THEORIES OF RIGHTS: HOHFELD AND THE INTEREST/WILL DEBATE

I. Wesley Hohfeld A. Analyt !al ta"le of #$%al %elat ons 1. The !o&'%ehens (eness of the Hohfeld an %elat ons )a* The %elat ons a''ly to the 'e%fo%&an!e of any a!t on o% to the e+ sten!e of any state of affa %s )s$!h as the 'ossess on of assets, n!l$d n- 'hys !al and 'sy!holo- !al .elfa%e* o% to the non'e%fo%&an!e of any a!t on. The %elat ons !an o"ta n "et.een any 'e%son and any n$&"e% of othe% 'eo'le )%an- n- f%o& one 'e%son to the ndef n te -%o$' of 'eo'le .ho &a/e $' the 0.o%ld at la%-e1*

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RIGHT D5T2

LIBERT2 NO6RIGHT

3OWER LIABILIT2

I445NIT2 DISABILIT2

7.

F %st6o%de% #$%al %elat ons )a* R -ht89D$ty. The holde% of a right s no%&at (ely '%ote!ted ). th the "a!/ n- of the state, f ne!essa%y* a-a nst the nte%fe%en!e o% $n!oo'e%at (eness of one o% &o%e othe% 'eo'le. Anyone ( s6:6( s .ho& the % -ht o"ta ns s $nde% a duty to !o&'ly . th ts te%&s, .hethe% the te%&s !all fo% non nte%fe%en!e o% fo% ass stan!e. L "e%ty89No6R -ht. The holde% of a liberty s f%ee of any d$ty to so&e othe% 'e%son)s*, . th %e-a%d to the a!t o% o& ss on o% state of affa %s !o(e%ed "y the l "e%ty. E(e%yone ( s6:6( s .ho& the l "e%ty s held has no right that .o$ld l & t the l "e%ty6holde%;s f%eedo& n the a%ea of !ond$!t !o(e%ed "y the l "e%ty, tho$-h e(e%yone &ay .ell ha(e a l "e%ty to nte%fe%e . th the e+e%! se of that f%eedo&. A l "e%ty !an "e s$%%o$nded "y a 'e% &ete% of % -hts, .h !h se%(e to '%ote!t one<s a" l ty to e+e%! se the l "e%ty )as Bentha&, Ha%t, and H llel Ste ne% ha(e %e!o-n =ed*.

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)d*

L "e%t es do not enta l % -hts, and % -hts do not enta l l "e%t es. To ll$st%ate the latte% 'o nt, !ons de% an e+a&'le n(ol( nf she%&en and a fa!to%y. )* 4y s'e! f !at ons of the !ontents of the %ele(ant le-al 'os t ons a%e a!!$%ate, e(en tho$-h they<%e not $n >$ely a!!$%ate. The fa!to%y o.ne% has a 0% -ht to !o&& t a .%on-1 ? .e., a % -ht a-a nst nte%fe%en!e . th h s !o&& ss on of a .%on-. The nat$%e of the %e&edy )da&a-es (e%s$s n#$n!t (e %el ef* doesn<t affe!t &y 'o nt, es'e! ally "e!a$se the ty'e of %e&edy s !ont n-ent.

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)e* @.

3otent al fo% !onfl !ts "et.een d$t es )e+a&'le of !ont%a!t fo% non'ay&ent and stat$te fo% 'ay&ent to elde%ly 'a%ents*

Se!ond6o%de% #$%al %elat ons )a* 3o.e%s89L a" l t es. The holde% of a power !an !han-e o% !an!el othe% 'eo'le;s ent tle&ents and h s o.n ent tle&ents. The "ea%e% of a liability s e+'osed to a&'l f !at ons o% sh fts o% %ed$!t ons n h s o% he% ent tle&ents. . Sh fts n one;s ent tle&ents a%e f%e>$ently not $n'leasantA a '%o& see !an "enef t -%eatly f%o& the % -hts (ested n h & "y a '%o& so%. See Hohfeld, p 60 n90. The e+'lanat on he%e s that the d st n!t (e f$n!t ons of the se!ond6o%de% ent tle&ents a%e def ned n a '$%ely non6 e(al$at (e and des!% 't (e &anne%. Note the !ont%ast . th % -hts, the dent f !at on of .h !h ne( ta"ly %ests on e(al$at (e ass$&'t ons. )E+a&'le of d$ty6to6s$''o%t6one;s6'a%ents and d$ty6to6 nfo%&6on6 one;s6'a%ents.*

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I&&$n t es89D sa" l t es. The holde% of an immunity s not e+'osed to the e+e%! se of a 'o.e% . th n the do&a n !o(e%ed "y the &&$n ty. In that do&a n, e(e%yone ( s6:6( s .ho& the &&$n ty o"ta ns s disabled f%o& !han- n- the &&$n ty6 holde%;s ent tle&ents. . . 4ost of the ent tle&ents !onfe%%ed "y so6!alled " lls of % -hts a%e &&$n t es. I&&$n t es &$st a!!o&'any othe% ent tle&ents to '%e(ent the& f%o& "e n- &ean n-lessly hollo..

)!*

The %elat onsh ' "et.een the 'o.e%/l a" l ty a+ s and the &&$n ty/d sa" l ty a+ s s '%e! sely s & la% to the %elat onsh ' "et.een the l "e%ty/no6% -ht a+ s and the % -ht/d$ty a+ s. B$st as a l a" l ty s the a"sen!e of an &&$n ty, and a d sa" l ty s the a"sen!e of a 'o.e%, so a no6% -ht s Co"( o$slyD the a"sen!e of a % -ht, and a d$ty s the a"sen!e of a l "e%ty. Note that % -hts a%e lo- !ally 'a%allel to &&$n t es and that l "e%t es a%e lo- !ally 'a%allel to 'o.e%s.

)d* B.

So&e !la% f !ato%y %e&a%/s 1. 3$% f !ato%y and a+ o&at !, not s$"stant (e and e&' % !al. Hohfeld<s ta"le s a fo%&al f%a&e.o%/ of deont ! lo- !, %athe% than an atte&'t to '%es!% "e o% 'ost$late the s$"stan!e and the d st% "$t on of ent tle&ents. It s the%efo%e not s$s!e't "le to e&' % !al %ef$tat on. E+ stent al o% analyt !al '% o% ty (e%s$s #$st f !at onal fo!$s: % -ht6"ased and d$ty6"ased &o%al/'ol t !al theo% es a%e #$st f !at onal do!t% nes that a%e f$lly !o&'at "le . th the thes s of the !o%%elat ( ty of % -hts and d$t es Ne$t%al "et.een the 0Inte%est Theo%y1 and the 0W ll Theo%y1 of % -hts )a* Inte%est Theo%y )*
Ne!essa%y tho$-h ns$ff ! ent fo% the hold n- of a le-al % -ht "y X s that the d$ty !o%%elat (e to the % -ht, .hen a!t$al, no%&at (ely '%ote!ts so&e as'e!t of X<s s t$at on that on "alan!e s ty' !ally "enef ! al fo% a "e n- l /e X )na&ely, a h$&an nd ( d$al o% a !olle!t ( ty o% a nonh$&an an &al*.

7.

@.

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Ne the% ne!essa%y no% s$ff ! ent fo% the hold n- of so&e s'e! f ed le-al % -ht "y X s that X s !o&'etent and a$tho% =ed to de&and o% .a (e the enfo%!e&ent of the d$ty that s !o%%elat (e to the % -ht.

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W ll Theo%y: Both ne!essa%y and s$ff ! ent fo% the hold n- of so&e s'e! f ed le-al % -ht "y X s that X s !o&'etent and a$tho% =ed to de&and o% .a (e the enfo%!e&ent of the d$ty that s !o%%elat (e to the % -ht. Hohfeld an !la &s can "e !o&" ned . th 'o.e%s of enfo%!e&ent, "$t do not have to "e hen!e, st% !t ne$t%al ty n the Inte%est/W ll d s'$te

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II. The W ll Theo%y: a&'l f !at on and !% t ! s&

A. Th%ee sta-es at .h !h 'o.e%s of .a (e%/enfo%!e&ent a%e held "y a % -ht6holde% 1. Befo%e the ( olat on of a d$ty 7. In the afte%&ath of the ( olat on of a d$ty @. In the afte%&ath of s$!!essf$l le-al '%o!eed n-s a-a nst the ( olato% B. Sho%t!o& n-s of the W ll Theo%y 1. 7. @. E. F. G. H. No % -hts a-a nst "e n- &$%de%ed o% %ende%ed !o&atose No % -hts $nde% the !% & nal la. No & n &$&6.a-e la. % -hts No % -hts fo% !h ld%en, sen le 'eo'le, l$nat !s, !o&atose 'eo'le, dead 'eo'le, f$t$%e -ene%at ons, an &als No $n.a (a"le f$nda&ental % -hts 3o.e%s of enfo%!e&ent/.a (e% !an "e held "y &$lt 'le nd ( d$als o% -%o$'s. 3o.e%s of enfo%!e&ent a%e ty' !ally a"sent at the f %st sta-e. a. T.o defa$lt %$les fo% enfo%!e&ent o% .a (e% of d$t es .
A defa$lt %$le $nde% .h !h the non6e+e%! se of a 'o.e%6of6 enfo%!e&ent n the afte%&ath of a ( olat on of a d$ty . ll %es$lt n the non6effe!t$at on of the d$ty A defa$lt %$le $nde% .h !h the non6e+e%! se of a 'o.e%6of6.a (e% n the afte%&ath of a ( olat on of a d$ty . ll %es$lt n the effe!t$at on of the d$ty . S$''ose that Bohn "%ea!hes a d$ty .h !h he o.es to 4a%y. 4a%y does noth n- that .o$ld !o$nt as he% e+e%! s n- e the% a 'o.e% of enfo%!e&ent o% a d s!%ete 'o.e% of .a (e%. No., e the% the d$ty . ll "e enfo%!ed o% t . ll "e $nenfo%!ed. The%e s no nte%&ed ate $'shot .he%e"y the d$ty s ne the% enfo%!ed no% $nenfo%!ed. If the "%ea!hed d$ty s enfo%!ed, then the a''l !a"le defa$lt %$le s of the se!ond ty'e o$tl ned a"o(e. If the d$ty s nstead left $nenfo%!ed, then the a''l !a"le defa$lt %$le s of the f %st ty'e o$tl ned a"o(e. ". Fo$% s t$at ons . S$''ose that, as a %es$lt of !ont%a(en n- a d$ty o.ed to 4a%y, Bohn s no. l a"le to "e s$ed s$!!essf$lly "y he%. That s, he has n!$%%ed .hat Hohfeld des -nated as a l a" l ty. S$''ose n t ally

that 4a%y has t.o yea%s . th n .h !h she !an e+e%! se he% 'o.e% to s$e Bohn n o%de% to enfo%!e the d$ty .h !h he has "%ea!hed. If she e+e%! ses that 'o.e%, she . ll alte% h s !$%%ent le-al 'os t ons. If she does not e+e%! se he% 'o.e% of enfo%!e&ent . th n the t.o6 yea% 'e% od, Bohn<s l a" l ty to "e s$!!essf$lly s$ed . ll !ease to e+ st. In s$!h ! %!$&stan!es, the non6e+e%! se of the 'o.e% of enfo%!e&ent s an e+e%! se of a 'o.e% of .a (e% at the 'o nt .hen s$ff ! ent t &e fo% the e+e%! se of the 'o.e% of enfo%!e&ent has %$n o$t. 4o%eo(e%, 4a%y & -ht hold a d s!%ete 'o.e% of .a (e% .he%e"y she !an %e&o(e Bohn<s l a" l ty "efo%e the e+' %at on of the t.o yea%s. If so, she holds a 'o.e% of enfo%!e&ent and a 'o.e% of .a (e% $nt l she e+e%! ses one of the& )e the% "efo%e the t.o6yea% 'e% od has ela'sed o% as t ela'ses*. We !an f tt n-ly !ha%a!te% =e those 'o.e%s as 'a %ed. . 3a%t !$la%ly &'o%tant s .hethe% Bohn<s l a" l ty to "e s$!!essf$lly s$ed s of a l & ted d$%at on o% not. In the $nl /ely e(ent that the l a" l ty s te&'o%ally $nl & ted, the non6e+e%! se of 4a%y<s 'o.e% of enfo%!e&ent . llIfo% an ndef n te 'e% odInot alte% anyone<s le-al 'os t ons. G (en as &$!h, he% non6e+e%! se of he% 'o.e% of enfo%!e&ent s not tself an e+e%! se of a 'o.e% of .a (e%. Any e+e%! se of a 'o.e% has to n(ol(e a !han-e n so&eone<s le-al 'os t ons, yet the non6e+e%! se of 4a%y<s 'o.e% of enfo%!e&ent does not '%od$!e any s$!h !han-e .hen Bohn<s l a" l ty s of an $nl & ted d$%at on. In s$!h ! %!$&stan!es, he% 'o.e% of enfo%!e&ent s not a!!o&'an ed "y any 'o.e% of .a (e%. Of !o$%se, e(en .hen Bohn<s l a" l ty s not te&'o%ally l & ted, 4a%y & -ht hold a d s!%ete 'o.e% of .a (e% that ena"les he% to te%& nate the l a" l ty at any 'a%t !$la% t &e. 5nless she does 'ossess an nde'endent 'o.e% of that so%t, ho.e(e%, he% 'o.e% of enfo%!e&ent . ll "e s n-$la% %athe% than 'a %ed. . Let $s no. n(est -ate .hat ha''ens $nde% a defa$lt %$le of the se!ond / nd. S$!h a %$le '%es!% "es that a ( olated d$ty s to "e enfo%!ed $nless a %ele(ant 'o.e% of .a (e% s e+e%! sed "y the 'e%son .ho has !ont%ol o(e% the d$ty. S$''ose on!e a-a n that Bohn "%ea!hes so&e d$ty .h !h he has o.ed to 4a%y. G (en the e+ sten!e of the s'e! f ed defa$lt %$le, 4a%y does not hold any 'o.e% of enfo%!e&ent ? s n!e the enfo%!e&ent of the d$ty . ll '%o!eed a$to&at !ally $nless she e+e%! ses he% 'o.e% of .a (e%. Any not on of a le-al 'o.e% of enfo%!e&ent that a!!o&'an es he% le-al 'o.e% of .a (e% s !h &e% !al n s$!h a s t$at on, s n!e a '$tat (e le-al 'o.e% s no le-al 'o.e% at all f t does not &a/e any d ffe%en!e to anyone<s le-al 'os t ons. 5nde% the se!ond defa$lt %$le, Bohn has %ende%ed h &self l a"le to $nde%-o enfo%!e&ent '%o!eed n-s as a %es$lt of h s "%ea!h of d$ty. 4a%y !an te%& nate h s l a" l ty "y e+e%! s n- he% 'o.e% of .a (e%, "$t othe%. se the off ! als .ho o'e%ate the enfo%!e&ent &e!han s&s of the -o(e%n&ent . ll e+e%! se the % 'o.e%s to &'ose !o&'ensato%y o% n#$n!t (e o% %est t$t ona%y d$t es on Bohn. The t%ansfo%&at on of h s l a" l ty nto d$t es s $nde%ta/en "y the& %athe% than "y he%. If she does not alte% h s le-al stat$s "y .a ( n- h s l a" l ty, then she he%self does not alte% h s le-al stat$s

at all. He% non6e+e%! se of he% 'o.e% of .a (e% s not the e+e%! se of a 'o.e% of enfo%!e&ent, "e!a$se that non6e+e%! se lea(es Bohn n '%e! sely the 'os t on n .h !h he has 'la!ed h &self: na&ely, n a 'os t on of "e n- l a"le to $nde%-o enfo%!e&ent '%o!eed n-s. A Hohfeld an le-al 'o.e% s an a" l ty to effe!t !han-es n le-al %elat ons, %athe% than an a" l ty to lea(e le-al %elat ons as they a%e. Jonse>$ently, 4a%y<s a" l ty to lea(e Bohn<s le-al 'ost$%e $n&od f ed s no Hohfeld an le-al 'o.e% at all. A!!o%d n-ly, .hene(e% the d$ty "%ea!hed "y Bohn s -o(e%ned "y a defa$lt %$le of the se!ond / nd, the 'o.e% of .a (e% 'ossessed "y 4a%y s s n-$la% %athe% than 'a %ed. Tho$-h a 'o.e% to enfo%!e that d$ty also e+ sts, of !o$%se, t s held not "y he% "$t "y so&e le-al off ! al)s*. (. Note that a defa$lt %$le of the se!ond ty'e, mutatis mutandis, s also $s$ally a''l !a"le to d$t es "efo%e they ha(e "een "%ea!hed. In th s !onne!t on, the defa$lt %$le '%es!% "es that a d$ty . ll %e&a n n fo%!e $nless so&eone hold n- a 'o.e% to .a (e t has e+e%! sed that 'o.e%. 5nde% the s.ay of s$!h a defa$lt %$le, no one has a le-al 'o.e% to %eta n th s o% that d$tyA as has "een %e&a%/ed, a Hohfeld an le-al 'o.e% s an a" l ty to !han-e so&e le-al 'os t ons, %athe% than an a" l ty to /ee' the 'os t ons $n!han-ed. An a" l ty to /ee' so&e 'os t ons $n!han-ed s a Hohfeld an &&$n ty %athe% than a 'o.e%. Th$s, .hen $n( olated d$t es a%e . th n the s.ay of a defa$lt %$le of the se!ond / nd )as s $s$ally the !ase*, a 'o.e% to .a (e any s$!h d$ty s s n-$la% %athe% than 'a %ed. !. 3a%a-%a'h ) (* a"o(e deals not . th the 'ost6( olat on sta-e of enfo%!ea" l ty "$t nstead . th the '%e6( olat on sta-e. At that '%e6 ( olat on #$n!t$%e n any syste& of '% (ate la., ea!h 'e%son o% h s %e'%esentat (e . ll "e (ested . th 'o.e%s to .a (e &ost of the d$t es that a%e o.ed to h &. Ho.e(e%, as 'a%a-%a'h ) (* has nd !ated, those 'o.e%s of .a (e% a%e not ty' !ally a!!o&'an ed "y any !o%%es'ond n- 'o.e%s of enfo%!e&ent. Ty' !ally no 'o.e% of the latte% so%t s n(ol(ed, "e!a$se the 'e%s sten!e of a d$ty th%o$-h the non6e+e%! se of one<s 'o.e% of .a (e% s not tself d$e to the e+e%! se of a 'o.e%. A Hohfeld an le-al 'o.e% s an a" l ty to alter so&e le-al %elat ons, .he%eas the 'e%s sten!e of a le-al d$ty s the retention of !e%ta n le-al %elat ons as they a%e. Th$s, nstead of "e n- d$e to the e+e%! se of a 'o.e%, the 'e%s sten!e of a d$ty s att% "$ta"le to an &&$n ty o% an a%%ay of &&$n t es. It !ons sts n lea( n- th n-s as they a%e, %athe% than n !han- n- th n-s. In s$&, "e!a$se a 'o.e% of enfo%!e&ent f e+e%! sed .o$ld t%ansfo%& le-al %elat onsh 's, the not on of any s$!h 'o.e% at the '%e6( olat on sta-e of enfo%!ea" l ty s -ene%ally a 'hantas& ? s n!e the '%ese%(at on of a d$ty at that sta-e !ons sts n lea( n- le-al %elat onsh 's $n!han-ed. Jonse>$ently, 4a%y at the '%e6( olat on sta-e of enfo%!ea" l ty holds only a 'o.e% of .a (e% and no 'o.e% of enfo%!e&ent. )The%e a%e so&e e+!e't ons to th s -ene%al 'o nt. In En-land, fo% e+a&'le, the o.ne% of a '% (ate %oad ty' !ally needs to ta/e !e%ta n ste's 'e% od !ally n o%de% to /ee' n 'la!e the d$t es of othe%s to %ef%a n f%o& $s n- the %oad as a '$"l ! .ay. When an o.ne% ta/es those ste's ? "y o"st%$!t n- the %oad ann$ally, fo% nstan!e ? he s e+e%! s n- a 'o.e% to '%ese%(e the afo%e&ent oned d$t es.*

III. Fa!ets of the Inte%est Theo%y A. Bentha&<s test s needed fo% l & t n- the %an-e of a!t$al % -ht6holde%s: In o%de% to
dete%& ne .hethe% so&eone holds a le-al % -ht $nde% a !ont%a!t o% $nde% any othe% le-al no%&, .e need to as/ .hat fa!ts a%e & n &ally s$ff ! ent to !onst t$te a "%ea!h of the !ont%a!t o% no%&. If and only f at least one & n &ally s$ff ! ent set of fa!ts n!l$des the $nde%-o n- of a det% &ent "y so&e 'e%son Q at the hands of so&e othe% 'e%son R .ho "ea%s a d$ty $nde% the !ont%a!t o% no%&, Q holds a % -ht ? !o%%elat (e to that d$ty ? $nde% the !ont%a!t o% no%&.1

B. Jla &6% -hts ha(e to "e a!!o&'an ed "y &&$n t es f they a%e not to "e $tte%ly hollo.. The te%& 0% -ht1 s "est $sed fo% the !o&" nat on of a !la &6% -ht and s$nd%y &&$n t es a-a nst d (est t$%e of the !la &6% -ht. J. 3$%ely ( !a% o$s nte%ests a%e not s$ff ! ent as the "as s fo% an att% "$t on of a % -htA see the 7KKH a%t !le "y L%a&e% M Ste ne%. D. Inte%est Theo% sts %ead ly %e!o-n =e the !onfe%%al of % -hts "y the !% & nal la. and "y & n &$&6.a-e la.s. IN. The Inte%est Theo%y does not %$le o$t the hold n- of le-al % -hts "y an &als and dead 'eo'le and f$t$%e 'e%sons and nfants and !o&atose 'eo'le and l$nat !s and sen le 'eo'le and foet$ses. )The W ll Theo%y %$les o$t the hold n- of s$!h % -hts "y s$!h "e n-s, .h le a!/no.led- n- of !o$%se that &any of those "e n-s do and sho$ld en#oy (a% o$s le-al '%ote!t ons.* A. B$t the Inte%est Theo%y does not 'e% se lo- !ally !o&& t ts '%o'onents to the thes s that the afo%e&ent oned !%eat$%es a%e 'otent al holde%s of le-al % -hts. CIt ans.e%s the !on!e't$al >$est on fa(o%a"ly "$t not dete%& nat (ely.D One f$%the% set of n>$ % es, a set of &o%al n>$ % es, s needed. To .hat !lasses of "e n-s !an nte%ests of the -e%&ane so%ts "e '%o'e%ly att% "$tedO 1. To see the need fo% th s add t onal >$est on, .e sho$ld 'onde% the d ffe%en!e "et.een a la. a-a nst assa$lt and a la. a-a nst .al/ n- on the -%ass )o% a la. a-a nst the defa!e&ent of "ea$t f$l 'a nt n-s o% the dest%$!t on of &a#est ! "$ ld n-s*. A >$est on a"o$t the so%ts of nte%ests %athe% than the att% "$ta" l ty of nte%ests )a* Jon!e't on of nte%ests s "%oad eno$-h to allo. the att% "$t on of nte%ests to &any nan &ate ent t es as .ell as all 'lants and an &als.

B.

7.

I have slightly sacrificed accuracy for the sake of readability in this formulation. The phrase undergoing of a detriment should really be undergoing of some development that is typically detrimental for a human being.

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D sentan-les &o%al and !on!e't$al >$est ons, and allo.s $s to as!% "e nte%ests to "e n-s )s$!h as -oldf sh* that a%e nonetheless not des -nated as 'otent al holde%s of le-al % -hts

@.

Th s n>$ %y s d st n!t f%o& >$est ons a"o$t the .ays n .h !h (a% o$s "e n-s sho$ld "e t%eated. )a* Th$s, fo% e+a&'le, the follo. n- t.o theses a%e 'e%fe!tly !o&'at "le: )* Le-al no%&s that sh eld foet$ses a-a nst a"o%t ons and e+'e% &entat on ha(e endo.ed the foet$ses . th le-al % -hts. Foet$ses sho$ld "e la%-ely o% .holly de(o d of le-al '%ote!t on a-a nst a"o%t ons and e+'e% &entat on, at least n the ea%ly sta-es of the foet$ses< de(elo'&ent.

) *

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S & la%ly !o&'at "le a%e the follo. n- t.o theses: )* ) * T%ees sho$ld "e le-ally safe-$a%ded a-a nst a n$&"e% of n#$% o$s '%a!t !es. The la.;s se!$% n- of a%"o%eal .elfa%e does not !ons st n the hold n- of any le-al % -hts "y the t%ees.

)!*

In othe% .o%ds, the >$est on .hethe% (a% o$s "e n-s a%e 'otent al holde%s of le-al % -hts s se'a%ate f%o& the >$est on .hethe% any o% all of those "e n-s sho$ld a!t$ally "e le-ally '%ote!ted.

E. F. G.

The na''os teness of the 0% -hts "% n- . th the& %es'ons " l t es1 o"#e!t on What s the "en!h&a%/ o% to$!hstone fo% -a$- n- the -e%&aneness of nte%estsO 4entally !o&'etent h$&an ad$lts a%e the 'o nt of %efe%en!e. What a%e so&e 'oss "le fa!to%s that & -ht se%(e as "ases fo% d st n-$ sh n- "et.een "e n-s that a%e and "e n-s that a%e not 'otent al holde%s of le-al % -htsO )a* Fa!to%s to d st n-$ sh "et.een "e n-s for whom le-al '%ote!t ons a%e esta"l shed and "e n-s in relation to which s$!h '%ote!t ons a%e esta"l shed An &atenessA sent en!eA !a'a! ty fo% 'a n/'leas$%eA 'oss "ly so&e de-%ee of so'h st !at on G%o$'s of h$&an "e n-s and !e%ta n ty'es of h$&an "e n-s &$st "e !ons de%ed se'a%ately

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)* ) *

Inte%ests of -%o$'s !onnne!ted to nte%ests of nd ( d$als )>$a nd ( d$als and >$a !olle!t ( ty* Infants and sen le 'eo'le and foet$ses and l$nat !s a%e fa %ly !lea%6!$t, e(en . tho$t o$% ta/ n- a!!o$nt of the % &e&"e%sh ' n the h$&an s'e! es. Jo&atose 'eo'le: on-o n- &e&"e%sh ' n the h$&an s'e! es )and also &o%al ass & la" l ty of !$%%ent e+ sten!e to ea%l e% o% late% 'e% ods of the % e+ sten!e* Dead 'eo'le: afte%&ath of ea!h 'e%son;s e+ sten!e )'%esen!e n othe% 'eo'le;s l (es* s &o%ally ass & la"le fo% a !e%ta n 'e% od to the t &e of h s o% he% e+ sten!e F$t$%e 'e%sons RST Ant ! 'ated e+ sten!e &o%ally ass & la"le to e(ent$al e+ sten!eA sol ! t$de of !$%%ent 'e%sons s the /ey 3%o"le&s of nd ( d$at on

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RUT