spatial< pi#tures. &he 4ood#o#) (ohnson III #ontains #ogniti e abilities tests as .ell as a#hie ement tests for ages E to 81 years ;http:KK....ri erpub.#om<.
"igh;sta1es testing by states

4hile many !tates had standardi/ed testing programs prior to E111, the number of state-.ide tests has gro.n enormously sin#e then be#ause AC26 required that all states test students in reading and mathemati#s annually in grades third through eighth and at least on#e in high s#hool by E11@-9. &.enty-three states expanded their testing programs during E11@-9 and additional tests are being added as testing in s#ien#e is required by E11:-C. !tudents E:0
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense .ith disabilities and English language learners must be in#luded in the testing and pro ided a this se#tion .e fo#us on these tests and their impli#ations for tea#hers and students. ariety of
a##ommodations so the ma,ority of staff in s#hool distri#ts are in ol ed in testing in some .ay ;Blson, E11@<. In
!tandards based assessment Academic content standards

AC26 mandates that states must de elop a#ademi# #ontent standards that spe#ify .hat students are expe#ted to )no. or be able to do at ea#h grade le el. &hese #ontent standards used to be #alled goals and ob,e#ti es and it is not #lear .hy the labels ha e #hanged ;*opham, E11F<. Content standards are not easy to de elopLif they are too broad and not related to grade le el, tea#hers #annot hope to prepare students to meet the standards. "n example, a broad standard in reading is: *Students should (e a(le to construct meaning through e5%eriences ;). !tandards that are too narro. #an result in a restri#ted #urri#ulum. "n example of a narro. standard might be: Students can define, com%are and contrast, and %rovide a variety of e5am%les of synonyms and antonyms. " stronger standard is: *Students should a%%ly &no ledge of determine the meaning of ord origins, derivations, synonyms, antonyms, and idioms to ords 3grade ?) 3American 8ederation of Teachers, D==;, %. ;). ith literature, cultural events and %hiloso%hical discussion, 3no grade level indicated). 3American 8ederation of Teachers, D==;, %.
&he "meri#an Federation of &ea#hers #ondu#ted a study in E11@-9 and reported that some of the standards in reading, math and s#ien#e .ere .ea) in 0E states. !tates set the strongest standards in s#ien#e follo.ed by mathemati#s. !tandards in reading .ere parti#ularly problemati# and .ith one-fifth of all reading standards redundant a#ross the grade le els, i.e. .ord-by-.ord repetition a#ross grade le els at least @1 per #ent of the time ;"meri#an Federation of &ea#hers, E119<. E en if the standards are strong, there are often so many of them that it is hard for tea#hers to address them all in a s#hool year. Content standards are de eloped by #urri#ulum spe#ialists .ho belie e in the importan#e of their sub,e#t area so they tend to de elop large numbers of standards for ea#h sub,e#t area and grade le el. "t first glan#e, it may appear that there are only se eral broad standards, but under ea#h standard there are sub#ategories #alled goals, ben#hmar)s, indi#ators or ob,e#ti es ;*opham, E11F<. For example, IdahoJs first grade mathemati#s standard, ,udged to be of high quality ;"F& E111< #ontains fi e broad standards, in#luding 71 goals and a total of E8 ob,e#ti es ;Idaho %epartment of Edu#ation, E11@-9<.
Alignment of standards, testing and classroom curriculum

&he state tests must be aligned .ith strong #ontent standards in order to pro ide useful feedba#) about student learning. If there is a mismat#h bet.een the a#ademi# #ontent standards and the #ontent that is assessed then the test results #annot pro ide information about studentsJ profi#ien#y on the a#ademi# standards. " mismat#h not only frustrates the students ta)ing the test, tea#hers, and administrators it undermines the #on#ept of a##ountability and the =theory of a#tion? ;!ee box =%e#iding for yourself about the resear#h?< that underlies the AC26. 3nfortunately, the E119 Federation of &ea#hers study indi#ated that in only 77 states .ere all the tests aligned .ith state standards ;"meri#an Federation of &ea#hers, E119<. Educational Psychology E:F " 'lobal &ext
12. Standardi)ed and other formal assessments !tate standards and their alignment .ith state assessments should be .idely a ailableLpreferably posted on the states .ebsites so they #an be a##essed by s#hool personnel and the publi#. " number of states ha e been slo. to do this.&able FE summari/es .hi#h states had strong #ontent standards, tests that .ere aligned .ith state standards, and adequate do#uments on online. Bnly 77 states .ere ,udged to meet all three #riteria in E119. &able FE: !trong #ontent standards, alignment, and transparen#y: e aluation for ea#h state in E119 ;"dapted from "meri#an Federation of &ea#hers, E119<. Standards are strong "labama "las)a "ri/ona "r)ansas California Colorado Conne#ti#ut %ela.are %istri#t of Columbia Florida 'eorgia 5a.aii Idaho Illinois Indiana Io.a Kansas Kentu#)y 2ouisiana $aine $aryland $assa#husetts V V V V V V V V V V E:@ V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V @est documents match standards @esting documents online V V V
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense $i#higan $innesota $ississippi $issouri $ontana Aebras)a Ae ada Ae. 5ampshire Ae. (ersey Ae. $exi#o Ae. Nor) Aorth Carolina Aorth %a)ota Bhio B)lahoma Bregon *ennsyl ania +hode Island !outh Carolina !outh %a)ota &ennessee &exas 3tah V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V
Sam%ling content
4hen numerous standards ha e been de eloped it is impossible for tests to assess all of the standards e ery year, so the tests sam%le the #ontent, i.e. measure some but not all the standards e ery year. Content standards #annot be reliably assessed .ith only one or t.o items so the de#ision to assess one #ontent standard often requires not assessing another. &his means if there are too many #ontent standards a signifi#ant proportion of them are not measured ea#h year. In this situation, tea#hers try to guess .hi#h #ontent standards .ill be assessed that year and Educational Psychology E:9 " 'lobal &ext
12. Standardi)ed and other formal assessments align their tea#hing on those spe#ifi# standards. Bf #ourse if these guesses are in#orre#t students .ill ha e studied #ontent not on the test and not studied #ontent that is on the test. !ome argue that this is a ery serious problem .ith #urrent state testing and *opham ;E11F< an expert on testing e en said: =4hat a muddleheaded .ay to run a testing program.? ;p. :8<
"dequate Nearly *rogress ;"N*<

3nder AC26 three le els of a#hie ement, basi#, profi#ient and ad an#ed, must be spe#ified for ea#h grade le el in ea#h #ontent area by ea#h state. !tates .ere required to set a time table from E11E that insured an in#reasing per#entage of students .ould rea#h the profi#ient le els su#h that by E170-7F, so every #hild is performing at or the profi#ient le el. !#hools and s#hool distri#ts .ho meet this timetable are said to meet adequate yearly progress ;"N*<. 6e#ause e ery #hild must rea#h profi#ien#y by E170-7F greater in#reases are required for those s#hools that had larger per#entages of initially lo.er performing students. Exhibit 70 illustrates the progress needed in three hypotheti#al s#hools. !#hool ", initially the lo.est performing s#hool, has to in#rease the number of students rea#hing profi#ien#y by an a erage of 9 per #ent ea#h year, the in#rease is 0 per #ent for !#hool 6, and the in#rease is only 7 per #ent for !#hool C. "lso, the #he#)point targets in the timetables are determined by the lo.er performing s#hools. &his is illustrated on the figure by the arro.Lit is ob ious that !#hool " has to ma)e signifi#ant impro ements by E11:-C but !#hool C does not ha e to impro e at all by E11:-C. &his means that s#hools that are initially lo.er performing are mu#h more li)ely to fail to ma)e "N* during the initial implementation years of AC26.
Exhibit 7E: "dequate Nearly *rogress requires greater student impro ement in s#hools .ith lo.er le els of initial profi#ien#y
E::
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense !#hools ", 6 and C all must rea#h 71 per #ent student profi#ien#y by E170-F. 5o.e er the s#hool that initially has the lo.est le el of performan#e ;"< has to in#rease the per#entage of students profi#ient at a greater rate than s#hools .ith middle ;6< or high ;C< le els of initial profi#ien#y rates.
Su(grou%s
For a s#hool to a#hie e "N* not only must o erall per#entages of the students rea#h profi#ien#y but subgroups must also rea#h profi#ien#y in a pro#ess #alled desegregation. *rior to AC26 state a##ountability systems typi#ally fo#used on o erall student performan#e but this did not pro ide in#enti es for s#hools to fo#us on the neediest students, e.g. those #hildren li ing belo. the po erty line ;5ess P *etrilli, E119<. 3nder AC26 the per#entages for ea#h ra#ialKethni# group in the s#hool ;.hite, "fri#an "meri#an, 2atino, Aati e "meri#an et#.<, lo. in#ome students, students .ith limited English profi#ien#y, and students .ith disabilities are all #al#ulated if there are enough students in the subgroup. " s#hool may fail "N* if one group, e.g. English language learners do not ma)e adequate progress. &his means that it is more diffi#ult for large di erse s#hools ;typi#ally urban s#hools< that ha e many subgroups to meet the demands of "N* than smaller s#hools .ith homogeneous student body ;Ao a) P Fuller, E110<. !#hools #an also fail to ma)e "N* if too fe. students ta)e the exam. &he drafters of the la. .ere #on#erned that some s#hools might en#ourage lo.-performing students to stay home on the days of testing in order to artifi#ially inflate the s#ores. !o on a erage at least 8@ per #ent of any subgroup must ta)e the exams ea#h year or the s#hool may fail to ma)e "N* ;5ess P *etrilli, E119<.
Sanctions
!#hools failing to meet "N* for #onse#uti e years, experien#e a series of in#reasing san#tions. If a s#hool fails to ma)e "N* for t.o years in ro. it is labeled =in need of impro ement? and s#hool personnel must #ome up .ith a s#hool impro ement plan that is based on =s#ientifi#ally based resear#h?. In addition, students must be offered the option of transferring to a better performing publi# s#hool .ithin the distri#t. If the s#hool fails for three #onse#uti e years, free tutoring must be pro ided to needy students. " fourth year of failure requires =#orre#ti e a#tions? .hi#h may in#lude staffing #hanges, #urri#ulum reforms or extensions of the s#hool day or year. If the s#hool fails to meet "N* for fi e #onse#uti e years the distri#t must =restru#ture? .hi#h in ol es ma,or a#tions su#h as repla#ing the ma,ority of the staff, hiring an edu#ational management #ompany, turning the s#hool o er to the state.
'ro.th or alue added models

Bne #on#ern .ith ho. "N* is #al#ulated is that it is based on an absolute le el of student performan#e at one point in time and does not measure ho. mu#h students impro e during ea#h year. &o illustrate this, Exhibit 70 sho.s six students .hose s#ien#e test s#ores impro ed from fourth to fifth grade. &he #ir#le represents a studentJs s#ore in fourth grade and the tip of the arro. the test s#ore in fifth grade. Aote that students 7, E, and 0 all rea#h the le el of profi#ien#y ;the hori/ontal dotted line< but students F, @ and 9 do not. 5o.e er, also noti#e that students E, @ and 9 impro ed mu#h more than students 7, 0, and F. &he #urrent system of "N* re.ards students rea#hing the profi#ien#y le el rather than studentsJ gro.th. &his is a parti#ular problem for lo. performing s#hools .ho may be doing an ex#ellent ,ob of impro ing a#hie ement ;students @ and 9< but do not ma)e the profi#ien#y le el. &he 3! %epartment of Edu#ation in E119 allo.ed some states to in#lude gro.th measures into their #al#ulations of "N*. 4hile gro.th models traditionally tra#)ed the progress of indi idual students, the term is sometimes used to refer to gro.th of #lasses or entire s#hools ;!haul, E119<. Educational Psychology E:C " 'lobal &ext
12. Standardi)ed and other formal assessments
Exhibit 70: "n illustration of alue added s profi#ien#y approa#h to assessment. Ea#h arro. represents the mathemati#s a#hie ement results of one student .ho .as tested in the fourth grade ;sho.n by the dot< and also the fifth grade ;sho.n by the tip of the arro.<. !ome states in#lude gro.th information on their report #ards. For example, &ennessee ;http:KK....)7E.state.tn.usKrpt#rd1@K< pro ides details on .hi#h s#hools meet the "N* but also .hether the studentsJ s#ores on tests represent a erage gro.th, abo e a erage, or belo. a erage gro.th .ithin the state. Exhibit 7F illustrates in a simple .ay the )ind of information that is pro ided. !tudents in s#hools ", 6, and C all rea#hed profi#ien#y and "N* but in !#hools %, E, and F did not. 5o.e er, students in s#hools " and % had lo. gro.th, in s#hools 6 and E a erage gro.th, in s#hools C and F high gro.th. +esear#hers ha e found that in some s#hools students ha e high le els of a#hie ement but do not gro. as mu#h as expe#ted ;!#hool "<, and also that in some s#hools, the a#hie ement test s#ores are not high but the students are gro.ing or learning a lot ;!#hool F<. &hese are #alled =s#hool effe#ts? and represent the effe#t of the s#hool on the learning of the students. !#hool " 2chievement !#hool 6 !#hool C *rofi#ien#y !#hool % !#hool E !#hool F
'o1 gro1th
2verage gro1th
9igh gro1th
Exhibit 7F: *rofi#ien#y and gro.th information
'ro.th o er one year

!#hools #an ary on o erall s#hool a#hie ement ;profi#ien#y< as .ell as the amount of gro.th in student learning, For example s#hools ", 6, and C all ha e high a#hie ement le els but only in !#hool C do students ha e, E:8
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense on a erage, high gro.th. !#hools %, C, and F all ha e lo. le els of profi#ien#y but only in s#hool % do students, on a erage, ha e lo. gro.th. 'ro.th models ha e intuiti e appeal to tea#hers as they fo#us on ho. mu#h a student learned during the s#hool yearLnot .hat the student )ne. at the start of the s#hool year. &he #urrent resear#h e iden#e suggests that tea#hers matter a lotLi.e. students learn mu#h more .ith some tea#hers than others. For example, in one study lo.-a#hie ing fourth grade students in %allas, &exas .ere follo.ed for three years and 81 per #ent of those .ho had effe#ti e tea#hers passed the se enth grade math test .hereas only FE per #ent of those .ith ineffe#ti e tea#hers passed ;#ited in 6ra#ey, E11F<. 3nfortunately, the same study reported that lo. a#hie ing students .ere more li)ely to be assigned to ineffe#ti e tea#hers for three years in a ro. than high a#hie ing students. !ome poli#y ma)ers belie e that tea#hers .ho are highly effe#ti e should re#ei e re.ards in#luding higher salaries or bonuses and that a primary #riterion of effe#ti eness is assessed by gro.th models, i.e. ho. mu#h students learn during a year ;5ershberg, E11F<. 5o.e er, using gro.th data to ma)e de#isions about tea#hers is #ontro ersial as there is mu#h more statisti#al un#ertainty .hen using gro.th measures for a small group or students ;e.g. one tea#herJs students< than larger groups ;e.g. all fourth graders in a s#hool distri#t<. 'ro.th models are also used to pro ide information about the patterns of gro.th among subgroups of students that may arise from the instru#tional fo#us of the tea#hers. For example, it may be that highest performing students in the #lassroom gain the most and the lo.est performing students gain the least. &his suggests that the tea#her is fo#using on the high a#hie ing students and gi ing less attention to lo. a#hie ing students. In #ontrast, it may be the highest performing students gain the least and the lo. performing students gro. the most suggesting the tea#her fo#uses on the lo. performing students and paying little attention to the high performing students. If the tea#her fo#uses on the students =in the middle? they may gro. the most and the highest and lo.est performing students gro. the least. *roponents of the alue-added or gro.th models argue that tea#hers #an use this information to help them ma)e informed de#isions about their tea#hing ;5ershberg, E11F<.
%iffering state standards

3nder AC26 ea#h state de ises their o.n a#ademi# #ontent standards, assessments, and le els of profi#ien#y. !ome resear#hers ha e suggested that the rules of AC26 ha e en#ouraged states to set lo. le els of profi#ien#y so it is easier to meet "N* ea#h year ;5off, E11E<. !tringen#y of state le els of profi#ien#y #an be examined by #omparing state test s#ores to s#ores on a national a#hie ement test #alled the Aational "ssessment of Edu#ational *rogress ;A"E*<. AC26 requires that states administer reading and math A"E* tests to a sample of fourth and eighth grade students e ery other year. &he A"E* is designed to assess the progress of students at the state-.ide or national le el not indi idual s#hools or students and is .idely respe#ted as a .ell designed test that uses #urrent best pra#ti#es in testing. " large per#entage of ea#h test in#ludes #onstru#ted-response questions and questions that require the use of #al#ulators and other materials ;http:KKn#es.ed.go Knationsreport#ard<. Exhibit 7@ illustrates that t.o states, Colorado and $issouri had ery different state performan#e standards for the fourth grade readingKlanguage arts tests in E110. Bn the state assessment 9: per #ent of the students in Colorado but only E7 per #ent of the students in $issouri .ere #lassified as profi#ient. 5o.e er, on the A"E* tests 0F per #ent of Colorado students and EC per #ent of $issouri students .ere #lassified as profi#ient ;2inn E11@<. &hese differen#es demonstrate that there is no #ommon meaning in #urrent definitions of =profi#ient a#hie ement? established by the states.
EC1
" 'lobal &ext
Exhibit 7@: +elationship bet.een state profi#ien#y le els and s#ores on A"E* ;"dapted from 2inn E11@< &mplications for beginning teachers$ !r Aucci is the %rinci%al of a su(ur(an fourth through si5th grade school in 9hio that continues to meet AOP. Fe as&ed her states. Z. clearly define hat (eginning teachers should &no a(out high sta&es testing (y the ant (eginning teachers to (e familiar hat all students should &no ith the content standards in 9hio (ecause they
and (e a(le to do. $ot only does teaching revolve
around the standards, . only a%%rove re)uests for materials or %rofessional develo%ment if these are related to the standards. . ma&ing. Every year . meet ant (eginning teachers to understand the conce%t of data4(ased decision ith all the teachers in each grade level 3e.g. fourth grade) to loo& for
trends in the %revious yearMs test results and consider remedies (ased on these trends. . also meet ith each teacher in the content areas that are tested and discuss every studentMs achievement in his or her class so e can develo% an instructional %lan for every student. All interventions ith students are research (ased. Every teacher in the school is res%onsi(le for hel%ing to im%lement these instructional %lans, for e5am%le the music or art teachers must incor%orate some reading and math into their classes. . also as& all teachers to teach test ta&ing s&ills, (y using similar formats to the state tests, enforcing time limits, ma&ing sure students learn to distinguish (et een )uestions that re)uired an e5tended res%onse using com%lete sentences versus those that only re)uires one or t o ords, and ensuring that students ans er school year and continue to success.Z &he impa#t of testing on #lassroom tea#hers does not ,ust o##ur in %r $u##iJs middle s#hool. " national sur ey of o er F,111 tea#hers indi#ated that the ma,ority of tea#hers reported that the state mandated tests .ere #ompatible .ith their daily instru#tion and .ere based on #urri#ulum frame.or)s that all tea#hers should follo.. &he ma,ority of tea#hers also reported tea#hing test ta)ing s)ills and en#ouraging students to .or) hard and EC7 hat is actually (eing as&ed. Fe (egin this early in the ith the format, or& on these s&ills, so (y s%ring, students are familiar
and therefore less an5ious a(out the state test. Fe do everything %ossi(le to set each student u% for
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense prepare. Elementary s#hool tea#hers reported greater impa#t of the high sta)es tests: @9 per #ent reported the tests influen#ed their tea#hing daily or a fe. times a .ee) #ompared to F9 per #ent of middle s#hool tea#her and EC per #ent of high s#hool tea#hers. E en though the tea#hers had adapted their instru#tion be#ause of the standardi/ed tests they .ere s)epti#al about them .ith F1 per #ent reporting that tea#hers had found .ays to raise test s#ores .ithout impro ing student learning and o er :1 per #ent reporting that the test s#ores .ere not an a##urate measure of .hat minority students )no. and #an do ;*edulla, "brams, $adaus, +ussell, +amos, P $iaoI E110<.
0nternational testing &esting in the Canadian pro in#es

Canada has de eloped a system of testing in the pro in#es as .ell as national testing. Ea#h pro in#e underta)es its o.n #urri#ulum based assessments. "t the elementary s#hool le el pro in#es assess reading and .riting ;language arts< as .ell as mathemati#s ;also #alled numera#y<. In the middle grades s#ien#e and so#ial studies is often assessed in addition to language arts and mathemati#s. !ummary results of these tests are published but there are no spe#ifi# #onsequen#es for poor performan#e for s#hools. In addition, these tests are not high sta)es for students. "t the se#ondary s#hool le el high sta)es #urri#ulum based exit tests are #ommon ;http:KKedudata.edu#.ub#.#aK%ataZ*agesK*anCan.htm<. Canada has de eloped pan-Canada assessment in mathemati#s, reading and .riting, and s#ien#e that are administered to a random sample of s#hools a#ross the #ountry. &hese assessments are intended to determine .hether, on a erage, students a#ross Canada rea#h similar le els of performan#e at about the same age ;http:KK....#me#.#aKp#apKindexe.stm<. &hey are not intended to pro ide indi idual feedba#) to students are similar in purpose to the A"E* tests administered in the 3nited !tates.
0nternational comparisons
"long .ith the in#reasing globali/ation has #ome an interest .ith international #omparisons in edu#ational a#hie ement and pra#ti#es and more than F1 #ountries parti#ipate in t.o ma,or testing initiati es. &he &rends in International $athemati#s and !#ien#e !tudy ;&I$!!< ha e assessed students in fourth and eighth grades four times through E11:. &he *rogramme for International "ssessment ;*I!"< ha e assessed 7@-year-olds in reading, mathemati#al and s#ien#e litera#y in more than forty #ountries on three times sin#e E111. &he items on both series of tests in#lude multiple #hoi#e, short ans.er and #onstru#ted response formats and are translated into more than 01 languages. *oli#y ma)ers are often interested in the #omparison of a erage studentsJ s#ores a#ross #ountries. For example, in eighth grade s#ien#e on the E110 &I$$! students from Canada, 3nited !tates, 5ong Kong, and "ustralia s#ored signifi#antly higher than the international a erage .hereas students from Egypt, Indonesia, and the *hilippines s#ored signifi#antly belo. the international a erage ;&I$$! E110<. Bn the mathemati#s test in the E110 *I!", 7@year-old students from 5ong Kong, China and Finland s#ored higher than students from Canada and Ae. -ealand .ho in turn s#ored higher than the students from 3nited !tates and !pain, .ho in turn s#ored higher than the student from $exi#o and 6ra/il ;BEC%, E11F<. 6oth series of tests also #olle#t sur ey data from students, tea#hers or s#hool prin#ipals allo.ing for information about instru#tional pra#ti#es and student #hara#teristi#s. For example, tea#hers from the *hilippines report spending almost t.i#e as mu#h time tea#hing s#ien#e to fourth graders than in the 3nited !tates ;$artin, $ullis, 'on/ale/, P Chrosto.s)i, ;E11F<. !tudent reports from *I!" indi#ate that there is #onsiderable #ross-#ountry Educational Psychology ECE " 'lobal &ext
12. Standardi)ed and other formal assessments ariation in ho. mu#h students feel anxiety .hen doing mathemati#s. !tudents in Fran#e, Italy, (apan, Korea report feeling the most anxious .hereas students in %enmar), Finland and Aetherlands and !.eden feel the least anxious ;BEC% E11F<.
,nderstanding test results

In order to understand test results from standardi/ed tests it is important to be familiar .ith a ariety of terms and #on#epts that are fundamental to =measurement theory?, the a#ademi# study of measurement and assessment. &.o ma,or areas in measurement theory, reliability and alidity, .ere dis#ussed in the pre ious #hapterI in this #hapter .e fo#us on #on#epts and terms asso#iated .ith test s#ores.
&he basi#s 8re)uency distri(utions

" frequen#y distribution is a listing of the number of students .ho obtained ea#h s#ore on a test. If 07 students ta)e a test, and the s#ores range from 77 to 01 then the frequen#y distribution might loo) li)e &able F0. 4e also sho. the same set of s#ores on a histogram or bar graph inExhibit 7:. &he hori/ontal ;or x axis< represents the s#ore on the test and the erti#al axis ;y axis< represents the number or frequen#y of students. *lotting a frequen#y distribution helps us see .hat s#ores are typi#al and ho. mu#h ariability there are in the s#ores. 4e des#ribe more pre#ise .ays of determining typi#al s#ores and ariability next. &able F0: Frequen#y distribution for 01 s#ores
Score on test 7: 7C 78 E1 E7 EE E0 EF E@ E9 E: EC E8 01 &B&"2 ?re3uency 7 7 1 0 E 9 0 E 1 E 9 E E 7 07 $ode $ode $edian $ean Central tendency measures
EC0
Exhibit 79: &ests s#ores from &able F0 represented as a bar graph
Central tenden#y and ariability

&here are three #ommon .ays of measuring #entral tenden#y or .hi#h s#ore;s< are typi#al. &he mean is #al#ulated by adding up all the s#ores and di iding by the number of s#ores. In the example in &able F0, the mean is EF. &he median is the =middle? s#ore of the distributionLthat is half of the s#ores are abo e the median and half are belo.. &he median on the distribution is E0 be#ause 7@ s#ores are abo e E0 and 7@ are belo.. &he mode is the s#ore that o##urs most often. In &able F0 there are a#tually t.o modes EE and E: and so this distribution is des#ribed as bimodal. Cal#ulating the mean, median and mode are important as ea#h pro ides different information for tea#hers. &he median represents the s#ore of the =middle? students, .ith half s#oring abo e and belo., but does not tell us about the s#ores on the test that o##urred most often. &he mean is important for some statisti#al #al#ulations but is highly influen#ed by a fe. extreme s#ores ;#alled outliers< but the median is not. &o illustrate this, imagine a test out of E1 points ta)en by 71 students, and most do ery .ell but one student does ery poorly. &he s#ores might be F, 7C, 7C, 78, 78, 78, 78, 78, E1, E1. &he mean is 7:.@ ;7:1K71< but if the lo.est s#ore ;F< is eliminated the mean is no. is 7.@ points higher at 78 ;7:7K8<. 5o.e er, in this example the median remains at 78 .hether the lo.est s#ore is in#luded. 4hen there are some extreme s#ores the median is often more useful for tea#hers in indi#ating the #entral tenden#y of the frequen#y distribution. &he measures of #entral tenden#y help us summari/e s#ores that are representati e, but they do not tell us anything about ho. ariable or ho. spread out are the s#ores. Exhibit 7: illustrates sets of s#ores from t.o different s#hools on the same test for fourth graders. Aote that the mean for ea#h is F1 but in !#hool " the s#ores are mu#h less spread out. " simple .ay to summari/e ariability is the range, .hi#h is the lo.est s#ore subtra#ted from the lo.est s#ore. In !#hool " .ith lo. ariability the range is ;F@L0@< ] 71I in the s#hool 6 the range is ; @@-EE ] 00<.
ECF
" 'lobal &ext
Exhibit 7:: Fourth grade math s#ores in t.o different s#hools .ith the same mean but different ariability 5o.e er, the range is only based on t.o s#ores in the distribution, the highest and lo.est s#ores, and so does not represent ariability in all the s#ores. &he standard deviation is based on ho. mu#h, on a erage, all the s#ores de iate from the mean. In the example in Exhibit 7F the standard de iations are :.:0 for !#hool " and E.17 for !#hool 6. In the exer#ise belo. .e demonstrate ho. to #al#ulate the standard de iation.
Cal#ulating a standard de iation

Example: &he s#ores from 77 students on a qui/ are F, :, 9, 0, 71, :, 0, :, @, @, and 8 !tep 7: Brder s#ores. !tep E: Cal#ulate the mean s#ore. !tep 0: Cal#ulate the de iations from the mean. !tep F: !quare the de iations from the mean. !tep @: Cal#ulate the mean of the squared de iations from the mean ;i.e. sum the squared de iations from the mean then di ide by the number of s#ores<. &his number is #alled the arian#e. !tep 9: &a)e the square root and you ha e #al#ulated the standard de iation.
EC@
!#ore ;!tep 7, order< 0 0 F @ @
%e iation from the mean -0 -0 -E -7 -7
!quared de iation from the mean 8 8 F 7 7 ;!tep F-@, #omplete the #al#ulations< Formula: Standard deviation =
Score Mean
N
A ] Aumber of s#ores 9 : : : 8 71 &B&"2 ] 99 ;!tep E, #al#ulate mean< MEAN 66 / 11 = 6 1 7 7 7 0 F 1 7 7 7 8 F @E ;!tep 0, #al#ulate de iations< ;!tep 9, find the standard de iation< Standard deviation = 4.73= 2.17
Mean= 40 / 11= 4.73
Exhibit 7C: Cal#ulating a standard de iation
&he normal distribution

Kno.ing the standard de iation is parti#ularly important .hen the distribution of the s#ores falls on a normal distribution. 4hen a standardi/ed test is administered to a ery large number of students the distribution of s#ores is typi#ally similar, .ith many students s#oring #lose to the mean, and fe.er s#oring mu#h higher or lo.er than the mean. 4hen the distribution of s#ores loo)s li)e the bell shape sho.n in Exhibit 79 it is #alled a normal distribution. In the diagram .e did not dra. in the s#ores of indi idual students as .e did in Exhibit 7:, be#ause distributions typi#ally only fall on a normal #ur e .hen there are a large number of studentsI too many to sho. indi idually. " normal distribution is symmetri#, and the mean, median and mode are all the same.
EC9
" 'lobal &ext
Exhibit 78: 6ell shaped #ur e of normal distribution Aormal #ur e distributions are ery important in edu#ation and psy#hology be#ause of the relationship bet.een the mean, standard de iation, and per#entiles. In all normal distributions 0F per #ent of the s#ores fall bet.een the mean and one standard de iation of the mean. Intelligen#e tests often are #onstru#ted to ha e a mean of 711 and standard de iation of 7@ and .e illustrate that in Exhibit 7E.
Exhibit E1: Aormal distribution for an IQ test .ith mean 711 and standard de iation 7@ In this example, 0F per #ent of the s#ores are bet.een 711 and 77@ and as .ell, 0F per #ent of the s#ores lie bet.een C@ and 711. &his means that 9C per #ent of the s#ores are bet.een -7 and V7 standard de iations of the mean ;i.e. C@ and 77@<. Aote than only 7F per #ent of the s#ores are bet.een V7 and VE standard de iations of the mean and only E per #ent fall abo e VE standard de iations of the mean. In a normal distribution a student .ho s#ores the mean alue is al.ays in the fiftieth per#entile be#ause the mean and median are the same. " s#ore of V7 standard de iation abo e the mean ;e.g. 77@ in the example abo e< is
EC:
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense the CF per #ent tile ;@1 per #ent and 0F per #ent of the s#ores .ere belo. 77@<. In Exhibit 71 .e represent the per#entile equi alents to the normal #ur e and .e also sho. standard s#ores. 7
Kinds of test s#ores

" standard score expresses performan#e on a test in terms of standard de iation units abo e of belo. the mean ;2inn P $iller, E11@<. &here are a ariety of standard s#ores: 6.score$ Bne type of standard s#ore is a -.score* in .hi#h the mean is 1 and the standard de iation is 7. &his means that a /-s#ore tells us dire#tly ho. many standard de iations the s#ore is abo e or belo. the mean. For example, if a student re#ei es a / s#ore of E her s#ore is t.o standard de iations abo e the mean or the eightyfourth per#entile. " student re#ei ing a / s#ore of -7.@ s#ored one and one half de iations belo. the mean. "ny s#ore from a normal distribution #an be #on erted to a / s#ore if the mean and standard de iation is )no.n. &he formula is:
- s#ore = !#ore mean s#ore !tandard de iation
!o, if the s#ore is 701 and the mean is 711 and the standard de iation is 7@ then the #al#ulation is:
-= 130 100 =2 15
If you loo) at Exhibit 7E you #an see that this is #orre#tLa s#ore of 701 is E standard de iations abo e the mean and so the / s#ore is E. @.score$ " @.score has a mean of @1 and a standard de iation of 71. &his means that a &-s#ore of :1 is t.o standard de iations abo e the mean and so is equi alent to a /-s#ore of E. Stanines$ !tanines ;pronoun#ed staynines< are often used for reporting studentsJ s#ores and are based on a standard nine point s#ale and .ith a mean of @ and a standard de iation of E. &hey are only reported as .hole numbers and Figure 77-71 sho.s their relation to the normal #ur e.
Krade e)uivalent sores

" grade equi alent s#ore pro ides an estimate of test performan#e based on grade le el and months of the s#hool year ;*opham, E11@, p. ECC<. " grade equi alent s#ore of 0.: means the performan#e is at that expe#ted of a third grade student in the se enth month of the s#hool year. 'rade equi alents pro ide a #ontinuing range of grade le els and so #an be #onsidered de elopmental s#ores. 'rade equi alent s#ores are popular and seem easy to understand ho.e er they are typi#ally misunderstood. If, (ames, a fourth grade student, ta)es a reading test and the grade equi alent s#ore is 9.1I this does not mean that James can do si5th grade or& . It means that (ames performed on the fourth grade test as a sixth grade student is expe#ted to perform. &esting #ompanies #al#ulate grade equi alents by gi ing one test to se eral grade le els. For example a test designed for fourth graders .ould also be gi en to third and fifth graders. &he ra. s#ores are plotted and a trend line is established and this is used to establish the grade equi alents. Aote that in Error: +eferen#e sour#e not found the trend line extends beyond the grades le els a#tually tested so a grade equi alent abo e @.1 or belo. 0.1 is based solely on the estimated trend lines.
7 Exhibit 77.71 must be re-dra.n. *lease #onta#t the "sso#iate Editor for the original. Educational Psychology ECC " 'lobal &ext
Exhibit E7: 3sing trend lines to estimate grade equi alent s#ores 'rade equi alent s#ores also assume that the sub,e#t matter that is being tested is emphasi/ed at ea#h grade le el to the same amount and that mastery of the #ontent a##umulates at a mostly #onstant rate ;*opham, E11@<. $any testing experts .arn that grade equi alent s#ores should be interpreted .ith #onsiderable s)epti#ism and that parents often ha e serious mis#on#eptions about grade equi alent s#ores. *arents of high a#hie ing students may ha e an inflated sense of .hat their #hildJs le els of a#hie ement.
0ssues #ith standardiBed tests

$any people ha e ery strong ie.s about the role of standardi/ed tests in edu#ation. !ome belie e they pro ide an unbiased .ay to determine an indi idualJs #ogniti e s)ills as .ell as the quality of a s#hool or distri#t. Bthers belie e that s#ores from standardi/ed tests are #apri#ious, do not represent .hat students )no., and are misleading .hen used for a##ountability purposes. $any edu#ational psy#hologists and testing experts ha e nuan#ed ie.s and ma)e distin#tions bet.een the information standardi/ed tests #an pro ide about studentsJ performan#es and ho. the tests results are interpreted and used. In this nuan#ed ie., many of the problems asso#iated .ith standardi/ed tests arise from their high sta)es use su#h as using the performan#e on one test to determine sele#tion into a program, graduation, or li#ensure, or ,udging a s#hool as high s lo. performing.
"re standardi/ed tests biased>

In a multi#ultural so#iety one #ru#ial question is: "re standardi/ed tests biased against #ertain so#ial #lass, ra#ial, or ethni# groups> &his question is mu#h more #ompli#ated than it seems be#ause bias has a ariety of meanings. "n e eryday meaning of bias often in ol es the fairness of using standardi/ed test results to predi#t potential performan#e of disad antaged students .ho ha e pre iously had fe. edu#ational resour#es. For example, should %.ayne, a high s#hool student .ho .or)ed hard but had limited edu#ational opportunities be#ause of the poor s#hools in his neighborhood and fe. edu#ational resour#es in his home, be denied graduation from high s#hool be#ause of his s#ore on one test. It .as not his fault that he did not ha e the edu#ational resour#es and if gi en a #han#e .ith a #hange his en ironment ;e.g. by going to #ollege< his performan#e may blossom. In this ie., EC8
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense test s#ores refle#t so#ietal inequalities and #an punish students .ho are less pri ileged, and are often erroneously interpreted as a refle#tion of a fixed inherited #apa#ity. +esear#hers typi#ally #onsider bias in more te#hni#al .ays and three issues .ill be dis#ussed: item #ontent and formatI a##ura#y of predi#tions, and stereotype threat. .tem content and format. &est items may be harder for some groups than others. "n example of so#ial #lass bias in a multiple #hoi#e item as)ed students the meaning of the term field. &he students .ere as)ed to read the initial senten#e in itali#s and then sele#t the response that had the same meaning of field ;*opham E11F, p. EF<: Ay dad+s field is com%uter gra%hics. a. The %itcher could field his %osition (. Fe %re%ared the field (y %lo ing it c. The doctor e5amined my field of vision d. Fhat field ill you enter after college/ Children of professionals are more li)ely to understand this meaning of field as do#tors, ,ournalists and la.yers ha e =fields?, .hereas #ashiers and maintenan#e .or)ers ha e ,obs so their #hildren are less li)ely to )no. this meaning of field. ;&he #orre#t ans.er is %<. &esting #ompanies try to minimi/e these )inds of #ontent problems by ha ing test de elopers from a ariety of ba#)grounds re ie. items and by examining statisti#ally if #ertain groups find some items easier or harder. 5o.e er, problems do exist and a re#ent analyses of the erbal !"& tests indi#ated that .hites tend to s#ores better on easy items .hereas "fri#an "meri#ans, 5ispani# "meri#ans and "sian "meri#ans s#ore better on hard items ;Freedle, E11E<. 4hile these differen#es are not large, they #an influen#e test s#ores. +esear#hers thin) that the easy items in ol ing .ords that are used in e ery day #on ersation may ha e subtly different meanings in different sub#ultures .hereas the hard .ords ;e.g. ehemen#e, sy#ophant< are not used in e ery #on ersation and so do not ha e these ariations in meaning. &est formast #an also influen#e test performan#e. Females typi#ally s#ore better at essay questions and .hen the !"& re#ently added an essay #omponent, the females o erall !"& erbal s#ores impro ed relati e to males ;5oo er, E119<.
Accuracy of %redictions
!tandardi/ed tests are used among other #riteria to determine .ho .ill be admitted to sele#ti e #olleges. &his pra#ti#e is ,ustified by predi#ti e alidity e iden#eLi.e. that s#ores on the "C& or !"& are used to predi#t first year #ollege grades. +e#ent studies ha e demonstrated that the predi#tions for bla#) and 2atino students are less a##urate than for .hite students and that predi#tors for female students are less a##urate than male students ;Noung, E11F<. 5o.e er, perhaps surprisingly the test s#ores tend to slightly o er predi#t su##ess in #ollege for bla#) and 2atino students, i.e. these students are li)ely to attain lo er freshman grade point a erages than predi#ted by their test s#ores. In #ontrast, test s#ores tend to slightly under predi#t su##ess in #ollege for female students, i.e. these students are li)ely to attain higher freshman grade point a erages than predi#ted by their test s#ores. +esear#hers are not sure .hy there are differen#es in ho. a##urately the !"& and "C& test predi#t freshman grades.
Stereoty%e threat
'roups that are negati ely stereotyped in some area, su#h as .omenJs performan#e in mathemati#s, are in danger of stereotype threat, i.e. #on#erns that others .ill ie. them through the negati e or stereotyped lens ;"ronson P !teele, E11@<. !tudies ha e sho.n that test performan#e of stereotyped groups ;e.g. "fri#an "meri#ans, Educational Psychology E81 " 'lobal &ext
12. Standardi)ed and other formal assessments 2atinos, .omen< de#lines .hen it is emphasi/ed to those ta)ing the test that ;a< the test is high sta)es, measures intelligen#e or math and ;b< they are reminded of their ethni#ity, ra#e or gender ;e.g. by as)ing them before the test to #omplete a brief demographi# questionnaire<. E en if indi iduals belie e they are #ompetent, stereotype threat #an redu#e .or)ing memory #apa#ity be#ause indi iduals are trying to suppress the negati e stereotypes. !tereotype threat seems parti#ularly strong for those indi iduals .ho desire to perform .ell. !tandardi/ed test s#ores of indi iduals from stereotyped groups may signifi#antly underestimate a#tual their #ompeten#e in lo.sta)es testing situations.
%o tea#hers tea#h to the tests>

&here is e iden#e that s#hools and tea#hers ad,ust the #urri#ulum so it refle#ts .hat is on the tests and also prepares students for the format and types of items on the test. !e eral sur eys of elementary s#hool tea#hers indi#ated that more time .as spent on mathemati#s and reading and less on so#ial studies and s#ien#es in E11F than 7881 ;(erald, E119<. *rin#ipals in high minority enrollment s#hools in four states reported in E110 they had redu#ed time spent on the arts. +e#ent resear#h in #ogniti e s#ien#e suggests that reading #omprehension in a sub,e#t ;e.g. s#ien#e or so#ial studies< requires that students understand a lot of o#abulary and ba#)ground )no.ledge in that sub,e#t ;+e#ht P 2eslie, 78CC<. &his means that e en if students gain good reading s)ills they .ill find learning s#ien#e and so#ial studies diffi#ult if little time has been spent on these sub,e#ts. &a)ing a test .ith an unfamiliar format #an be diffi#ult so tea#hers help students prepare for spe#ifi# test formats and items ;e.g. double negati es in multiple #hoi#e itemsI #onstru#ted response<. Earlier in this #hapter a middle s#hool tea#her, Erin, and *rin#ipal %r $u##i des#ribed the test preparation emphasis in their s#hools. &here is gro.ing #on#ern that the amount of test preparation that is no. o##urring in s#hools is ex#essi e and students are not being edu#ated but trained to do tests ;*opham, E11F<.
%o students and edu#ators #heat>

It is diffi#ult to obtain good data on ho. .idespread #heating is but .e )no. that students ta)ing tests #heat and others, in#luding test administrators, help them #heat ;Ci/e), E110I *opham E119<. !teps to pre ent #heating by students in#lude prote#ting the se#urity of tests, ma)ing sure students understand the administration pro#edures, pre enting students from bringing in their notes or unappro ed ele#troni# de i#es as .ell as loo)ing at ea#h others ans.ers. !ome tea#hers and prin#ipals ha e been #aught using unethi#al test preparation pra#ti#es su#h as gi ing a#tual test items to students ,ust before the tests, gi ing students more time than is allo.ed, ans.ering studentsJ questions about the test items, and a#tually #hanging studentsJ ans.ers ;*opham, E119<. Con#erns in &exas about #heating led to the #reation of an independent tas) for#e in "ugust E119 .ith 7@ staff members from the &exas Edu#ation "gen#y assigned in estigate test improprieties. ;(a#obson, E119<. 4hile the pressure on s#hools and tea#hers to ha e their student perform .ell is large these pra#ti#es are #learly unethi#al and ha e lead to s#hool personnel being fired from their ,obs ;Ci/e), E110<.
Chapter summary
!tandardi/ed tests are assessments de eloped by a team of experts and administered in #onsistent .ays. &hey are used primarily to insure a##ountability about studentsD edu#ationLto pro ide e iden#e that students are learning desired s)ills and )no.ledge. $ost elementary and middle s#hool tea#hers are li)ely to be responsible for helping students attain state #ontent standards and a#hie e profi#ien#y on #riterion-referen#ed a#hie ement tests. In order to interpret test s#ores and #ommuni#ate that information to students and parents, tea#hers ha e to E87
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense understand basi# information about measures of #entral tenden#y and ariability, the normal distribution, and se eral )inds of test s#ores. Current e iden#e suggests that standardi/ed tests #an be biased against #ertain groups and that many tea#hers tailor their #urri#ulum and #lassroom tests to mat#h the standardi/ed tests. " fe. edu#ators ha e e en been #aught #heatingLfalsifying or =fudging? test results.
Further resour#es
Rhttp:KK....#se.u#la.eduKS &he Aational Center for +esear#h on E aluation, !tandards, and !tudent &esting ;C+E!!&< at 3C2" fo#uses on resear#h and de elopment that impro es assessment and a##ountability systems. It has resour#es for resear#hers, K-7E tea#hers, and poli#y ma)ers on the impli#ations of AC26 as .ell as #lassroom assessment. Rhttp:KK....ed.go Kn#lbKlanding.,htmlS &his is the 3! %epartment of Edu#ation .ebsite de oted to promoting information and supporting and AC26, the legislation that has in#reased the use of and relian#e on standardi/ed testing in the 3nited !tates in re#ent years. 2in)s for tea#hers and the summaries of the impa#t of AC26 in ea#h state are pro ided. Rhttp:KK....tea#hingedpsy#h..i)ispa#es.#omK"ssessmentVofVK-7EVlearningS &his page of the teachinged%sych .i)i has se eral a#ti ities about assessmentLboth as #ondu#ted by tea#hers and as represented in standardi/ed testing. !ee espe#ially the lin) #alled =+esour#es for &ea#hing 6asi# !tatisti#al Con#epts ?, .hi#h ta)es statisti#al #on#epts mu#h further than .e .ere able to do in this #hapter.
Key terms
"#hie ement tests "ptitude tests "N* ;"nnual Nearly *rogress< Criterion referen#ed tests %iagnosti# tests Frequen#y distribution 'rade equi alent s#ores 5igh sta)es tests $ean $edian $ode Aorm referen#ed tests +ange !tandard de iation !tanine --s#ore
+eferen#es
"meri#an Federation of &ea#hers ;E119, (uly< Smart Testing2 #et+s get it right. "F& *oli#y 6rief. +etrie ed "ugust Cth E119 from http:KK....aft.orgKpress#enterKreleasesKE119KsmarttestingK&estingbrief.pdf "ronson, (., P !teele, C. $. ;E11@<. !tereotypes and the Fragility of "#ademi# Competen#e, $oti ation, and !elf-Con#ept. In ". (. Elliott P C. !. %.e#) ;Eds.<. :and(oo& of com%etence and motivation. 3pp.F09F@9< 'uilford *ubli#ations, Ae. Nor). 6ra#ey, '. 4. ;E11F<. Galue added assessment findings: *oor )ids get poor tea#hers. Phi !elta Ka%%an, B;, 007- 000 Ci/e), '. (. ;E110<. %ete#ting and pre enting #lassroom #heating: *romoting integrity in assessment. Cor.in *ress, &housand Ba)s, C". Combined Curri#ulum %o#ument +eading F.7 ;E119<. "##essed Ao ember 78, E119 from http:KK....edu#ation.)y.go KK%EKInstru#tionalV+esour#esKCurri#ulumV%o#umentsVandV+esour#esK &ea#hingV&oolsKCombinedVCurri#ulumV%o#umentsKdefault.htm
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12. Standardi)ed and other formal assessments Freedle, +. B. ;E110<. Corre#ting the !"&Js ethni# and so#ialU#lass bias: " method for reestimating !"& s#ores. :arvard Educational Revie , >< ;7<, 7-FE. Fuhrman, !. 5. ;E11F<. Introdu#tion, In !. 5. Fuhrman P +. F. Elmore ;Eds<. Redesigning accounta(ility systems for education. ;pp. 0-7F<. Ae. Nor): &ea#hers College *ress. 5aertel, E. P 5erman, (. ;E11@< " histori#al perspe#ti e on alidity arguments for a##ountability testing. In (. 2.5erman P E. 5. 5aertel ;Eds.< 3ses and misuses of data for edu#ational a##ountability and impro ement. C=?th Oear(oo& of the $ational Society for the Study of Education . $alden, $": 6la#).ell 5ershberg, &. ;E11F<. "alue added assessment2 Po erful diagnostics to im%rove instruction and %romote student achievement. "meri#an "sso#iation of !#hool "dministrators, Conferen#e *ro#eedings. +etrie ed "ugust E7 E119 from ....#gp.upenn.eduKopeZne.s.html 5ess, F. 5. *etrilli, $. (. ;E119<. $o Child #eft -ehind Primer. Ae. Nor): *eter 2ang. 5off, %. (. ;E11E< !tates re ise meaning of profi#ient. Educational Fee&, DD,;9< 7,EF-E@. 5oo er, E. ;E119, B#tober E7<. !"& s#ores see largest dip in 07 years. Chronicle of :igher Education, @0;71<, "7. 5uman +esour#es %i ision ;n. d.<. Firefighter Common.ealth of $assa#husetts *hysi#al "bilities &est ;*"&< "##essed Ao ember, 78, E119 from http:KK....mass.go K> pageI%]hrdtopi#P2]EP21]5omeP27]Ci ilV!er i#ePsid]Ehrd Idaho %epartment of Edu#ation ;E11@-9<. Aathematics Content standards and assessment (y grade level. "##essed Ao ember EE E119 from http:KK....sde.idaho.go Kinstru#tKstandardsK (a#obson, 2. ;E119<. *robing &est irregularities: &exas laun#hes inquiry into #heating on exams. Education Fee&, DB3C), EC (erald, C. % ;E119,"ugust<.The :idden costs of curriculum narro ing. Issue 6rief, 4ashington %C: &he Center for Comprehensi e !#hool +eform and Impro ement. "##essed Ao ember E7, E119 from ....#enterfor#sri.orgK (oshi, +. $. ;E110<. $is#on#eptions about the assessment and diagnosis of reading disability. Reading Psychology, D?, EF:-E99. 2inn, +. 2., P $iller, $. %. ;E11@<. Aeasurement and Assessment in Teaching 8th ed. 3pper !addle +i er, A(: *earson . 2inn, +. 2. ;E11@<. 8i5ing the $C#- Accounta(ility System. C+E!!& *oli#y 6rief C. "##essed !eptember E7, E119 from http:KK....#se.u#la.eduKprodu#tsKpoli#ybriefsZset.htm Ae. Nor) !tate Edu#ation %epartment ;E11@<. 5ome Instru#tion in Ae. Nor) !tate. "##essed on Ao ember 78, E119 from http:KK....ems#.nysed.go KnonpubKpart71171.htm $artin, $.B., $ullis, I.G.!., 'on/ale/, E.(., P Chrosto.s)i, !.(. ;E11F<. 8indings 8rom .EA+s Trends in .nternational Aathematics and Science Study at the 8ourth and Eighth Krades Chestnut 5ill, $": &I$!! P *I+2! International !tudy Center, 6oston College. "##essed !eptember E0, E119 from http:KKtimss.b#.eduKtimssE110iKs#ien#e%.html Ao a), (. +. P Fuller, 6 ;E110, %e#ember<, Penali1ing diverse schools/ Similar test scores, (ut different students (ring federal sanctions. Policy analysis for %olicy education. 3ni ersity of California, 6er)eley !#hool of Edu#ation: 6er)eley C". "##essed on !eptember E7, E119 from http:KKpa#e.ber)eley.eduKpa#eZindex.html E80
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense ;BEC% E11F<. 2earning for &omorro.Ds 4orldLFirst +esults from *I!" E110. "##essed on !eptember E0, E119 from http:KK....pisa.oe#d.orgKdo#umentK Blson, 2. ;E11@, Ao ember 01th<. !tate test program mushroom as AC26 )i#)s in. Education Fee& D@3C<) C=4CD. *edulla, ( "brams, 2. $. $adaus, '. F., +ussell, $. K., +amos, $. "., P $iao, (. ;E110<. Perceived effects of state4mandated testing %rograms on teaching and learning2 8indings from a national survey of teachers. 6oston College, 6oston $" Aational 6oard on Edu#ational &esting and *ubli# *oli#y. "##essed !eptember E7 E119 from http:KKes#holarship.b#.eduKlyn#hZfa#pK@7K *opham, 4. (. ;E11F<. America+s *failing, schools. :o -ehind. Ae. Nor): +outledge Falmer. *opham, 4. (. ;E11@<. Classroom Assessment2 Fhat teachers need to &no . 6oston:, $": *earson. *opham, 4. (. ;E119<. Edu#ator #heating on Ao Child 2eft 6ehind &ests. Educational Fee&, D@ ;0E< 0E-00. +e#ht, %. +. P 2eslie, 2. ;78CC<. Effe#t of prior )no.ledge on good and poor readersJ memory of text. Journal of Educational Psychology B=, 79-E1. !haul, $. !. ;E119<. $o Child #eft -ehind Act2 States face challenges measuring academic gro th . &estimony before the 5ouse Committee on Edu#ation and the 4or)for#e 'o ernment "##ounting Bffi#e. "##essed !eptember E@, E119 from ....gao.go K#gi-binKgetrpt>'"B-19-8FC& !tiggins, + ;E11F<. Ae. "ssessment 6eliefs for a Ae. !#hool $ission, Phi !elta Ka%%an, B; ;7< EE -E:. 3nited !tates 'o ernment *rinting Bffi#e. ;E11E<. $o Child #eft -ehind Act2 A des&to% reference. 4ashington, %.C.: "uthor. 4ise, !. 2. P %e$ars, C. 4. ;E11@<. 2o. examinee effort in lo.-sta)es assessment: *roblems and potential solutions. Educational Assessment C=;7<, 7-7:. Noung, (. 4. ;E11F<. %ifferential alidity and predi#tion: +a#e and sex differen#es in #ollege admissions testing. In +. -.i#) ;Ed<. Rethin&ing the SAT2 The future of standardi1ed testing in university admissions. Ae. Nor) ;pp. EC8-017<. +outledge Falmer. %arents and teachers can co%y ith $o Child #eft
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1'. ppendi4 ) Preparing for licensure

If you li e in the 3nited !tates or another #ountry that #ertifies or li#enses tea#hers .ith some form of test or assessment of )no.ledge about tea#hing, the follo.ing #ase studies #an be helpful in preparing for the test. &he #ases ea#h deal .ith a realisti# tea#hing problem or dilemma. &hey are follo.ed by a fe. questions that #an be ans.ered a short ;half-page< essay format. &he style parallels that of the *+"[I! II examination often ta)en by future tea#hers in the 3nited !tates. &he #ontent or topi# of the #ases parallel sele#ted ma,or topi#s in se eral of the #hapters of Educational Psychology0one #ase per #hapter. +eaders .ho are planning to ta)e the *+"[I! II test, espe#ially the part #alled =*rin#iples of 2earning and &ea#hing? ;*2&<, .ill )no. that the *2& also in#ludes a number of stru#tured, multiple-#hoi#e items. 4e ha e not in#luded any examples of multiple-#hoi#e test items here, but these are .idely a ailable in arious published study guides for the *+"[I! II ;Edu#ational &esting !er i#e, E11:I Kaplan, E171I +o/a)is, E171<.
E8@
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13. *ppendi% *+ Preparing for licensure
*reparing for li#ensure : the de#line and fall of (ane 'ladstone

!ee also Chapter E, &he learning pro#essI Chapter :, Classroom management and the learning en ironment. (ane 'ladstone .as student tea#hing in a sixth-grade #lassroom. !he had been there for se eral .ee)s, helping .ith a#ti ities and o##asionally leading spe#ifi# a#ti ities that she had de ised herself. !he li)ed the students and felt that she had been de eloping good relationships .ith them. Bne morning $s 4ilson, her super ising tea#her, had to lea e unexpe#tedly. =!omethingJs #ome up, (ane, and the prin#ipal needs me to #ome to a meeting right a.ay. It #ould be a.hile before IJm ba#), so youJll need to ta)e #are of things. 6ut you )no. the routines no., donJt you>? (ane .as surprised and a bit .orried, but also ex#ited by the #hallenge. !he did indeed )no. the routines, so she smiled #heerfully as $s 4ilson .ent out the door. =BK, e eryone?, she said. =4eJll start .ith language arts. &urn to .here .e left off yesterday, page F9.? =6ut $s 'ladstone?, said *aul, =4e a#tually left off on page 0E.? =Ao, dummyM? #himed in Katherine, =Nou .ere absent yesterday, and the day before .e had an assembly. +emember>? !uddenly three or four students .ere dis#ussing .here in fa#t the #lass had left off in the boo), and therefore .here (ane ought to begin. (ane .as .ondering that herself. =*age F9M? she said firmlyLa#tually more firmly than she had intended. 6ut the students agreed, and the lesson began. &he lesson turned out to be a short story about an athlete .ho trained hard as a runner for a lo#al #ompetition. !tudents too) turns reading sele#tions from the story, and in this .ay got about half .ay through it. &hen (oe raised his hand. =$s 'ladstone?, he as)ed. =%o you thin) athletes should be arrested for ta)ing steroids>? (ane .as ta)en off guard by this. !he had been determined to finish the lesson smoothly. "ll she #ould thin) to say .as, =4ell I donJt )no.. &hatJs a hard question.? =$y dad says they should be arrested, and that no one should ha e any doubts about that.? In se#onds the language arts lesson .as forgotten and students .ere arguing about .hether athletes should ta)e drugs. For the moment (ane .as on the sidelines. =$y un#le too) steroids at uni ersity?, said Fran), =and it ne er hurt him.? ='rossM? #alled out (ill from a#ross the room. =I suppose you ta)e them too, then>? =4hatJs that supposed to mean>? as)ed Fran), ob iously annoyed. =!heJs saying your too fat, Fran)?, said (oe. =&hatJs .hat steroids do, you )no..? (ane .as getting .orried. 5o. #ould she get the dis#ussion ba#) on tra#)> !tudents .ere ,ust getting more .or)ed up. =IJ e ne er ta)en any drugsM? =Aot real drugsLsteroidsLyou .erenJt listening.? =I bet you ha e, though^? Bn it .ent, .ith some students getting annoyed and others #learly tuning out. 4hat if $s 4ilson #ame ba#) no.>
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=6E Q3IE&M? (ane shouted, surprised at hearing herself be so loud. E eryone got still instantly, stunned and surprised. 6ut not for long. =6e quietM? someone mimi#)ed softly from the ba#) of the room. " fe. sni#)ers. &hen someone else said it, .ith sar#asm dripping from the .ords. =6e quietM? (ane glo.ered at the #lass, .ondering .hat to do next.
Questions

4hat did (ane do .rong> ;a< 5o. #ould the studentsJ inappropriate beha iors be #onsidered examples of operant beha iors being reinfor#ed> ;b< In .hat .ay did (aneJs =#lamping do.n? on the students reinfor#e (ane> %es#ribe briefly a .ay for (ane and $s 4ilson to pre ent beha ior problems from o##urring .hen and if (ane has to ta)e o er the #lass unexpe#tedly.
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*reparing for li#ensure : (oeyJs indi idual edu#ational plan

!ee also Chapter @, !tudents .ith spe#ial edu#ational needsI Chapter 71, *lanning instru#tion. &he follo.ing are ex#erpts from t.o parts of the Indi idual Edu#ational *lan ;IE*< for a fourthgrade student named (oey .ho has an intelle#tual disability. &he ex#erpts list arious performan#e ob,e#ti es and a#tions, but only some of these are #omplete. For othersLmar)ed .ith question mar)s ;>><Lrele ant information or plans ha e been deliberately left blan). +ead the ex#erpts and then respond to the questions that follo.: art 1$ domain#ommuni#ation erformance )b!ectives 7. (oey .ill in#rease his o#abulary in all areasL people, things, and a#tions. <ethods* <aterials* or Strategies - (oey .ill use pi#tures to learn ne. .ords - &" .ill prompt a#ti e responsesLe.g. =!ho. me ZZ.? - Con ersation boo) .ith pi#tures of (oey doing things E. (oey .ill begin using E- or 0-.ord senten#es more often. -(oey .ill be pro ided .ith model phrases su#h as: =ZZ>>ZZ? -(oey .ill be gi en an entire senten#e and then ZZ>>ZZ +oles and +esponsibilities &ea#her: -monitor -plan daily a#ti ities &" 3i.e. *Teacher Assistant,)2 -modeling -dire#t instru#tion &ea#her: -modeling &": -modeling -fa#ilitating -informal obser ations -#he#)lists of parti#ular senten#es used -informal obser ation -#he#)lists re .hether desired o#abulary is being learned 2ssessment
art 2$ domainLa#ademi#K#ogniti e erformance )b!ectives <ethods* <aterials* or Strategies 0. (oey .ill re#ogni/e and print his name. -Cards .ith one studentJs name per #ard. (oey .ill ZZ>>ZZ -$a)e name using ZZ>>ZZ +oles and +esponsibilities &ea#her: -monitor &": -fa#ilitate - ZZ>>ZZ 2ssessment
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&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense -ZZ>>ZZ F. ZZZ>>ZZZ -ZZ>>ZZ -ZZ>>ZZ -model &ea#her: -monitor &": -fa#ilitate -model -ZZ>>ZZ -ZZ>>ZZ
Questions
For *erforman#e Bb,e#ti es OE and O0, the sample phrases and model senten#es are missing in the =$ethods, $aterials, and !trategies? #olumn. !uggest t.o reasonable sample phrases and t.o model senten#es to fill in these blan)s. &hen suggest ho. ea#h of the tea#hing strategies illustrate prin#iples of learning.
For *erforman#e Bb,e#ti e O0, .hat is missing in the ="ssessment? #olumn> !uggest a reasonable method of assessment and then explain ;7< .hy the method .ould be both alid and pra#ti#al, and ;E< any #autions the tea#her should be a.are of in using the method of assessment.
*erforman#e Bb,e#ti e OF is missing both =$ethods, $aterials, and !trategies? and ="ssessment.? Fill in both boxesLi.e. suggest t.o .ays of implementing the ob,e#ti e and t.o .ays of assessing it. &hen explain ho. your suggestions refle#t the nature of *erforman#e Bb,e#ti e OF.
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*reparing for li#ensure: +osemaryJs instru#tional de#ision

!ee also Chapter C, Aature of #lassroom #ommuni#ationI Chapter 8, Fa#ilitating #omplex thin)ing. +osemary had planned a lesson for her se#ond grade #lass about personal and so#ial management, but she .as not satisfied .ith it. !he had ta)en the general goal dire#tly from the stateJs offi#ial #urri#ulum guide for health edu#ation: =!tudents .ill identify positi e #ommuni#ation s)ills?, it said. 6ut the guide said nothing about ho. to translate this goal into pra#ti#e. !he .as thin)ing that she .ould use puppets to demonstrate ho. to #ommuni#ate in positi e .ays. &he puppets .ould engage in dialogue, during .hi#h they .ould nod their heads appropriately, fo#us on the spea)er, not interrupt, and )eep still .hile listening. $aybe she .ould in#lude a fe. #ommuni#ation mista)es as .ellLtimes .hen a puppet might interrupt in appropriately, for exampleLand #hallenge students to identify those moments. 5er plan seemed fine as far as it .ent, but she felt unsure about t.o things. Bne #on#ern .as ho. to ma)e sure that students got the point of the a#ti ity, and did not regard it simply as entertainment. 5o. should she introdu#e the a#ti ity> 4hat should she say about it, either beforehand, during, or after.ards> 4hat exa#tly should she tell students she is expe#ting from them> &he other #on#ern .as .ith the ery format of the a#ti ity. !he did not .ant students ,ust to )no. about good #ommuni#ation s)illsI she .anted them to use them as .ell. &he puppets did not seem to help .ith this latter purpose. 5o., she .ondered, #ould she get students to ta)e responsibility for pra#ti#ing good #ommuni#ation> 4as there a .ay to modify or extend the puppet a#ti ity that .ould do this> Br perhaps additional a#ti ities that students #ould do> &hin) of the range of instru#tional strategies a ailable to +osemary. &hen ans.er ea#h of the follo.ing questions.
Questions
Choose t o strategies that .ould help her .ith the first of her #on#ernsL.ith ma)ing sure that students understood the purpose of the puppets lesson. Compose an imaginary s#ript of .hat she might say before, during, and after using the puppets in the .ay des#ribed.
%e ise one .ay to modify the puppet a#ti ity so that it fo#used less on studentsJ )no.ledge of #ommuni#ation and more on studentsJ s)ills .ith #ommuni#ation. %e ise one additional a#ti ity to de elop studentsJ s)ills .ith #ommuni#ation and their sense of responsibility for doing so. Butline ea#h a#ti ity in point ;or summary< form. Comment briefly on ho. ea#h of your ans.ers abo e ;to Questions O7-0< dra.s on prin#iples and methods of ma,or instru#tional strategies.
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*reparing for li#ensure: $r Cullen tea#hes about houses

!ee also Chapter 71, *lanning instru#tionI Chapter F, !tudent di ersity. $r Cullen tea#hes fifth grade at an urban elementary s#hool, .here one of the normal #urri#ulum topi#s is about =.here people li e?. &he general goal of the unit, as expressed in the #urri#ulum frame.or) do#ument from the !tate %epartment of Edu#ation, is for students =to understand the nature and purposes of houses and ho. they are affe#ted by the #ir#umstan#es of their so#iety?. &o get started in planning the unit, $r Cullen brainstormed the #on#eptual .eb of ideas and topi#s sho.n belo. as =%o#ument 7? belo.. 5e also introdu#ed students to ma)ing #on#eptual .ebs about houses, one of .hi#h is sho.n belo. as =%o#ument E?. *art .ay through the unit, in addition, he too) the #lass on a simple field trip to loo) at the houses in the residential neighborhood near the s#hool. 5is notes about that field trip are sho.n as =%o#ument 0?. %o#ument 7: $r CullenJs #on#eptual map about houses
%o#ument E: (illJs #on#eptual map about houses
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%o#ument 0: Aotes on Field &rip 2oo)ing at Aeighborhood 5ouses &.enty students .al)ed about b mile around the neighborhood ;01 minutes< approximately 711 houses in the pro#ess. 6eha ior during the .al) .as generally good. !e eral questions as)ed by students ;no parti#ular order of importan#e<: ;a< =4ho li es in these houses>? ;b< =4hy are some houses painted ni#ely but others are not>? ;#< =4hy are some houses bigger than others>? ;d< =4here are some really 6I' houses>? ;e< =%o #hildren play on these yards and streets>? Question to myself: 5o. to address these questions ba#) in #lass> and ie.ed
Questions
Compare the #on#ept .ebs of $r Cullen and of the t.o students. Identify one topi# or goal that appears to be a priority for all three indi iduals. &hen de ise a strategy or a#ti ity appropriate for tea#hing about this topi# or goal. 3se prin#iples of instru#tional planning su#h as des#ribed in this #hapter.
Identify a topi# or goal that appears to be a priority only for $r Cullen ;i.e. that does not appear on either studentJs #on#ept .eb<. %e ise a strategy or a#ti ity appropriate for tea#hing about this topi# or goal, ta)ing into a##ount the possibility that the students ha e less prior )no.ledge or moti ation about this topi# than about the one identified in Question O7.
Identify a topi# or goal that appears to be a priority only for one of the students ;i.e. that appears only on that studentJs #on#ept .eb<. %e ise a strategy or a#ti ity appropriate for supporting the student in pursuing this topi#, and for #onne#ting it to at least one other topi# in $r CullenJs #on#ept .eb.
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Choose any t.o of the questions #ited in $r CullenJs field trip notes. %is#uss ho. these questions might be addressed in the #ontext of one of the other a#ti ities des#ribed in Questions O7-O0 =%e#iding for yourself about resear#h?.
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*reparing for li#ensure: fa#ilitating studentsJ #ommuni#ation through group .or)

!ee also Chapter :, Classroom management and the learning en ironmentI Chapter C, &he nature of #lassroom #ommuni#ation. Scene 1$ (arbara ?uller ma5es plans It is late "ugust. 6arbara Fuller, a third grade tea#her, peers about her #lassroom, .ondering ho. she .ill organi/e her program for the #oming year. !he .ants to try some sort of #ollaborati e group .or) be#ause she has heard good things about itLespe#ially that it gets students tal)ing to ea#h other in .ays that are produ#ti e rather than mere #hit-#hat. $s Fuller is thin)ing of trying a group pro,e#t for so#ial studies that she is #alling =5o. many people does it ta)e to raise a #hild>? !tudents are supposed to explore ho. people outside the family #ontribute to the .elfare of infants and #hildren. If they do #ollaborate su##essfully, then students #an pool their resear#h, share ideas and interpretations, and present their results to #lass more effe#ti ely. $s Fuller has read some ery spe#ifi# literature about ho. to get started .ith #ollaborati e group .or). Bne boo) re#ommends, for example, that she assign the members of ea#h group rather than letting students sele#t their o.n groupsI this pro#edure is supposed to a oid #liques and ensure that e eryone is in#luded. 6ut it also means that some group mates may not be ea#h otherJs first #hoi#e. $s Fuller #onsiders this trade-off #arefully, and finally de#ides to go ahead and assign the group members herself. &o minimi/e possible #omplaints, she also de#ides to gi e ea#h group an immediate tas): #hoose a leader as .ell as a name for the group. Scene 2$ Collaborate groups that don$t collaborate &.o .ee)s into the term, $s Fuller begins the #ollaborati e pro,e#t about #ommunity helpers. !he des#ribes the purposes and ad antages of group .or): students #an help ea#h other, #o er more reading material, and en,oy ea#h otherJs #ompany. &hey .ill also be #hallenged to explain .hat they learn to ea#h other and to ,ustify to ea#h other their ideas for the final report and presentation. Bn#e the .or) begins, she begins noti#ing a ariety of rea#tions from groups and the indi iduals .ithin them. In one group ;$s Fuller dubs it ='roup 7?<, for example, &om #omplains to her that he is the only boy in the group. =NouJll be fine,? she says to &om. =If you loo) around, youJll see that most people are .ith other people they donJt )no. terribly .ell.? &om loo)s un#omfortable .ith her response, but #ontinues .or)ing. In 'roup E, (asmine ta)es o er almost immediatelyI e eryone seems to agree that she should ha e this ,ob. 3nfortunately (asmine is not pleased to be in #harge: she issues orders relu#tantly ;=Kyla, you loo) up about nurses?<, to .hi#h her group happily agree. In 'roup 0, Ken and !erge #onfer about the pro,e#t, but ignore the girls in the group. &he girls soon are #hatting about a#ti ities outside s#hool, doodling in their noteboo)s, and apparently daydreaming.
01F
In 'roup F, $s Fuller #an hear oi#es periodi#ally rising in anger. !he #anJt ma)e out .ho is saying .hat, but it seems to in ol e (ennifer, !ean, and possibly 2a ar. &he other t.o group members are sitting quietly, simply obser ing the argument and presumably .aiting for it to be o er.
Questions
If you #ould spea) to $s Fuller right no. ;at the end of !#ene E<, .hat ad i#e #ould you gi e her to assist in #ontinuing the a#ti ity> For this question, ta)e the situation as it has in fa#t e ol ed so farI a oid gi ing ad i#e, that is li)e =Nou should ne er ha e done [ in the first pla#e.? Fo#us your ad i#e on de eloping effe#ti e strategies of #ommuni#ation, either for $s Fuller, for the students, or for both.
Ao. imagine that you #an, mira#ulously, turn the #lo#) ba#) to the beginning of !#ene 7, .hen $s Fuller .as planning the #ollaborati e a#ti ity in the first pla#e. 4hat ad i#e #ould you gi e her at that initial point in time> "gain, fo#us your ad i#e on de eloping effe#ti e strategies of #ommuni#ation, either for $s Fuller, for the students, or for both.
Consider ho. non erbal #ommuni#ation among the students might be affe#ting studentsJ experien#e in parti#ular. %es#ribe a .ay in .hi#h one or more features of non erbal #ommuni#ation might #ause a #ollaborate group to fall apart or be#ome unprodu#ti e. &hen suggest .ays that $s Fuller might be able to help so that members of the group remained mutually supporti e and produ#ti e.
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*reparing for li#ensure: $s !#anton tea#hes se#ond grade

!ee also Chapter 71 *lanning instru#tionI "ppendix C: &he refle#ti e pra#titioner. 4hen $s !#anton taught se#ond grade, she )ept a ,ournal about her experien#es. !ometimes she simply re#orded interesting fa#ts or information indi iduals, but other times she #ommented and refle#ted on indi iduals at more length. 5ere are three of her ,ournal entries. !ocument C2 <s Scanton%s observation of 2shley%s 1riting B#tober F: "shley pro#rastinated a lot again today during ,ournal-.riting timeLstared at the #eiling, at the )ids near her, et#. et#. I reminded e eryone that they .ere supposed to .rite about =this .ee) at school,, but it didnJt seem to sin) in .ith "shley. "fter sitting a long time, she dre. a pi#ture of her familyL$om, %ad, #at. I )no. she espe#ially lo es her #at, but I also thought she should follo. dire#tions more #losely. I as) her, =Is that all youJ e done>? !he fro.ns. I smileLa sin#ere one. =ItJs hard,? she says #autiouslyLreferring to the .riting itself. =6ut thatJs .hy itJs important to .or) at itLto a#tually " pause. &hen, =5o. do you spell \$omJ>? she as)s. I tell her to sound it outI as) .hat is the first sound, et#. KmK^KahK^KmK^ !he says these sounds slo.ly, maybe to please me. =KmK,? she repeats, and then .rite do.n one letter: <. I ha e to lea e to #he#) on others. From a distan#e I see her .rite do.n K* then erase and s.it#h it to C. 4as she sounding out =#at?> !ocument D2 'ater that year$ <s Scanton%s log of 2shley%s misspellings "shley, Ao ember E7: "shley is still misspelling so many .ords in her .riting that IJm getting exasperated, to put it ni#ely. 5ereJs a list of her misspellings from the past t.o .ee)sLmostly from her ,ournal: te#hrs pelie# pepl ;tea#hers< ;poli#e< ;people< milmen;mailmen< fier pepel ;fire people< librein ;librarian< le#trisudie ;ele#tri#ity< do#trs ;do#tors< nrsis loyors ;nurses< ;la.yers< rite,, say I.
a 4hat to do for her> a !ocument H<2 Still later$ <s Scanton !ournal reflections
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"pril E7: (ust finished a #ool boo), K$OS AT FRK, by 'lenda 6issex, that made me thin) about "shley and her misspellings. &he author des#ribed her sonJs in ented spellings and ho. they be#ame more plentiful and #ompli#ated at first, but e entually be#ame more =adultli)e? or #on entional. Fas#inatingM &he mom .as in no hurry to #ure her #hild of his spelling problems, but he seemed to outgro. them on his o.n. &he #hief point seemed to be that in ented spellings may be good be#ause they sho. a#ti e efforts by the #hild to figure out the rules of spelling. !o maybe "shley .ill outgro. her misspellings too> I do note that her misspellingsLher in entions Lha e be#ome more #ompli#ated a#ross the year. 5ereJs from her ,ournal last .ee): &%" 4 4& & ($ A"% 4 *2N &42I& &"' 4ith a little help from "shley, I figured this out as =&oday .e .ent to gym and .e played toilet tag.? 5ereJs from the .ee) before: &I- 4K 4 $"% *&N $"[. &ranslation: =&his .ee) .e made party mas)s.? Quite a differen#e from the start of the year, .hen she .ould only .rite do.n a #ouple of letters during ,ournal-.riting timeM $aybe I need to support her efforts more and .orry about them less. 6ut ho. to do that and still ma)e sure she really is learning ho. to spell> *.!. If you are interested, the boo) about in ented spellings that $s !#anton mentioned in %o#ument O0 is listed in the bibliography.
Questions
In these ex#erpts from her ,ournal, $s !#anton has obser ed and refle#ted on "shleyJs learning to spell. Considered her a#ti ities as a .hole, ho. mu#h do they qualify as a#tion resear#h in the sense des#ribed in this #hapter> 4hat should be added or #hanged to ma)e her a#ti ities a full-fledged example of a#tion resear#h>
Consider the list of misspellings ;or in ented spellings< in %o#ument OE. !uggest ho., if at all, $s !#anton might address those misspellings .ith "shley. In parti#ular, #omment on .hether she should ma)e time to .or) .ith "shley in the same .ay that she did in %o#ument O7. "ssuming that she does ma)e time, ho. she might set priorities about .hi#h .ord;s< to fo#us on if she does not ha e time to deal .ith them all>
!uppose that $s !#anton does not ha e time to re ie. e ery misspelled .ord .ith "shley. 5o. else #ould she address "shleyJs spelling problems> Consider briefly ho. she might use ea#h of the follo.ing: ;7< peer tutor, ;E< #lassroom #omputer, ;0< home.or). Comment on ho. $s !#anton might #olle#t information about ea#h of these strategies.
+eferen#es
Edu#ational &esting !er i#e. ;E11:<. Study guide for *rin#iples of 2earning and &ea#hing. 0rd edition. *rin#eton, A(, 3!": "uthor. Kaplan *ublishing. ;E171<. Ka%lan PRA[.S, C=th edition. Ae. Nor): "uthor. Educational Psychology 01: " 'lobal &ext
13. *ppendi% *+ Preparing for licensure +o/a)is, 2. ;E171<. AcKra 4:illMs PRA[.S . and .., <rd edition. Ae. Nor): $#'ra.-5ill.
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1/. ppendi4 9) 3eciding for yourself about the research

In most of this boo), edu#ational resear#h is used to establish ideas and ad i#e about tea#hing. 4ith the ex#eption of Chapter 70 ;=&he refle#ti e pra#titioner?<, .e use the results of studies but do not analy/e indi idual resear#h studies in depth. In this appendix .e ta)e the opposite approa#h: .e loo) at examples of se eral resear#h problems in detail and assess the trust.orthiness, alidity, and reliability of indi idual studies that address the problems. 4e des#ribe ho. the rele ant indi idual studies .ere #ondu#ted, refle#t on their signifi#an#e, and pose questions to #onsider about the resear#h. &he underlying resear#h problems refle#t many of the themes of the #hapters. Find referen#es for the follo.ing #ase studies listed at the end of ea#h #ase. &o lo#ate the referen#es for the #hapter #ompatible to ea#h #ase study, refer to text, and find the bibliography listed at the end of ea#h #hapter. "ssessing resear#h studies in this .ay gi es a different perspe#ti e on the resear#h than simply using the results: up #lose, the impli#ations of a study are often not as #lear, or e en seem quite different, than .hen seen from a distan#e.
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14. *ppendi% ,+ -eciding for yourself a.out the research
%e#iding for yourself about the resear#h: Effects of high4sta&es testing on learning educational %sychology ;see also Chapter 7, &he #hanging tea#hing profession and you<
"s indi#ated else.here in this boo), the trend to.ard high-sta)es testing has affe#ted e en the preparation of tea#hers themsel es. $any "meri#an states no. require ne. tea#hers to pass a standardi/ed test of sub,e#t matter )no.ledge, and many also require them to pass a test about edu#ational psy#hologyLthe sort of #ontent that is the fo#us of this textboo) ;Co#hran-!mith, E110I Edu#ational &esting !er i#e WE&!X, E11F<. &hese #hanges highlight ma)e the issues about testing ery i idLand at times anxiety-pro o)ingLfor many ne. tea#hers. +osemary !utton studied the effe#ts of high-sta)es testing on her o.n tea#hing of edu#ational psy#hology as .ell as on her undergraduate studentsJ responses to studying this sub,e#t ;!utton, E11F<. In her state of Bhio, ne. tea#hers must all ta)e a test #alled the =*+"[I! II: *rin#iples of 2earning and &ea#hing? ;E&!, E11F<. !he reported experien#ing a number of ne. instru#tional dilemmas as a result of this test being introdu#ed as a requirement for tea#her li#ensing and #ertifi#ation, and she des#ribed ho. she resol ed them. &he effe#ts of the dilemmas and of her solutions to them .ere not uniform, but depended on the parti#ular feature of the #ourse. Bne negati e effe#t .as that *rofessor !utton felt more pressure to #o er as mu#h of the #ontent of the *+"[I! in her #ourse as possible, so that students #ould be prepared as .ell as possible for the test. %oing so, ho.e er, meant #o ering more material and therefore redu#ing depth of #o erage of #ertain topi#s. &his .as a serious problem, she feared, be#ause some parts of the #ourse be#ame more shallo. or fragmented. !he also had less time for open-ended dis#ussions that truly follo.ed interests expressed by the students. Bn the other hand, *rofessor !utton also reported di ersifying her tea#hing methodsLfor example by using more group .or) and less le#turingLas a .ay to ma)e #lass sessions more interesting and moti ating, and therefore insuring that students learned the in#reased material as .ell as possible. !he also began using more assignments that resembled the *+"[I! test itself. In this #ase imitating the *+"[I! meant gi ing =#ase study qui//es? throughout the semester, .hi#h .ere featured prominently on the *+"[I!. &he qui//es #onsisted of short ane#dotes or stories follo.ed by open-ended questions .hi#h students ans.ered the spa#e of a fe. senten#es or brief paragraph. !in#e the students )ne. that the qui//es .ere a type of preparation for li#ensing, they tolerated them .ell, and e en .el#omed them. !he and the students felt as if they .ere =on the same side?, .or)ing together to help the students pass their exam. &he relationship .as therefore more positi e and less =#onfli#ted? #ompared to earlier times .hen *rofessor !utton .as expe#ted not only to tea#h the students, but also to e aluate them. 4ith the introdu#tion of the li#ensing exam, finally, some students seemed to regard edu#ational psy#hology as more important than in the pastLe en using uni ersity brea) .ee)s for additional
071
study of the textboo)M Bn the other hand, some students seemed to .orry about their performan#e on the test, and their anxiety may ha e interfered .ith learning about edu#ational psy#hology itself. &heir .orries #reated a dilemma that *rofessor ne er truly resol ed: ho. to get students to prepare for the test seriously .ithout arousing undue .orry or anxiety in them>
Questions
5o. .ell do you feel that *rofessor !uttonJs dilemmas about high-sta)es testing refle#t the dilemmas that publi# s#hool tea#hers might fa#e in preparing their o.n students for highsta)es tests>
Bn balan#e, and ta)ing into a##ount *rofessor !uttonJs experien#e, do you thin) that highsta)es tests are desirable>
+eferen#es
Co#hran-!mith, $. ;E110<. "ssessing assessment in tea#her edu#ation. (ournal of &ea#her Edu#ation, @F;0<, 7C:-787. Edu#ational &esting !er i#e. ;E11F<. !tudy guide for *rin#iples of 2earning and &ea#hing, End edition. *rin#eton, A(: "uthor.
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%e#iding for yourself about the resear#h: -ehaviorist and constructivist teaching com%ared ;see also Chapter E, &he learning pro#ess<
Aumerous edu#ators ha e planned and implemented a#ti ities and #urri#ulum units that use either beha iorist or #onstru#ti ist prin#iples in one .ay or another. Bften the demonstrated a#ti ities or units are hard to #ompare dire#tly simply be#ause beha iorism and #onstru#ti ism address different aspe#ts of learning, and therefore #all upon tea#hers to perform some.hat different roles. &o see .hat .e mean, loo) at these t.o examples of instru#tional resear#h. &he first is grounded in beha iorism and the se#ond is grounded in #onstru#ti ism. (ehaviorism in action$ a remedy for stuttering $ar) Bnslo. and his #olleagues ha e des#ribed a .ay to help young #hildren o er#ome stuttering, a problem in .hi#h sounds and .ords are repeated or stret#hed unduly, so that fluent #on ersation is diffi#ult ;E117<. Bnslo.Js resear#h strategy .as simple, at least in prin#iple: he trained parents of #hildren .ho stuttered to praise their #hild more strongly is the #hild spo)e fluently ;.ithout any stutter<, and to #orre#t the #hild quietly, but non-puniti ely .hene er the #hild did stutter. " fluent senten#e therefore produ#ed praise, or e en a gold star, from parents. " stuttered senten#e produ#ed an immediate senten#e li)e =I thin) that .as a stutter?, stated fa#tually and quietly. Galue ,udgments and #riti#isms .ere not allo.ed. Bnslo.Js program #ontradi#ted the #on entional ad i#e to parents about stuttering, .hi#h .as to ignore it .here er possible. Aonetheless the program produ#ed ery positi e results. "ll of the stuttering #hildren redu#ed or e en eliminated their stuttering after a fe. .ee)s of the differential reinfor#ement by their parents, and the stuttering did not return .hen they .ere tested e en one year after the program finished. Constructivism in action$ pro!ect.based learning (uliette 'oldman, an edu#ator .or)ing in "ustralia, demonstrated ho. this #an be done .ith health edu#ation for middle years students ;'oldman, E119<. !he designed a pro,e#t for se enth-grade students in .hi#h they had to publish a training manual for fello.-students on the topi# of =good food handling?, ad i#e for restaurant .or)ers about ho. they #an )eep for #ontaminating either themsel es or the food that they ser e. &he .riters of the manual .or)ed in groups of three, resear#hing information on a range of topi#s related to food handling. &hen they used #omputer self-publishing soft.are to prepare and print #opies of their information. &hey also made oral presentations about their manuals to a s#hool assembly to .hi#h lo#al food-industry representati es .ere in ited, and they arranged to display the finished manuals at the lo#al publi# library. &he initiati e used #onstru#ti ist prin#iples in a number of .ays. For example, it #hallenged learners to ma)e de#isions about .hat their parti#ular manual should =tea#h?. &he de#isionma)ing required learners #onstantly to monitor their o.n )no.ledge and learningLengage in
07E
meta#ognitionLin order to insure that the #ontent .as #omplete, a##urate, and important to learn. It also grouped students into teams, so that they #ould, to some extent, tea#h ea#h other .hate er they needed to learn, in#luding helping ea#h other to sense .hether they a#tually .ere learning from their resear#h.
Questions
Bb iously these t.o studies are about different edu#ational problems or issues. 4hat if the learning theories underlying them .ere s.it#hed> Could a stuttering program be built around #onstru#ti ist prin#iples of learning, and a health edu#ation program be built around beha iorist prin#iples> 4hat .ould ea#h program loo) li)e>
6e a s)epti# for a moment. 4hat do you suspe#t might be the hardest part of implementing beha ioral #onditioning for stuttering des#ribed by Bnslo.> "nd .hat might be hardest part of implementing the #onstru#ti ist program about health edu#ation>
+eferen#es
Bnslo., $., $en/ies, +., P *a#)man, ". ;E117<. "n operant inter ention for early stuttering. -ehavior modification D@;7<, 779-708. 'oldman, (. ;E119<. 4eb-based designed a#ti ities for young people in health edu#ation: " #onstru#ti ist approa#h. :ealth Education Journal ;@;7<, 7F-E:.
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%e#iding for yourself about the resear#h: !chools and the o(esity e%idemic ;see also Chapter 0, !tudent de elopment<
Childhood obesity leads not ,ust to teasing by peers, but e entually also to a ariety of serious medi#al problems, ranging from ba#) pain to heart disease and diabetes. &hat is .hy medi#al experts are quite #on#erned that obesity in #hildren has in#reased mar)edly sin#e the 78@1s, to the point of being #onsidered a genuine health =epidemi#? ;Bgden, et al., E11E<. +e#ent pro,e#tions suggest that fully one-third of all #hildren born in E111 .ill e entually de elop diabetes as a sideeffe#t of being o er.eight ;Aarayan, et al., E110<. 4hy ha e these #hanges happened> Bne fa#tor is probably the ast in#rease in indi idualsJ #onsumption of sugar espe#ially =disguised? forms li)e #orn syrup ;6a.a, E11@<. "nother is a more sedentary, =stay-inside? lifestyle than in the past. &he latter has happened, among other reasons, be#ause of population shifts: #ities and to.ns ha e in#reased in population and si/e, .hile rural areas ha e de#reased in population, #ausing more people to rely on #ar tra el more than e er before. &he #hanges ha e also led residents in many areas of many #ities to #onsider their neighborhoods less safe than in the past, #ausing them to respond .ith ina#ti ity: either they stay inside more or they rely e en more on #ars to get around. E en s#hools ha e #ontributed to the trend to.ard obesity. =(un) food? drin)s and sna#)s are .idely a ailable in many s#hools through #ommer#ial ending ma#hinesLea#h one gi ing a student an extra 7@1 and 011 unneeded #alories per day. $ore insidiously, perhaps, is the effe#t of the trend to.ard high-sta)es testing: be#ause of them, many s#hools tend to strengthen #ourses and spe#ial programs that prepare students in the =basi#? sub,e#ts that they )no. .ill be tested, and to trim programs ;li)e physi#al edu#ation, but also the arts< that .ill not be tested. &hese #onsiderations led a group of physi#ians at the 3ni ersity of 'eorgia to organi/e an afters#hool program of physi#al a#ti ity for elementary s#hool students ;Nin, et al., E11@<, and to assess .hether the program a#tually helped pre ent .eight gain in students. !tudents olunteered for a program that had three #omponents: 01 minutes of physi#al a#ti ity, a healthy sna#), and assistan#e .ith the studentsJ home.or). ;&he resear#hers explain that assistan#e .ith home.or) had nothing to do .ith .eight loss, but .as ery important in getting students to attend and getting parents to support the programM< !taff for the program in#luded a mix of regular tea#hers from the s#hool ;not ne#essarily physi#al edu#ation spe#ialists< and other indi iduals hired spe#ifi#ally for the pro,e#t. *hysi#al a#ti ities .ere #hosen in part by the students, and .ere generally non-#ompetiti e and #ooperati e in nature. Initial results of the program ha e been ery en#ouragingI students and parents support the program strongly, and tea#hers ha e been su##essful in ma)ing sure that students are a#tually a#ti e enough during the program sessions. !in#e the program is still ongoing, ho.e er, it .ill be a fe. more years before there .ill be definiti e results about .eight gain, or la#) thereof.
07F
Questions
It is hard to disagree .ith the purposes of this studyLredu#ing the pre alen#e of obesity. 6ut does it really sho. .hat it #laims> 6e a deliberate s)epti# for a moment and as) yourself these questions:
If the students .ere olunteers, ho. typi#al do you thin) they are of all students> "nd if the tea#hers are re#ei ing a large resear#h grant to implement the program, might they be .or)ing harder to do a good ,ob than most of us ordinarily .or)> "n important ambiguity about the program .as the fa#t that it in#luded (oth physi#al a#ti ity and home.or) assistan#e. &hin) about this ambiguity. If the resear#hers split up these t.o elementsLoffering only one or the other at any one s#hoolLho. might the split affe#t the out#omes> 4ould different sorts of students olunteer as a result of the split, and ho. if at all .ould their sele#tion matter>
+eferen#es
Bgden, C., Flega, K., Carroll, $. P (ohnson, C. ;E11E<. *re alen#e and trends in o er.eight among 3.!. #hildren and adoles#ents, 7888-E111. Journal of the American Aedical Assocation, DBB;7F<, 7:EC-7:0E. Aarayan, K., 6oyle, (., &hompson, &., !orensen, !., P 4illiamson, %. ;E110<. 2ifetime ris) for diabetes mellitus in the 3nited !tates. Journal of the American Aedical Association, DG=;7F<, 7CCF-7C81. 6a.a, !. ;E11@<. &he role of the #onsumption of be erages in the obesity epidemi#. Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of :ealth, CD@;0<, 7EF-7EC.Nin, -., 5anes, (., $oore, (., 5umbles, *., 6arbeau, P 'utin, 6. ;E11@<. "n after-s#hool physi#al a#ti ity E aluation and the 5ealth *rofessions, EC;7<, 9:-C8. program for obesity pre ention in #hildren.
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%e#iding for yourself about the resear#h: 3sing "fri#an-"meri#an English to enri#h #lassroom dis#ourse ;see also Chapter F, !tudent di ersity<
In addition to spea)ing a language other than English at home, many students learn another ersion or diale#t of English. " diale#t is a ersion of a language .ith some.hat unique o#abulary, grammar, and pronun#iation. &he most prominent diale#t of English in Aorth "meri#a is "fri#an"meri#an English, sometimes also #alled Eboni#s. Intelle#tually and emotionally, Eboni#s is ,ust as ri#h and #apable of expressi eness as =!tandard English,? the diale#t usually used, for example, by radio and tele ision ne.s broad#asters. It is used by many "fri#an "meri#ans in the 3nited !tates, though not by all and often not in e ery possible situation. 6ut Eboni#s has distin#ti e features not shared .ith !tandard English. In grammar, for example, the erb to be is used differently than in !tandard English. Instead of simply indi#ating existen#e or non-existen#e, to be #an also distinguish bet.een a one-time e ent and an ongoing, #ontinuous state. Consider these t.o senten#es and their meanings: ;7< 5e tired. ;=5e is tired right no..< ;E< 5e be tired. ;=5e is often or al.ays tired.?< Eboni#s also has features of language use or #ommuni#ation, ,ust li)e a =foreign? language, .hi#h are different from !tandard English. Bne is the use of repetiti e, rhythmi# phrases for emphasisL not unli)e the style of an enthusiasti# =prea#her? in #hur#h. "nother is the use of #all-andresponse, in .hi#h an indi idual as)s a question or ma)es a statement to .hi#h the group expe#ts to respond in unison. 4hat is interesting and important about the features of language use is that tea#hers #an use them to #ommuni#ate more effe#ti ely .ith students, often e en if they themsel es ha e not personally learned to spea) "fri#an-"meri#an diale#t. "nita 6ohn ;E110< illustrated this prin#iple by #arefully obser ing the tea#hing styles of t.o tea#hers .ho regularly in#orporated the diale#t into #on ersations .ith students and .ho used these #on ersations as a bridge for students to learn !tandard English. In one obser ation, for example, the #lass .as beginning a .riting a#ti ity and the tea#her said, =&his morning .e are going to pra#ti#e some senten#es, and .hen .e do that I .ant you to listen. Can you say that>? &he #lass responded in #horus, =2istenM? &he tea#her said, =%o .hat>? &he #lass replied e en louder, =2istenM? &he tea#her repeated the .or) a fe. times together .ith the students: =2isten^listen^? &hen she began #lapping in bet.een .ords: =2isten^ W#lapX^listen^ W#lapX^listen^ W#lapX^? !uddenly she stopped, leaned for.ard and as)ed the #lass, =5o. you gonna listen> 4ith your feet>? "ll responded loudly: =AoooM? "fter a pause, she as)ed again, =Nou gonna listen .ith your nose>? "ll responded again: =AoooM? !he as)ed, =5o.>? E eryone responded loudly together, =4ith our earsM?
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&he tea#herJs approa#h used both repetiti e, rhythmi# language and a #all-and-response style .ith .hi#h, as it happened, many of her students .ere already familiar. 6y using these features of "fri#an-"meri#an #ommuni#ation, she gained studentsJ attention effe#ti ely, but also used the style of #ommuni#ation to support an a#ti ity embedded in !tandard English, .riting senten#es. In addition to being a familiar style of intera#tion, ho.e er, the te#hnique .or)ed for another reason: it implied respe#t for the language and #ommuni#ation s)ills that students had a#quired already. !u#h respe#t has been sho.n to be important for su##ess not only .hen students are learning t.o diale#ts, but also .hen they are learning t.o languages, su#h as !panish and English ;$arine/+oldan P $ala e, E11F<.
Questions
$ost tea#hers agree that part of tea#hersJ goals should be to en#ourage students in learning !tandard English, both spo)en and .ritten. 6ut an issue that .e may disagree about, and that is raised by 6ohnJs study, is .hether tea#hers should do so by using nonstandard diale#t in #lass. Nou #ould thin) about it this .ay: by =spea)ing Eboni#s?, is a tea#her modeling inappropriate English or is heKshe pro iding students .ith a bridge from Eboni#s to standard English> 4hat do you thin) about this>
&here is also a related question that is more pra#ti#al. Is using non-standard diale#t really pra#ti#al for e ery tea#her> *resumably using it is easier for those .ith prior experien#e spea)ing the diale#t, than for those .ithout experien#e. 6ut #ould other tea#hers learn it .ell enough to be effe#ti e .ith students> If not, then ho. else, if at all, #ould su#h tea#hers #ommuni#ate .ith students effe#ti ely>
+eferen#es
6ohn, ". ;E110<. Familiar oi#es: 3sing Eboni#s #ommuni#ation te#hniques in the primary #lassroom. Ir(an Education, <B;9<, 9CC-:1:. $artine/-+oldan, C. P $ala e, '. ;E11F<. 2anguage ideologies mediating litera#y and identity in bilingual #ontexts. Journal of early childhood literacy, ?;E<, 7@@-7C1.
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%e#iding for yourself about the resear#h: :o schools/
ell does inclusion occur in high
;see also Chapter @, !tudents .ith spe#ial edu#ational needs<

&he Indi iduals .ith %isabilities Edu#ation "#t applies to all le els of s#hooling, from )indergarten through t.elfth grade, and one of its re isions ;Public
Law 101-336, 104 Stat. 327, 7881<
further addressed the needs of se#ondary s#hools by in#luding pro isions for s#hool-to-.or) transitions for students .ith disabilities. Net progress at in#luding su#h students has generally been more rapid and #omplete in elementary s#hoolsLespe#ially at the youngest grade le elsLthan in se#ondary s#hools. &he reasons for the differen#e do not ne#essarily ha e to do high s#hool tea#hersJ attitudes about disabilities as #ompared to elementary tea#hersJ attitudes. $u#h of it stems from differen#es in ho. the t.o le els of s#hooling are stru#tured, .ith se#ondary s#hools being mu#h larger and organi/ed by a #omplex timetable of #lasses that tends to sort studentsLand e en tea#hers themsel esMLby a#ademi# ba#)ground ;Kelly, E11FI Ba)es, E11@<. Bne effe#t of this organi/ation is to ma)e it harder for spe#ial edu#ation and general edu#ation tea#hers to #ollaborate, and therefore to integrate learning experien#es for students .ith disabilities into high s#hool as a .hole. Net some tea#hers and s#hools manage to #ollaborate any.ay. " resear#h study by (oseph !to.its#he) and his #olleagues explored the fa#tors that a##ount for #omparati e su##ess at in#luding students .ith disabilities in se#ondary s#hool ;!to.its#he), 2o itt, P +odrigue/, E117<. &he resear#hers .ere interested, first, in ho. mu#h tea#hers a#tually do #ollaborate to design and #arry out programs for youth .ith disabilities, and se#ond, in .hat spe#ifi# #ir#umstan#es or pra#ti#es .ere asso#iated .ith #ollaborating su##essfully. &hey #hose three #ontrasting high s#hools to study in detail: a large urban publi# high s#hool, a rural publi# high s#hool in a small to.n, and a pri ate urban high s#hool. For ea#h s#hool they #olle#ted information from a .ide range of staffLspe#ial edu#ation tea#hers, general edu#ation tea#hers, administrators, parents, and students .ith disabilities themsel es. &he information #ame from sur eys, inter ie.s, re ie.s of offi#ial s#hool do#uments, and obser ations of #lassrooms. 4hat did they find> "mong other things, they found that spe#ial edu#ation tea#hers at all of the s#hools strongly supported in#lusion of students .ith disabilities to the fullest possible extentI they did not, that is, see) to strengthen or in#rease the s#hoolsJ relian#e on segregated spe#ial edu#ation #lasses. &hey also found signifi#ant interest and support from parents of the students .ith disabilities in the edu#ational programs of their #hildren. &hese fa#tors suggested that #hange to.ard fuller in#lusion may #ontinue in the years ahead. 6ut they also found limitations on ho. mu#h the tea#hers #ould #ollaborate at any of the s#hools. " ma,or problem .as the tea#hersJ dependen#y on informal #ommuni#ation .ith general edu#ation tea#hers. Instead of regularly announ#ed meetings to dis#uss in#lusion initiati es, tea#hers had to
07C
=#at#h? ea#h other in the hall.ay or during lun#h hours, for example, in order to ha e #on ersations about students and .ays of in#luding them in #lass or s#hool a#ti ities. "t these moments the tea#hers tended already to be busy. " partial result .as that the general edu#ation tea#hers ended up .ith limited )no.ledge both about the spe#ial edu#ation program at their s#hool, and about .hy parti#ular students might be pla#ed su##essfully in their parti#ular #lassrooms. "ll of the students .ith disabilities had IE*s, but the general tea#hers had little or no )no.ledge of their #ontentsLor e en of their existen#e. Aot surprisingly, under these #onditions there .ere fe. ma,or #ollaborati e a#ti ities, su#h as the #o-tea#hing of a #ourse by a spe#ial edu#ation tea#her and a general tea#her or ,ointly operated a#ti ities or programs. Net for ea#h s#hool there .ere also indi idual tea#hers and a#ti ities that boosted #ollaboration in the s#hool, and that #ould in prin#iple be tried else.here as .ell. &he pri ate high s#hool, for example, had an espe#ially effe#ti e, ital program for in ol ing parents: there .ere regular ad isory group meetings to assess the #urrent needs of the spe#ial edu#ation program and to de elop and sustain support for it among the parents. "nother espe#ially effe#ti e #ollaboration in ol ed peer tutoringLusing high s#hool students to tutor the students .ith disabilities on a regular basis, often .ith #ourse #redit gi en as =payment? to the tutors. *eer tutoring pro ed a good .ay to #ommuni#ate the nature and extent of the spe#ial edu#ation program to the student population as a .hole. " third effe#ti e form of #ollaboration in ol ed using a tea#her as a =#ommunity #oordinator?, someone .ho de eloped lin)ages to agen#ies and potential employers in the #ommunity. &he lin)ages pro ed espe#ially helpful in studentsJ transitions to .or) and life after high s#hool. "ll in all, there .ere limitations on in#lusion in the se#ondary s#hools, but also grounds for optimism be#ause of the #ollaborati e su##esses and the dedi#ation of the tea#hers. "lthough !to.its#he) and his #olleagues fo#used on only three s#hools, their findings suggested three )ey points: ;7< that the moti ation for in#lusion and #ollaboration definitely exists among se#ondary tea#hers, ;E< that it is possible to .or) around the organi/ational #onstraints of high s#hools, and ;0< that #hanges in those #onstraints in the future should further in#rease le els of in#lusion and #ollaboration.
Questions
If you .ere a tea#her in a high s#hool ;as many readers of this boo) plan to be#ome<, ho. .ould you prepare your students to re#ei e a student .ith a disability into one of your #lasses> Consider a#tions that you .ould ta)e both before and after the student a#tually arri es.
!ometimes tea#hers at e ery grade le el express #on#ern about re#ei ing students .ith disabilities into their #lasses, e en if it #an be arranged easily. 4hy do you thin) that the tea#hers feel this .ay> &hin) of three possible o('ections to in#lusion, and then thin) of ho. an advocate for in#lusion might respond to ea#h of them.
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+eferen#es
*ubli# 2a. 717-009, 71F !tat. 0E: ;(uly E9, 7881<. "meri#ans .ith %isabilities "#t of 7881. 4ashington, %.C.: 3nited !tates 'o ernment *rinting Bffi#e. !to.its#he), (., 2o itt, &., P +odrigue/, (. ;E117<. *atterns of #ollaboration in se#ondary edu#ation for youth .ith spe#ial needs: *rofiles of three high s#hools. 3rban Edu#ation, 09;7<, 80-7EC. Kelly, !. ;E11F<. "re tea#hers tra#)ed> Bn .hat basis and .ith .hat #onsequen#es. !o#ial psy#hology in edu#ation, :;7<, @@-:E. Ba)es, (. ;E11@<. Keeping tra#): 5o. s#hools stru#ture inequality, End edition. Ae. 5a en, C&: Nale 3ni ersity *ress.
0E1
%e#iding for yourself about the resear#h: .s self4efficacy culturally (iased/ ;see also Chapter 9, !tudent moti ation<
"s .e explain in this #hapter, self-effi#a#y beliefs are based hea ily on experien#esLmastery, i#arious ;or obser ed< mastery, and so#ial persuasion. +esear#h has found that these experien#es are effe#ti e in a .ide ariety of situations, su#h as ma)ing de#isions about #areers, performing tas)s at .or), #hoosing #ourses at s#hool, de#iding .hether to ,oin after-s#hool sports teams, and planning effe#ti e instru#tion as a tea#her ;"llison, %.yer, P $a)in, 7888I 6andura, 788:I 'oddard, 5oy, P 5oy, E11F<. 6e#ause it has pro ed alid in so many situations, self-effi#a#y seems relati ely uni ersal #ogniti e pro#essLas if it =.or)s? e ery.here, for e eryone. 6ut does it> &he ery fa#t that self-effi#a#y is based on e5%erience should ma)e us suspi#ious of its limits, sin#e there are fe. experien#es that are literally shared by all people in all pla#es or so#ieties. "nd the .ide di ersity among students in most s#hools should lead to similar s)epti#ism. $aybe it is true that self-effi#a#y promotes moti ation for many students, or e en for most, but does it do so for all students> "nd if it does not, then .hat are the reasons> &hese questions prompted a psy#hologist named 2ori 2indley to in estigate .hether self-effi#a#y has in fa#t pro ed useful and alid for understanding moti ation in unusually di erse populations ;2indley, E119<. !he sear#hed the resear#h literature for studies about self-effi#a#y in ea#h of the follo.ing groups: ;a< .omen .ith #areers ;b< ethni# minorities li ing in the 3nited !tates ;#< so#ieties and #ultures outside the 3nited !tates ;d< self-identified gay, lesbian, and bisexual indi iduals ;e< people .ith disabilities 4hat has resear#h sho.n about the self-effi#a#y of members of these groups> Compared to the =#lassi#? resear#h about this #on#ept, is self-effi#a#y higher, lo.er, #onfined to ,ust limited areas of a#ti ity, or not e en a meaningful idea> 4hat 2indley found .as that self-effi#a#y beliefs .ere ;li)e the people she studied< #omplex and aried. 4omen, for example, .ere ,ust as li)ely to express high self-effi#a#y and lo. moti ation about using #omputers, as to express lo. self-effi#a#y and high moti ation to use them. "mong ethni# minority students ;5ispani#s, "sian-"meri#ans, and "fri#an "meri#ans<, some studies found lo.er self-effi#a#y about #hoosing #areers than among .hite students. 6ut other studies found no differen#es. "mong so#ieties outside the 3nited !tates, ho.e er, high self-effi#a#y seemed to predi#t moti ation, mu#h as it does in the =#lassi#? resear#h .ith .hite "meri#an populationsLthough again .ith some differen#es. "mong Italian high s#hool students, for example, self-effi#a#y beliefs about #areer #hoi#e are strongly asso#iated .ith the studentsJ interest in and #hoi#e of #areer ;2ent,
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et al., E110<. Net the #onne#tion bet.een self-effi#a#y and moti ation .as found to ha e a different #hara#ter for students from &ai.an ;$au, E111<: for them high self-effi#a#y .as asso#iated not .ith being highly moti ated, but .ith relying hea ily on others to assist .ith ma)ing de#isions and .ith being highly rational or logi#al in ma)ing them. !elf-effi#a#y, under these #onditions, .as not so mu#h a belief in yourself as a belief in your #ommunity. "mong the remaining groupsLthe gayKlesbianKbisexual indi iduals and the people .ith disabilitiesLresear#h .as espe#ially s#ar#e and #on#lusions .ere therefore hard to rea#h. &he publi#ations that did exist emphasi/ed a belief in the potential alue of self-effi#a#y for these groups, but they did not report resear#h studies des#ribing .hether in fa#t self-effi#a#y in fa#t moti ated the indi iduals, or e en existed #onsistently and meaningfully as a #on#ept or belief. 4hat does the di ersity of these findings suggest ;beyond 'randmotherJs rule that =sometimes one thing happens, and sometimes another?<> 2indley noted t.o points, both of .hi#h .ere hinted at by some of the studies that she re ie.ed. &he first point is that self-effi#a#y may be a belief about personal #apa#ity only for some indi iduals in some situations. For others, effi#a#y may really be a belief in the group or #ommunity, su#h as your family, #lassroom, or .or)pla#e. !elf-effi#a#y may really be collective self.efficacyLa belief that your group #an a##omplish its goals. 6elie ing primarily in the group may be quite moti ating, but also be quite a different experien#e from belie ing primarily in yourself. In re#ent years some psy#hologists and edu#ators ha e a#)no.ledged this possibility and begun studying the dynami#s of #olle#ti e self-effi#a#y ;6andura, 788:I 'ordon, 5oy, P 5oy, E11F<. 2indleyJs se#ond point is that for some groups, the main barriers to su##ess are not (eliefs in personal #apa#ity, but real, external obsta#les independent of personal beliefs. Imagine, for example, that a person en#ounters daily, real so#ial pre,udi#e be#ause he or she is non-.hite, homosexual, or has a disability. For that person, self-#onfiden#e may only go part of the .ay to insuring su##ess, and remo ing the real so#ial barriers may be needed to go the rest of the .ay. For tea#hers, three impli#ations of this resear#h seem #lear. First, indi idual self-effi#a#y beliefs do often moti ate students, and tea#hers should therefore en#ourage them in these students. !e#ond, some students may see their personal #apa#ity in terms of the #apa#ity of groups to .hi#h they belong. &ea#hers #an moti ate these students by strengthening the #apa#ity of their groupsL perhaps using strategies li)e the ones des#ribed in this #hapter and the next. &hird, some students rightly per#ei e genuine in,usti#es in their .orld .hi#h limit their #han#es of su##essI tea#hers should not deny the importan#e of these in,usti#es, but re#ogni/e them and do .hat they #an to redu#e them.
Questions
&hin) about your o.n belief in your #apa#ity to tea#h .ell, as .ell as your doubts and .orries about your #apa#ity. Nou might #all this your teaching self.efficacy. 4hat is that belief primarily based on, and .hat .ould it ta)e to raise that belief e en higher>
0EE
!uppose your students #onsisted of about equal numbers .ho belie ed in indi idual selfeffi#a#y and in #olle#ti e self-effi#a#y. Imagine and des#ribe one advantage of ha ing su#h a mix in your #lass, as .ell as one potential sour#e of conflict that you might ha e to deal .ith bet.een the t.o groups.
+eferen#es
"llison, K., %.yer, (., P $a)in, !. ;7888<. !elf-effi#a#y and parti#ipation in igorous physi#al a#ti ity by high s#hool students. 5ealth Edu#ation and 6eha ior, E9;7<, 7E-EF. 6andura, ". ;788:<. !elf-effi#a#y: &he exer#ise of #ontrol. Ae. Nor): Freeman. 'oddard, +., 5oy, 4., P 5oy, ". ;E11F<. Colle#ti e effi#a#y beliefs: &heoreti#al de elopments, empiri#al e iden#e, and future dire#tions. Edu#ational +esear#her, 00;0<, 0-70. +o#hester, AN: 3ni ersity of +o#hester *ress. 2ent, +., 6ro.n, !., Aota, 2., P !oresi, !. ;E110<. &ea#hing so#ial #ogniti e interest and #hoi#e hypotheses a#ross 5olland types in Italian high s#hool students. (ournal of Go#ational 6eha ior, 9E, 717-77C. $au, 4.-C. ;E110<. Fa#tors that influen#e persisten#e in s#ien#e and engineering #areer aspirations. Career %e elopment Quarterly, @7, E0F-EF0
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%e#iding for yourself about the resear#h: Culturally res%onsive classroom management ;see also Chapter :, Classroom management and the learning en ironment<
E en though tea#hers might belie e that #onsisten#y is a mar) of good #lassroom management, it is not al.ays true that =one si/e fits all? .hen it #omes to mat#hing parti#ular management strategies to spe#ifi# students. " lot of resear#h suggests, on the #ontrary, that su##ess in #lassroom management needs to be ad,usted to the #ultural ba#)ground and expe#tations of students. Edu#ators sometimes #all this approa#h culturally responsive classroom management. !upport for #ulturally responsi e management #omes a number of resear#h studies. In one study, for example, %a id 6ro.n inter ie.ed 70 tea#hers .ho taught in #lassrooms from 7 st through 7Eth grade in urban, inner-#ity s#hools in se eral different #ities ;6ro.n, E11F<. " fe. of the tea#hers .ere themsel es #ulturally di erseLone .as from !ri 2an)a, one .as "fri#an "meri#an, t.o .ere 5ispani# "meri#anLbut most .ere .hite. "lthough the inter ie.s .ere lengthy and detailed, they #entered on ,ust three underlying questions: ;7< 5o. do you intera#t .ith students> ;E< 5o. .ould you des#ribe your management style> ;0< 4hat .or)s .ell for you in #ommuni#ating .ith students> &he tea#hersJ ie.s #ould be summari/ed in se eral points. First, the tea#hers #onsidered it important to sho. students that the tea#hers #ared and respe#ted them: this attitude .as signifi#antly more important, they felt, .hen tea#hing urban students than .hen tea#hing suburban students. &he tea#hers therefore made more effort than usual to be friendly .ith all students and to get to )no. them as indi iduals. &o do so, though, the tea#hers also had to )no. ho. the students themsel es preferred to be publi#ly )no.n or a#)no.ledged. In some #lassrooms .ith 5ispani# "meri#an students, for example, the tea#hers found it .ise not to #all on indi iduals during #lass, be#ause some of the students preferred to be re#ogni/ed for their relationships .ith #lassmatesLfor their membership in the #lass as a groupLrather than for their distin#ti eness from the group. Interestingly, =#aring? in ol ed more than simple .armth and nurturan#e. It also meant tea#hersJ asserting their authority to ma)e #lear demands on students both for high quality .or) and for appropriate #lassroom beha ior. "sserting authority indire#tly in order to sound polite ;li)e saying =4ould you li)e to sit do.n no.>?< .as less effe#ti e and .as often interpreted by students as a sign of a tea#herJs indifferen#e. %ire#t, spe#ifi# #ommands ;li)e =&a)e your seat?< .ere more effe#ti e, pro ided they did not also express hostility. &he tea#hersJ #aring had to be #onsistent in e ery .ay: not only did they ha e to say friendly things to students, but also they had to loo) friendly .ith eye #onta#t and smiles. 4hat made su#h #onsisten#y initially #hallenging for some tea#hers .as re#ogni/ing studentsJ o.n signs of
0EF
friendliness for .hat they .ere. In some #lassrooms .ith "fri#an "meri#an students, for example, students engaged in a =#all response? pattern of intera#tion: as the tea#her ga e instru#tions or explained an idea, some students .ould say or spea) their o.n feelings or mention their o.n ideas. &he pattern .as not meant to interrupt the tea#her, ho.e er, so mu#h as to sho. in ol ement in the lesson or a#ti ity, and the tea#her needed to a#)no.ledge it as su#h. Bther edu#ational resear#hers besides %a id 6ro.n ha e found similar results, though some point out that a#tually pra#ti#ing #ulturally responsi e management #an be harder than simply )no.ing .hat it in ol es ;4einstein, &omlinson-Clar)e, P Curran, E11F<. &o be#ome s)illful .ith the strategies des#ribed by 6ro.n and others, for example, tea#hers also need to loo) honestly at their o.n pre#on#eptions about ethni#, #ultural and ra#ial differen#es, so that they do not mis#onstrue #ulturally ambiguous beha iors of students ,ust be#ause students ha e a ba#)ground different from the tea#herJs o.n. &ea#hers also need to be a.are of ho. mu#h so#iety-.ide pre,udi#e on studentsJ sense of effi#a#y, sin#e per asi e pre,udi#e and dis#rimination #an stimulate some students to .ithdra. in .ays that may be mista)en for la/iness. *erhaps the most #hallenging aspe#t of #ulturally responsi e management, ho.e er, is for tea#hers to a##ommodate to studentsJ #ultural differen#es .hile also helping them learn ho. to fun#tion .ell in the some.hat bureau#rati#, middle-#lass oriented =#ulture? of s#hool. &his #hallenge is full of dilemmas. 5o. mu#h, for example, should a tea#her sa#rifi#e #on entional =politeness? beha iors ;li)e using indire#t questions< simply be#ause students understand and respe#t dire#tness more easily> 5o. mu#h should a tea#her en#ourage students to #ritique ea#h otherJs or the tea#herJs ideas e en if studentsJ families gi e higher priority to #ooperation and #omplian#e .ith authorities> "nd .hat if a parti#ular #lass is itself #ulturally di erse, #ontaining students from many #ultural ba#)grounds in one room> 4hat should a tea#her do then>
Questions
&hin) about the issue of politeness ersus dire#tness mention in the final paragraph abo e. *resumably tea#hers and students need some sort of mutual a##ommodation about this issue. If you .ere the tea#her, .hat .ould the a##ommodation loo) li)e> Bb iously it might depend on the parti#ular students and on the pre#ise the beha ior at hand. 6ut go beyond this generality. ImagineLand des#ribeL.hat you might a#tually say to students to sho. respe#t for their preferred styles of tal)ing .hile still en#ouraging them to respe#t or e en adopt styles of spee#h that lead to more su##ess in s#hool>
Culturally responsi e #lassroom management has sometimes been #riti#i/ed on the grounds that it en#ourages tea#hers to =profile? or stereotype students a##ording to their ethni#, ra#ial, or #ultural ba#)grounds. 6eing #ulturally responsi e, it is said, ma)es tea#hers o erloo) the indi idual differen#es among students. Bthers argue that treating students stri#tly as indi iduals ma)es tea#hers o erloo) studentsJ ob ious #ultural heritages. 5o. might you resol e this issue in your o.n mind> "gain, go beyond the
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ob ious: imagine an a#tual #on ersation that you might ha e .ith your o.n students about this issue.
+eferen#es
6ro.n, %. ;E11F<. 3rban tea#hersJ professed #lassroom management strategies: +efle#tions of #ulturally responsi e tea#hing. Ir(an Education, <G;0<, E99-EC8. 4einstein, C.,&omlinson-Clar)e, !., P Curran, $. ;E11F<. &o.ard a #on#eption of #ulturally responsi e #lassroom management. Journal of Teacher Education, @@;7<, E@-0C.
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%e#iding for yourself about resear#h: Fhen is a student lying/ ;see also Chapter C, Aature of #lassroom #ommuni#ation<
"lthough .e might .ish that it .ere not true, students do o##asionally tell a deliberate lie to the tea#her. In explaining .hy an assignment is late, for example, a student might #laim to ha e been si#) .hen the student .as not in fa#t si#). 4orse yet, a student might turn in an assignment that the student #laims to ha e .ritten .hen in fa#t it .as =borro.ed? from another student or ;espe#ially among older students< e en from Internet. In situations li)e these, is there any .ay to dis#ern .hen a person a#tually is lying> $any of the signs .ould ha e to be non erbal, sin#e by definition a liarJs erbal statements may not indi#ate that falsehood is o##urring. " large body of resear#h has studied this questionLloo)ing for non erbal signs by .hi#h de#eption might be dete#ted. &he resear#h #an be summari/ed li)e this: people generally belie e that they #an tell .hen someone is lying, but they #an not in fa#t do so ery a##urately. In a sur ey of :@ #ountries around the .orld, for example, indi iduals from e ery nation expressed the belief that liars a oid eye #onta#t ;'lobal %e#eption +esear#h &eam, E119<. ;&his is an unusually strong trend #ompared to most in edu#ational and psy#hologi#al resear#hM< Indi iduals also named additional beha iors: liars shift on the feet, for example, they tou#h and s#rat#h themsel es ner ously, and their spee#h is hesitant or fla.ed. 6ut the most important belief is about eye #onta#t: a liar, it is thought, #annot =loo) you in the eye?. 3nfortunately these beliefs seem to be simply stereotypes that ha e little basis in fa#t. Experiments in .hi#h one person deliberately lies to another person find little relationship bet.een a erting eye #onta#t and lying, as .ell as little relationship bet.een other non erbal beha iors and lying ;%e*aulo et al., E110<. " person .ho is lying is ,ust as li)ely to loo) dire#tly at you as someone telling the truthLand on the other hand, also ,ust as li)ely to loo) a.ay. In fa#t ga/e a ersion #an indi#ate a number of things, depending on the #ontext. In another study of eye #onta#t, for example, "n,anie $#Carthy and her #olleagues obser ed eye #onta#t .hen one person as)s another person a question. &hey found that .hen ans.ering a question to .hi#h a person already )ne. the ans.er ;li)e =4hat is your birthday>?<, the person .as li)ely to loo) the questioner dire#tly in the eye ;$#Carthy, et al., E119<. 4hen ans.ering a question .hi#h required some thought, ho.e er, the person tended to a ert dire#t ga/e. &he resear#hers studied indi iduals from three so#ieties and found differen#es in .here the indi iduals loo) in order to a oid eye #onta#t: people from Canada and &rinidad loo)ed up, but people from (apan loo)ed do.n. "ll of their ans.ers, remember, .ere truthful and none .ere lies. If ga/e a ersion does not really indi#ate lying, then .hy do people belie e that it does any.ay> &he resear#h team that studied this belief suggested that the belief does not a#tually refle#t our experien#es .ith liars, but instead fun#tion as a deterrent to lying beha ior ;'lobal %e#eption +esear#h &eam, E119<. !in#e nearly e eryone disappro es of lying, and sin#e dete#ting it is often
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diffi#ult, the next best strategy is to persuade potential liars that they might in fa#t be dete#ted. Furthermore, if .e belie e that liars should feel ashamed of their beha ior, it is reasonable to suppose that they .ould sho. signs of shameLi.e. ga/e a ersion, shifting on their feet, hesitation, and the li)e. &he irony is that if .e begin to doubt a personJs truthfulness, a truthful person is more li)ely to feel un#omfortable, so the person is li)ely to begin a erting ga/e and sho.ing other signs of ner ousness any.ay. &he end result is to reinfor#e the stereotype of ga/e a ersion, but not to identify an a#tual liar. For tea#hers, the impli#ations of this resear#h are t.ofold. First, it suggests that .e should be ery #areful before de#iding .hether or not a parti#ular student is lying on a parti#ular o##asion. 4e should en#ourage students to be equally #areful .ith ea#h otherI it is too easy, it seems, to ,ump to #on#lusions about this sort of ,udgment. !e#ond, it implies that a better .ay to redu#e lying by students is to de elop high-quality relationships .ith them, so that students .ill not feel a need to lie. Bb iously, de eloping high-quality relationships is a big ,ob and it may be easier .ith some students than .ith others. 6ut it appears to be more effe#ti e than falsely a##using truthful students .hile o erloo)ing a#tual de#eptions.
Questions
Classrooms are li)e any other so#ial setting in that they #an only fun#tion .ell if their membersJ are truthful .ith ea#h other. 5o. #ould you #ommuni#ate this message to students so that they endorse it themsel es> Bne .ay, of #ourse, is to dis#uss the problem .ith students. 6ut another .ay might be to stage =simulated lying? bet.een students, and ha e students see ho. .ell they #an dis#ern true liars. 4ould a simulation be a good idea, or .ould it be undesirable by gi ing students pra#ti#e at lying effe#ti ely> Explain your ie.s about this question.
+e#all the study abo e in .hi#h thought-questions #aused indi iduals to a ert dire#t ga/e. 4hy do you suppose that people from &rinidad and Canada a erted ga/e by loo)ing up, .hile people from (apan a erted by loo)ing do.n> 4hat sort of #ultural signifi#an#e does this differen#e ha e, if any> In ans.ering this question, thin) as .ell about ho. you #ould find out if the ans.er is alid.
+eferen#es
'lobal %e#eption +esear#h &eam. ;E119<. " .orld of lies. Journal of Cross4cultural Psychology, <> ;9<, 91:F. %e*aulo, 6., 2indsay, (., $alone, 6., $uhlenbru#), 2., Charlton, K., P Cooper, 5. ;E110<. Cues to de#eption. Psychological -ulletin, CDG, :F-77C. $#Carthy, "., 2ee, K., Ita)ura, !., P $uir, %. ;E119<. Cultural display rules dri e eye ga/e during thin)ing. Journal of Cross4cultural Psychology, <> ;9<, :7:-:EE.
0EC
%e#iding for yourself about resear#h: .dentifying attitude4treatment interactions ;see also Chapter 8, Fa#ilitating #omplex thin)ing )
"s .e ha e stated in arious pla#es in this boo), and as many tea#hers .ill #onfirm from
experien#e, there is no instru#tional strategy that is best for all students. " more guarded #omment is more a##urate: there seem to be strategies that are espe#ially good bets for #ertain students under #ertain #onditions. Edu#ational psy#hologists ha e long studied this #areful idea and ha e named it aptitude.treatment interaction ;abbre iated 2@&< ;Cronba#h P !no., 78::I !no., 78C8<. &he a%titude in this term is the unique quality, talent, or s)ill of a studentI the treatment is the instru#tional strategy or approa#h being usedI and the interaction is the #ombination of the t.o. &ea#hing .ell means finding appropriate "&Is for indi idual students, in spite of their di ersity. &he idea seems intuiti ely appealing, but it has pro ed surprisingly diffi#ult to identify parti#ular "&Is s#ientifi#ally. *art of the problem is the ambiguity of the term a%titude. Aumerous qualities, talents, and s)ills of students ha e been identified and studied, in#luding memory for erbal material, memory for isual material, memory for sequen#es of ideas, ability to analy/e a problem into its parts, and #reati ity . &he situation is ,ust as ambiguous in defining treatment. Is it a spe#ifi# tea#her-dire#ted strategy su#h as the use of ad an#e organi/ers des#ribed in this #hapter> Br does treatment mean a broad approa#h su#h as $adeline 5unterJs effe#ti e tea#hing model that .e des#ribe in this #hapter, or li)e student-#entered inquiry learning that .e also des#ribe> !in#e both )ey terms ha e multiple possible meanings, it is not surprising that resear#h studies of their #ombinations ha e also yielded ambiguous results. !ometimes a parti#ular #ombination of aptitude and treatment help learning, but other times it ma)es little differen#e. In spite of these problems .ith the resear#h as a .hole, the spe#ifi# studies of "&Is ha e #learly been helpful to tea#hers. In one, for example, the resear#hers in estigated human e#ology studentsJ preferred styles of learningLtheir a%titudes ;Crutsinger, Knight, P Kinley, E11@<. %id they prefer, for example, to learn from isual information ;pi#tures, diagrams< or from erbal information ;text and oral explanations<> %id they prefer to s#an ne. information in sequen#e, or to s)ip around in it and pie#e it together at the end> &he resear#hers found that this parti#ular group of students tended to prefer ne. information to be isual and sequential. "s a result, they .ere able to impro e studentsJ learning by adding to the #ourse more #omputer-based instru#tion, .hi#h .as relati ely isual and sequential in its organi/ation. In another study, the resear#her .ho initially .as studying #ooperati e learning groups in uni ersity students dis#o eredLand .ondered .hyLsome of the groups .ere more produ#ti e than others ;*eterson, E11F<. Bn #loser in estigation of the groups he found an "&I-related problem. !tudents in this parti#ular uni ersity #ourse .ere #hoosing their o.n group partners.
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&hey therefore tended to #hoose their o.n friends, a pra#ti#e that inad ertently reduced the talents and resour#es a ailable in some groups. Friends, it seemed, tended to dupli#ate ea#h otherJs styles of problem sol ing and of performing a#ademi# tas)s, rendering the group as a .hole less ri#h in talents and therefore less produ#ti e or su##essful. &o remedy this problem, the instru#tor undertoo) to identify studentsJ strong points in different aspe#ts of problem sol ing. 5e identified .hi#h students .ere in#lined to ta)e a#tion, .hi#h .ere good at de#ision-ma)ing, .hi#h at identifying problems, and .hi#h at brainstorming. &hen he assigned students to groups so that ea#h group had one person strong in ea#h of these areas. &he results .ere a stri)ing in#rease in the produ#ti ity of all groups. 6ut there .as a #at#h: although the students .ere indeed more produ#ti e, they did not li)e being assigned partners as .ell as #hoosing their o.nM $aintaining this parti#ular "&I may therefore pro e diffi#ult o er the long termLperhaps another reason by "&I resear#h has not al.ays found #onsistent results.
Questions
&hin) about the fa#t that results of "&I ha e been in#onsistent, e en though it seems reasonable gi en the ob ious di ersity among students in e ery #lassroom. "ssuming that you support the idea of "&Is, explain ho. you .ould ,ustify it to t.o )inds of people: ;7< a fello. tea#her in your s#hool, and ;E< a professor of edu#ational psy#hology.
'i en the results of *etersonJs resear#h study, .hat is the best ad i#e you #ould gi e to tea#hers ;or to yourself< about ho. to set up #ooperati e learning groups> !hould students #hoose their o.n partners, or should the tea#her #hoose them> Keep in mind the pro iso mentioned at the endLthat the students preferred to #hoose their o.n partners, e en though it meant learning less.
+eferen#es
Cronba#h, 2. P !no., +. ;78::<. A%titudes and instructional methods2 A hand(oo& for research on interaction. Ae. Nor): Ir ington. Crutsinger, C., Knight, %., P Kinley. ;E11@<. 2earning style preferen#es: Impli#ations for 4eb-based instru#tion. Clothing and Te5tiles Research Journal, D<;F<, E99-E:9. !no., +. ;78C8<. "ptitude-treatment intera#tion as a frame.or) for resear#h on indi idual differen#es in learning. In *. "#)erman, +. !ternberg, P +. 'laser ;Eds.<, #earning and individual differences, pp. 7091. Ae. Nor): 4. 5. Freeman. *eterson, &. ;E11F<. !o youJre thin)ing of trying problem-based learning>: &hree #riti#al su##ess fa#tors for implementation. Journal of Aanagement Education, DB;@<, 901-9F:.
001
%e#iding for yourself about the resear#h: :o does multicultural curriculum affect racial &no ledge and (iases/ ;see also Chapter 71, *lanning instru#tion<
$ulti#ultural and anti-ra#ist #urri#ula .or) partly by portraying and dis#ussing indi iduals of di erse ra#ial or ethni# ba#)ground in .ays that #ountera#t stereotypes. !tudents read stories, .at#h ideos, and tal) about respe#ted #iti/ensLdo#tors, politi#al leaders, #elebrities, and the li)e L.ho happen to be "fri#an-"meri#an, 5ispani#, or of some other non-Cau#asian origin. In some #ases, espe#ially at the early #hildhood le el, studentsJ interests and #on#erns are used to guide the sele#tion and integration of di ersity-related a#ti ities ;%erman-!par)s, 788F<. Bne .ay of thin)ing about su#h a #urri#ulum is that it tries to ma)e students into =experts,? e en at relati ely young ages, about ra#ial and ethni# differen#es. Instead of thin)ing about di ersity in superfi#ial termsLas based merely on s)in #olor, for exampleLstudents learn to see di ersity as #omplex and multi-fa#eted. "n "fri#an-"meri#an #hild and a 4hite #hild do not simply differ in #olor, for exampleI they are both similar and different in many .ays. 5opefully the greater subtlety of their expert )no.ledge also redu#es negati e biases felt about ra#e. &o test these possibilities, %onna *er)ins and Carolyn $ebert inter ie.ed :8 #hildren at six pres#hool and after-s#hool #hild #are #enters ;E11@<. !ome of the #enters emphasi/ed multi#ultural edu#ation, some emphasi/ed multi#ultural edu#ation as .ell as an emergent #urri#ulum, and some emphasi/ed neither. *er)ins and $ebert assessed #hildrenJs )no.ledge and attitudes about ra#e in se eral .ays. For example, they displayed pi#tures of other #hildren o er arious ra#es on a felt board, and as)ed the parti#ipating #hildren to arrange the pi#tures so that #hildren .ere #loser together if more similar and farther apart if more different. &hey also as)ed parti#ipating #hildren to e aluate simple stories or ane#dotes about three pi#tures, one of a .hite #hild, one of an "fri#an"meri#an #hild, and one of an "sian-"meri#an #hild. In one of the ane#dotes, for example, the resear#her as)ed, =!ome #hildren are naughty be#ause they dra. .ith #rayons on the .alls. 4hi#h of these #hildren ;in the pi#tures< might do that>? &he parti#ipating #hild #ould then #hoose any or all of the pi#tured #hildrenLor #hoose none at all. 4hat did *er)ins and $ebert find from this study> Four ideas stood out espe#ially #learly: ;7< Children indeed sho.ed more =expertise? about ra#e if they attended a #hild #are #enter that emphasi/ed multi#ultural edu#ationLbut only if they #enter also emphasi/ed emergent #urri#ulum. &o be effe#ti e, in other .ords, information about human di ersity had to gro. out of #hildrenJs personal #on#erns and interests. It .as not enough simply to tell them about human di ersity. ;E< "lthough a multi#ulturalKemergent program .as effe#ti e in sensiti/ing #hildren to differen#es (et een ra#es, it .as not espe#ially effe#ti e for sensiti/ing them to differen#es ra#es. 4hen it #ame to differen#es among "fri#an-"meri#ans, for example, ithin the
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multi#ulturalKemergent #hildren .ere no more subtle or =expert? in their ,udgments than any other #hildren. ;0< Children in the multi#ultural programs tended to ie. all #hildren, regardless of ra#e, in a relati ely more positi e light, and this tenden#y in#reased as they got older ;i.e. from age F to 9<. ;F< $ost important of all, the program orientation did affe#t the #hildrenJs )no.ledge and attitudes, e en at ;or perhaps be#ause of< their young age.
Questions
4hy do you suppose that multi#ultural edu#ation .or)ed only in #on,un#tion .ith an emergent #urri#ulum> Imagine that you .riting a brief summary of this study for a s#hool ne.sletter, and that you need to #omment on this question. 4hat .ould you say about it>
!)epti#s might say that the study assessed only .hat #hildren say about ra#e, not ho. #hildren might a#t in ra#ially related situations. In an inter ie., in other .ords, a #hild might express positi e sentiments about e ery ra#e or ethni# group, but still beha e in pre,udi#ed .ays during play or other a#ti ities at s#hool. Is this a legitimate #riti#ism of the *er)ins and $ebert study> 5o. #ould you de ise another study to test .hether there is truth to the #riti#ism>
+eferen#es
*er)ins, %. P $ebert, C. ;E11@<. Effi#a#y of multi#ultural edu#ation for pres#hool #hildren. Journal of Cross4 Cultural Psychology, <;;F<, F8:-@7E. %erman-!par)s, 2. ;788F<. Empo.ering #hildren to #reate a #aring #ulture in a .orld of differen#es. Childhood Education, >=, 99-:7.
00E
%e#iding for yourself about the resear#h: The im%ortance of esta(lishing trust giving critical feed(ac& across the racial divide ;see also Chapter 77, &ea#her-made assessment strategies<
hen
*ro iding a##urate but #onstru#ti e feedba#) to students is diffi#ult for tea#hers. Identifying problems in student .or) and pointing out areas for impro ement #an undermine studentsJ #onfiden#e and moti ation. 5o.e er, students #annot ma)e signifi#ant impro ements in their .or) if they do not get a##urate information about their strengths and .ea)nesses. Cohen, !teele and +oss ;E11E< argue that trust is #ru#ial to this dilemma: students are more li)ely to respond .ell to a##urate feedba#) if they trust the tea#her and belie e that the feedba#) is not biased. 5o.e er, if the student distrusts the tea#her feedba#) that points out .ea)nesses is li)ely to lo.er moti ation and #onfiden#e. &he dilemma of pro iding trust and a##urate feedba#) that enhan#es moti ation is parti#ularly a#ute .hen the students #ome from a group that has been stereotyped as less #ompetent ;e.g. "fri#an "meri#an, 2atino< and the tea#her is .hite. !e eral studies suggest that feedba#) that is =.ise? #an help establish trust and foster moti ation e en though the feedba#) in#ludes information about .ea)nesses. In one study, F@ "fri#an "meri#an and FC 4hite College students .ere as)ed by a 4hite experimenter to .rite a letter of #ommendation for their fa orite tea#her ;Cohen !teele, +oss, 7888<. &he students .ere told that the best letters .ould be published in a ,ournal and that the s)ills needed .ere similar to those needed to .rite an effe#ti e #ollege paper. " photo of ea#h student .as atta#hed to their draft letter. " .ee) later the students returned for the se#ond session of the study and .ere gi en one of three types of feedba#): ;7< 3nbuffered #riti#ism: !pelling and grammati#al errors .ere mar)ed as .ell as some short#omings in the .riting ;e.g. stylisti# #on#erns<. "lso t.o #he#) mar)s ac&no ledging good %oints ere included. ;E< Criti#ism and positi e buffer: In addition to the #riti#ism des#ribed for the unbuffered group, students .ere told that they did a good ,ob and made a number of good points. ;0< 4ise feedba#): Criti#ism, positi e buffer, and assuran#e. In addition to the #riti#ism and positi e buffer des#ribed abo e, students .ere also told that the person #ritiquing the letter belie ed that the student #ould meet the high standards needed for publi#ation. &he resear#hers assessed ho. biased the students belie ed the re ie.er .as, ho. moti ated students .ere to re ise the letter, and ho. mu#h students identified .ith .riting s)ills. "ll students .ere less moti ated and identified less .ith .riting if they re#ei ed unbuffered #riti#ism. 5o.e er, for 4hite students the distin#tion bet.een #riti#ism .ith positi e buffer vs the .ise feedba#) .as not as important as it .as for "fri#an "meri#an students. &he group of "fri#an "meri#an students .ho re#ei ed .ise feedba#) .as more moti ated, identified more .ith .riting,
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and .as signifi#antly less li)ely to belie e the re ie.er .as biased than the groups that re#ei ed the other forms of #riti#ism. &his study suggests that the )ind of feedba#) gi en is important: unbuffered #riti#ism is asso#iated .ith lo.er moti ation for all students. 5o.e er, for "fri#an "meri#an students .ho gro. up amidst negati e stereotypes about their #ompeten#e, feedba#) that promotes moti ation, needs to in#lude three #omponents: some positi e #omments, #riti#ism that identifies spe#ifi# .ea)nesses, and #omments that ma)e it #lear the tea#her belie es the student #an do .ell.
Questions
&his study .as #ondu#ted using College studentsLdo you thin) the findings .ould also apply to elementary, middle, and high s#hool students> &his study fo#used on "fri#an "meri#an students. %o you thin) the findings might also apply to 2atino and Aati e "meri#an students .ho are also often stereotyped as less #ompetent>
5o. important is trust in #lassroom intera#tions> 5a e you re#ei ed the )inds of feedba#) des#ribed here> %id it influen#e your moti ation>
+eferen#es
Cohen, '., !teele, C., P +oss, 2. ;7888<. &he mentorDs dilemma: *ro iding #riti#al feedba#) a#ross the ra#ial di ide. Personality and social %sychology (ulletin, D@3C=), C<=D4C<CB. Cohen, '., !teele, C., P +oss, 2. ;E11E<. " barrier of mistrust: 5o. negati e stereotypes affe#t #ross-ra#e mentoring. In "ronson, (. $. P "ronson, (. ;Eds.<, Impro ing a#ademi# a#hie ement: Impa#t of psy#hologi#al fa#tors in edu#ation, 01@-007. Emerald 'roup *ublishing.
00F
%e#iding for yourself about the resear#h: Fhy are standardi1ed tests so im%ortant to $C#-/ ;see also Chapter 7E, !tandardi/ed assessment strategies<
&he use of standardi/ed testing in AC26 arises from reforms that .ere initiated in the 78C1s. &hese reforms .ere hea ily influen#ed by business leaders .ho .ere #on#erned .ith the rising produ#ti ity of international #ompetitors and belie ed that impro ing edu#ation .ould aid 3!" #ompetiti eness. Corporate leaders .ho had or#hestrated #ompany turnarounds stressed the importan#e of setting expli#it goals, performan#e or outputs, use of ben#hmar)s or standards, and organi/ational restru#turing. *oli#y ma)ers needed support from the business leaders for the additional finan#ial resour#es needed for .idespread edu#ation reforms they .ished so it is not surprising they adopted these business ideas as they de ised .ays to ma)e tea#hers and students more a##ountable. "##ording to !usan Fuhrman ;E11F< a =theory of a#tion? underlies these ne. a##ountability systems that #ontains the follo.ing assumptions: ;a< !#hoolsJ primary fo#us should be student a#hie ement in the )ey areas of math, reading and s#ien#e. Clear content standards de eloped by ea#h !tate for ea#h sub,e#t area and grade le el help s#hools in this fo#us. If re.ards and san#tions are based on the basis of studentsJ meeting the #ontent standards in that s#hool then the tea#hers and administrators .ill de ote energy and resour#es to impro ing student a#hie ement. ;b< Standardi1ed tests that are aligned .ith the #ontent standards #an a##urately and authenti#ally measure student performan#e. 4ell designed tests are reliable and alid and so other measures su#h as #lassroom obser ations are not needed to determine if tea#hers and s#hools are doing a good ,ob. ;#< $eaningful conse)uences .ill not only moti ate tea#hers, students, and administrators but also impro e instru#tion. *ositi e #onsequen#es in#lude bonuses for tea#hers and administrators and negati e #onsequen#es in#lude denial of graduation or promotion for students, or s#hool ta)e o er and restru#turing. 6e#ause these #onsequen#es are real, tea#hers .ill .or) harder to tea#h and be more li)ely to pursue additional professional de elopment to impro e their s)ills. !tudents .ill also .or) harder to learn so tea#her-student intera#tions around #ontent .ill impro e. Frequent assessment .ill pro ide meaningful feedba#) on student performan#e .hi#h in turn .ill promote impro ed tea#hing. ;d< &here .ill be minimal unintended conse)uences if the systems .or) as intended. For example, instru#tion .ill impro e rather then be#oming narro.ly fo#used on test-ta)ing s)ills, and high s#hool graduation tests .ill promote learning not in#rease drop out rates.
Questions
Bur questions as) you to assess the assumptions of the edu#ational testing mo ement, as outlined abo e. Educational Psychology 00@ " 'lobal &ext
"ssuming that clear content standards are indeed possible in #urri#ulum do#uments, ho. mu#h emphasis should s#hools pla#e on reading, mathemati#s and s#ien#e> 4hat role should art, physi#al edu#ation, so#ial studies, and musi# play in s#hool #lassrooms>
%o standardi/ed tests in fa#t measure studentsJ attainment of #ontent standards adequately> !hould s#hools be ,udged on studentsJ s#ores on standardi/ed tests> Is it important that #lassroom obser ations of students ;by tea#hers or others< are not in#luded>
4ill students and tea#hers a#tually be moti ated by the tests> !tiggins ;E11F< argued that .hile high a#hie ing students may be moti ated by tests, students .ho find the tests diffi#ult .ill gi e up rather than be#ome more moti ated. In your experien#e, .hi#h argument ma)es more sense: !tigginsD or the one ones embodied in the AC26 testing mo ement>
"re the unintended #onsequen#es of testing a#tually minimal/ Is #lassroom instru#tion impro ing be#ause of testing, or is it be#oming fo#used more narro.ly on test-ta)ing s)ills and test #ontent>
+eferen#es
Fuhrman, !. 5. ;E11F<. Introdu#tion, In !. 5. Fuhrman P +. F. Elmore ;Eds<. Redesigning accounta(ility systems for education. ;pp. 0-7F<. Ae. Nor): &ea#hers College *ress. !tiggins, +. ;E11F<. Ae. assessment b eliefs for a ne. s#hool mission. Phi !elta Ka%%an, B;;7<, EE-E:.
009
%e#iding for yourself about resear#h: action research as a isolation of teaching
ay to deal
ith the
;see also "ppendix C, &he refle#ti e pra#titioner<

Bbser ers of edu#ation ha e sometimes noted that #lassroom tea#hers tend to be isolated from ea#h other by the ery nature of their .or) ;2ortie, 78:@I -ei#hner, E11:<. " tea#her may be #onstantly surrounded by students, but #han#es are that no #olleague .ill be there to .itness .hat the tea#her does in #lass. Con ersation about #lassroom experien#es do happen, but they tend to happen outside of #lass timeLperhaps o er lun#h, or before or after s#hool. &his #ir#umstan#e does not pre ent tea#hersJ from sharing experien#es or #on#erns related to tea#hing altogether, but delaying #on ersations probably ma)es them less frequent or li)ely. Fe.er #ollegial #on ersations, in turn, #an limit tea#hers by redu#ing their opportunities to learn from ea#h otherLor e en to reali/e many of the instru#tional options open to them. "#tion resear#h addresses tea#hersJ isolation be#ause it promotes not only refle#tion on pra#ti#e, but also #ollaboration and sharing ;5ayes, E119<. &he benefits of sharing may be the most ob ious .hen an a#tion resear#h pro,e#t is a#tually published for a .ider audien#e. B er the past E1 years, numerous tea#hers and other edu#ators ha e published studies of their o.n tea#hing or their o.n studentsJ learning. &here are no. entire boo)s #ompiling su#h a##ounts ;for example, !amaras P Freese, E119I &id.ell P Fit/gerald, E119<, a #omprehensi e handboo) dis#ussing aspe#ts of tea#hersJ studies of their o.n tea#hing ;2oughran, et al., E11F<, se eral ,ournals .hose purpose is largely or solely to publish examples of a#tion resear#h ;one, for example, is #alled simply "#tion +esear#h<, and a ariety of blogs and .ebsites that post a#tion resear#h pro,e#ts. Colle#ti ely these publi#ations are a ri#h sour#e of pra#ti#al .isdom from .hi#h indi idual tea#hers #an learn and thin) about their o.n tea#hing. 6ut an a#tion resear#h pro,e#t does not ha e to published formally in order to promote #ollaboration or sharing. &he benefits #an happen lo#allyLe en .ithin a single s#hool buildingL .hene er a tea#her plans, #arries out, and tal)s about a resear#h initiati e. " tea#her named 6etty +agland, for example, des#ribed ho. this happened in her highly unusual tea#hing situation, a ,u enile #orre#tional fa#ility ;+agland, E119<. &he fa#ility fun#tioned some.hat li)e a prison for youth #on i#ted of arious #rimes. "s you might suppose, $s +aglandJs students experien#ed beha ior problems and #onfli#ts more often than usual in s#hools, to the extent that tea#hers sometimes felt physi#ally ulnerable themsel es, as .ell as isolated from help if serious #onfli#ts de eloped during #lass. &o deal .ith these stresses, $s +agland initiated a self-study of her pra#ti#e in .hi#h she .rote and thought about her experien#es and her rea#tions to the experien#es. !he shared the results, both in .riting and through meetings, .ith fello. tea#hers. In the #ourse of doing so, she de eloped a number of insights .hi#h #olleagues found helpful in formulating their o.n thin)ing:
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"s $s +agland refle#ted on her .or) as a tea#her, she reali/ed that tea#hing in a #orre#tional fa#ility had made her more #autious about her safety e en outside of tea#hing hours. For example, she had be#ome more #areful about lo#)ing her #ar door, .here she .al)ed at night, and e en .here she sat in restaurants ;she preferred to sit .ith her ba#) to the .all<. $s +agland found it impossible to des#ribe her .or) in a fully deta#hed or ob,e#ti e .ay, and finally de#ided that being deta#hed .as not e en desirable. 5er feelings and interpretations of studentsJ beha ior .ere essential to understanding experien#es .ith them, so she de#ided that it .as better to in#lude these in .hate er she .rote about them. "s she .rote, tal)ed, and refle#ted on her experien#es, she found herself go erned by t.o in#ompatible perspe#ti es about her .or), .hi#h she #alled the educational %ers%ective ;try to help students and turn their li es around< and the correctional %ers%ective ;remember that the students had #ommitted serious #rimes and often #ould not be trusted<. $ore importantly, she dis#o ered, through #on ersations .ith fello. staff, that they too felt torn bet.een these same t.o perspe#ti es. 6y tal)ing .ith ea#h other about the dilemmas in ho. to interpret studentsJ needs and ;mis<beha iors, she and the other staff .ere able to de elop a #ommon perspe#ti e about their purposes, about appropriate .ays of helping students, and about appropriate .ays of dealing .ith #onfli#ts .hen they arose. In the end, a study initiated by one tea#her, $s +agland, benefited all the tea#hers. 4hat began as a self-study e entually be#ame a group study, and tea#hersJ mutual isolation at .or) de#reased. Aot many tea#hers, of #ourse, find themsel es tea#hing in a #orre#tional fa#ility. 6ut manyL perhaps mostLdo experien#e serious dilemmas and stresses either about studentsJ beha ior or about their learning. %epending on #ir#umstan#es, for example, a tea#her may .onder ho. to respond to students .ho treat the tea#her or other students disrespe#tfully. Br a tea#her may feel lost about helping #ertain students .ho are struggling or .onder .here the tea#herJs responsibility ends if a student persists in not learning e en after re#ei ing spe#ial help. !u#h un#ertainties may not lead to physi#al threats, as a#tually happened to 6etty +agland o##asionally, but they #an #reate a lot of stress nonetheless. 6ut a#tion resear#h #an helpLsystemati#ally studying and refle#ting on ho. to sol e them, reading and listening to ho. others ha e done the same, and sharing .hat tea#hers therefore learn. 6e#ause of these a#ti ities, questions about tea#hing #an be resol ed, or at least #larified, and #lassroom pra#ti#e #an be enhan#ed. $ost important, the benefits #an be shared not only .ith the tea#her as resear#her, but .ith a tea#herJs #olleagues as .ell.
Questions
Consider the three .ays dis#ussed in this #hapter that resear#h arti#les #an differ: ;7< by ho. mu#h they see) uni ersal truths, ;E< by the response the author expe#ts from the reader, and ;0< by the assumptions the author ma)es about the readerJs prior experien#es. 4here is $s +aglandJs a#tion resear#h situated on ea#h of these dimensions of differen#e>
00C
Consider the ethi#al issues about a#tion resear#h dis#ussed at the end of this #hapterL insuring pri a#y of students, gaining informed #onsent, and insuring freedom to parti#ipate. 'i en the nature and fo#us of $s +aglandJs parti#ular a#tion resear#h, ho. might she honor these ethi#al #onsiderations> %oes the fa#t that her students .ere ;literally< #apti es ma)e any differen#e>
!uppose that instead of an inside staff member li)e $s +agland studying youthful offenders, an outsider unfamiliar .ith youth #orre#tional fa#ilities .anted to do so. 5o. .ould outsider status affe#t .hat #ould be learned about life in a ,u enile #orre#tional fa#ility>
+eferen#es
2ortie, %. ;78:@<. Schoolteacher. Chi#ago: 3ni ersity of Chi#ago *ress. -ei#hner, K. ;E11:<. "##umulating )no.ledge a#ross self-studies in tea#her edu#ation. Journal of Teacher Education, @B;7<, 09-F9. 5ayes, %. ;E119<. &elling stories: !ustaining impro ement in s#hools operating under ad erse #onditions. .m%roving Schools, G;0<, E10-E70. !amaras, ". P Freese, ". ;Eds.<. ;E119<. Self4study of teaching %ractices. Ae. Nor): *eter 2ang. &id.ell, %. P Fit/gerald, 2. ;Eds.<. ;E119<. Self4study and diversity. +otterdam, &he Aetherlands: !ense *ublishers. +agland, 6. ;E11:<. *ositioning the pra#titioner-resear#her: Fi e .ays of loo)ing at pra#ti#e. Action Research, ?;E<, 79@-7CE.
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16. ppendi4 C) The reflective practitioner

The e5%erience in reflective teaching is that you must %lunge into the doing, and try to educate yourself (efore you &no hat it is you+re trying to learn. 3!onald Sch\n, CGB>) %onald !#hcn, a philosopher and edu#ational resear#her, ma)es an important obser ation: learning to tea#h often means ma)ing #hoi#es and ta)ing a#tions .ithout )no.ing in ad an#e quite .hat you need to learn or .hat the #onsequen#es .ill be. &he problem, as .e ha e pointed out more than on#e, is that #lassroom e ents are often ambiguous and ambi alent, in that they usually ser e more than one purpose. " tea#her #ompliments a studentJs #ontribution to a dis#ussion: at that moment she may be moti ating the student, but also fo#using #lassmatesJ thin)ing on )ey ideas. 5er #omment fun#tions simultaneously as beha ioral reinfor#ement, information, and expression of #aring. "t that moment #omplimenting the student may be exa#tly the right thing to do. Br not: perhaps the praise #auses the tea#her to negle#t the #ontributions of others, or fo#uses attention on fa#tors that students #annot #ontrol, li)e their ability instead of their effort. In tea#hing, it seems, e erything #uts more than one .ay, signifies more than one thing. &he #ompli#ations #an ma)e it diffi#ult to prepare for tea#hing in ad an#e, though they also ma)e tea#hing itself interesting and #hallenging. &he #ompli#ations also mean that tea#hers need to learn from their o.n tea#hing by refle#ting ;or thin)ing about the signifi#an#e of< their experien#es. In the #lassrooms, students are not the only people .ho need to learn. !o do tea#hers, though .hat tea#hers need to learn is less about #urri#ulum and more about studentsJ beha ior and moti ation, about ho. to assess their learning .ell, and about ho. to shape the #lass into a mutually supporti e #ommunity. &hin)ing about these matters begins to ma)e a tea#her a refle#ti e pra#titioner ;!#hcn, 78C0<, a professional .ho learns both from experien#e and a(out experien#e. 6e#oming thoughtful helps you in all the areas dis#ussed in this text: it helps in understanding better ho. studentsJ learning o##urs, .hat moti ates students, ho. you might differentiate your instru#tion more fully, and ho. you #an ma)e assessments of learning more alid and fair. 2earning to refle#t on pra#ti#e is so important, in fa#t, that .e ha e referred to and illustrated its alue throughout this boo). In addition .e de ote this entire appendix to ho. you, li)e other professional tea#hers, #an de elop habits of refle#ti e pra#ti#e in yourself. First, .e des#ribe .hat refle#ti e pra#ti#e feels li)e as an experien#e, and offer examples of pla#es, people, and a#ti ities that #an support your o.n refle#tion on pra#ti#e. &hen .e dis#uss ho. tea#hers #an also learn simply by obser ing and refle#ting on their o.n tea#hing systemati#ally, and by sharing the results .ith other tea#hers and professionals. &his is an a#ti ity .e mentioned in this boo) pre iouslyI .e #all it teacher research or action research. "s you .ill see, refle#ti e pra#ti#e not only #ontributes to tea#hersJ ability to ma)e .ise de#isions, but also allo.s them to ser e as effe#ti e, prin#ipled ad o#ates on behalf of students.
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15. *ppendi% !+ The reflective practitioner
Resources for professional development and learning

"t some le el refle#tion on pra#ti#e is something you must do for yourself, sin#e only you ha e had your parti#ular tea#hing experien#es, and only you #an #hoose ho. to interpret and ma)e use of them. 6ut this rather indi idual a#ti ity also benefits from the stimulus and #hallenge offered by fello. professionals. BthersJ ideas may differ from your o.n, and they #an therefore help in .or)ing out your o.n thoughts and in alerting you to ideas that you may other.ise ta)e for granted. &hese benefits of refle#tion #an happen in any number of .ays, but most fall into one of four general #ategories:
tal)ing and #ollaborating .ith #olleagues parti#ipating in professional asso#iations attending professional de elopment .or)shops and #onferen#es reading professional literature
In the next se#tions .e explore .hat ea#h of these a#ti ities has to offer.
Colleagues as a resour#e
*erhaps the simplest .ay to stimulate refle#tions about your o.n tea#hing is to engage fello. tea#hers or other #olleagues in dialogue ;or thoughtful #on ersation< about tea#hing and learning: 4hat do you thin) of this )ind of experien#e> 5a e you e er had one li)e it yourself, and .hat did you ma)e of it> Aote that to be helpful in stimulating refle#tion, these #on ersations need to be largely about edu#ational matters, not about personal ones ;=4hat mo ie did you see last night>?<. %ialogues .ith indi idual #olleagues ha e #ertain ad antages to more #omplex or formal professional experien#es. &al)ing .ith an indi idual generally allo.s more parti#ipation for both of you, sin#e only t.o people may need to express their .hi#h you are not sure, or that may be #ontro ersial. " some.hat more #omplex .ay of stimulating refle#tion is group study. !e eral tea#hers at a s#hool gather regularly to bring themsel es up to date on a ne. #urri#ulum, for example, or to plan a#ti ities or poli#ies related to a s#hool-.ide theme ;e.g. =the en ironment?<. 'roup meetings often result in #onsiderable dialog among the members about the best .ays to tea#h and to manage #lassrooms, as .ell as stories about studentsJ beha ior and learning experien#es. For a beginning tea#her, group study #an be a parti#ularly good .ay to learn from experien#ed, eteran tea#hers. !haring of ideas be#omes e en more intense if tea#hers #ollaborate .ith ea#h other about their .or) on an extended basis. Collaboration #an ta)e many formsI in one form it might be =team tea#hing? by t.o or more tea#hers .or)ing .ith one group of students, and in another form it might be t.o or more tea#hers #onsulting regularly to #oordinate the #ontent of their #ourses. Collaborations .or) best .hen ea#h member of the team brings responsibilities and expertise that are unique, but also related to the other membersJ responsibilities. Imagine, for example, a #ollaboration bet.een !haron, .ho is a middle-years #lassroom tea#her, and *at, .ho is a resour#e tea#herLone .hose ,ob is to assist #lassroom tea#hers in .or)ing .ith students .ith edu#ational disabilities or spe#ial needs. If *at spends time in !haronJs #lassroom, then not only .ill the students benefit, but they both may learn from ea#h otherJs presen#e. *otentially, *at #an learn the details of the middle-years #urri#ulum and learn more about the full range of studentsJ s)illsLnot ,ust those of students ha ing diffi#ulties. !haron #an get ideas about ho. to help indi iduals .ho, in a #lassroom #ontext, seem espe#ially diffi#ult to help. "#hie ing these ie.s. It also #an pro ide a measure of safety or #onfidentiality if your #on ersation partner is a trusted #olleagueI sometimes, therefore, you #an share ideas of
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&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense benefits, of #ourse, #omes at a #ost: the t.o tea#hers may need to ta)e time not only for the students, but also to tal) .ith ea#h other. !ometimes the time-#ost #an be redu#ed some.hat if their s#hool administrators #an arrange for a bit of extra planning and sharing time. 6ut e en if this does not happen, the benefits of #ollaboration .ill be ery real, and often ma)e the in estment of time .orth.hile.
*rofessional asso#iations and professional de elopment a#ti ities

"nother .ay to stimulate refle#tion about tea#hing is by ,oining and parti#ipating in professional asso#iationsL organi/ations fo#used on supporting the .or) of tea#hers and on upholding high standards of tea#hing pra#ti#e. &able FF lists se eral ma,or professional asso#iations related to edu#ation and their Internet addresses. $ost of them are #omposed of lo#al bran#hes or #hapters ser ing the needs of a parti#ular #ity, state, or region. &able FF: " sele#tion of professional asso#iations related to edu#ation
"meri#an "sso#iation for the $entally +etarded ;""$+< W....aamr.orgX "sso#iation for 5ealth, *hysi#al Edu#ation, +e#reation, P %an#e ;""5*E+%< W....aahperd.orgX "sso#iation for Experiential Edu#ation ;"EE< W....prin#eton.eduKdr#urtisKaee.htmlX "sso#iation for +etarded Citi/ens ;"+C< W....thear#.orgK.el#ome.htmlX EAC Bnline +esour#es for $ath and !#ien#e Edu#ation W....en#.orgKstan.htmX Aational "sso#iation for 6ilingual Edu#ation ;A"6E< W....nabe.orgKX Aational "sso#iation for the Edu#ation of Noung Children ;A"ENC< W....naey#.orgKX Aational Coun#il for &ea#hers of $athemati#s ;AC&$< WW....n#tm.orgKX Aational Coun#il for the !o#ial !tudies ;AC!!< W....so#ialstudies.orgKX Aational Coun#il for &ea#hers of English ;AC&E< W....n#te.orgX Aational !#ien#e &ea#hers "sso#iation W....nsta.orgKX Brgani/ation of "meri#an 5istorians ;B"5< W....oah.orgX
&o a#hie e their purposes, a professional asso#iation pro ides a mixture of publi#ations, meetings, and #onferen#es intended for the professional de elopment of edu#ators, in#luding #lassroom tea#hers. &ypi#ally the publi#ations in#lude either a relati ely frequent ne.sletter or a less frequent ,ournal fo#used on issues of pra#ti#e or resear#h. Gery large asso#iations often publish more than one ne.sletter or ,ournal, ea#h of .hi#h is fo#used on a parti#ular topi# or type of ne.s ;for example, the Aational Edu#ation "sso#iation in the 3nited !tates publishes eight separate periodi#als<. !ome also publish online ,ournals ;there are se eral listed as part of &able F@ or online ersions of print ,ournals. 4hate er format they ta)e, professionally sponsored publi#ations stimulate thin)ing by dis#ussing issues and dilemmas fa#ed by professional edu#ators, and sometimes also by presenting re#ent edu#ational resear#h and the re#ommendations for tea#hing that flo. from that resear#h. 4e dis#uss .ays of using these publi#ations further in the next se#tion of this #hapter. &able F@: " sampling of ,ournals related to professional edu#ation
"nnotated 6ibliography of Edu#ation (ournals - annotations of o er FE9 edu#ation related ,ournals 0FE " 'lobal &ext
15. *ppendi% !+ The reflective practitioner and extensi e lin)s to edu#ational organi/ations and institutions that sponsor them.
C!! (ournal - Computers in the !o#ial !tudies - dedi#ated to the en#ouragement of the use of #omputers and related te#hnology in K-7E so#ial studies #lassrooms. Edu#ation *oli#y and "nalysis - published by the College of Edu#ation at "ri/ona !tate 3ni ersity Edu#ational &heory - publishes .or) in the philosophy of edu#ation and other dis#iplines. Effe#ti e &ea#hing - ele#troni# ,ournal de oted to the ex#hange of ideas and information rele ant to #ollege and uni ersity tea#hing in Aorth Carolina. 5ar ard Edu#ational +e ie. - quarterly ,ournal that pro ides an inter-dis#iplinary forum for inno ati e thin)ing and resear#h in edu#ation. Intera#t - European platform for intera#ti e learning and ne. media. (ournal of Computing in 5igher Edu#ation - publishes arti#les that #ontribute to our understanding of the issues, problems, and resear#h asso#iated .ith instru#tional te#hnology Ae. ,our - ele#troni# ,ournal and ne.sletter ar#hi e. +e ista Iberoameri#ana de Edu#a#ion - +e ista de la BEI. !#holarly Ele#troni# (ournals - &rends and "ttitudes: " +esear#h *roposal 4B+2%!*E"KE+ online - an international a#ademi# ,ournal .ritten by and for international s#holars, uni ersity administrators, and resear#hers.
$eetings and #onferen#es sponsored by a professional asso#iation also ta)e a ariety of forms. %epending on the si/e of the asso#iation and on the importan#e of the topi#, a meeting #ould be as short as a one half-day .or)shop or as long as a full .ee) .ith many sessions o##urring simultaneously. !ometimes, too, an asso#iation might sponsor a more extended #ourseLa series of meetings fo#used on one topi# or problem of #on#ern to tea#hers, su#h as #lassroom management or #urri#ulum planning. In some #ases, the #ourse might #arry uni ersity #redit, though not al.ays. "s you might expe#t, the si/e of a professional asso#iation ma)es a differen#e in )inds of professional de elopment experien#es it #an pro ide. In general, the smaller the asso#iation, the more ex#lusi ely it fo#uses on lo#al ne.s and edu#ational needs, both in its publi#ations and in its meetings or other a#ti ities. "t a professional de elopment .or)shop sponsored by a lo#al tea#hersJ asso#iation, for example, you are relati ely li)ely to see #olleagues and a#quaintan#es not only from your o.n s#hool, but from other neighboring s#hools. 2o#ally sponsored e ents are also more li)ely to fo#us on lo#al issues, su#h as implementing a ne. system for assessing studentsJ learning .ithin the lo#al s#hools. In general, too, lo#al e ents tend to #ost less to attend, in both time and money. 6y the same to)en, the larger the asso#iation, the more its professional de elopment opportunities are li)ely to fo#us on large-s#ale trends in edu#ation, su#h as the impa#t of the $o Child #eft -ehind legislation .e dis#ussed in Chapter 7 or the latest trends in using #omputer te#hnology for tea#hing. Conferen#es or other professional de elopment e ents are more li)ely to span se eral days and to be lo#ated outside the immediate to.n or region .hether you li e and .or). Nou may therefore see fe.er of your e eryday #olleagues and a#quaintan#es, but you may also ha e a greater in#enti e to ma)e ne. a#quaintan#es .hose interests or #on#erns are similar to your o.n.
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&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense &he e ent is more li)ely to feature edu#ators .ho are .ell-)no.n nationally or internationally, and to #all attention to edu#ational trends or issues that are ne. or unfamiliar. 4hether large or small, the a#ti ities of professional asso#iations #an stimulate thin)ing and refle#ting about tea#hing. 6y meeting and tal)ing .ith others at a meeting of an asso#iation, tea#hers learn ne. ideas for tea#hing, be#ome a.are of emerging trends and issues about edu#ation, and #onfront assumptions that they may ha e made about their o.n pra#ti#es .ith students. *rofessional meetings, #onferen#es, and .or)shops #an pro ide these benefits be#ause they dra. on the expertise and experien#e of a .ide range of professionalsLusually .ider than is possible .ithin a single s#hool building. 6ut #ompared simply to tal)ing .ith your immediate #olleagues, they ha e a distin#t disad antage: they ta)e effort and a bit of money to attend, and sometimes they are a ailable at #on enient times. 4ell-balan#ed professional de elopment should therefore also in#lude a#ti ities that are a ailable frequently, but that also dra. on a .ide range of expertise. Fortunately, an a#ti ity .ith these features is often easily at hand: the reading of professional publi#ations about edu#ational resear#h and pra#ti#e.
Reading and understanding professional articles

"lthough publi#ations about edu#ational issues and resear#h #an ta)e many forms, they tend to ser e three ma,or purposes in some sort of #ombination. " publi#ation #ould either ;7< pro ide a frame.or) for understanding tea#hing and learning, ;E< offer ad i#e about ho. to tea#h, or ;0< ad o#ate parti#ular ideas or pra#ti#es about edu#ation. 6enefiting from a professional publi#ation depends partly on understanding .hi#h of these purposes a parti#ular arti#le or boo) is emphasi/ing.
&hree purposes of edu#ational publi#ations

Consider the first purpose, to pro ide a frame.or) for understanding tea#hing and learning ;5ittleman and !imon, E11@<. " Hframe.or)H in this #ontext means a perspe#ti e or general ie.point for understanding spe#ifi# e ents and a#tions. &hey are mu#h li)e the theories des#ribed earlier in this boo), though not al.ays as formal or broad. " published arti#le might propose, for example, a .ay of understanding .hy #ertain students are disrespe#tful in spite of tea#hersJ efforts to pre ent su#h beha ior ;perhaps they are reinfor#ed by peers for being disrespe#tful<. It might offer e iden#e supporting this perspe#ti e. In doing so, the author pro ides a sort of =theory of disrespe#tful beha ior?, though he or she may not #all it a theory expli#itly. " se#ond purpose is to offer ad i#e about appropriate tea#hing pra#ti#es. "n arti#le intended for this purpose, for example, might suggest ho. to introdu#e reading instru#tion to first graders, or ho. to use fi#tion to tea#h high s#hool history, or ho. to organi/e a #lass to in#lude a student .ith a disability. Bften gi ing su#h ad i#e o erlaps .ith the first purpose, pro iding a frame.or) for understanding, sin#e thin)ing about an edu#ational issue in a parti#ular .ay may imply #ertain .ays of dealing .ith it in pra#ti#e. " third purpose of a published arti#le is to ad o#ate ideas and persuade others to ta)e a#tions benefiting students and so#iety. It might ta)e a position about important issues in edu#ation: Is it a good idea or not to retain ;or hold ba#)< a student in grade le el for another year if the student fails the #urri#ulum the first time> !hould s#hools tea#h about sexuality> !hould girls learn s#ien#e in #lassrooms separate from boys> In ad o#ating for ideas or poli#ies about su#h matters, the arti#le may express #on#ern about .hat is good, ethi#al or desirable in edu#ation, not ,ust about .hat is fa#tually true or pra#ti#al. &he author may see) expli#itly to persuade readers of the authorJs point of ie.. &hese features do not mean, ho.e er, that you need to gi e up thin)ing for yourself. Bn the #ontrary, .hen reading an ad o#a#y-oriented arti#le, refle#tion may be espe#ially important. Educational Psychology 0FF " 'lobal &ext
15. *ppendi% !+ The reflective practitioner 4hate er its purposeLunderstanding, ad i#e, or ad o#a#yLan arti#le or boo) about a professional issue #an stimulate thin)ing about .hat you )no. and belie e about tea#hing and learning. It should therefore #reate, rather than undermine, your indi iduality as a tea#her. &hin) of professional reading as a dialogue or #on ersation about edu#ation: some of the #omments in the #on ersation .ill probably be more helpful than others, but ea#h parti#ipant #ontributes someho., e en if none #an gi e a final ans.er or e erlasting truth. It is the same .ith publi#ationsI some may be more helpful than others, but none .ill be so perfe#t that you #an afford to #ease further reading or further thin)ing. If you are about to begin a tea#hing #areer, for example, you may be espe#ially interested in anything published about #lassroom management, but less interested in the problems of administering s#hools or in the politi#al issues that usually a##ompany edu#ational systems. Net some publi#ations may dis#uss these latter issues any.ay, and e entually you may find yourself more #on#erned about them than at the start of a #areer. Nour ,ob, as a refle#ti e tea#her, .ill be sort out the #urrently useful arti#les ;or parts of arti#les< from ones you #annot use immediately. &o experien#e edu#ational publi#ations in this .ay, ho.e er, you must thin) of the authors as your #ollaborators as .ell as general authorities. "s a reader, you need to assume that you are entitled to #onsider an authorJs ideas, but not obligated to a##ept it .ithout ,ournals related to professional edu#ation question. &here are se eral strategies for de eloping this attitude, but to )eep the dis#ussion fo#used, .e .ill loo) at ,ust t.o. 4e ha e already dis#ussed the first strategy, .hi#h is to understand the purposes of any parti#ular pie#e of resear#h .hi#h you en#ounter, in order to assess its #urrent usefulness to your daily .or) and your long-term professional goals. 4e ha e already indi#ated se eral general purposes of edu#ational resear#h publi#ations, but .e .ill go into more detail about this in the next se#tion. &he se#ond strategy for relating to authors as #ollaborators is to thin) about ho. you yourself might #ontribute to professional )no.ledge by engaging in resear#h of your o.n, e en as a #lassroom tea#herLan a#ti ity often #alled a#tion resear#h ;$ills, E119I !tringer, E11:<. "t the end of this #hapter .e dis#uss .hat a#tion resear#h in ol es, and ho. you might #onsider using it.
"uthorsJ assumptions about readers

"uthors of professional arti#les and boo)s also ma)e assumptions about their readers, and it helps to be a.are of these .hile you read. &he assumptions affe#t the style, #ontent, and signifi#an#e of the authorJs ideas in .ays that are both ob ious and subtle. Bne assumption is about the response .hi#h an author expe#ts from you, the reader: does he or she expe#t you a#tually to do something ne., or simply to #onsider doing something ne.> Br does the author ,ust .ant you to be a.are of a ne. idea> Consider, for example, an arti#le re ie.ing best pra#ti#es about in#lusion of students .ith spe#ial needs. &he author may imply, or e en urge you to ta)e a moral position: you should in#lude these students, the author may seem to say. 6ut in a different arti#leLone re#ommending parti#ular tea#hing pra#ti#esLthe author may merely as) you to thin) about alternati es to your normal .ays of tea#hing. Certain strategies .or)ed under #ertain tea#hing #onditions, the author says, so simply #onsider .hether they might .or) for you as .ell. " se#ond, less ob ious differen#e among professional publi#ations is in their un-stated assumptions about prior experien#es and attitudes of readers. &his assumption may be either helpful or frustrating, depending on you a#tual prior ba#)ground. " pie#e intended as a =frame.or) for understanding? may assume, for example, that you are familiar .ith basi# theories of learning already. If you ha e read and understood .hat .e outlined in Chapter E of this boo), the arti#le may turn out to be relati ely a##essible or understandable to you e en if you ha e relati ely
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&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense little experien#e in a#tual #lassroom tea#hing, and e en if you ha e ne er studied learning theories in detail. &he arti#le might seem more a##essible than you expe#t be#ause, for example, it fo#uses primarily on ho. tea#herDs praise affe#ts studentsD learning, an idea .ith .hi#h you may be some.hat familiar already. Bn the other hand, a professional publi#ation may assume that you ha e taught s#hool for a number of years already, or that you are at least familiar .ith #lassroom life from the point of ie. not of students, but of a tea#her. "n author .riting about H.ithitnessH ;dis#ussed in Chapter :<, for example, may ma)e this assumption, sin#e the #on#ept originated by obser ing tea#hers managing large group #lassroom a#ti ities. If you yourself are experien#ed at a#tual tea#hing, reading about .ithitness may trigger a lot of questions about ,ust ho. .ithit tea#hers are able to be in pra#ti#e, and about .hether in fa#t they al.ays need to be .ithit. Nou #an also as) yourself these questions e en if you ha e not yet been a tea#her yourself, of #ourse, but they may seem less immediate or urgent. " professional arti#le intended to ad o#ate for a parti#ular edu#ational poli#y or pra#ti#e may ma)e ery different assumptions about you as a reader. It may assume, for example, that you do in fa#t en,oy persuading others of your point of ie., e en .hen others initially disagree or rea#t indifferently. &his sort of assumption may sho. up as mu#h in .hat the .riting omits, as in .hat it in#ludes: if the term #ooperati e learning a#ti ity is used .ithout explanation, for example, the resear#her may be assuming not only that you are the sort of personL perhaps a tea#herL.ho )no.s .hat that term means already, but also that you already belie e in the alue of #ooperati e learning and are moti ated to explain its alue to others. In ma)ing these distin#tions among published arti#les, )eep in mind a point .e made at the outset: that an indi idual arti#le usually ser es more than one purpose at a time and ma)es more than one assumption about your prior )no.ledge and about ho. you are supposed to respond to the arti#le. &he differen#es are only about emphasis. &o illustrate these ideas about the purposes and effe#ts of resear#h, loo) in the next se#tion at three examples of a#tual published arti#les rele ant to edu#ation. &he studies are not a full #ross-se#tion of edu#ational resear#h or publi#ations, but they do suggest some of the ariety possible ;and ne#essary< among them. Ea#h example ser es a mixture of purposes, but also emphasi/es one purpose in parti#ular ;perspe#ti e-ta)ing, tea#hing re#ommendations, or ad o#a#y< des#ribed earlier. &he authors of ea#h example also ma)e parti#ular assumptions about you, the readerLabout the intelle#tual .or) .hi#h the authors expe#t you to do and about the moti ations .hi#h they assume you ha e or hope that you .ill a#quire. For ea#h example, .e des#ribe the rea#tions of one of us ;Kel in !eifert< as he read the arti#le.
Example O7: 5o. do #hildren a#quire moral #ommitments>

In 788:, 5erbert !alt/stein and se eral #olleagues published a resear#h-oriented arti#le about ho. #hildren a#quire moral beliefs ;!alt/stein, et al., 788:<. &he group of resear#hers .ere all graduate students and professors of psy#hology, .or)ing mostly at the City 3ni ersity of Ae. Nor). 4hen Kel in read of their affiliation .ith psy#hology, he suspe#ted that they .ould tal) about moral beliefs in general, and not ne#essarily about moral issues in #lassrooms, su#h as #heating or treating #lassmates .ith #are and respe#t. !till, the arti#le interested Kel in as a former tea#her and #urrent uni ersity professor, be#ause he had long been #on#erned .ith fostering qualities li)e integrity, honesty, #ooperation, and loyalty in students. If Kel in #ould find out about the me#hanism or pro#ess by .hi#h #hildren a#quire mature moral beliefs, he reasoned, maybe he #ould modify his tea#hing to ta)e ad antage of that )no.ledge.
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15. *ppendi% !+ The reflective practitioner !o Kel in began reading the arti#le. 5e dis#o ered some parts .ere #hallenging and required #areful refle#tion, .hereas others .ere easier to read. Bne of the most #hallenging passages #ame almost immediately, in the se#ond and third paragraphsI these paragraphs, it seemed, required a bit of prior )no.ledge about theories of moral de elopment. 6ut Kel in .as .illing to #on#entrate more fully on these paragraphs, be#ause he expe#ted that they might #larify the rest of the study. 5ere are the paragraphs, and some of Kel inJs thoughts as he read them: Initial problem: 4e began by re-examining the phenomenon of heteronomy, *iagetDs assertion ;780EK789@< follo.ing Kant ;7:C@K78@8< that young #hildren equate moral obligation .ith deferen#e to authority .hen ,ustifying their moral ,udgments. &he #on#ept is important be#ause it is #entral to the organismi# a##ount of moral de elopment as a series of differentiations and integrations.... Wp. 0:X &his .as one of the diffi#ult paragraphs, perhaps espe#ially be#ause Kel in had ne er read the spe#ifi# boo) by *iaget or by the philosopher Kant. 6ut Kel in did re#all reading, at arious times o er the years, a(out *iagetDs ie.s on moral de elopment. *iaget belie ed that at first, #hildren define morality in terms of .hat adults thin): an a#tion is HgoodH if and only if adults ;e.g. parents< #onsider it good, and HbadH if and only if adults #onsider it bad. &his is the idea of HheteronomyH to .hi#h !alt/stein is referring. Children, in this ie., ta)e quite a.hile to de elop or Hgro.H into truly autonomous moral beliefs. "utonomous beliefs form slo.ly out of earlier beliefs, in the .ay that a young plant or animal might gro.. &his is the Horganismi# a##ount of moral de elopmentH that !alt/stein is tal)ing about.
...&his a##ount has been #hallenged by &urielDs domain theory ;&uriel, 78C0<. "##ording to &uriel and his #olleagues, e en young #hildren intuiti ely distinguish moral from #on entional rules. Wp. 0:X
5ere .as an idea that .as intriguingM !alt/stein and his #olleagues .ere pointing to resear#h ;by the person #ited, named &uriel< that suggests that e en pres#hoolers )no. the differen#e bet.een truly moral rules and merely #on entional rules. "pparently they belie e, for example, that it .ould be .rong to steal toys or to hit someone, e en if adults ga e you permission to do so. 6ut apparently they also )no. that it .ould be BK for traffi# lights to use different #olorsLfor red to mean HgoH and green to mean HstopHLpro ided that e eryone agreed on #hanging the rule. &hat is .hat the resear#her named &uriel apparently meant by distinguishing #on ention from morality.
&he introdu#tion #ontinued in this #hallenging style for about t.o pages, requiring Kel in to read slo.ly and #arefully in order to understand its points. Kel in .as not dis#ouraged from #ontinuing, though, be#ause he .anted to find out more about ho., in general, #hildren a#quire moral beliefs. %id moral beliefs ta)e time to de elopLdid 0F:
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense they Hgro.H on #hildren slo.ly after initially being borro.ed from parents or other adults> In this #ase, then maybe Kel in o.ed it to his students to adopt and express desirable moral attitudes myself, so as to pro ide a good model for their de eloping beliefs. Br .ere studentsJ )ey moral beliefs already in pla#e .hen they entered s#hoolLalmost as if Hhard .iredH in their minds, or at least already learned during infan#y and the pres#hool years> In this se#ond #ase, it might still be desirable for Kel in to adopt positi e moral attitudes, but not for the purpose of modeling them for students. !tudents already =hard .ired? for )ey moral beliefs might not need a model so mu#h as an enfor#er of desirable moral beha iors. Con#erning the issue of #heating, for example, the students might already understand the undesirable nature and impli#ations of this beha ior. "s a result they might not need demonstrations of honest integrity from their tea#her as mu#h as affirmations from the tea#her of the importan#e of honesty and integrity, along .ith #onsistent enfor#ement of appropriate san#tions against #heating .hen it did o##ur. For Kel in, therefore, the out#omes of resear#h on moral de elopmentLin#luding !alt/steinDs that he .as #urrently readingLposed issues of #lassroom management, both in uni ersity #lassrooms and in publi# s#hool #lassrooms. !o Kel in read on. !alt/stein proposed resol ing the issues about the origins of moral de elopment by distinguishing bet.een moral #onfli#ts and moral dilemmas: $oral #onfli#ts are #onfli#ts bet.een moral duty or right and a non-moral desire. "n example might be the #onfli#t bet.een .hether to return a .allet to its rightful o.ner or )eep the #o eted .allet .ith its extra #ash. In #ontrast, moral dilemmas are #onfli#ts in ol ing t.o moral rights or duties. For example, Wa person might feel a dilemma bet.eenX .hether to steal a drug to sa e a spouseDs life. Wp. 0CX &he distin#tion bet.een #onfli#ts and dilemmas loo)ed promising to Kel in. $oral #onfli#ts loo)ed fairly simple in #ogniti e terms, e en if they .ere sometimes diffi#ult emotionally. &he HrightH a#tion .as ob ious. $oral dilemmas .ere more #omplex #ogniti ely as .ell as emotionally, be#ause t.o HgoodsH .ere being .eighed against ea#h other. &he moral alternati es might both be right and .rong at the same time, and their relati e HrightnessH might not be immediately ob ious.
!alt/stein and his #olleagues proposed that .hen young #hildren sho. a.areness of moral rules, they may be doing so in the simpler #ontext of moral #onfli#ts. " young #hild might belie e that you should return a dollar to its o.ner, e en if the #hild has trouble in pra#ti#e o er#oming a selfish impulse to )eep the dollar. &he same #hild might ha e trouble de#iding, ho.e er, .hether it is HrightH to inform his tea#her if a best friend has #heated on a test. In that #ase t.o moral prin#iples #ompete for attentionLhonesty and loyalty to a friend. &o sort out the impli#ations of #hoosing bet.een these prin#iples, a young #hild might need to rely on older, .iser minds, su#h as parents or other adults. &he minute that he or she does so, the #hild is sho.ing the moral heteronomy that *iaget used to .rite about and that !alt/stein referred to early in the arti#le. 3nderstanding these ideas too) effort, but on#e Kel in began figuring them out, the rest of the arti#le .as easier to follo.. In reading the remaining pages, he noted in passing that the resear#hers used se eral te#hniques #ommon in edu#ational resear#h. For example, they inter ie.ed parti#ipants, a #ommon .ay of gathering systemati# information about indi idualsD thin)ing. &hey also imposed #ontrols on their pro#edures and on the sele#tion of parti#ipants. *ro#edures .ere #ontrolled, for example, by posing the same three moral dilemmas and to all Educational Psychology 0FC " 'lobal &ext
15. *ppendi% !+ The reflective practitioner parti#ipants, so that indi idualsD responses #ould be #ompared meaningfully. &he sele#tion of parti#ipants .as #ontrolled by sele#ting t.o age groups for deliberate #omparison .ith ea#h otherLone that .as se en years old and the other that .as ele en. !in#e the resear#hers .anted to generali/e about moral de elopment as mu#h as possible, but they ob iously #ould not inter ie. e ery #hild in the .orld, they sampled parti#ipants: they sele#ted a manageable number ;sixty-fi e, to be exa#t< from the larger student population of one parti#ular s#hool. In a se#ond part of the in estigation, they also sele#ted a #omparable number of #hildren of the same t.o ages ;: and 77< from the #ity of +e#ife, lo#ated in 6ra/il. &he 6ra/ilian groupDs responses .ere #ompared deliberately .ith the "meri#an groupDs responses, in order to allo. for the impa#t of #ultural beliefs on moral de elopment in general. Kel in re#ogni/ed this resear#h strategy as an example of using #ontrol groups. In resear#h terms, the 6ra/ilian group H#ontrolled forH the impa#t of "meri#an #ulture on #hildrenDs moral beliefs, and i#e ersa, the "meri#an group #ontrolled for the impa#t of 6ra/ilian #ulture on #hildrenDs moral beliefs. "ltogether, these te#hniques helped insure that the inter ie.s of #hildrenDs moral beliefs really illustrated .hat they .ere supposed to illustrateLthat they .ere reliable and alid, in the senses that .e dis#ussed in earlier #hapters. "s Kel in noti#ed !alt/steinDs attention to good resear#h te#hniques, he gained #onfiden#e in !alt/steinJs obser ations and in the interpretations that the authors made from them. 4hat did !alt/stein and his #olleagues find outLor more to the point, .hat did Kel in !eifert learn from .hat !alt/stein and his #olleagues .rote about> &here .ere three ideas that o##urred to Kel in. Bne .as that in e eryday life, #hildren probably deal .ith moral beliefs of all le els of #ogniti e #omplexity, and not ,ust HsimpleH moral #onfli#ts and H#omplexH moral dilemmas. !alt/stein found that #hildrenDs solutions to moral dilemmas depended a lot on the #ontent of the dilemma. Children ad o#ated strongly for truthfulness in some situations ;for example, in de#iding .hether to tell the tea#her about a friendDs #heating<, but not in other situations ;li)e in de#iding .hether to ba#) up a friend .ho is being teased and .ho has lied in an effort to stop the teasing<. 6ut it .as rare for all #hildren to support any one moral prin#iple #ompletelyI they usually supported a mix. "nother idea that Kel in learned from !alt/steinDs resear#h .as about ho. #hildren expressed moral heteronomy ersus moral autonomy. "ge, it seemed, did not affe#t the beliefs that #hildren statedI younger and older #hildren too) similar positions on all dilemmas initially. 6ut age did affe#t ho. steadfastly #hildren held to initial beliefs. Nounger #hildren .ere more easily influen#ed to s.it#h opinions .hen an adult H#ross-examinedH .ith probing questionsI older #hildren .ere more li)ely to )eep to their initial position. $oral heteronomy .as re ealed not by a #hildDs ie.s as su#h, but by the )ind of dialogue a #hild has .ith adults. " third idea that Kel in learned .as about #hildrenDs per#eptions of adultsD moral beliefs. !alt/stein found that e en though older #hildren ;the 77-year-olds< sho.ed more moral autonomy ;.ere more steadfast< than younger #hildren, they tended to belie e that adults thought about moral issues in .ays similar to #hildren .ho .ere younger. In the HteasingH dilemma mentioned abo e, for example, the 77-year-olds opted mu#h more often than :year-olds for remaining loyal to a friend, e en though doing so meant further untruthfulness .ith peers. Net the 77year-olds also more often stated a belief that adults .ould resol e the same dilemma in a .ay #hara#teristi# of :year-oldsLthat is, by telling the truth to peers and thus betraying loyalty to a friend. &his finding pu//led Kel in. 4hy should older, and presumably more insightful, #hildren thin) that adults are more li)e younger #hildren than li)e themsel es> !alt/stein suggested an interpretation, ho.e er, that helped him ma)e sense of the apparent in#onsisten#y:
0F8
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense ...Consistent .ith our past resear#h, #hildren attributed the )inds of moral #hoi#es made by younger #hildren to adults. In our ie., this finding tends to support a #onstru#ti ist rather than a Wso#ial modelingX ie. of morality, .hi#h .ould predi#t that the #hildDs ,udgments mirror ;or de elop to.ard< their representation of adult ,udgments. Wp. F7X In other .ords, thought Kel in, if #hildren learned moral beliefs by imitating ;or modeling themsel es after< parents or other adults, then they ought to see themsel es as resembling adults more and more as they get older. Instead, they see themsel es as resembling adults less, at least during middle #hildhood. &his .ould happen only if they .ere preo##upied .ith H#onstru#tingH their o.n beliefs on the basis of their experien#es, and therefore failed to noti#e that adults might also ha e #onstru#ted beliefs similar to their o.n.
Relevance2 a frame or& for understanding moral develo%ment

&he arti#le by !alt/stein offered a .ay to understand ho. #hildren de elop moral beliefs, and espe#ially to understand the #hange from moral heteronomy to moral autonomy. 6y imposing #ontrols on the pro#edures ;uniform inter ie.s< and on the sele#tion of parti#ipants ;parti#ular ages, parti#ular so#ieties or #ultures<, the resear#hers eliminated #ertain sour#es of ambiguity or ariability in #hildrenDs responses. 6y framing their pro,e#t in terms of pre ious theories of moral de elopment ;*iagetJs, &urielJs<, furthermore, they made it easier to interpret their ne. results in the general terms of these theories as .ell. In these .ays the in estigation aspired to pro ide a general perspe#ti e about #hildrenDs moral de elopment. *ro iding a frame.or) for understanding, you re#all, is one of the ma,or purposes of many professional publi#ations. 6ut note that the authors paid a pri#e for emphasi/ing this purpose. 6y organi/ing their .or) around existing general theory and resear#h, they had to assume that readers already had some )no.ledge of that theory and resear#h. &his is not an unreasonable assumption if the readers are expe#ted to be fello. resear#hersI after all, many of them ma)e a li ing by H)no.ing the literatureH of psy#hology. 6ut assuming su#h )no.ledge #an be an obsta#le if the authors intend to #ommuni#ate .ith non-psy#hologists: in that #ase, either the authors must ma)e more of an effort to explain the rele ant ba#)ground resear#h, or readers must edu#ate themsel es about the resear#h. &he latter a#ti ity is not ne#essarily diffi#ult ;the ba#)ground )no.ledge for !alt/steinDs .or), for example, too) me only a fe. paragraphs to explain in .riting<, but it must be done to ma)e full sense of resear#h that tries to pro ide a uni ersal frame.or) of psy#hologi#al )no.ledge.
The readerMs role2 interested o(server of children

In #ondu#ting and reporting their resear#h, !alt/stein and his #olleagues .ere not presenting themsel es as s#hool tea#hers, nor .ere they expe#ting readers ne#essarily to respond as tea#hers. "s they put it in the first paragraph of the arti#le, they sought to offer Ha more #ontextuali/ed perspe#ti e for understanding the de elopment of moral ,udgmentsH Wp. 0:X. 3nli)e most tea#hers, they seemed indifferent to re#ommending ho. #hildrenDs moral ,udgements ought to be fostered. Bbser ation of #hildren .as their purpose, not inter ention. &he meaning of the term H#ontextuali/ed perspe#ti eH .as not ob ious to Kel in .hen he first read it, but e entually it be#ame #learer: they .ere tal)ing about the importan#e of distinguishing among types of moral de#isions and moral beliefs. &hey did sometimes note information rele ant to tea#hingLfor example, they pointed out that for #ultural reasons, tea#hers in 6ra/il do not #ommand high respe#t and therefore #ompared to "meri#an #hildren, 6ra/ilian #hildren Educational Psychology 0@1 " 'lobal &ext
15. *ppendi% !+ The reflective practitioner may feel less #ompelled to tell the truth to their tea#hers. 6ut this #omment .as not the primary fo#us of their resear#h, nor did the authors dis#uss .hat ;if anything< it might imply about tea#hing in the 3nited !tates. Net the non-tea#hing perspe#ti e of the arti#le did not )eep Kel in, a long-time s#hool tea#her and #urrent uni ersity tea#her, from refle#ting on the arti#le in terms of its edu#ational rele an#e. "s .e mentioned already, Kel in .as attra#ted to the arti#le be#ause of his o.n #on#erns about #hara#ter de elopment in studentsLho. do they a#quire moral beliefs and #ommitments, and ho. should he help them in doing so> Kel in did not really expe#t to find an ans.er to the se#ond of these questions, gi en the Hobser ationH orientation of the authors. 5e did hope to find an ans.er to the first, although e en here he also expe#ted that to ma)e allo.an#es for the fa#t that resear#h inter ie.s are not usually identi#al to #lassroom situations. Children might respond differently .hen inter ie.ed indi idually by a resear#her, #ompared to ho. they might respond to a tea#her in #lass. Br perhaps not. !o in refle#ting on the arti#le, Kel in had to note the #ontext and purposes of !alt/steinDs study, and to remind himself that on#e a tea#her .ent beyond simply obser ing #hildren to inter ening on their behalf, the tea#her might be led to different #on#lusions about #hildrenJs moral de elopment. 6ut in spite of these #autionsLor maybe be#ause of themLKel in found mu#h food for thought in the arti#le related to tea#hing.
Example OE: 2earning disability as a misleading label

In E119, +ay $#%ermott, !helley 'oldman, and 5er T Garenne published an arti#le that dis#ussed the use of disability #ategories in edu#ation. &he arti#le attra#ted Kel inJs attention be#ause he had been #on#erned for a long time about the ambiguities of disability #ategories ;see Chapter @ of this boo)< as .ell as about their potential for stigmati/ing indi iduals. 5e expe#ted the arti#le to do#ument additional problems .ith labeling .hen a student is from a non-.hite ethni# group. Kel inJs expe#tation .as fulfilled partially, but he .as surprised also to en#ounter an additional and tougher message in the arti#le. 5ere is ho. the study began: !in#e about 7C@1^#lassifying human beings by mental ability, a##urately or not, has been a politi#ally usually the do.ntrodden, into ability and disposition groups that they #annot es#ape^ *eople .ho li e together in a #ulture must struggle #onstantly .ith the #onstraintsôf systems of #lassifi#ation and interpretation used in the #ulture. Kel in had a mixed rea#tion to this opening. In one .ay it seemed to say something familiarLthat disabilities< may #reate problems for indi iduals. 6ut the tone of the paragraph sounded more se erely #riti#al than Kel in had expe#ted: it .as saying that po.er go erned all #lassifi#ations, implying that mis#lassifi#ations may be .idespread or e en uni ersal.
re.arded a#ti ity. &hose .ith po.er ha e pla#ed others, #lassifi#ation systems ;su#h as #ategories for
Kel inJs initial hun#h .as therefore that the arti#le .ould express a radi#ally #riti#al ie. of disability #lassifi#ationsLparti#ularly as they affe#t the =do.ntrodden?, .hi#h presumably in#luded #hildren from minority ethni# groups. 5is expe#tation pro ed #orre#t as the authors explained their point of ie., .hi#h they #alled a cultural a%%roach to understanding disability. 3sing learning disabilities ;2%< as an example, here is ho. they explained their position: 4e are not as interested in 2% beha ior as in the preo##upationsLas seen from the le el of #lassroom "t this point Kel in .as not sure if he .anted to #ontinue reading the arti#le be#ause it seemed li)e it
0@7
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense organi/ationLof all those adults .ho are professionally poised to dis#o er 2% beha ior. 4e are less interested in the #hara#teristi#s of 2% #hildren than in the #ultural arrangements that ma)e an 2% label rele ant. might not be rele ant to #lassroom life spe#ifi#ally. It also implied a se ere #riti#ism of professional edu#ators Limplied that they are too eager to find examples of 2% and for this reason may mis#lassify students. Bn the other hand, Kel in .as already a.are that 2% are an espe#ially ambiguous #ategory of disabilityI maybe the arti#le .ould help to sho. .hy. !o he )ept reading.
&he authors #ontinued by outlining the history of 2% as a #ategory of disability, des#ribing this #ategory as an outgro.th of the general intelligen#e testing mo ement during the t.entieth #entury. 6y the 78:1s, they argued, the #on#ept of 2% offered a .ay to #lassify #hildren .ith a#ademi# diffi#ulties .ithout ha ing to #all the #hildren mentally disabled. 6e#ause of this fa#t, the 2% #ategory .as neededLliterallyLby .ell-off parents .ho did not .ant their #hildren treated or edu#ated as #hildren .ith mental disabilities. 2% as a #on#ept and #ategory #ame to be applied primarily to #hildren from the .hite middle-#lass, and mental disability be#ame, by default, the equi alent #ategory for the non-.hite and poor. &o support this assertion, the authors reported a #lassroom obser ation of three non-.hite boysL5e#tor, +i#ardo, and 6oomerL.hile they .or)ed together to design an imaginary resear#h station in "ntar#ti#a. Citing a#tual trans#ripts of #on ersation .hile the boys .or)ed, the authors #on#luded that all three boys sho.ed intelligen#e and insight about the assignment, but that the tea#her .as only a.are of the #ontributions of one of the boys. 5e#tor systemati#ally hid his )no.ledge from the tea#herJs ie. by getting 6oomer to spea) for their groupI +i#ardo parti#ipated .ell in the group .or) but .as rarely a#)no.ledged by the other t.o boys. 6oomer re#ei ed #onsiderable praise from the tea#her, than)s to his spea)ing for the group. Net the tea#her .as ne er a.are of these subtleties. &he authors blamed her o ersight not on the tea#her herself, but on an edu#ational and #ultural system that leads edu#ators to #lassify or typify students too qui#)ly or easily. 5ere is ho. they put it: &he "meri#an #lassroom is .ell organi/ed for the produ#tion of display of failure, one #hild at a time if possible, but group by group if ne#essaryÊ en if the tea#her manages to treat e ery #hild as #apable, the #hildren #an hammer ea#h other into negati e statusI and e en if both^resist dropping e eryone into predefined #ategories, the #hildrenJs parents #an ta)e o er, demanding more and more boxes .ith .hi#h to spe#ify )inds of )ids doing better than other )inds of )ids. In su#h a #lassroom, if there .ere no 2% #ategories, someone .ould ha e to in ent them. 4hen Kel in read this #on#lusion, he did not really disagree, but he did feel that it .as beside the point for most tea#hers. $aybe #hildren do get #lassified too easily, he thought, but a tea#herJs ,ob is not ,ust to lament this possibility, as the authors seemed to be doing. Instead their ,ob is to help the real, li e #hildren for .hom they ha e daily responsibility. 4hat tea#hers need are therefore suggestions to a oid mis#lassifying students by o erloo)ing )ey information about them. Kel in .ished, at the end, that the authors had made some of these suggestions.
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Relevance2 a critical frame or&

In this study the authors offered a sort of ba#)handed frame.or) of thin)ing about #ategories of disabilityI or more pre#isely they offered a frame.or) for understanding .hat the #ategories are not. In essen#e they said that disability #ategories des#ribe qualities =in? students only in the sense that edu#ators and others happen to thin) of disability #ategories in this .ay. "n equally reasonable .ay to thin) about disabilities, they argued, is that modern so#iety is organi/ed so that its #iti/ens ha e to be #lassified for many different reasons. Edu#ators are simply helping to implement this so#iety-.ide expe#tation. " frequent result in #lassrooms is that tea#hers #lassify students too easily and that )ey e iden#e of studentsJ #apa#ity is o erloo)ed. In ma)ing this argument, the authors implied an indire#t re#ommendation about ho. to tea#h, though the re#ommendation a#tually fo#used on .hat tea#hers should not do. Instead of ;mis<identifying #hildren .ith learning diffi#ulties, the authors implied, tea#hers and other edu#ators should stop #on#erning themsel es .ith #lassifying #hildren, and see) to reorgani/e #lassrooms and s#hools so that #lassifi#ation is less important. =Change the s#hool?, they .rote, =and 2% be#omes less rele ant?. &his #on#lusion may be an important reminder, but it is not espe#ially helpful as a re#ommendation to pra#ti#ing tea#hers, .ho usually need to )no. about more than .hat to a oid.
The readers+ role2 concerned advocate for social 'ustice

It is not surprising that the arti#le la#)ed #on#rete re#ommendations for tea#hing, gi en that the authors seemed to spea) to readers not as #lassroom tea#hers, but as general #riti#s of so#iety .ho are #on#erned about fairness or so#ial ,usti#e. &heir #omments made t.o assumptions: first, that readers .ill .ant to minimi/e unfair stereotypes of students, and se#ond, that readers .ill see) greater fairness in ho. tea#hers treat students. For readers .ho happen to be tea#hers themsel es, the first of these assumptions is a reasonable oneI most of us .ould indeed li)e to minimi/e unfair stereotyping of students. &he se#ond is also reasonable, but perhaps not in a .ay that the authors intended. &ea#hers probably do try their best to treat students fairly and respe#tfully. &heir responsibilities usually mean, ho.e er, that they #an only do this #on eniently .ith their o.n studentsI the time a ailable to .or) to.ard general so#ial ,usti#e is often limited. ;"s you might suspe#t, Kel in .as not fully satisfied after he finished reading this arti#leM<
Example O0: &he impa#t of bilingualism on reading

In 788@, three edu#ation professorsL+obert (imTne/, 'eorgia 'ar#ea, and %a id *earsonLpublished a study about the impa#t of bilingualism on #hildrenDs ability to read English ;788@<. &he three spe#iali/ed in #urri#ulum studies, litera#y a#quisition, and bilingual language de elopment, and .ere therefore moti ated by a #on#ern for the a#ademi# su##ess of bilingual #hildren and espe#ially by #on#ern for identifying .hy bilingual #hildren sometimes ha e diffi#ulty learning to read English. &oo mu#h resear#h on bilingualism, they argued, .as based on .hat they #alled a Hdefi#itH frame.or): it fo#used on .hat bilingual #hildren la#)ed #ompared to monolinguals. &hey sought an alternati e frame.or), one fo#used on bilingual studentsD #ompeten#e, and espe#ially on their #ompeten#e to read a se#ond language. &o sear#h for this alternati e, the resear#hers mounted a large resear#h program, and the arti#le published in 788@ .as one of the studies resulting from this resear#h. It #aught Kel inJs interest not only be#ause of its topi#, but be#ause of its approa#h. Instead of sur eying do/ens of students .ith a questionnaire, as resear#hers sometimes do, these in estigators relied on ,ust three students studied intensi ely. Ea#h student be#ame a #ase study and in#luded 0@0
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense detailed, lengthy obser ations and inter ie.s of that parti#ular student. Ea#h student .as #hosen deliberately for a parti#ular purpose. Bne .as a highly profi#ient reader .ho .as also bilingual ;!panish and English<I a se#ond .as a marginally profi#ient reader .ho .as bilingual ;!panish and English<I and a third .as a highly profi#ient reader .ho .as monolingual in English. &o qualify for the study, furthermore, ea#h student had to be #omfortable refle#ting on and tal)ing about their o.n reading pro#esses, so that the authors #ould inter ie. them at length on this topi#. &he resear#hers as)ed ea#h student to read six one-page passages in English and ;.here rele ant< in !panish. &hey in ited all three to thin) aloud about their reading as they .ent along, #ommenting on ho. they figured out parti#ular .ords or passages. &he oral readings and thin)-aloud #ommentaries .ere taped and trans#ribed, and be#ame the information on .hi#h the authors based their #on#lusions and re#ommendations. 3sing these pro#edures, (imTne/, 'ar#ea, and *earson dis#o ered important differen#es among the three girls. &he profi#ient bilingual, *amela, used her gro.ing )no.ledge of ea#h language to help in learning o#abulary from the other language. 4hen she en#ountered the English .ord =spe#ies? , for example, she guessed #orre#tly that it meant the same as the similar !panish .ord =espe#ies?I and .hen she en#ountered the !panish =liquedo?, she guessed #orre#tly that it meant the English =liquid?. 5er fo#us on learning o#abulary .as stronger than for the profi#ient monolingual, $i#helle, .ho #ommented less on spe#ifi# .ords than ho. the o erall reading passages related to her prior general )no.ledge. &he differen#e presumably stemmed from $i#helleDs greater familiarity .ith English o#abularyLso mu#h greater, in fa#t, that $i#helle did not need to thin) about indi idual .ords deliberately. 6oth $i#helle and *amela differed, ho.e er, from the less-profi#ient bilingual reader, Christine. 2i)e *amela, Christine fo#used on o#abulary, but she did not thin) of her nati e !panish as a resour#e for this tas). 4hen reading a !panish .ord, she .as sometimes reminded of English equi alents ;H#ognates,H as language tea#hers #all them<, but she did not use her mu#h greater )no.ledge of !panish to assist .ith her more limited English. !he did not sear#h for equi alent .ords deliberately, as *amela did.
Relevance2 recommendations for teaching english as an additional language

&he authors of this arti#le fo#used more dire#tly on parti#ular learning beha iors than did the authors of the t.o arti#les des#ribed earlier. (imene/ and his #olleagues emphasi/ed the importan#e of regarding a #hildDs nati e language as a strength in the pro#ess, not a liability, and they then pointed out the importan#e of fa#ilitating o#abulary de elopment. 6ut they did not #laim this re#ommendation to be appropriate for all #hildren or for all forms of bilingualism. &hey only fo#used on a parti#ular pair of languages ;!panish and English in the 3!"<, and on three #ombinations of s)ill le el in these t.o languages. &hese are #ommon bilingual experien#es in the 3nited !tates, but they are not the only ones, either in the 3nited !tates or else.here in the .orld. For other bilingual situations, their #on#lusions might not hold true. For some students ;e.g. Chinese"meri#ans<, the nati e language and the se#ond language are mu#h more different in o#abulary, pronun#iation, and grammar than !panish is to English, and therefore may pro ide less of a resour#e to a #hild learning to read. In some settings, relationships bet.een languages are more equal than in the 3nited !tates. In Canada, for example, both the numbers and the o erall so#ial status of English spea)ers and Fren#h spea)ers are more equal than in the 3nited !tates. In both of these situations, if a #hild fails to learn to read the se#ond language, it may not be for the reasons suggested by +obert (imTne/, but for other reasons, ranging from diffi#ulties .ith reading per se to #ultural differen#es in ho. a #hild expe#ts to be taught ;(ohnson, E11F<.
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The readerMs role2 (oth teacher and researcher

In the published arti#le des#ribing their resear#h, (imTne/, 'ar#ea, and *earson assumed that readers ha e some familiarity .ith bilingual students and .ith issues related to tea#hing reading. &hey began their arti#le by des#ribing pre ious resear#h studies in these areasLmore than a do/en of them, in fa#t. In the middle they des#ribed numerous responses of the three bilingual students to the passages they .ere as)ed to read. "t the end of the arti#le they made spe#ifi# suggestions for tea#hing, su#h as Hfo#us more on o#abulary de elopmentH. 4hen Kel in read these arious se#tions, he found that his prior )no.ledge of and refle#tions about tea#hing helped to ma)e sense of them. 6ut he also found that did not need to be an expert in bilingualism order to understand the authorsD messagesLhe had ne er, in fa#t, taught English as a !e#ond 2anguage, nor had he e er #ondu#ted resear#h on reading or bilingual language de elopment.
ction research) hearing from teachers about improving practice

Ea#h of the professional arti#les ,ust des#ribed offers ideas and re#ommendations that #an stimulate refle#tion about tea#hing and learning. 6ut they all suffer from a parti#ular limitation: "lthough they often relate to tea#hers and #lassrooms, tea#hersJ role in influen#ing in designing and interpreting a study is minimal. In the .orld of edu#ational resear#h, persons other than tea#hersLtypi#ally professors, edu#ational administrators, or other professional resear#hersLtend to spea) on behalf of tea#hers. "ll three of the arti#les des#ribed earlier in this #hapter had this feature. *ersons other than tea#hers #hose the resear#h topi#s. &he information that emerges from this arrangement often still relates to tea#hing and learning, and may #ontain useful insights for #lassroom .or). 6ut by definition, it is framed by people .hose interests and fundamental #ommitments may not be identi#al .ith #lassroom tea#hers. "s a result, the studies are some.hat more li)ely to attend to problems posed by a#ademi# dis#iplines or by edu#ational administrators. &.o of the studies .hi#h .e des#ribed earlierLthe ones about moral de elopment and about labels for disabilitiesLsho.ed this quality. Classroom tea#hers are #on#erned, of #ourse, about both moral de elopment and #ategori/ing of students. 6ut if tea#hers had designed the t.o pro,e#ts themsel es, they might ha e re-framed both of them to fo#us more expli#itly on the #hallenges of #lassroom tea#hing. In studying moral beliefs, for example, tea#hers might ha e fo#used more squarely on ho. to foster moral beliefs in their students. In studying in#lusi e edu#ation, they might ha e fo#used more fully on the pra#ti#al diffi#ulties fa#ed by tea#hers in assessing studentsJ learning disabilities .ith alidity.
&he nature of a#tion resear#h

In ie. of these issues, a parti#ularly important )ind of in estigation for tea#hers is a#tion resear#h ;sometimes also tea#her resear#h<, an a#ti ity referring to systemati#, intentional inquiry by tea#hers for the purpose of impro ing their o.n pra#ti#e ;!tenhouse, 78C@I 6rydon-$iller, 'reen.ood, P $aguire, E110I +ussell, &. P 2oughran, (. E11@<. "#tion resear#h is not to be #onfused .ith resear#h about tea#hing and learning, .hi#h are in estigations by professional resear#hers on topi#s of tea#hers, tea#hing, or learning. "#tion resear#h has se eral defining #hara#teristi#s, in addition to being planned and #ondu#ted by tea#hers. First, it originates in the problems and dilemmas of #lassroom pra#ti#e, or in #hroni# problems .ith #ertain students, materials, or a#ti ities. !e#ond, its out#omes offer information fo#used on parti#ular tea#hers and #lassrooms, rather than about tea#hers in general or students in general. "lthough this feature might ma)e a#tion resear#h seem less useful as a sour#e of ad i#e or )no.ledge that is truly general, supporters argue that fo#using on 0@@
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense spe#ifi# learning #ontexts ma)es a#tion resear#h more #redible or alid as a sour#e of pra#ti#al information and ideas. It is, they argue, simply more attuned to the #ontext of real #lassrooms ;!t. Clair, E11@<. &hird, .hile the audien#e for a#tion resear#h #an #ertainly in#lude professors and edu#ational administrators, the audien#e tends to be other tea#hers ;Fensterma#her, 788FI "#)erman P $a#Ken/ie, E11:<. "#tion resear#h is therefore in an espe#ially strong position to pro ide HinsiderH perspe#ti es on edu#ational problems.
"#tion resear#h in pra#ti#e

"#tion resear#h ma)es a number of assumptions as a result of its nature and purposes ;+i#hardson, 788FI !#hmu#), E119<. &o arying degrees, most su#h studies support some #ombination of these ideas:
that tea#hing is itself really a form of resear#h that a#tion resear#h, li)e tea#hing itself, requires substantial refle#tion that #ollaboration among tea#hers is #ru#ial for ma)ing tea#her resear#h meaningful, and for the
impro ement of tea#hing

that tea#hersD )no.ledge of tea#hing has to be shared publi#ly, espe#ially .hen gained systemati#ally
through a#tion resear#h &o see ho. these features loo) in pra#ti#e, loo) at se eral examples of a#tion resear#h studies.
Example O7: Fo#using on moti ating students

" number of years ago, *atri#ia Clifford and !haron Friesen published an a##ount of their effort to de elop a #lassroom program based on studentsD out-of-s#hool interests and experien#es ;7880<. Clifford and Friesen .ere #o-tea#hers in a double-si/ed #lassroom .hi#h deliberately in#luded #hildren from first, se#ond and third grades. &heir interest in studentsJ out-of-s#hool experien#es gre. out of three more basi# questions about tea#hing, .hi#h they phrased li)e this:
5o. #an #urri#ulum remain open to #hildrenDs unique experien#es and #onne#t .ith the .orld they )no.
outside the s#hool> &oo often, the offi#ial s#hool #urri#ulum la#)ed meaning for #hildren be#ause it seemed #ut off from the rest of the .orld. &he result .as unmoti ated students and poor learning.
4hy is imaginati e experien#e the best starting pla#e for planning> &he tea#hers felt that imaginati e
experien#esLma)e-belie e play, stories, poemsLpro ided a##ess to #hildrenDs li es outside s#hoolLtheir ma)e-belie e play, or their stories or poems. *erhaps someho. these #ould be #onne#ted to the goals of the offi#ial #urri#ulum.
4hat happens .hen tea#hers brea) do.n the barriers bet.een s#hool )no.ledge and real )no.ledge> In
dra.ing on #hildrenDs outside experien#es, .ould #hildren a#tually be#ome more moti ated or not> 4ould they ta)e o er the program, and fail to learn the offi#ial #urri#ulum goals> &o ans.er these questions, the tea#hers )ept extensi e diaries or ,ournals for one entire s#hool year. &hese be#ame the =data? for the resear#h. In the ,ournals, they des#ribed and refle#ted on their daily tea#hing experien#es. &he tea#hers also tal)ed .ith ea#h other extensi ely about #lassroom e ents and their signifi#an#e, and the results of the #on ersations often entered the ,ournals e entually during the resear#h. In their ,ournal, for example, the tea#hers re#orded an experien#e .ith students about .ays of telling time. In preliminary dis#ussions the students be#ame interested in ho. a sundial .or)ed. !o the tea#hers and students .ent outside, .here they #reated a human sundial, using the students themsel es. &he tea#hersD ,ournal )ept a #hroni#le of these e ents, and noted the #omments and questions .hi#h students de eloped as a result: Educational Psychology 0@9 " 'lobal &ext

If you stood in the same pla#e for a .hole day you .ould see your shado. #hange pla#es be#ause the earth
#hanges position.
4hy is my shado. longer than I am in the e ening, but shorter at noon> Clouds #an blo#) the sunDs rays so sundials .onDt .or) on rainy days. 5o. did people start to tell time>
"s the year e ol ed and obser ations a##umulated and .ere re#orded, the tea#hers gradually began to ans.er their o.n three questions. &hey found, for example, that #onne#ting the #urri#ulum .ith #hildrenDs interests and moti es .as most effe#ti e .hen they #ould establish a personal bond .ith a #hild. &hey also found that imaginati e expression helped #ertain #hildren to feel safe to explore ideas. &hey found that blending s#hool-based and personal )no.ledge #aused #hildren to learn mu#h more than beforeLalthough mu#h of the additional )no.ledge .as not part of an offi#ial #urri#ulum. 4ith these #on#lusions in mind, and .ith numerous examples to support them, Clifford and Friesen published their study so that others #ould share .hat they had learned about tea#hing, learning, and students. &he study by Clifford and Friesen is interesting in its o.n right, but for our purposes thin) for a moment about their .or) as an example of a#tion resear#h. Bne of its features is that it formed part of the normal #ourse of tea#hing: the authors .ere simply more systemati# about ho. they obser ed the students and re#orded information about #lassroom e ents. "nother feature is that the resear#h required #ons#ious refle#tion o er an extended time: their ,ournals and #on ersations #ontained not only des#riptions of e ents, but also interpretations of the e ents. " third feature is that the study in ol ed #ollaboration: it .as not ,ust one tea#her studying the ma,or questions, but t.o. &h fourth feature is that the tea#hers not only de eloped their results and #on#lusions for themsel es, but also shared them .ith others. &hese four qualities ma)e the study by Clifford and Friesen a #lear example of tea#her resear#h. Aote, though, that sometimes studies #ondu#ted by tea#hers may not sho. all of these features so #learlyI instead they may sho. some of the )ey features, but not all of them, as in the next t.o examples.
Example OE: Fo#using on de elopment

!in#e 78C7, Gi ian *aley has published a series of short boo)s do#umenting and interpreting her obser ations of young #hildren in #lassrooms ;78C7, 78C9, 7887, 788C, E111, E11@<. *aley .as interested in ho. young #hildren de elop or #hange o er the long term, and in parti#ular ho. the de elopment loo)s from the point of ie. of a #lassroom tea#her. In one of these boo)s, for example, she obser ed one #hild in parti#ular, $ollie, from the time she entered nursery s#hool ,ust after her third birthday until after the #hild turned four years old ;*aley, 78C9<. 5er interest .as not fo#used on #urri#ulum, as Clifford and FriesenDs had done, but on $ollie as a gro.ing human beingI Hthe sub,e#t .hi#h I most .ished to learn,H she .rote, His #hildrenH ;p. xi <. *aley therefore .rote extended narrati e ;or story-li)e< obser ations about the .hole range of a#ti ities of this one #hild, and .o e in periodi# brief refle#tions on the obser ations. 6e#ause the obser ations too) story-li)e form, her boo)s read a bit li)e no els: themes are sometimes simply suggested by the story line, rather than stated expli#itly. 3sing this approa#h, *aley demonstrated ;but o##asionally also stated< se eral important de elopmental #hanges. In Aollie at Three ;78CC<, for example, she des#ribes examples of $ollieDs language de elopment. "t three years, the language .as often dis#onne#ted from $ollieJs a#tionsLshe .ould tal) about one thing, but do another. 6y four, she .as mu#h more li)ely to tie language to her #urrent a#ti ities, and in this sense she more often Hsaid .hat she meantH. " result of the #hange .as that $ollie also
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&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense began understanding and follo.ing #lassroom rules as the year .ent on, be#ause the language of rules be#ame more #onne#ted in her mind to the a#tions to .hi#h they referred. Gi ian *aleyDs boo) had some of the #hara#teristi#s of a#tion resear#hLbut .ith differen#es from Clifford and FriesenJs. 2i)e their resear#h, *aleyDs =data? .as based on her o.n tea#hing, .hile her tea#hing .as influen#ed in turn by her systemati# obser ations. 2i)e Clifford and FriesenJs, *aleyJs resear#h in ol ed numerous refle#tions on tea#hing, and it led to a publi# sharing of the refle#tionsLin this #ase in the form of se eral small boo)s. 3nli)e Clifford and Friesen, though, *aley .or)ed independently, .ithout #ollaboration. 3nli)e Clifford and Friesen, she deliberately integrated obser ation and interpretation as they might be integrated in a pie#e of fi#tion, so that the resulting HstoryH often implied or sho.ed its message .ithout stating it in so may .ords. In this regard her .or) had qualities of .hat some edu#ators #all arts-based resear#h, .hi#h are studies that ta)e ad antage of an artisti# medium ;in this #ase, narrati e or story-li)e .riting< to heighten readersD understanding and response to resear#h findings ;6arone and Eisner, E119<. If you are studying the use of spa#e in the #lassroom, for example, then aestheti#ally organi/ed isual depi#tions ;photos, dra.ings< of the room may be more helpful and #reate more understanding than erbal des#riptions. If you are studying #hildrenDs musi#al )no.ledge, on the other hand, re#ordings of performan#es by the #hildren may be more helpful and informati e than dis#ussions of performan#es.
Example O0: Fo#using on #ollaboration

In 7889, an example of a#tion resear#h .as published that .as intended simultaneously for #lassroom tea#hers and for uni ersity resear#hers, and .hi#h fo#used on the #hallenges of #ollaboration among edu#ators ;3li#hny P !#hoener, 7889<. " tea#her ;4endy !#hoener< and a uni ersity resear#her ;*olly 3li#hny< explored ho., or e en .hether, tea#hers and uni ersity resear#hers #ould parti#ipate as equals in the study of tea#hing. 4endy ;the t.o used first names throughout .hen they published their experien#es< .as a tea#her of adults learning English as a !e#ond 2anguage ;E!2<I *olly .as a spe#ialist in multi#ultural edu#ation and .anted to obser e a tea#her .ho .as su##essful at rea#hing the ethni#ally di erse students .ho normally study E!2. *olly therefore as)ed 4endy for permission to study her tea#hing for an extended period of timeLto isit her #lass, ideotape it, inter ie. her about it, and the li)e. 4hat follo.ed is best des#ribed as an extended negotiation bet.een tea#her and professor for a##ess to 4endyDs #lass, on the one hand, and for mutual respe#t for ea#h otherDs .or), on the other. In the published arti#le, the negotiations are des#ribed separately by ea#h parti#ipant, in order to honor the differen#es in their #on#erns and perspe#ti es. 6efore, during, and after the obser ations, it .as ne#essary for *olly and 4endy ea#h to ad,ust expe#tations of .hat the other person #ould do and .as .illing to do. "s the authors put it, some things .ere Heasy to hearH from the other and some things .ere Hhard to hearH. 4endy, as a tea#her, found it easier to hear #riti#isms of her tea#hing if they #ame from herself, rather than from the higher-status uni ersity professor, *olly. *olly, for her part, found it easier to hear 4endyDs #omments if she mat#hed 4endyDs self-#riti#isms and e aluations .ith some of her o.n experien#es. *olly therefore made sure to tell 4endy about dilemmas and problems she experien#ed in her o.n ;uni ersity< tea#hing. 6e#ause they needed to ad,ust to hearing and tal)ing .ith ea#h other, the t.o edu#ators e entually fo#used less on *ollyDs original purposeLstudying multi#ultural tea#hingLand more on the problem of ho. tea#hers and uni ersity resear#hers might #ollaborate effe#ti ely.
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15. *ppendi% !+ The reflective practitioner B erall, this study qualifies as a pie#e of a#tion resear#h, though it is not fully fo#used on #lassroom tea#hing. For example, the tea#hers did #ollaborate and refle#t on their experien#es, but not all of the refle#tion .as about tea#hing in #lassrooms. &he rest .as about the relationship bet.een 4endy and *olly. 4hile the problem sele#ted .as originally about #lassroom tea#hingL4endyJsLit did not originate .ith the #lassroom tea#her ;4endy< or #on#erns she had about her o.n #lassroomI instead it .as #hosen by the uni ersity resear#her ;*olly< and her desire to study multi#ultural tea#hing. &he resear#hers did share .hat they learned by publishing their obser ations and ideas, but their published report spea)s only partly to #lassroom tea#hers as su#hI in addition it spea)s to a#ademi# resear#hers and edu#ators of future tea#hers. 6y pointing out differen#es among these examples of a#tion resear#h, .e do not mean to imply that one is =better? than another. &he point is simply to sho. ho. di erse studies by tea#hers #an be and to appre#iate their differen#es. 4hate er their spe#ifi# features, #lassroom studies by tea#hers hold in #ommon the #ommitment to gi ing a oi#e to tea#hers as they refle#t on problems and #hallenges intrinsi# to #lassroom life. &his goal #an be a##omplished in more than one .ay: through ,ournals and other re#ord-)eeping methods, through oral dis#ussions .ith #olleagues, and through .ritten refle#tions #reated either for themsel es or for others #on#erned about tea#hing and learning. %i ersity among topi#s and methods in a#tion resear#h studies should not surprise us, in fa#t, sin#e #lassrooms are themsel es so di erse.
The challenges of action research

4ell and good, you may say. "#tion resear#h offers tea#hers a .ay to hear ea#h other, to learn from their o.n and otherDs experien#e. 6ut there are also a fe. #autions to )eep in mind, both ethi#al and pra#ti#al. 2oo) briefly at ea#h of these areas.
Ethi#al #autions about a#tion resear#h

Bne #aution is the possibility of #onfli#t of interest bet.een the roles of tea#hing and #ondu#ting a#tion resear#h ;5amma#), 788:<. " tea#herJs first priorities should be the .elfare of his or her students: first and foremost, you .ant students to learn, to be moti ated, to feel a##epted by their peers, and the li)e. " resear#herJs first priorities, ho.e er, are to the field or topi# being studied. &he t.o )inds of priorities may often o erlap and support ea#h other. Gi ian *aleyJs obser ations of #hildren in her #lasses, des#ribed earlier, not only supported her #hildrenJs learning, but also her studies of the #hildren. 6ut situations #an also o##ur in .hi#h a#tion resear#h and tea#hing are less #ompatible, and #an #reate ethi#al dilemmas. &he problems usually relate to one of three issues: pri a#y, informed #onsent, or freedom to parti#ipate. Ea#h of these be#omes an issue only if the results of a resear#h pro,e#t are made publi#, either in a ,ournal or boo), as .ith the examples .e ha e gi en in this #hapter, or simply by being des#ribed or shared outside the #lassroom. ;!haring, you may re#all, is one of the defining features of a#tion resear#h.< 2oo) briefly at ea#h of the issues.
.nsuring %rivacy of the student

&ea#hers often learn information about students that the students or their families may not .ant publi#i/ed. !uppose, for example, you ha e a student .ith an intelle#tual disability in your #lass, and you .ish to study ho. the student learns. Bbser ing the student .or) on ;and possibly struggle .ith< a#ademi# a#ti ities may be quite #onsistent .ith a tea#herJs responsibilitiesI after all, tea#hers normally should pay attention to their studentsJ a#ademi# efforts. 6ut the student or his family may not .ant su#h obser ations publi#i/ed or e en shared informally .ith other parents or tea#hers. &hey may feel that doing so .ould ris) stigmati/ing the student publi#ly. 0@8
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense &o respe#t the studentJs pri a#y and still study his learning beha ior, the tea#her ;alias the =a#tion resear#her?< therefore needs to disguise the studentJs identity .hene er the resear#h results are made publi#. In any .ritten or oral report, or e en in any hall.ay #on ersation about the pro,e#t, the tea#herKresear#her .ould use a pseudonym for the student, and #hange other identifying information su#h as the physi#al des#ription of the student or e en the studentJs gender. &here are limits, ho.e er, to ho. mu#h #an be disguised .ithout #hanging essential information. &he tea#her #ould not, for example, hide the fa#t of the intelle#tual disability .ithout #ompromising the point of the studyI yet the intelle#tual disability might be unusual enough that it .ould effe#ti ely identify the student being studied.
Kaining informed consent

!tudents may not understand .hat is being studied about them, or e en reali/e that they are being studied at all, unless the tea#herKresear#her ma)es an expli#it effort to inform them about the a#tion resear#h and ho. she .ill use the results from it. &he same is true for the studentsJ parentsI unless the tea#her-resear#her ma)es an effort to #onta#t parents, they simply .ill not )no. that their #hildJs a#ti ities are being obser ed or may e entually be made publi#. !tudentsJ ignoran#e is espe#ially li)ely if the students are ery young ;)indergarten< or ha e intelle#tual or reading diffi#ulties, as in the example .e des#ribed abo e. "s an a#tion resear#her, therefore, a tea#her is obliged to explain the nature of a resear#h pro,e#t #learly, either in a letter .ritten in simple language or in a fa#e-to-fa#e #on ersation, or both. *arents and students need to gi e #lear indi#ations that they a#tually understand .hat #lass a#ti ities or materials .ill #onstitute data that #ould be made publi#. In most #ases, indi#ating informed #onsent means as)ing studentsJ parents signing a letter gi ing permission for the study. !ometimes, in addition, it is a good idea to re#he#) .ith students or parents periodi#ally as the pro,e#t unfolds, to ma)e sure that they still support parti#ipation.
.nsuring freedom to %artici%ate

4hen a student fails to parti#ipate in an ordinary #lass a#ti ity, most tea#hers #onsider it legitimate to insist on the studentJs parti#ipationLeither by persuading, demanding, or ;perhaps< tri#)ing the student to ,oin. %oing so is ethi#al for tea#hers in their roles as tea#hers, be#ause tea#hers are primarily responsible for insuring that students learn, and studentsJ parti#ipation presumably fa#ilitates learning. If a tea#her designates an a#ti ity as part of an a#tion resear#h pro,e#t, ho.e er, and later shares the results .ith them, the tea#her then also be#omes partly responsible for ho. other tea#hers use )no.ledge of the resear#h study. ;+emember: sharing results is intrinsi#ally part of the resear#h pro#ess.< &he resulting dual #ommitment means that =for#ing? a student to parti#ipate in an a#tion resear#h a#ti ity #an no longer be ,ustified solely as being for the studentJs o.n edu#ational good. $u#h of the time, a simultaneous #ommitment to both tea#hers and students presents no real dilemma: .hat is good for the a#tion resear#h pro,e#t may also be good for the students. 6ut not al.ays. !uppose, for example, that a tea#her .ants to do resear#h about studentsJ beliefs about .ar and global #onfli#t, and doing so requires that students parti#ipate in numerous extended group dis#ussions on this topi#. E en though the group dis#ussions might resemble a so#ial studies lesson and in this sense be generally a##eptable as a #lass a#ti ity, some parents ;or students< may ob,e#t be#ause they ta)e too mu#h #lass time a.ay from the normal #urri#ulum topi#s. Net the resear#h pro,e#t ne#essitates gi ing it lots of dis#ussion time in #lass. &o respond ethi#ally to this dilemma, therefore, the tea#her may need to allo. students to opt out of the dis#ussions if they or their parents #hoose. !he may therefore need to find .ays for them to #o er an alternate set of a#ti ities from the #urri#ulum. ;Bne .ay to do this, for example, is to hold the spe#ial group Educational Psychology 091 " 'lobal &ext
15. *ppendi% !+ The reflective practitioner dis#ussions outside regular #lass timesLthough this ob iously also in#reases the amount of .or) for both the tea#her and students.<
*ra#ti#al issues about a#tion resear#h

Is a#tion resear#h pra#ti#al> From one perspe#ti e the ans.er has to be HBf #ourse notM? "#tion resear#h is not pra#ti#al be#ause it may ta)e tea#hersJ time and effort .hi#h they #ould sometimes use in other .ays. Keep in mind, though, that a ma,or part of the effort needed for a#tion resear#h in ol es the same sort of .or)Lobser ing, re#ording information, refle#tingLthat is needed for any tea#hing that is done .ell. " better .ay to assess pra#ti#ality may therefore be to re#ogni/e that tea#hing students al.ays ta)es a lot of .or), and to as) .hether the additional thoughtfulness brought on by a#tion resear#h .ill ma)e the tea#hing more su##essful. 2oo)ed at in this .ay, a#tion resear#h is indeed pra#ti#al, though probably not equally so on e ery o##asion. If you #hoose to learn about the quality of #on ersational ex#hanges bet.een yourself and students, for example, you .ill need some .ay to re#ord these dialogues, or at least to )eep a##urate, detailed notes on them. +e#ording the dialogues may be pra#ti#al and benefi#ialLor not, depending on your #ir#umstan#es. Bn the other hand, if you #hoose to study ho. and .hy #ertain students remain on the margins of your #lass so#ially, this problem too may be pra#ti#al as a#tion resear#h. Br it may not, depending on .hether you #an find a .ay to obser e and refle#t on studentsD so#ial intera#tions, or la#) thereof. $u#h depends on your #ir#umstan#esLon the attention you #an afford to gi e to your resear#h problem .hile tea#hing, in relation to the benefits that solutions to the problems .ill bring students later. In general any a#tion resear#h pro,e#t may require #ertain #hoi#es about ho. to tea#h, though it should not interfere .ith basi# instru#tional goals or pre ent #o erage of an important #urri#ulum. &he main point to remember is that a#tion resear#h is more than passi e obser ation of students and #lassroomsI it also in#ludes edu#ational inter entions, efforts to stimulate students to ne. thin)ing and ne. responses. &hose are features of regular tea#hingI the differen#e is primarily in ho. systemati#ally and refle#ti ely you do them.
9enefiting from all 1inds of research

"lthough .e authors both feel a degree of sympathy for the nature and purposes of a#tion resear#h, .e are not trying to ad o#ate for it at the expense of other forms of edu#ational resear#h or at the expense of simply reading and understanding professional publi#ations in general. &he #hallenge for you, as a #lassroom tea#her, is to find the alue in all forms of professional de elopment, .hether it be parti#ipation in a professional asso#iation, reading general arti#les about resear#h, or engaging in your o.n a#tion resear#h. &o the extent that you dra. on them all, your .ays of learning about tea#hing .ill be enri#hed. Nou .ill a#quire more .ays to understand #lassroom life, .hile at the same time a#quiring perspe#ti e on that life. Nou .ill learn .ays to grasp the indi iduality of parti#ular students, but also to see .hat they need in #ommon. Nou .ill ha e more .ays to interpret your o.n experien#es as a professional tea#her, but also be able to learn from the professional experien#e of others. +eali/ing these benefits fully is a #hallenge, be#ause the ery di ersity of #lassrooms renders problems about tea#hing and learning #omplex and di erse as .ell. 6ut you .ill also gain good, professional #ompany in sear#hing for better understanding of your .or)L#ompany that in#ludes both edu#ational resear#hers, other professional tea#hers, and of #ourse your students.
Chapter summary
&he #omplexities of tea#hing require tea#hers to #ontinue learning throughout their tea#hing #areers. &o be#ome a lifelong refle#ti e pra#titioner, tea#hers #an rely on #olleagues as a resour#e, on professional asso#iations and their 097
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense a#ti ities, and on professional publi#ations related to edu#ational issues and needs. 3nderstanding the latter, in turn, requires understanding the purposes of the published materialL.hether it is offering a general frame.or), re#ommending desirable tea#hing pra#ti#es, or ad o#ating for a parti#ular edu#ational poli#y or need. Interpreting published material also requires understanding the assumptions that authors ma)e about readersJ prior )no.ledge and beliefs. "n important additional strategy for be#oming a refle#ti e pra#titioner is a#tion resear#hLstudies of tea#hing and learning designed and #arried out by tea#hers in order to impro e their o.n pra#ti#e. 6y nature, a#tion resear#h studies are highly rele ant to #lassroom pra#ti#e, but there are also #autions about it to )eep in mind, both ethi#ally and pra#ti#ally.
Key terms
a#tion resear#h assumptions about readersJ prior )no.ledge informed #onsent insuring pri a#y of students insuring freedom to parti#ipate professional asso#iations purposes of edu#ational resear#h refle#ti e pra#titioner reliability tea#her resear#h alidity
Further resour#es
R111.scra2C.orgS Rcoe.1estga.eduNarsigJ &hese t.o .ebsites belong to professional organi/ations dedi#ated to a#tion resear#h. &he first belongs to the !o#iety for Community +esear#h and "#tion, a di ision of the "meri#an *sy#hologi#al "sso#iation. It promotes and publishes a#tion resear#h in many professions, one of .hi#h is edu#ation. &he se#ond .ebsite belongs to the "#tion +esear#h !pe#ial Interest 'roup of the "meri#an Edu#ational +esear#h "sso#iationI as you might suspe#t from its name, it fo#uses ex#lusi ely on a#tion resear#h by edu#ators. Rhttp:KKo#..mit.eduK#oursesKurban-studies-and-planningK77-89@-refle#ti e-pra#ti#e-an-approa#h-forexpanding-your-learning-frontiers-,anuary-iap-E11:KS &his .ebsite offers the le#tures notes and ideos of #lass sessions in a #ourse about refle#ti e pra#ti#e offered at the $assa#husetts Institute of &e#hnology ;$I&< in Cambridge, $assa#husetts. &he materials are of high quality, and go into mu#h more detail about the #on#ept than is possible in this appendix.
+eferen#es
"#)erman, +. P $a#Ken/ie, !. ;Eds.<. ;E11:<. Incovering teacher leadershi%2 "oices from the field. &housand Ba)s, C": Cor.in *ress. 6arone, &. P Eisner, E. ;E119<. "rts-based resear#h in edu#ation. In (. 'reen, g. Camilli, P *. Elmore ;Eds.<, :and(oo& of com%lementary methods in education research. $ah.ah, A(: Erlbaum. 6issex, '. ;78C1<. K$OS AT FRK. Cambridge, $": 5ar ard 3ni ersity *ress. 6rydon-$iller, $., 'reen.ood, %., $aguire, %. ;E110<. 4hy a#tion resear#h> Action Research, C;7<, 0-EC. Clifford, *. P Friesen, !. ;7880<. " #urious plan: $anaging on the t.elfth. :arvard Educational Revie , ;<;0<, 008-0@C.
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15. *ppendi% !+ The reflective practitioner Fensterma#her, '. ;788F<. &he )no.er and the )no.n: &he nature of )no.ledge in resear#h on tea#hing. In 2. %arling-5ammond ;Ed.<, Revie of research in education, "olume D=, pp. 0-@9. 4ashington, %.C.: "meri#an Edu#ational +esear#h "sso#iation. 5ayes, %. ;E119<. &elling stories: !ustaining impro ement in s#hools operating under ad erse #onditions. .m%roving Schools, G;0<, E10-E70. 5ittleman, %. P !imon, ". ;E11@<. .nter%reting educational research, ?th edition. Engle.ood Cliffs, A(: *renti#e-5all. (imene/, +., 'ar#ia, '., P *earson, %. ;788@<. &hree #hildren, t.o languages and strategi# reading: Case studies in bilingualKmonolingual reading. American Educational Research Journal, <D;7<, 9:-8C. (ohnson, $. ;E11F<. A %hiloso%hy of second language ac)uisition. Ae. 5a en, C&: Nale 3ni ersity *ress. 2ortie, %. ;78:@<. Schoolteacher. Chi#ago: 3ni ersity of Chi#ago *ress. 2oughran, (., 5amilton, $., 2a6os)ey, G., P +ussell, &. ;Eds.<. ;E11F<. .nternational hand(oo& of self4study of teaching and teacher education %ractices. %ordre#ht, &he Aetherlands: Klu.er. $#%ermott, +., 'oldman, !., P Garenne, 5. ;E119<. &he #ultural .or) of learning disabilities. Educational Researcher, <@;9<, 7E-7:. $ills, '. ;E119<. Action research2 A guide for the teacher researcher, <rd edition. Ae. Nor): *renti#e 5all. *aley, G. ;78C7<. Fally+s stories. Chi#ago: 3ni ersity of Chi#ago *ress. *aley, G. ;78CC<. Aollie is three. Chi#ago: 3ni ersity of Chi#ago *ress. *aley, G. ;7887<. The (oy ho ould (e a helico%ter. Cambridge, $": 5ar ard 3ni ersity *ress. *aley, G. ;788C<. K an1aa and me. Cambridge, $": 5ar ard 3ni ersity *ress. *aley, G. ;E111<. The &indness of children. Cambridge, $": 5ar ard 3ni ersity *ress. *aley, G. ;E119<. A child+s Research, ?;E<, 79@-7CE. +i#hardson, G. ;788F<. Condu#ting resear#h in pra#ti#e. Educational Researcher, D<;@<, @-71. +ussell, &. P 2oughran, (. ;E11@<. !elf-study as a #ontext for produ#ti e learning. Studying Teacher Education, C;E<, 710-719. !amaras, ". P Freese, ". ;Eds.<. ;E119<. Self4study of teaching %ractices. Ae. Nor): *eter 2ang. !#hmu#), +. ;E119<. Practical action research for change. &housand Ba)s, C": !age *ubli#ations. !#hcn, %. ;78C0<. The reflective %ractitioner. Ae. Nor): 6asi# 6oo)s. !#hcn, %. ;78C:, "pril<. Educating the reflective %ractitioner. *aper presented at the "nnual $eeting of the "meri#an Edu#ational +esear#h "sso#iation, 4ashington, %.C. !alt/stein, 5., $illery, $., Eisenberg, -., %ias, $., P BJ6rien, %. ;788:<. $oral heteronomy in #ontext: Inter ie.er influen#e in Ae. Nor) City and +e#ife, 6ra/il. In 5. !alt/stein ;Ed.<, $e directions in child develo%ment2 Culture as a conte5t for moral develo%ment, pp. 0:-@1. !an Fran#is#o: (ossey-6ass. !eifert, Kel in. ;78C7<. 5a e .e o ersold mainstreaming> Journal of the Canadian Association for Ooung Children, ?;E<, 9-8. !t. Clair, +. ;E11@<. !imilarity and superun)no.ns: "n essay on the #hallenges of edu#ational resear#h. :arvard Educational Revie , >@;F<, F0@-F@0. !tenhouse, 2. ;78C@<. Research as a (asis for teaching. 2ondon, 3K: 5einemann. 090 or&2 The im%ortance of fantasy %lay. Chi#ago: 3ni ersity of Chi#ago *ress. +agland, 6. ;E11:<. *ositioning the pra#titioner-resear#her: Fi e .ays of loo)ing at pra#ti#e. Action
&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense !tringer, E. ;E11:<. Action research, <rd edition. &housand Ba)s, C": Cor.in *ubli#ations. &id.ell, %. P Fit/gerald, 2. ;Eds.<. ;E119<. Self4study and diversity. +otterdam, &he Aetherlands: !ense *ublishers. 3li#hny, *. P !#hoener, 4. ;7889<. &ea#her-resear#her #ollaboration from t.o perspe#ti es. :arvard Educational Revie , ;;;0<, F89-@EF. -ei#hner, K. ;E11:<. "##umulating )no.ledge a#ross self-studies in tea#her edu#ation. Journal of Teacher Education, @B;7<, 09-F9.
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Educational Psychology

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Educational Psychology

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Educational Psychology

Kelvin Seifert and Rosemary Sutton

Editor-In-Chief: Kel in !eifert "sso#iate Editor: $arisa %rexel

&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense

&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense

"bout the authors and re ie.er Author, Kelvin Seifert

Author, Rosemary Sutton

Revie er, Sandra !eemer

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Revie er, "irginia #. $avarro

&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense

7. &he #hanging tea#hing profession and you.............................................................................C

E. &he learning pro#ess .............................................................................................................E1

@. !tudents .ith spe#ial edu#ational needs..............................................................................C@

9. !tudent moti ation..............................................................................................................718

:. Classroom management and the learning en ironment....................................................70C

C. &he nature of #lassroom #ommuni#ation............................................................................7@8

8. Fa#ilitating #omplex thin)ing..............................................................................................7C0

71. *lanning instru#tion..........................................................................................................E71

77. &ea#her-made assessment strategies................................................................................EF1

7E. !tandardi/ed and other formal assessments.....................................................................E::

"ppendix ": *reparing for li#ensure......................................................................................01F

&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense

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&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense

Preface 4hy publish an open-a##ess textboo) about edu#ational psy#hology>

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Contents of the boo)

Features that #an assist learning

&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense

1. The changing teaching profession and you

The joys of teaching

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&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense

re there also challenges to teaching!

Teaching is different from in the past

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Ae. trend O7: di ersity in students

!iversity of s%ecial educational needs

Ae. trend OE: using te#hnology to support learning

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Ae. trend O0: a##ountability in edu#ation

Ae. trend OF: in#reased professionalism of tea#hers

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su##essful are my students at finding students as fully and helpfully as to

"o# educational psychology can help

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1. The changing teaching profession and you

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&his boo) is li#ensed under a Creati e Commons "ttribution 0.1 2i#ense

$. The learning process

as not learning this

as indeed %lanning to do that tas& again. *That+s good,, he

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Teachers% perspectives on learning

Gie.ing learning as dependent on #urri#ulum

Gie.ing learning as dependent on sequen#ing and readiness

Signs of readiness to teach reading

through other means in addition to as)ing tea#her

expand #hildJs thin)ing

fe. simple .ords

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2. The learning process