Data Mining:

Concepts and
Techniques
Mining Association Rules in Large Databases

1
Association rule mining

2
 What Is Association
Mining?

 Association rule mining:

 Finding frequent patterns, associations,

correlations, or causal structures among sets of

items or objects in transaction databases,
relational databases, and other information
repositories.
 Applications:
 Basket data analysis, cross-marketing, catalog

design, loss-leader analysis, clustering,

classification, etc.
 Examples.
 Rule form: “Body → Ηead [support,

confidence]”.
 buys(x, “notebook”) → buys(x, “pen”) [0.5%,
3
 Market Basket Analysis - To analysis
buying habits of customers

“Which groups or sets of items are customers

likely to purchase on a given trip to the store?”
 Results may be used to plan marketing or

advertising strategies, as well as catalog design.

 Items that are frequently purchased can be

placed together
 Items that are frequently purchased can be

placed on the opposite ends of the store, may

attract customers who purchase such items to
pick up other items along the way.
 Retailers can plan which items to put on sale at

reduced price

4
 Association Rule: Basic
Concepts
 Given: (1) database of transactions, (2) each
transaction is a list of items (purchased by a
customer in a visit)
 Find: all rules that correlate the presence of one set
of items with that of another set of items
 E.g., 98% of people who purchase tires and auto

accessories also get automotive services done

 Applications
 * ⇒ Maintenance Agreement (What the store
should do to boost Maintenance Agreement
sales)
 Home Electronics ⇒ * (What other products

should the store stocks up?)

 Attached mailing in direct marketing
5
 Rule Measures: Support and
Confidence
Customer
buys both
CustomerFind all the rules X & Y ⇒ Z

buys with minimum confidence and
notebook
support
 support, s, probability that a

transaction contains {X  Y 
Customer
Z}
buys pen  confidence, c, conditional

probability that a transaction

Transaction ID Items Bought Let
having {X  Y}support
minimum 50%,
also contains
2000 A,B,C Zand minimum confidence
1000 A,C 50%, we have
4000 A,D  A ⇒ C (50%, 66.6%)

5000 B,E,F  C ⇒ A (50%, 100%)

6
 Association Rule Mining: A Road Map

Classification of Association rules

 Based on the types of values handled in the
rule:
If a rule concerns associations between the
presence and absence of items, it is a Boolean
association rule.
example- buys(x, “SQLServer”) ^ buys(x,
“DMBook”) → buys(x, “DBMiner”) [0.2%, 60%]
If a rule describes associations between
quantitative values for items or attributes, then
it is a quantitative association rule.
example- age(x, “30..39”) ^ income(x, 7
 Association Rule Mining: A Road Map

 Based on the dimensions of data involved in the

rule:
If the items or attributes in an association rule
reference only one dimension, then it is a single-
dimensional rule.
example- buys(x, “SQLServer”) → buys(x,
“DBMiner”)
If a rule references 2 or more dimension, such
as the dimensions buys, time_of_transaction and
customer_category, then it is a multidimensional
association rule.
example- age(x, “30..39”) ^ income(x, “42..48K”)
→ buys(x, “PC”)
8
 Association Rule Mining: A Road Map

 Based on the levels of abstractions involved in

the rule set : Some methods for association rule
mining can find rules at differing levels of
abstraction.
example- age(X, “30…39”) → buys(X, “laptop
computer”)
age(X, “30…39”) → buys(X, “computer”)
Items bought are referenced at different levels
of abstraction (computer is a higher abstraction
of laptop computer)

9
 Association Rule Mining: A Road Map
 Based on various extensions to association mining:
Association mining can be extended to correlation
analysis where the absence or presence of
correlated items can be identified. It can also be
extended to mining maxpatterns (i.e, maximal
frequent patterns) and frequent closed itemsets.
A maxpattern is a frequent pattern, p, such that
any proper superpattern of p is not frequent.
A frequent closed itemset is a frequent closed
itemset where an itemset c is closed if there exits
no proper superset of c, c’, such that every
transaction containing c also contains c’.
Maxpatterns and frequent closed items can be
used to substantially reduce the number of
10
 Mining single-dimensional
Boolean association rules from
transactional databases

11
 Apriori Algorithm

 Apriori is an influential algorithm for mining

frequent itemsets for Boolean association rules.
 Algorithm uses prior knowledge of frequent
itemset properties.
 Apriori employs an iterative approach known as
level-wise search, where k –itemsets are used to
explore (k+1) – itemsets. First, the set of
frequent 1-itemsets is found. This set is denoted
L1. L1 is used to find L2 ,the set of frequent 2-
itemsets, which is used to fine L3 and so on, until
no more frequent k-itemsets can be found. The
finding of each LK requires one full scan of the
database
12
 Mining Association Rules—An
Example

Transaction ID Items Bought Min. support 50%

2000 A,B,C Min. confidence 50%
1000 A,C
4000 A,D Frequent Itemset Support
{A} 75%
5000 B,E,F
{B} 50%
{C} 50%
For rule A ⇒ C: {A,C} 50%
support = support({A C}) = 50%
confidence = support({A C})/support({A}) =
66.6%
The Apriori principle:
Any subset of a frequent itemset must be
13
 Mining Frequent Itemsets:
the Key Step
 Find the frequent itemsets: the sets of items
that have minimum support
 A subset of a frequent itemset must also be a
frequent itemset

i.e., if {AB} is a frequent itemset, both {A} and
{B} should be a frequent itemset
 Iteratively find frequent itemsets with
cardinality from 1 to k (k-itemset)
 Use the frequent itemsets to generate
association rules.
14
 The Apriori Algorithm
 Join Step: C is generated by joining L with itself
k k-1

 Prune Step: Any (k-1)-itemset that is not frequent

cannot be a subset of a frequent k-itemset
 Pseudo-code:
Ck: Candidate itemset of size k
Lk : frequent itemset of size k
L1 = {frequent items};
for (k = 1; Lk !=∅; k++) do begin
Ck+1 = candidates generated from Lk;
for each transaction t in database do
increment the count of all candidates in Ck+1
that are contained in t
Lk+1 = candidates in Ck+1 with min_support
end
return ∪k Lk; 15
 The Apriori Algorithm —
Example
Database D itemset sup.
L1 itemset sup.
TID Items C1 {1} 2 {1} 2
100 134 {2} 3 {2} 3
200 235 Scan D {3} 3 {3} 3
300 1235 {4} 1 {5} 3
400 25 {5} 3
C2 itemset sup C2 itemset
L2 itemset sup {1 2} 1 Scan D {1 2}
{1 3} 2 {1 3} 2 {1 3}
{2 3} 2 {1 5} 1 {1 5}
{2 3} 2 {2 3}
{2 5} 3
{2 5} 3 {2 5}
{3 5} 2
{3 5} 2 {3 5}
C3 itemset Scan D L3 itemset sup
{2 3 5} {2 3 5} 2
16
 How to Generate Candidates?
 Suppose the items in Lk-1 are listed in an order
 Step 1: self-joining Lk-1
insert into Ck
select p.item1, p.item2, …, p.itemk-1, q.itemk-1
from Lk-1 p, Lk-1 q
where p.item1=q.item1, …, p.itemk-2=q.itemk-2,
p.itemk-1 < q.itemk-1
 Step 2: pruning
forall itemsets c in Ck do
forall (k-1)-subsets s of c do
if (s is not in Lk-1) then delete c from Ck 17
 How to Count Supports of
Candidates?
 Why counting supports of candidates a problem?
 The total number of candidates can be very
huge
 One transaction may contain many
candidates
 Method:
 Candidate itemsets are stored in a hash-tree
 Leaf node of hash-tree contains a list of
itemsets and counts
 Interior node contains a hash table
 Subset function: finds all the candidates
18
 Example of Generating
Candidates

 L3={abc, abd, acd, ace, bcd}

 Self-joining: L3*L3
 abcd from abc and abd
 acde from acd and ace
 Pruning:
 acde is removed because ade is not in L3

 C4={abcd}
19
 Methods to Improve Apriori’s
Efficiency

 Hash-based itemset counting: A k-itemset whose

corresponding hashing bucket count is below the
threshold cannot be frequent
 Transaction reduction: A transaction that does not contain
any frequent k-itemset is useless in subsequent scans
 Partitioning: Any itemset that is potentially frequent in DB
must be frequent in at least one of the partitions of DB
 Sampling: mining on a subset of given data, lower support
threshold + a method to determine the completeness
 Dynamic itemset counting: add new candidate itemsets
only when all of their subsets are estimated to be
20
 Is Apriori Fast Enough? —
Performance Bottlenecks

 The core of the Apriori algorithm:

 Use frequent (k – 1)-itemsets to generate candidate
frequent k-itemsets
 Use database scan and pattern matching to collect counts
for the candidate itemsets
 The bottleneck of Apriori: candidate generation
 Huge candidate sets:


104 frequent 1-itemset will generate 107 candidate 2-
itemsets
 To discover a frequent pattern of size 100, e.g., {a1,
a2, …, a100}, one needs to generate 2100 ≈ 1030
candidates.
 Multiple scans of database:
21
 Mining Frequent Patterns
Without Candidate
Generation

 Compress a large database into a compact,

Frequent-Pattern tree (FP-tree) structure
 highly condensed, but complete for frequent
pattern mining
 avoid costly database scans
 Develop an efficient, FP-tree-based frequent
pattern mining method
 A divide-and-conquer methodology: decompose
mining tasks into smaller ones
 Avoid candidate generation: sub-database test
only!
22
 Construct FP-tree from a
Transaction DB
TID Items bought (ordered) frequent items
100 {f, a, c, d, g, i, m, p} {f, c, a, m, p}
200 {a, b, c, f, l, m, o} {f, c, a, b, m} min_support =
0.5
300 {b, f, h, j, o} {f, b}
400 {b, c, k, s, p} {c, b, p}
500 {a, f, c, e, l, p, m, n} {f, c, a, m, p}
{}
Steps: Header Table
2. Scan DB once, find Item frequency head f:4 c:1
frequent 1-itemset f 4
(single item pattern) c 4 c:3 b:1 b:1
a 3
3. Order frequent items in b 3 a:3 p:1
frequency descending m 3
order p 3 m:2 b:1
4. Scan DB again,
construct FP-tree p:2 m:1 23
 Benefits of the FP-tree Structure

 Completeness:
 never breaks a long pattern of any transaction

 preserves complete information for frequent

pattern mining
 Compactness:
 reduce irrelevant information—infrequent items

are gone
 frequency descending ordering: more frequent

items are more likely to be shared

 never be larger than the original database (if not

count node-links and counts)

 Example: For Connect-4 DB, compression ratio

could be over 100 24

 Mining Frequent Patterns Using
FP-tree

 General idea (divide-and-conquer)

 Recursively grow frequent pattern path using

the FP-tree
 Method
 For each item, construct its conditional pattern-

base, and then its conditional FP-tree

 Repeat the process on each newly created

conditional FP-tree
 Until the resulting FP-tree is empty, or it

contains only one path (single path will generate all

the combinations of its sub-paths, each of which is a
frequent pattern)
25
 Major Steps to Mine FP-tree

1) Construct conditional pattern base for each

node in the FP-tree
2) Construct conditional FP-tree from each
conditional pattern-base
3) Recursively mine conditional FP-trees and grow
frequent patterns obtained so far
 If the conditional FP-tree contains a single
path, simply enumerate all the patterns

26
 Step 1: From FP-tree to
Conditional Pattern Base
 Starting at the frequent header table in the FP-tree
 Traverse the FP-tree by following the link of each

frequent item
 Accumulate all of transformed prefix paths of that item

to form a conditional pattern base

Header Table {}
Conditional pattern bases
Item frequency head f:4 c:1
f 4 item cond. pattern base
c 4 c:3 b:1 b:1 c f:3
a 3
b 3 a fc:3
a:3 p:1
m 3 b fca:1, f:1, c:1
p 3 m:2 b:1 m fca:2, fcab:1
p:2 m:1 p fcam:2, cb:1
27
 Properties of FP-tree for Conditional
Pattern Base Construction

 Node-link property
 For any frequent item ai, all the possible
frequent patterns that contain ai can be
obtained by following ai's node-links, starting
from ai's head in the FP-tree header
 Prefix path property
 To calculate the frequent patterns for a node ai
in a path P, only the prefix sub-path of ai in P
need to be accumulated, and its frequency
count should carry the same count as node ai. 28
 Step 2: Construct Conditional FP-
tree

 For each pattern-base

 Accumulate the count for each item in the

base
 Construct the FP-tree for the frequent items

of the pattern base

{} m-conditional pattern
Header Table base:
Item frequency head f:4 c:1 fca:2, fcab:1
f 4 All frequent patterns
c 4 c:3 b:1 b:1 {} concerning m
a 3 m,

b 3 a:3 p:1 f:3  fm, cm, am,
m 3 fcm, fam, cam,
p 3 m:2 b:1 c:3 fcam
p:2 m:1 a:3
m-conditional FP-tree
29
 Mining Frequent Patterns by
Creating Conditional Pattern-
Bases

Item Conditional pattern-base Conditional FP-tree

p {(fcam:2), (cb:1)} {(c:3)}|p
m {(fca:2), (fcab:1)} {(f:3, c:3, a:3)}|m
b {(fca:1), (f:1), (c:1)} Empty
a {(fc:3)} {(f:3, c:3)}|a
c {(f:3)} {(f:3)}|c
f Empty Empty

30
 Step 3: Recursively mine
the conditional FP-tree
{}

{} Cond. pattern base of “am”: (fc:3) f:3

c:3
f:3
am-conditional FP-tree
c:3 {}
Cond. pattern base of “cm”: (f:3)
a:3 f:3
m-conditional FP-tree
cm-conditional FP-tree

{}

Cond. pattern base of “cam”: (f:3) f:3

cam-conditional FP-tree

31
 Single FP-tree Path Generation

 Suppose an FP-tree T has a single path P

 The complete set of frequent pattern of T can be
generated by enumeration of all the combinations
of the sub-paths of P
{}
All frequent patterns
concerning m
f:3 m,
c:3  fm, cm, am,
fcm, fam, cam,
a:3
fcam

m-conditional FP-tree
32
 Principles of Frequent Pattern
Growth
 Pattern growth property
 Let α be a frequent itemset in DB, B be α's
conditional pattern base, and β be an itemset
in B. Then α ∪ β is a frequent itemset in DB
iff β is frequent in B.
 “abcdef ” is a frequent pattern, if and only if
 “abcde ” is a frequent pattern, and
 “f ” is frequent in the set of transactions
containing “abcde ”

33
 Why Is Frequent Pattern
Growth Fast?

 Our performance study shows

 FP-growth is an order of magnitude faster
than Apriori, and is also faster than tree-
projection
 Reasoning
 No candidate generation, no candidate test
 Use compact data structure
 Eliminate repeated database scan
 Basic operation is counting and FP-tree
34
 FP-growth vs. Apriori: Scalability
With the Support Threshold

100 Data set T25I20D10K

90 D1 FP-grow th runtime
D1 Apriori runtime
80
Run time(sec.)

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Support threshold(%)

35
 FP-growth vs. Tree-Projection:
Scalability with Support Threshold

Data set T25I20D100K

140
D2 FP-growth
120 D2 TreeProjection

100
Runtime (sec.)

80

60

40

20

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Support threshold (%)
36
Presentation of Association
Rules (Table Form )

37
Visualization of Association Rule Using Plane Graph

38
Visualization of Association Rule Using Rule Graph

39
 Iceberg Queries

 Icerberg query: Compute aggregates over one or a

set of attributes only for those whose aggregate
values is above certain threshold
 Example:
select P.custID, P.itemID, sum(P.qty)
from purchase P
group by P.custID, P.itemID
having sum(P.qty) >= 10
 Compute iceberg queries efficiently by Apriori:
 First compute lower dimensions

 Then compute higher dimensions only when all

the lower ones are above the threshold

40
Mining multilevel association rules
from transactional databases

41
 Multiple-Level Association Rules
Food
 Items often form
hierarchy. milk bread
 Items at the lower level
are expected to have skim 2% wheat white
lower support.
 Rules regarding itemsets Fraser Sunset
at
appropriate levels could TID Items
be quite useful. T1 {111, 121, 211, 221}
T2 {111, 211, 222, 323}
 Transaction database can
T3 {112, 122, 221, 411}
be encoded based on
dimensions and levels T4 {111, 121}
T5 {111, 122, 211, 221, 413}
 We can explore shared 42
 Mining Multi-Level Associations

 A top_down, progressive deepening approach:

 First find high-level strong rules:

milk → bread [20%, 60%].

 Then find their lower-level “weaker” rules:
2% milk → wheat bread [6%, 50%].
 Variations at mining multiple-level association
rules.
 Level-crossed association rules:

2% milk → Wonder wheat bread

 Association rules with multiple, alternative

hierarchies:
2% milk → Wonder bread
43
 Multi-level Association: Uniform
Support vs. Reduced Support
 Uniform Support: the same minimum support for all levels
 + One minimum support threshold. No need to examine
itemsets containing any item whose ancestors do not have
minimum support.
 – Lower level items do not occur as frequently. If support
threshold

too high ⇒ miss low level associations

too low ⇒ generate too many high level associations
 Reduced Support: reduced minimum support at lower levels
 There are 4 search strategies:


Level-by-level independent
 Level-cross filtering by k-itemset
 Level-cross filtering by single item
 Controlled level-cross filtering by single item

44
 Uniform Support
Multi-level mining with uniform support

Level 1 Milk
min_sup = 5%
[support = 10%]

Level 2 2% Milk Skim Milk

min_sup = 5% [support = 6%] [support = 4%]

Back
45
 Reduced Support
Multi-level mining with reduced support

Level 1 Milk
min_sup = 5%
[support = 10%]

Level 2 2% Milk Skim Milk

min_sup = 3% [support = 6%] [support = 4%]

Back
46
 Multi-level Association: Redundancy
Filtering

 Some rules may be redundant due to “ancestor”

relationships between items.
 Example
 milk ⇒ wheat bread [support = 8%, confidence =
70%]
 2% milk ⇒ wheat bread [support = 2%, confidence =
72%]
 We say the first rule is an ancestor of the second
rule.
 A rule is redundant if its support is close to the
“expected” value, based on the rule’s ancestor.

47
 Multi-Level Mining:
Progressive Deepening
 A top-down, progressive deepening approach:
 First mine high-level frequent items:
milk (15%), bread (10%)
 Then mine their lower-level “weaker”
frequent itemsets:
2% milk (5%), wheat bread (4%)
 Different min_support threshold across multi-
levels lead to different algorithms:
 If adopting the same min_support across

multi-levels
then toss t if any of t’s ancestors is infrequent.
 If adopting reduced min_support at lower
levels
then examine only those descendents whose
ancestor’s support is frequent/non-negligible. 48
 Progressive Refinement of Data
Mining Quality

 Why progressive refinement?

 Mining operator can be expensive or cheap, fine
or rough
 Trade speed with quality: step-by-step
refinement.
 Superset coverage property:
 Preserve all the positive answers—allow a
positive false test but not a false negative test.
 Two- or multi-step mining:
 First apply rough/cheap operator (superset
coverage)
49
 Mining of Spatial Association
Rules
 Hierarchy of spatial relationship:
 “g_close_to”: near_by, touch, intersect, contain,

etc.
 First search for rough relationship and then

refine it.
 Two-step mining of spatial association:
 Step 1: rough spatial computation (as a filter)

 Using MBR or R-tree for rough estimation.

 Step2: Detailed spatial algorithm (as
refinement)

Apply only to those objects which have passed the
rough spatial association test (no less than
min_support)
50
Mining multidimensional association rules
from
transactional databases and data
warehouse

51
 Multi-Dimensional Association:
Concepts
 Single-dimensional rules:
buys(X, “milk”) ⇒ buys(X, “bread”)
 Multi-dimensional rules: 2 dimensions or
predicates
 Inter-dimension association rules (no repeated

predicates)
age(X,”19-25”) ∧ occupation(X,“student”) ⇒
buys(X,“coke”)
 hybrid-dimension association rules (repeated
predicates)
age(X,”19-25”) ∧ buys(X, “popcorn”) ⇒ buys(X, “coke”)
 Categorical Attributes
 finite number of possible values, no ordering

among values
52
 Techniques for Mining
MD Associations
 Search for frequent k-predicate set:
 Example: {age, occupation, buys} is a 3-

predicate set.
 Techniques can be categorized by how age

are treated.
1. Using static discretization of quantitative
attributes
 Quantitative attributes are statically

discretized by using predefined concept

hierarchies.
2. Quantitative association rules
 Quantitative attributes are dynamically

discretized into “bins”based on the

distribution of the data.
3. Distance-based association rules
53
 Static Discretization of
Quantitative Attributes
 Discretized prior to mining using concept
hierarchy.
 Numeric values are replaced by ranges.
 In relational database, finding all frequent k-
predicate sets will require k or k+1 table()scans.
 Data cube is well suited for mining.
(age) (income) (buys)
 The cells of an n-dimensional
cuboid correspond to the
(age, income) (age,buys) (income,buys)
predicate sets.
 Mining from data cubes (age,income,buys)
54
 Quantitative Association
Rules
 Numeric attributes are dynamically discretized
 Such that the confidence or compactness of the

rules mined is maximized.

quan1 ∧ Aquan2 ⇒
 2-D quantitative association rules: A

Acat
 Cluster “adjacent”

association rules
to form general
rules using a 2-D
grid.
 Example:∧ income(X,”24K -
age(X,”30-34”)
48K”)
⇒ buys(X,”high resolution TV”)
55
 ARCS (Association Rule Clustering
System)

How does ARCS

work?

1. Binning

2. Find frequent
predicateset

3. Clustering

4. Optimize 56
 Limitations of ARCS

 Only quantitative attributes on LHS of rules.

 Only 2 attributes on LHS. (2D limitation)
 An alternative to ARCS
 Non-grid-based
 equi-depth binning
 clustering based on a measure of partial
completeness.
 “Mining Quantitative Association Rules in
Large Relational Tables” by R. Srikant and
R. Agrawal.
57
 Mining Distance-based Association
Rules
 Binning methods do not capture the semantics of
interval data
Equi-width Equi-depth Distance-
Price($) (width $10) (depth 2) based
7 [0,10] [7,20] [7,7]
20 [11,20] [22,50] [20,22]
22 [21,30] [51,53] [50,53]
50 [31,40]
51 [41,50]
53 [51,60]
 Distance-based partitioning, more meaningful
discretization considering:
 density/number of points in an interval

 “closeness” of points in an interval

58
 Clusters and Distance
Measurements

 S[X] is a set of N tuples t1, t2, …, tN ,

projected on the attribute set X
 The diameter of S[X]:

∑ ∑
N N
i =1 j =1
distX (ti[ X ], tj[ X ])
d ( S [ X ]) =
N ( N − 1)

 distx:distance metric, e.g. Euclidean

distance or Manhattan
59
 Clusters and Distance
Measurements(Cont.)

 The diameter, d, assesses the density of a

cluster CX , where
d (CX ) ≤ d 0
X

CX ≥ s 0
 Finding clusters and distance-based rules
 the density threshold, d , replaces the
0
notion of support
 modified version of the BIRCH

clustering algorithm
60
From association mining
to correlation analysis

61
 Interestingness Measurements
 Objective measures
Two popular measurements:
❶ support; and

❷ confidence

 Subjective measures (Silberschatz &

Tuzhilin, KDD95)
A rule (pattern) is interesting if
❶ it is unexpected (surprising to the user);

and/or
❷ actionable (the user can do something

with it)
62
 Criticism to Support and
Confidence
 Example 1: (Aggarwal & Yu, PODS98)
 Among 5000 students

3000 play basketball
 3750 eat cereal

 2000 both play basket ball and eat cereal

 play basketball ⇒ eat cereal [40%, 66.7%] is misleading

because the overall percentage of students eating cereal

is 75% which is higher than 66.7%.
 play basketball ⇒ not eat cereal [20%, 33.3%] is far more

accurate, although with lower support and confidence

basketball not basketball sum(row)
cereal 2000 1750 3750
not cereal 1000 250 1250
sum(col.) 3000 2000 5000
63
 Criticism to Support and
Confidence (Cont.)
 Example 2:
 X and Y: positively X 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
correlated, Y 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
 X and Z, negatively related
Z 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
 support and confidence of

X=>Z dominates
 We need a measure of Rule Support Confidence
dependent or A∪ B)
P (correlated X=>Y 25% 50%
corr
eventsA, B =
P ( A) P ( B ) X=>Z 37.50% 75%

 64
Other Interestingness Measures:
Interest
 Interest (correlation, lift) P( A ∧ B)
P( A) P( B )
 taking both P(A) and P(B) in consideration
 P(A^B)=P(B)*P(A), if A and B are independent
events
 A and B negatively correlated, if the value is less
than 1; otherwise A and B positively correlated
Itemset Support Interest
X 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
X,Y 25% 2
Y 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 X,Z 37.50% 0.9
Z 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Y,Z 12.50% 0.57

65
Constraint-based association mining

66
 Constraint-Based Mining

 Interactive, exploratory mining giga-bytes of

data?
 Could it be real? — Making good use of

constraints!
 What kinds of constraints can be used in mining?
 Knowledge type constraint: classification,

association, etc.
 Data constraint: SQL-like queries
 Find product pairs sold together in Vancouver in Dec.’98.
 Dimension/level constraints:
 in relevance to region, price, brand, customer category.
 Rule constraints

small sales (price < $10) triggers big sales (sum > $200).
 Interestingness constraints: 67
 Rule Constraints in Association
Mining
 Two kind of rule constraints:
 Rule form constraints: meta-rule guided mining.


P(x, y) ^ Q(x, w) → takes(x, “database systems”).
 Rule (content) constraint: constraint-based
query optimization (Ng, et al., SIGMOD’98).
 sum(LHS) < 100 ^ min(LHS) > 20 ^ count(LHS) > 3 ^
sum(RHS) > 1000
 1-variable vs. 2-variable constraints (Lakshmanan, et
al. SIGMOD’99):
 1-var: A constraint confining only one side (L/R)
of the rule, e.g., as shown above.
 2-var: A constraint confining both sides (L and
R).
 sum(LHS) < min(RHS) ^ max(RHS) < 5* sum(LHS) 68
 Constrain-Based Association
Query
 Database: (1) trans (TID, Itemset ), (2) itemInfo (Item, Type, Price)
 A constrained asso. query (CAQ) is in the form of {(S1, S2 )|C },

where C is a set of constraints on S1, S2 including frequency
constraint
 A classification of (single-variable) constraints:
 Class constraint: S ⊂ A. e.g. S ⊂ Item
 Domain constraint:

Sθ v, θ ∈ { =, ≠, <, ≤, >, ≥ }. e.g. S.Price < 100
 vθ S, θ is ∈ or ∉. e.g. snacks ∉ S.Type
 Vθ S, or Sθ V, θ ∈ { ⊆, ⊂, ⊄, =, ≠ }

e.g. {snacks, sodas } ⊆ S.Type
 Aggregation constraint: agg(S) θ v, where agg is in
{min, max, sum, count, avg}, and θ ∈ { =, ≠, <, ≤,
>, ≥ }.
 e.g. count(S1.Type) = 1 , avg(S2.Price) < 100 69
 Constrained Association Query
Optimization Problem

 Given a CAQ = { (S1, S2) | C }, the algorithm should be :

 sound: It only finds frequent sets that satisfy
the given constraints C
 complete: All frequent sets satisfy the given

constraints C are found

 A naïve solution:
 Apply Apriori for finding all frequent sets, and

then to test them for constraint satisfaction

one by one.
 Our approach:
 Comprehensive analysis of the properties of

constraints and try to push them as deeply as

possible inside the frequent set computation. 70
 Anti-monotone and Monotone
Constraints

 A constraint Ca is anti-monotone iff. for

any pattern S not satisfying Ca, none of
the super-patterns of S can satisfy Ca
 A constraint Cm is monotone iff. for any
pattern S satisfying Cm, every super-
pattern of S also satisfies it

71
 Succinct Constraint

 A subset of item Is is a succinct set,

set if it
can be expressed as σp(I) for some
selection predicate p, where σ is a
selection operator
 SP⊆2I is a succinct power set,
set if there is a
fixed number of succinct set I1, …, Ik ⊆I,
s.t. SP can be expressed in terms of the
strict power sets of I1, …, Ik using union
and minus
 A constraint Cs is succinct provided 72
 Convertible Constraint

 Suppose all items in patterns are listed in

a total order R
 A constraint C is convertible anti-
monotone iff a pattern S satisfying the
constraint implies that each suffix of S
w.r.t. R also satisfies C
 A constraint C is convertible monotone iff
a pattern S satisfying the constraint
implies that each pattern of which S is a
suffix w.r.t. R also satisfies C
73
Relationships Among Categories
of Constraints

Succinctness

Anti-monotonicity Monotonicity

Convertible constraints

Inconvertible constraints
74
 Property of Constraints:
Anti-Monotone

 Anti-monotonicity: If a set S violates the

constraint, any superset of S violates the
constraint.
 Examples:
 sum(S.Price) ≤ v is anti-monotone
 sum(S.Price) ≥ v is not anti-monotone
 sum(S.Price) = v is partly anti-monotone
 Application:
 Push “sum(S.price) ≤ 1000” deeply into
iterative frequent set computation.
75
Characterization of
Anti-Monotonicity
Constraints

S θ v, θ ∈ { =, ≤, ≥ } yes
v∈ S no
S⊇ V no
S⊆ V yes
S= V partly
min(S) ≤ v no
min(S) ≥ v yes
min(S) = v partly
max(S) ≤ v yes
max(S) ≥ v no
max(S) = v partly
count(S) ≤ v yes
count(S) ≥ v no
count(S) = v partly
sum(S) ≤ v yes
sum(S) ≥ v no
sum(S) = v partly
avg(S) θ v, θ ∈ { =, ≤, ≥ } convertible
(frequent constraint) (yes)
76
 Example of Convertible
Constraints: Avg(S) θ V

 Let R be the value descending order over

the set of items
 E.g. I={9, 8, 6, 4, 3, 1}

 Avg(S) ≥ v is convertible monotone w.r.t.

R
 If S is a suffix of S , avg(S ) ≥ avg(S)
1 1
 {8, 4, 3} is a suffix of {9, 8, 4, 3}
 avg({9, 8, 4, 3})=6 ≥ avg({8, 4, 3})=5
 If S satisfies avg(S) ≥v, so does S1

{8, 4, 3} satisfies constraint avg(S) ≥ 4, so
does {9, 8, 4, 3} 77
 Property of Constraints:
Succinctness
 Succinctness:
 For any set S1 and S2 satisfying C, S1 ∪ S2 satisfies

C
 Given A1 is the sets of size 1 satisfying C, then

any set S satisfying C are based on A1 , i.e., it

contains a subset belongs to A1 ,
 Example :
 sum(S.Price ) ≥ v is not succinct

 min(S.Price ) ≤ v is succinct

 Optimization:
 If C is succinct, then C is pre-counting prunable.

The satisfaction of the constraint alone is not

affected by the iterative support counting. 78
Characterization of Constraints
by Succinctness

S θ v, θ ∈ { =, ≤, ≥ } Yes
v∈ S yes
S ⊇V yes
S⊆ V yes
S= V yes
min(S) ≤ v yes
min(S) ≥ v yes
min(S) = v yes
max(S) ≤ v yes
max(S) ≥ v yes
max(S) = v yes
count(S) ≤ v weakly
count(S) ≥ v weakly
count(S) = v weakly
sum(S) ≤ v no
sum(S) ≥ v no
sum(S) = v no
avg(S) θ v, θ ∈ { =, ≤, ≥ } no
(frequent constraint) (no)
79
 Chapter 6: Mining
Association Rules in Large
Databases
 Association rule mining
 Mining single-dimensional Boolean association
rules from transactional databases
 Mining multilevel association rules from
transactional databases
 Mining multidimensional association rules from
transactional databases and data warehouse
 From association mining to correlation analysis
 Constraint-based association mining
 Summary

80
 Why Is the Big Pie Still There?
 More on constraint-based mining of associations
 Boolean vs. quantitative associations


Association on discrete vs. continuous data
 From association to correlation and causal
structure analysis.

Association does not necessarily imply correlation or
causal relationships
 From intra-trasanction association to inter-
transaction associations

E.g., break the barriers of transactions (Lu, et al.
TOIS’99).
 From association analysis to classification and
clustering analysis

E.g, clustering association rules
81