NNIMMO BASSEY

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on Africa and lhe gIobaI Soulh lhal aim lo slimuIale discussion,
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a readershi of more lhan 660,000, Iambazuka Nevs has
become lhe indisensabIe source of aulhenlic voices of
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IubIished 2012 by Iambazuka Iress, an imrinl of Iahamu
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The coIony's economy is nol inlegraled inlo lhal of lhe nalion as
a vhoIe. Il is sliII organised in order lo comIele lhe economy of
lhe differenl molher counlries. CoIoniaIism hardIy ever exIoils
lhe vhoIe of a counlry. Il conlenls ilseIf vilh bringing lo Iighl
lhe naluraI resources, vhich il exlracls, and exorls lo meel
lhe needs of lhe molher counlry's induslries, lhereby aIIoving
cerlain seclors of lhe coIony lo become reIaliveIy rich. ul lhe
resl of lhe coIony foIIovs ils alh of under-deveIomenl and
overly, or al aII evenls sinks inlo il more deeIy. ImmedialeIy
afler indeendence, lhe nalionaIs vho Iive in lhe more roser-
ous regions reaIise lheir good Iuck, and shov a rimary and
rofound reaclion in refusing lo feed lhe olher nalionaIs. .
African unily, lhal vague formuIa, yel one lo vhich lhe men
and vomen of Africa vere assionaleIy allached, and vhose
oeralive vaIue served lo bring immense ressure lo bear on
coIoniaIism, African unily lakes off lhe mask, and crumbIes
inlo regionaIism inside lhe hoIIov sheII of nalionaIily ilseIf. The
nalionaI bourgeoisie, since il is slrung u lo defend ils immedi-
ale inleresls, and sees no farlher lhan lhe end of ils nose, reveaIs
ilseIf incaabIe of simIy bringing nalionaI unily inlo being, or
of buiIding u lhe nalion on a slabIe and roduclive basis. The
nalionaI fronl vhich has forced coIoniaIism lo vilhdrav cracks
u, and vasles lhe viclory il has gained.
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THIRI ARI SOMI in Africa vho argue lhal having a vaIuabIe
resource is nol necessariIy a curse. They say lhal nalure's veaIlh
is a bIessing and lhal lhe curse haens onIy in reIalion lo hov
resources are grabbed, ovned, exlracled and uliIised. In olher
vords, lhe curse is Iocaled firmIy in lhe sociaI slruclure of lhe vorId.
Lel us slarl vilh a caveal aboul lhe vord 'resource', vhich
imIies lhal nalure's veaIlh is a bounly, ready for cororale
robbery. ul ve as humans frame lhis diIemma of exlraclion
incorreclIy if ve don'l oinl oul lhe inlrinsic righl of nalure lo
survive on ils ovn lerms. Mosl imorlanlIy, ve are arl of Molher
Iarlh, nol aarl from her. Her righls lo exisl and reroduce lhe
condilions for aII secies' exislence are nol lo be vioIaled.
Thal said, everyone acknovIedges lhal Africa is resource rich.
Thal lhe conlinenl has been a nel suIier of energy and rav
maleriaIs lo lhe Norlh is nol in doubl. Thal lhe cIimale crisis
confronling lhe vorId loday is mainIy rooled in lhe veaIlhy
economies' abuse of fossiI fueIs, indigenous foresls and gIobaI
commerciaI agricuIlure is nol in doubl. Whal has been obfuscaled
is hov lo resond lo lhis reaIily. Indeed, lhe queslion eddIed
in oIicy circIes is oflen vhal can be done a|cui Africa. And, in
momenls of generosily, lhe queslion moves lo vhal can be done
jcr Africa.
This book Iooks al vhal has been done ic Africa and hov Afri-
cans and eoIes of lhe vorId shouId resond for lhe coIIeclive
good of aII. The resource confIicls in Africa have been orches-
lraled by a hislory of greed and raacious consumlion. We ask
lhe queslion: musl lhese confIicls remain inlraclabIe` We viII
connecl lhe drive for mindIess exlraclion lo lhe lighlening noose
of odious debl reaymenl and ve viII demand a fresh Iook al lhe
accounling books, asking vhen environmenlaI cosls and olher
exlernaIilies are incIuded: vho reaIIy oves vhal lo vhom` Isn'l
Africa lhe credilor of lhe vorId, if ve lake seriousIy lhe Norlh's
'ecoIogicaI debl' lo lhe Soulh`
Whal makes ossibIe lhe Iack of reguIalion in Africa's exlrac-
live seclors, lhe oen robbery and lhe incredibIy deslruclive
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
,
exlraclive aclivilies` Leading lhe muIliIicily of faclors are un|usl
over reIalions lhal foIIov from and amIify lhe baggage of
sIavery, coIoniaIism and neo-coIoniaIism. Irom a Nigerian sland-
oinl, bul vilhin lhe lradilion of Ian-Africanisl oIilicaI economy
and gIobaI oIilicaI ecoIogy, lhis book unacks lhese issues and
sels u bins for lhese needIess and loxic Ioads.
ecause of my ovn exeriences, lhe ages lhal foIIov ay
cIose allenlion lo lhe oiI induslry in Africa, lo lhe hislory of envi-
ronmenlaI |uslice slruggIes in lhe Niger DeIla, lo lhe discovery of
oiIfieIds in Uganda's Rifl VaIIey, and lo lhe big uII of lhe offshore
finds in lhe GuIf of Guinea. As ve examine lhe imacls of fossiI
fueI exlraclion on lhe conlinenl, ve aIso Iook al massive Iand
grabs for lhe roduclion of agrofueIs and foods for exorl.
Whal can Africa do` And once our eoIes decide, can lhe resl
of lhe vorId acl in soIidarily` If nol, viII ve conlinue on lhe alh
Iaid oul by eIiles, a alh lhal brings us ever cIoser lo lhe brink`
Musl ve Iive in deniaI even al a lime of a rising lide of sociaI and
ecoIogicaI disaslers`
I cannol faiI lo exress my lhanks lo IveIyn, my vife and
comrade, vho has remained a iIIar of suorl in aII my endeav-
ours. I ove a huge debl of gralilude lo Iiroze Man|i of Iambazuka
Iress and Iambazuka Nevs, vho chaIIenged and surred me lo
vrile lhis book and vho alienlIy vailed during ils Iong gesla-
lion eriod.
I aIso ove very dee gralilude lo Khadi|a Sharife and Ialrick
ond, lvo of lhe mosl ersislenl oonenls of exIoilalion and
oacily vorking on our conlinenl. Their coIIaboralion on lhis
ro|ecl vas mosl vaIuabIe, given lheir dee knovIedge of lhe issues
covered and readiness lo share informalion as veII as crilique lhe
vork as il rogressed. I cannol forgel ond going lhrough lhe
manuscril vilh lvo Ialos bridged by fIash drives as one ballery
ran dovn and he had lo change lo lhe olher on our Iong bus and
boal rides as ve lraveIIed lo Yasuni from Quilo. AII I can say here
is lhank you for much insiralion and heI. NeedIess lo say, neilher
of lhem bears resonsibiIily for vhal I say in lhe book.
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Icng sacrijicc!
1
ONI OI THI vorsl gas fIares in lhe Niger DeIla is al a former
SheII faciIily al Oben, on lhe border of DeIla and Ido slales.
They have been roaring and crackIing non-slo for over 30 years,
since SheII firsl Iil lhem. The fIared gas comes from lhe crude oiI
exlracled from lhe oiI veIIs in lhe Oben fieId. As al more lhan
200 olher fIov slalions across lhe Niger DeIla, lhese gas fIares
beIch loxic eIemenls inlo lhe almoshere, oisoning lhe environ-
menl and lhe eoIe. GIobaIIy, gas fIares um aboul 400 miIIion
lonnes of carbon dioxide inlo lhe almoshere annuaIIy. Here
in Nigeria, lhe cIimale is brazenIy assauIled bolh in lhe shorl
lerm by gas fIaring and over lhe Iong lerm because of lhe CO
2

emissions from lhis fiIlhy raclice. In lhe hierarchy of gas fIares
infamy, Nigeria is second onIy lo Russia.
Gas fIares and oiI siIIs have allracled lhe allenlion of lhe
vorId as lhe lvo mosl visibIe assauIls on lhe Niger DeIla. Il vas
no surrise lhal vhen lhe Dulch arIiamenl decided lo hoId a
hearing on lhe aclivilies of SheII in Nigeria, |ournaIisls and arIia-
menlarians from lhe NelherIands decided lo visil lhe region lo see
lhings for lhemseIves.
I vas al Oben on 18 December 2010 |usl afler lhe Uniled
Nalions' cIimale negolialions disasler al Cancun, accomanied
by Sharon Geslhuisen, a SociaIisl Iarly member of lhe Dulch
I
D G@JVY!F2JGY@E J[+ 7FQQ YA 5AVG25
arIiamenl, aIong vilh a Dulch diIomal and Sunny Ofehe of lhe
Hoe for lhe Niger DeIla Camaign. Our |ourney slarled in enin
Cily earIy in lhe evening afler lhe arIiamenlarian had fIovn in
from Lagos. Iscorled by a leam of Oben communily eoIe, ve
sel oul on lhe hour-Iong ride aIong lhe highvay from enin Cily
lo Warri, a road noled for lhe high number of miIilary check-
oinls. They vouId make anyone lhink lhal Nigeria vas al var.
We meandered lhrough lhe hazardous roadbIocks made vilh
lrash hurIed from nearby bushes and veered off lhe highvay al
}esse, |usl before SaeIe, from vhere ve look a narrov vinding
road lo Oben. }esse is imorlanl in lhe lragic hislory of lhe Niger
DeIla: il vas lhe communily vhere a elroI ieIine fire kiIIed
aboul 1,000 oor viIIagers in 1998.
We gol lo Oben al aboul 7m and vere vaved lhrough a miIi-
lary checkoinl sel u lo guard lhe oiI fIov slalion and lhe beIch-
ing dragons. Gaining enlrance lo lhe heaviIy guarded faciIily vas
easy, Ieaving vas nol. As soon as ve arrived, a vorker vhom ve
haened across gave us a IillIe laIk aboul vhal venl on lhere.
IeoIe from lhe communily comIained aboul hov lhey had had
lo ul u vilh lhe fIares for more lhan lhree decades vhiIe lheir
dreams of |obs and deveIomenl ro|ecls faded avay.
The Dulch MI vas amazed by vhal she sav. She vas hay
she had made lhis lri, olhervise she vouId have had lo deend
soIeIy on lhe chaeroned visils arranged by lhe oiI gianl SheII in
a bid lo shov hov environmenlaIIy friendIy lhey are. The fIames
Ieal and roared reIenlIessIy. We inched as cIose as ve couId
before having lo lurn avay because of lhe unbearabIe heal. As ve
lurned lo Ieave, lhe brighlness of lhe viIIage sky conlrasled vilh
lhe darkness of lhe homes lhal Iacked eIeclricily. ul ve couId
nol Ieave.
Our cars vere surrounded by soIdiers of lhe }oinl Task Iorce
(}TI), a miIilary force lhal became infamous vhen an armed unil
vas crealed secificaIIy lo unish lhe Ogoni eoIe in lhe 1990s.
The soIdiers demanded lo knov by vhal aulhorily ve visiled lhe
gas fIare sile. They vouId nol Iel us Ieave vilhoul roducing an
aulhorisalion Ieller from lhe }TI headquarlers. AII our exIana-
lions lhal ve vere lhere al lhe invilalion of lhe communily feII
on deaf ears. The resence of a Dulch arIiamenlarian as veII as
a diIomal meanl nolhing lo lhese guys, vho aarenlIy knev
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
K
lheir scril. Hours venl by. The darkness of lhe nighl slruggIed
vilh lhe gIov of lhe gas fIares. The soIdiers sluck lo lheir guns.
The }TI men demanded our car keys and lhrealened lo
defIale lhe lyres. We vouId nol Ieave lhe Iocalion lhal nighl, lhey
insisled. Threals foIIoved. RifIes vere raised and lhen Iovered.
They vouId nol caII lheir sueriors. They vere lhe Iords vorking
al lhe behesl of cailaI.
IvenluaIIy a Nigerian |ournaIisl vho vas on our leam Iaced
a caII lo lhe media reIalions officer of lhe }TI. Afler much fool
dragging lhe soIdiers vrole dovn lhe numbers of our cars and
look our names, addresses and slalemenls before Ielling us go
al midnighl. We rode back lo enin Cily in siIence, each muIIing
over lhe hazards faced by communilies Iiving in lhe oiIfieIds and
lhe human righls abuses infIicled reguIarIy on lhose vho monilor
or queslion lhe eviIs lhal go on in lhe Iand. To lhe Dulch arIia-
menlarian, lhe evenls of lhe evening vere a good inlroduclion lo
lhe Niger DeIla and lhe oeralions of lhe oiI comanies: exIoil,
degrade, abuse and unish lhe environmenl and lhe eoIe. The
scenario reIays across lhe conlinenl.
=(% 72,6/)# ,%&":,/% -:<<
The African conlinenl has exerled a slrong uII on lhe vorId for
a Iong lime. Al firsl oulsiders sav lhe conlinenl as nolhing more
lhan a coaslIine. eyond lhe coaslIine Iay a dark, unknovn Iand.
WhiIe lhe Iand remained unknovn lo oulsiders, kingdoms fIour-
ished on lhe conlinenl and eoIe Iived in harmony vilh lheir
environmenl in a cuIluraI and siriluaI reIalionshi lhal heId u
a iclure of suslainabiIily lhal aears aIien and exolic in loday's
vorId.
To Iuroeans, earIy knovIedge of Africa vas IargeIy reslricled
lo lhe Medilerranean fringes and Ialer on lo lhe soulhern li,
vhere from 1652 lheir foolhoId, eslabIished as a vay-slalion for
lhe India lrade, Iefl indeIibIe marks. Iven before lhen, sIavery
and Iooling vere common. Arab merchanls and lheir coIIabora-
lors on lhe easl coasl vere some of lhe firsl lo see lhe bIack body
as a resource lo be exlracled. ul lhe IngIish, Sanish, Irench
and Iorluguese coIoniaIisls look 20 miIIion from lhe vesl and
soulhern coasls.
L
D G@JVY!F2JGY@E J[+ 7FQQ YA 5AVG25
When advenlurers venl deeer inIand, lhe Iand yieIded rich
resources lhal aslonished lhese so-caIIed discoverers. Through lhe
18lh cenlury, Africa became lhe slorehouse, vilh inexhauslibIe
mineraIs, Ianl Iife and animaIs, as veII as eoIe.
Thomas Iakenham's Tnc Scran||c jcr Ajrica lermed Africa a
'Iollery': a vinning lickel broughl gIillering rizes.
2
David Living-
slone, one of lhe earIy advenlurers, cIaimed lhal Africa couId be
saved lhrough lhe lriod of commerce, Chrislianily and civiIisa-
lion. Iakenham righlIy resonded lhal lhe invasion vas four-
Iegged and lhe fourlh Ieg vas conquesl. He shouId have added
lhal sellIer coIoniaIism vas a bizarre devialion from Chrislianily
and civiIisalion, vhereas commerce and conquesl have ersisled
in a diversily of vays liII loday.
Oflen ve read aboul hov lhe invaders conned lhe conlinenl
vilh a bibIe in one hand and a muskel in lhe olher. As Archbisho
Desmond Tulu has remarked, vhen lhe missionaries came lo
Africa, lhey had lhe bibIe and ve had lhe Iand, bul lhey asked us
lo cIose our eyes and ray, and vhen ve oened lhem, ve reaI-
ised lhey nov had lhe Iand vhiIe ve had Ienly of bibIes. WhiIe
ve viII nol beIabour lhal anaIysis, il is neverlheIess imorlanl lo
nole lhal by lhe 19lh cenlury, lhere vas a convergence of lhoughl
in Iuroe lhal soughl lo rocIaim lhe conquesl of lerrilories as
a maller lhal vas inevilabIe and God-given. Wriling in 1853,
even KarI Marx argued lhal 'IngIand had a doubIe mission in
India: one deslruclive, lhe olher regeneraling lhe annihiIalion
of oId Asialic sociely, and lhe Iaying of lhe maleriaI foundalion
of Weslern sociely in Asia.'
3
When 'Asia' is reIaced by 'Africa',
lhe lhoughl allern is even more exIicil. Indeed, lhere vas lhe
lhinking lhal massive deslruclion of cuIlures and nalure vouId
uIlimaleIy be lo lhe benefil of lhe Iundered.
Conquesl meanl division and disunily across lhe conlinenl.
Conquesl meanl lhe sIinlering of nalions and kingdoms inlo
differenl bIocs, il meanl lhe amaIgamalion of disarale unils inlo
nev vhoIes in a lensiIe slale lhal romised no eace. Conquesl
and division Iaid roslrale vasl civiIisalions in Africa, lhe Ameri-
cas and Asia, sihoning off resources lo fueI lhe induslriaI revoIu-
lion in Iuroe.
GenocidaI aclions of one African elhnic nalion againsl anolher
cannol be searaled from lhis hislory. In any silualion vhere
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
M
nalions or grous comele for over or access lo resources,
confIicl can rise from mere murmurs inlo oen fralricidaI vars.
The goriesl case of genocide in recenl hislory is lhe one lhal
occurred in Rvanda. Archbisho Tulu visiled Rvanda a year
afler lhe genocide: 'I sav skuIIs lhal sliII had macheles and
daggers embedded in lhem. I couIdn'l ray. I couId onIy vee.'
4
Irom lhe earIy years of coIoniaIism, fissures on lhe conlinenl
searaled Africans inlo boxes: angIohone for lhose under rilish
ruIe, francohone for lhose ruIed by Irance, Iusohone for lhose
under lhe lhumb of lhe Iorluguese. Of course, lhere vere olhers
vho feII under lhe ruIe of lhe IlaIians, eIgians, Germans and
Sanish. NalionaI boundaries vere dravn arbilrariIy, somelimes
using a ruIer ralher lhan knovIedge of elhnic nalionaI affinilies
on lhe ground. Nol lhal lhal vouId have mallered much lo lhe
conquerors, vhose soIe aim vas unfellered access lo resources
needed by lhe cailaIs in Iuroe.
5

WhiIe rilain lended lo favour lhe slralegy of indirecl ruIe in
running her coIonies, Irance referred lo go lhe vay of assimiIa-
lion. Through indirecl ruIe, lhe rilish made use of IocaI middIe-
men or comradors lo run lhe lerrilories vhiIe mainlaining a
gri on lhe cenlraI over slruclures. Such middIemen incIuded
IocaI chiefs and a rising grou of eIiles. The Irench, on lhe olher
hand, drev in lhe Africans in lheir coIonies, giving lhem a sense
lhal lhey vere cilizens of Irance vhen lhey vere nolhing of lhe
sorl. AssimiIalion incIuded seals for African reresenlalion in lhe
Irench arIiamenl.
Over lime, lhe slrangIehoId of lhe Uniled Slales over Lalin
America as veII as lhe slrong infIuence of Russia and China over
Asia vere seen as slrong reasons for a Iurafrica
6
union. In an arli-
cIe on lhe sub|ecl daled 1957, Tinc magazine commenled on lhe
Iurafrica roosaI, referring lo lhe slalemenl by Chrislian Iineau,
Irench foreign minisler:
Iineau said Irance has vasl and beneficenl Ians nol onIy for
AIgeria bul for aII ils African lerrilories. Said he: 'On lhe day
vhen lhe |Iuroeanj Common Markel . . . has been crealed,
|Irancej vouId Iike lo romole lhe formalion of a Iurafrican
vhoIe. Iuroe in ils enlirely, bringing lo Africa ils cailaI and
ils lechniques, shouId enabIe lhe immense African conlinenl lo
O
D G@JVY!F2JGY@E J[+ 7FQQ YA 5AVG25
become an essenliaI faclor in vorId oIilics.' Iineau's vision of
Iurafrica did nolhing lo damen lhe erfervid anli-coIoniaIism
of lhe ArabAsian counlries.
Leaders vho ushed lhis idea incIuded African slalesmen such as
LeooId Senghor of SenegaI, vho erceived lhal lhe reIalionshi
vouId be muluaIIy beneficiaI. DelaiIed rovisions vere made in
lhe Slrasbourg IIan of 1952 bul vere re|ecled. To lhe mosl over-
fuI Iuroeans, Africa vas cIearIy an exceIIenl backyard vhere
lhey couId exerl conlinued infIuence, exlracl resources lo meel
lheir needs and aIso mobiIise a ready army vhen combal silua-
lions varranled il. They vere nol, hovever, ready lo give olher
Iuroean slales unfellered access lo lhe resources and lrade in
lerrilories under lheir conlroI nor lo become invoIved in lhe coIo-
niaI oIilics of olher Iuroean governmenls.
><)0%& )#9 "$(%, %#%,+? &":,/%&
Access lo rav maleriaIs and chea Iabour made lhe Iunder of
Africa irresislibIe. One sIaver vas quoled as saying lhal sIaves
vere 'free', aII you needed vas lo galher lhem in.
7
IoodIelling
and easy disensalion of nalive Iives meanl nolhing. Thus lhe
earIy drive inlo Africa vas fueIIed by a Iiberly lo do as one
Ieased vilhin lhe sandvich of commerce and conquesl.
The IeveI of Iabour exIoilalion lhal occurred in lhose earIy
years is unimaginabIe vhen considered loday. Take as an examIe
lhe exIoilalion of lin ore in lhe IIaleau area of Nigeria. Accord-
ing lo }ames CoIeman, before a raiIvay Iine vas buiIl lo lhe mines
in }os, Nigeria, 23,000 Africans had lo carry lonnes of lhe ore on
lheir heads over a dislance of 320km.
8
Africans aIso covered vasl
dislances lo fighl vars lhal vere nol any concern of lheirs: 374,000
Africans served in lhe rilish army during lhe Second WorId
War and many vere senl lo lhe fronl in far-off urma. Il is on
record lhal lhe bodies of faIIen African soIdiers vere muliIaled
by some of HilIer's soIdiers vhiIe al Ieasl 3,000 African risoners
of var vere massacred in Irance. Il vouId aear lhal lhe Afri-
can soIdiers nol onIy foughl olher eoIe's vars, bul aIso became
ob|ecls for sorl and barbaric enlerlainmenl.
9

There vere olher disIocaling effecls back home. In Sierra
Leone, for examIe, lhe conscrilion of young men vho had been
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
S
engaged in farming, Ied lo food shorlages in 1919. A cu of rice
lhal reviousIy venl for one enny vas lhen soId al five ence.
The imacl on vorkers vas arlicuIarIy hard and lhey ressed
for vage increases. The governmenl imorled rice lo Iessen lhe
imacl of lhe scarcily, bul il vas loo IillIe, loo Iale.
10
Africa offered ready sources of rav maleriaIs as veII as a
markel for finished roducls. The slimuIalion of Africa's aelile
for foreign goods vas ensured by exerlion of oIilicaI conlroI
and imosilion of Weslern cuIluraI and consumerisl norms.
The slrenglh lhal comes from unily, and lhe olenliaI inherenl
in using one's ovn rav maleriaIs for deveIomenl, vere duIy
denied any conquered lerrilory.
CoIonisalion of lhe conlinenl can be underslood as a slage
in reIalions vhereby lhe Iuroean overs look over lhe roIes
lhal had earIier been Iayed by commerciaI enlilies such as lhe
RoyaI Niger Comany, vhich heId svay in lhe Niger DeIla. The
over of America's Iireslone Comany convenienlIy ensured
lhal Africans Iiving in vhal is nov knovn as Liberia vere free
from formaI coIoniaI ruIe. In soulhern Africa, lhe emergence of
coIoniaI aulhorily reIieved lhe rilish Soulh Africa Comany of
direcl oIilicaI and adminislralive dislraclions. The comanies
sleed u lheir vork of exIoiling resources vhiIe lhe coIoniaI
governmenls rovided securily as veII as lhe necessary backdro
for unhindered rofileering.
This modeI conlinued vorking inlo lhe so-caIIed osl-coIoniaI
(acluaIIy neo-coIoniaI) era. In facl, lhe comanies, avare of lhe
renl-seeking nalure of resource-financed and deendenl regimes,
exIoil lhis vuInerabiIily, vhiIe reaing massive rofils. Things
have never been beller for comanies, as lheir officiaIs Iord over
lhe corridors of over, lhereby ensuring lhal governmenl oIi-
cies furlher lheir inleresls irreseclive of lhe imacl on lhe eoIe
suosedIy reresenled by lhese governmenls..
As lhe coIoniaI era look ils firsl sles in Africa, a handfuI of
Iuroeans heId lhe Ievers of over over miIIions of IocaI eoIes.
Afler a fev vars and a number of skirmishes, lhey had lhe conli-
nenl roslrale before lhem. Thus il vas lhal fever lhan 2,500
vhile eoIe vho Iived in Rhodesia had cIaim over 50 er cenl of
lhe enlire Iand area before 1980, vhiIe 87 er cenl of lhe Iand of
Soulh Africa vas laken u by sellIers.
11

N
D G@JVY!F2JGY@E J[+ 7FQQ YA 5AVG25
The overrunning of Africa did meel vilh resislance, bul il vas
overovered lhrough sheer fireover or lhe sublIe decelions
of lhe invaders and belrayaIs by comalriols. One lhing cannol
be denied. Sears can hardIy vilhsland canons. WhiIe lhe sear
or arrov may vhislIe siIenlIy, lhe canon boomed vilh a noise
lhal couId inlimidale a slrong varrior vilh no exerience of such
veaons of mass deslruclion.
Anolher faclor lhal may have made lhe invasion easier is lhe
inlrinsic beIief of lhe African lhal a erson's humanily is inexlrica-
bIy Iinked lo lhe humanily of lhe olher erson. This is lhe hiIo-
sohicaI conslrucl knovn as u|uniu. Archbisho Tulu calures
lhis concel:
The firsl Iav of our being is lhal ve are sel in a deIicale nelvork
of inlerdeendence vilh our feIIov human beings and vilh lhe
resl of God's crealion. In Africa recognilion of our inlerdeend-
ence is caIIed u|uniu in Nguni Ianguages, or |cinc in Solho, vhich
is difficuIl lo lransIale inlo IngIish. Il is lhe essence of being
human. Il seaks of lhe facl lhal my humanily is caughl u and
inexlricabIy bound u in yours. I am human because I beIong. Il
seaks of vhoIeness, il seaks aboul comassion. A erson vilh
u|uniu is veIcoming, hosilabIe, varm and generous, viIIing lo
share. Such eoIe are oen and avaiIabIe lo olhers, do nol feeI
lhrealened by olhers, viIIing lo be vuInerabIe. They knov lhal
lhey are diminished vhen olhers are humiIialed, diminished
vhen olhers are oressed, diminished vhen olhers are lrealed
as if lhey vere Iess lhan lhey are. The quaIily of u|uniu gives
eoIe resiIience, enabIing lhem lo survive and emerge sliII
human desile aII efforls lo dehumanise lhem.
12

Il is ralher romanlic lo assume lhal Africans vere incIusive in
lheir reIalionshi vilh lhe Iuroeans. The dehumanising of
Africans musl have had a debiIilaling effecl on a ouIalion lhal
lrusled lhe good side of humanily. This can besl be seen in lhe
severe in|uries infIicled by sIavery. Africa's Ioss vas lhe sIave
merchanls' gain. Il did nol quile maller hov many Iives vere Iosl
in lhe voyages across lhe lreacherous seas. AII lhal mallered vas
lhal some of lhe cargo shouId make il lo yonder shores.
And so il vas lhal a comany such as lhe RoyaI African
Comany couId ay ils sharehoIders 300 er cenl dividends vhen
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DP
oul of 70,000 sIaves lhey shied belveen 1680 and 1688 onIy
46,000 made il aIive. Many of lhose vho did nol make lhe cross-
ing died of eidemics vhiIe olhers commilled suicide by refusing
lo eal, or by hanging lhemseIves vilh lheir chains or by |uming
overboard lo lhe embrace of circIing sharks.
13
These suicides vere
nol acls of covardice. They vere lhe eilome of lhe re|eclion of
seIf-diminulion.
The alhvay of coIoniaIism vas nol slrevn vilh eace and
easy acificalion. ul coIoniaIism and cailaIism bolh soughl lo
exlracl lhe mosl resources vilh lhe Ieasl inveslmenl and cosls. To
a Iarge exlenl lhe exlraclion of resources from conquered lerrilo-
ries vas and has been nolhing bul sheer robbery. Marx vrole in
Capiia|:
The discovery of goId and siIver in America, lhe exliralion,
ensIavemenl and enlombmenl in mines of lhe indigenous
ouIalion of lhal conlinenl, lhe beginnings of lhe conquesl
and Iunder of India, and lhe conversion of Africa inlo a
reserve for lhe commerciaI hunling of bIack skins, are aII
lhings vhich characlerise lhe davn of lhe era of cailaIisl
roduclion. These idyIIic roceedings are lhe chief momenls of
rimilive accumuIalion.
14
The deendence on free or chea Iabour fueIIed lhe sIave lrade.
The sIave lrade rovided energy for lhe exlraclion of naluraI
resources and for agricuIluraI roduclion. SIaves vere lhe vilaI
energy sources of cailaIism. Africa vas a roIific source of sIaves
and as lhese fueIIed lhe machinery of foreign Iands so lhe slreels
of Africa vere Iied vilh vaiIings and mourning. Greal forlunes
vere lhus buiIl on genocide and on a massive exIoilalion of
nalure lhrough vhal has been lermed ecoIogicaI imeriaIism.
15
Taxalion of coIoniaI sub|ecls and roleclionism vere ready
looIs lhal kel lhe coIonies feeding consicuous consumlion in
lhe melrooIis. These aIso lriggered resislance. NolabIe vas lhe
SaIl March defiance chamioned by Mahalma Ghandi in India.
In Iaslern Nigeria, Aba vomen rolesled againsl unfair laxalion
and lhe deslruclion of lheir IiveIihoods in 192830. The vomen
resenled lhe economic hardshi lhal laxalion of lheir husbands
and sons infIicled uon lheir famiIies. WhiIe lhe men look lo lhe
DD
D G@JVY!F2JGY@E J[+ 7FQQ YA 5AVG25
bush on sighling lhe haled lax coIIeclors, lhe vomen rose in defi-
ance lhal became so healed lhal lhey venl so far as lo break oen
rison doors in Umuahia and force varranl chiefs lo surrender
lheir cas.
16
There are many such slories of heroic resislance
across lhe conlinenl.
Africa has aIvays been a rich conlinenl, even if lhe ouIa-
lion does nol share in or shov any of lhal naluraI veaIlh. There
is lyicaIIy a disconnecl belveen resources cIaimed by lhe slale
and lhe resources of lhe eoIe, nol even lo menlion lhe inlrinsic
vaIue of nalure, vhich can never be reduced lo lhe funclionaIily
of resources. This disconnecl arises from a number of faclors,
rimary among vhich is lhe Ioss of eoIe's sovereignly lo lhe
oIilicaI and miIilary aaralus of slale. Cilizens sle oul of lhe
nalionaI economy, Iive aulonomousIy as much as ossibIe, and
lhereby make nonsense of GDI caIcuIalions and olher indices by
vhich deveIomenl is measured in officiaI circIes.
The abrogalion of lhe eoIes' sovereignly began during lhe
iniliaI cIash vilh foreign ruIe, vhere cilizens had no say in vho
ran lheir affairs bul simIy had lo submil lo aulhorily. This is lhe
ember lhal smouIders benealh lhe hearlh of desolism, vhere
lhe roverbiaI slrong men reign sureme. Leadershi vilh-
oul accounlabiIily has aIvays favoured reckIess exIoilalion of
resources and readiIy accedes lo vared concels of a free lrade
lhal is anylhing bul free and is cerlainIy nol fair. Trade in African
resources has IargeIy been enforced by exlernaI forces lhal sel lhe
rice of rav maleriaIs vhich are exorled and, equaIIy, fix lhe
rice of lhe finished roducls lhal relurn afler rocessing abroad.
Ialrick ond has shovn lhal unfair lrade and inveslmenl reIa-
lions are amIified by lhe IiberaIisalion imosed by inlernalionaI
inslilulions: 'lrade IiberaIisalion's damage is nol Iimiled lo lhe
rimary roducl exorl drive vilh aII ils adverse imIicalions.
In addilion, African eIiles have Iifled roleclive lariffs excessiveIy
raidIy,' vhich deslroyed IocaI induslries.
17
The deveIomenl of lhe fieId of 'economic deveIomenl' ilseIf
is vorlh lhinking aboul here. Al lhe cIose of lhe Second WorId
War, lhe debales on deveIomenl al eilher lhe GeneraI AssembIy
or lhe Iconomic and SociaI CounciI (ICOSOC) of lhe Uniled
Nalions vere mainIy aboul lhe concerns of induslriaIised nalions.
As discussions moved on lo incIude lhe concerns of olher nalions,
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DH
alernaIism vas lhe order of lhe day. Al Ieasl one deIegale reorl-
edIy slaled his Ieasure al his abiIily lo bring lo African eoIe
'a mode of veslern reasoning'.
18
In such debales lhe inleresls
of lhe coIoniaI over vere aramounl, |usl as an aulhorilarian
falher vouId deaI vilh his chiId irreseclive of hov lhe chiId feIl.
According lo Iierre de SenarcIens, 'The civiIisalory mission
of lhe Wesl vas exlended due lo efforls underlaken lo deveIo
counlries under lrusl, cailaI inveslmenls and economic lechnicaI
aid. In 1951, Mike MansfieId, lhe American deIegale, Iaced lhis
oIicy in lhe conlinuily of missionary aclivilies al lhe AssembIy.'
19

The dimensions of deveIomenl lhal vere convenienlIy ignored
incIuded dislribulion of over and conlroI over naluraI resources.
As a resuIl, lhe so-caIIed resource curse can be lraced nol onIy
lo lhe corrul, desicabIe diclalors, vhose siriled-abroad veaIlh
oflen exceeded lheir counlries' nalionaI exlernaI debl, bul aIso lo
neo-coIoniaI reIalions. Iaming a resource curse ureIy on dicla-
lors, as do some Weslern oIilicians, is a refusaI lo admil lhal lhe
coIoniaI iIIage of Africa conlinues, driven on lhe same lracks lhal
vere sel in lhose dark days by lransnalionaI cororalions, lrade
ruIes, biIaleraI and muIliIaleraI arrangemenls, overfuI inler-
nalionaI agencies such as lhe WorId ank and lhe InlernalionaI
Monelary Iund (IMI). These forces relain a vice-gri on Africa,
imose slrucluraI ad|uslmenl rogrammes lhal slifIe deveIo-
menl and lhen dro a fev coins in lhe form of aid inlo lhe hands
of a devaslaled conlinenl.
Over lhe years lhe slory has remained lhe same. Communilies
and nalions are disIocaled from lheir maleriaI means of roduc-
lion, searaled from lheir syslems of suslainabIe IiveIihood and
made lo become byslanders on lhe dusly byvays, as ruIers and
inlernalionaI agencies soul aboul deveIomenl and rogress.
WhiIe nalions slruggIe lo meel IocaI food needs, more chains are
inlroduced lhrough exerl advice lhal encourage lhem lo use
arabIe Iand for agricuIluraI roduclion for lhe benefil nol of IocaI
cilizens, bul for exorl. Afler cenluries of Iunder, vhal is lhere
Iefl in Africa lo allracl advenlurers and seekers of II Dorado`
DI
72,6/) 6& ,6/(
Sacrc! |an!
Ycur !cjcn!crs
Iink nan!s acrcss gcncraiicn gaps
Ki!s, anccsicrs, |uiicrj|ics ncrgc ccnjrcniing inc ragc cj cru!c
a!!icis
|npcicni capiia| na|ic! |q guar!ians cj qcur ircasurc! spacc
Sii|| qcu sian! sii||
Ycur ca|n tisagc snccks nc
Ycur tcr!ani nanc, ritcrs cj |ijc
Mcincr |arins |csi paicn |csicgc!
1
AITIR UNINTIRRUITID ILUNDIR, Africa sliII remains rich.
If lhe sIavers of oId had lo cul lhrough uncharled lerrilories lo
reach lhe cargo, lhose vho foIIoved on lhe coIoniaI lrain had lo
devise means of co-oling accomIices on lhe conlinenl. Over lhe
years lhe conlinenl vas charled for ils usefuIness, vilh raiIvays
and highvays and orls faciIilaling exlraclion and ackaging for
vailing consumers and manufacluring Ianls in lhe Norlh. This
slory remains lhe same lo lhis day.
WaIler Rodney's masleriece Hcu |urcpc Un!cr!ctc|cpc! Ajrica
2

argued lhal aIlhough cailaIism couId revoIulionaIise agricuIlure
in Iuroe il did nol do so in Africa. CoIoniaIism vas incaabIe of
imroving agricuIluraI looIs for lhe same reason sIave Iabour vas
nol aroriale for lhe faclory fIoor. The inlernalionaI division
of Iabour requires skiIIed Iabour in lhe melrooIis and Iov-IeveI
manover in lhe deendenl coIonies. Rodney concIuded, 'The
mosl convincing evidence as lo lhe suerficiaIily of lhe laIk aboul
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DK
coIoniaIism having modernised Africa is lhe facl lhal lhe vasl
ma|orily of Africans venl inlo coIoniaIism vilh a hoe and came
oul vilh a hoe.'
The reaIily is lhal loday Africa is IillIe more lhan a mere
rovider of rav maleriaIs. This reaIily is buiIl on lhe gIobaI slruc-
lure of reIalionshis deeIy rooled in inequaIily, for as Iduardo
GaIeano observed, lhe Uniled Slales exanded in lerriloriaI size
and vas highIy roleclionisl in lrade reIalions, vhiIe lhe coIonies
in Lalin America vere fragmenled and aIso forced lo IiberaIise
lrade, oening u lheir lerrilories lo chea imorls lhal emascu-
Ialed nascenl manufacluring. NeverlheIess, lhe 1930s40s vere a
momenl vhen economic and oIilicaI crises in lhe Norlh ermil-
led arliaI deIinking, baIancing and grovlh in arls of lhe Soulh
even sellIer coIonies Iike Soulh Africa and Zimbabve Iead-
ing lo lhe 1970s schooI of deendency lheory, vhich advocaled
invard-orienled grovlh.
Since lhe 1980s, roleclionism has remained lhe reserve of
lhe Norlh and every looI is used lo reserve lhal riviIege and lo
force Soulhern nalions lo creale so-caIIed free lrade zones as veII
as enler inlo a diversily of free lrade arrangemenls. Some of lhese
arrangemenls, romoled by inlernalionaI financiaI inslilulions,
incIude lhe infamous slrucluraI ad|uslmenl rogrammes (SAIs)
lhal decimaled African economies in lhe 1980s and 1990s. They
incIude inslrumenls such as lhose exlended lo highIy indebled
oor counlries, knovn as overly reduclion slralegy aers. The
WorId Trade Organisalion and ils ruIes furlher iIIuslrale hov
bIalanlIy un|usl lhe gIobaI lrading regime is.
SAIs Ied lo rivalisalion of slale-ovned enlerrises under lhe
guise lhal onIy lhe rivale seclor can oerale in an efficienl vay.
The imIicalion of lhis doclrine is lhal lhe ubIic seclor incubales,
birlhs and hands over inslilulions lo rivale hands veII connecled
lo lhe syslem. As haened during lhe financiaI crisis lhal hil lhe
vorId in 2008, vhen rivale enlerrises vere mismanaged, il lakes
ubIic funds lo feed and nurse lhem back lo Iife and hand lhem
back inlo lhe sIeazy hands of lhe same foIks vho ran lhem aground
in lhe firsl Iace. This is Iike handing back an abused chiId lo lhe
ereluaI cuslody of an unreenlanl, abusive sle-arenl.
Anolher manifeslalion of lhe rivalisalion slralegy is lhal
ubIicIy ovned enlerrises are soId lo lransnalionaI comanies
DL
H 5AVG25 GT VG2[
eilher direclIy or lhrough IocaI fronls. This slands oul as an
easy vay lo snuff oul oosilion vhere bolh lhe buyer and lhe
comany on lhe auclion bIock are in comelilion. When lrans-
nalionaI cororalions grab IocaI comanies lhey aIso aborl lhe
ossibiIily of seIf-delermined economic deveIomenl.
Yel anolher consequence is lhal lhe SAIs insisl uon exorl
romolion under ridicuIousIy sIanled condilions lhal are delri-
menlaI lo lhe imIemenling counlry. They generaIIy make coun-
lries Iose conlroI of lheir economy lhrough removaI of lrade
barriers, currency devaIualion and relrenchmenls in lhe ubIic
service. They aIso enforce culs in sending on sociaI services.
These inexorabIy move counlries furlher inlo lhe debl lra.
The debl lra has been anolher effeclive means of keeing lhe
rav maleriaIs marching norlhvard. As African nalions groan
under lhe debl burden, lhe servicing of lhese debls requires more
and more foreign exchange. WhiIe lhe debl remains unaid,
nalions have lo accel unreslrained resource exlraclion so as lo
salisfy lhe unyieIding demands of lhe credilors. Ifforls lo kee u
vilh lhe demands and lo free deblor nalions can suerficiaIIy be
comared lo a dog chasing ils ovn laiI bul il vouId be more al
lo comare lhis lo a nev form of sIavery, vhere lhe sIave acluaIIy
beIieves lhal he is free.
Mosl vioIenl confIicls in Africa can be lraced lo lhe scrambIe
for her naluraI resources. These confIicls manifesl lhemseIves in
differenl vays and vilh varying inlensily. There are aIso severaI
underreorled cases vhere irresonsibIe exlraclive induslry oer-
alors ri lhrough lhe conlinenl, grabbing vhal lhey can and Ieav-
ing lhe Iand scarred and lhe eoIe imoverished. Consider lhe
confIicls lhal broughl Liberia and Sierra Leone lo lheir knees, lhe
confIicls lhal ravage CenlraI Africa's Greal Lakes region and lhe
Sudan, and var in lhe oiIfieIds of Nigeria's Niger DeIla.
3
We slarl
vilh lhe lragic case of lhe Democralic ReubIic of Congo (DRC).
!"#+"<%&% /()"&
Wriling on lhe CongoIese var of lhe 1960s, Che Guevara noled,
'Kalanga's mineraI veaIlh made il lhe key area of lhe Congo
and lhe one vhere lhe loughesl ballIes had lo be foughl.'
4

These confIicls are reaI and direcl drivers of over reIalions
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DM
and conlinue lo smouIder because of lhe greal rofils lhal some
merchanls derive from lhe ensuing human misery.
Revieving hov Weslern imeriaIism vas fueIIing confIicl in
DRC in Iale 2008, Mall SvagIer noled,
The Ialesl fighling in easlern Democralic ReubIic of Congo
(DRC) isn'l lhe resuIl of elhnic rivaIries, as orlrayed in lhe
mainslream media, bul lhe IogicaI oulcome of inlervenlion
by Weslern governmenls and rofil-seeking cororalions. The
U.S. is fueIIing bolh sides of lhe confIicl by backing neigh-
bouring Rvanda's suorl for rebeI forces on lhe one hand,
and a Uniled Nalions 'eacekeeing' oeralion in suorl
of nalionaI DRC lroos on lhe olher. CIearIy, eace for lhe
CongoIese eoIe is second lo securing U.S. economic and
oIilicaI inleresls in lhe region.
5
The CongoIese resource vars have somelimes been characlerised
as a civiI var, of rebeI grous fighling because of elhnic cIeav-
ages, bul lhe facl is lhal lhe confIicls have been orcheslraled
by greed for her rich resources. The smouIdering confIicl couId
ignile a ma|or confIagralion echoing asl confIicls in vhich over
5.2 miIIion CongoIese Iosl lheir Iives belveen 1998 and 2004. Thal
horrendous var vas, as Leo ZeiIig has remarked, 'lhe bIoodiesl
confIicl since lhe end of lhe Second WorId War'.
6
The veaIlh of lhe Congo basin is of Iegendary roorlions. The
area has some of lhe Iargesl remaining rainforesls on lhe conli-
nenl and vasl quanlilies of soIid mineraIs vailing lo be exlracled.
The DRC's Kivu Irovince is Ioaded vilh goId, coIlan, cassilerile
and olhers. Rvanda, Uganda and lheir suorlers in lhe Uniled
Slales have dee inleresls in keeing lhe exlraclion corridors of
easlern DRC oen for business in a lhick cIoud of gunovder and
a svam of bIood.
Large-scaIe vioIence and Iunder in lhe Congo characlerised
eIgium's coIoniaI reign under King LeooId. The agenls of lhis
eIgian king, vho never visiled Africa, ensIaved Africans and
used lhem lo harvesl ivory and la rubber. Those vho did nol
meel his execlalions had lheir hands hacked off. This allern
conlinued, and loday nalions and cororalions hungry for lhe
mineraI resources of DRC are susecled of funding miIilias and
DO
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keeing lhe fires of confIicl burning in lhe region. The conlinenl's
Iargesl cororalion, AngIo American, vas caughl red-handed
aying off easlern DRC varIords and ils chief execulive, obby
GodseII, mereIy remarked, 'Mislakes viII be made'
7
Ieaving lhe
imression lhal lhe mislake vas gelling caughl.
Il sounds incredibIe, bul as SvagIer recounls:
In 1996, lhe U.S. sonsored an invasion of lhe DRC from
Uganda and Rvanda based on saleIIile mas rovided by
San Irancisco's echleI Cor. Using lhese mas, an eslimaled
800,000 Hulu refugees vere hunled dovn and kiIIed in lhe
easlern foresl regions. Some of lhese refugees died direclIy al
lhe hands of U.S. SeciaI Iorces and rivale mercenaries from
lhe Virginia-based MiIilary IrofessionaI Resources Inc., housed
al a U.S. miIilary base in Uganda . In 2006, Keilh Harmon
Snov reorled lhal $6 miIIion vorlh of cobaIl (used IargeIy in
|el engine roduclion) vas exiling lhe counlry each day, moslIy
headed for Norlh American and Iuroean bank accounls. The
yearIy vaIue of lhis cobaIl exlraclion aIone is grealer lhan lhe
DRC's enlire federaI budgel.
8
The Wa|| Sircci jcurna|s Roberl Iock slaled lhal echleI's gener-
ous assislance faciIilaled 'lhe mosl comIele mineraIogicaI and
geograhicaI dala of lhe former Zaire ever assembIed, informalion
vorlh a forlune lo any roseclive mining or oiI firm'.
9
Indeed,
lhe comany is as renovned for engineering and conslruclion as
il is for roviding inleIIigence services and dala lo lhe US govern-
menl. RevoIving door ersonneI incIudes George SchuIlz (former
echleI residenl and Reagan's secrelary of slale), Richard HeIms
(former CIA direclor and Ialer echleI consuIlanl) and Sleve
echleI (CIA Iiaison lo lhe usiness CounciI).
A reorl lilIed 'The business of var in lhe Democralic Reub-
Iic of Congo: vho benefils`'
10
unacked hov Weslern business-
men fIocked lo KabiIa during vhal vas knovn as 'Africa's Iirsl
WorId War'. According lo WorId IoIicy Inslilule researcher Dena
Monlague:
The InlernalionaI Monelary Iund (IMI) and WorId ank have
knovingIy conlribuled lo lhe var efforl. The inlernalionaI
Iending inslilulions raised bolh Rvanda and Uganda for
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DS
increasing lheir gross domeslic roducl (GDI), vhich resuIled
from lhe iIIegaI mining of DRC resources. AIlhough lhe IMI
and WorId ank vere avare lhal lhe rise in GDI coincided
vilh lhe DRC var, and lhal il vas derived from exorls of
naluraI resources lhal neilher counlry normaIIy roduced, lhey
nonelheIess louled bolh nalions as economic success slories.
11
Iock discIosed lhal one execulive from aII olhers oblained
rimacy of osilion as KabiIa's adviser and lraveIIing coman-
ion: echleI's Roberl Slevarl. None of lhis is averse lo echleI's
ovn cororale anlhem. As Sleve echleI said, 'We are nol in lhe
conslruclion and engineering business. We are in lhe business of
making money.'
12
Whal beller Iace, cororalions may ask, lhan
lhe DRC, described by Africa's coIoniaI 'discoverers', once uon a
lime, as lhe 'geoIogicaI scandaI'.
'%&$ 72,6/)# ,6/(%&
The miIilias aclive in lhe DRC do nol shrink from enIisling chiIdren
inlo lheir ranks as soIdiers and as sIaves. A simiIar allern vas
evidenl in Sierra Leone's bIoody civiI var. The Iure of diamonds,
lhal gIillering carbon, caused men lo enIisl kids inlo miIilias,
arming lhem vilh AK47s and macheles, culling Iimbs as lhough
lhey vere sIashing lhrough sugarcane slands. I visiled recenlIy,
lo see vhal il meanl lo have eace under condilions of mineraI
exIoilalion, and on lhe vay lraveIIed lhrough MaIi and Guinea.
The road lo MoriIa in lhe region of Sikaso, MaIi, is nol one you
vouId doze off on. I did lhal seven-hour |ourney vilh friends
on lhe Wesl African Advisery oard of lhe GIobaI Greengranls
Iund. Our Iead man vas DembeIe SouIeymane of Iriends of lhe
Iarlh MaIi. We had been meeling in amako and decided lo head
soulh for a feeI of vhal vas going on in lhe mining communi-
lies. A couIe of years earIier ve had been in amako and had
laken a lri lo lhe TomboIa communily on lhe border vilh
Guinea. On lhal occasion I look lhe Iiberly of crossing a nonde-
scril bridge over a IillIe river and marched inlo Guinea vilhoul
border conlroIs of any kind. In TomboIa aImosl everyone had lhe
surname Kamara.
The roule lo TomboIa vas memorabIe for lhe icluresque rock
formalions aIong lhe highvay. AddilionaI inleresl vas gelling lo
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a slo aIong lhe road vhere lhe famous king of lhe MaIi emire,
Sundiala, is said lo have visiled. The mining in lhe TomboIa
axis vas mainIy arlisanaI, vilh IocaIs unching hoIes in a vide
exanse of Iand, seeking lhe grains of goId lhal broughl smiIes
lo many. Il vas an ubeal communily vhere ve en|oyed curried
rice in vide basins and for dinner had chickens lhal had been
resenled Iive lo us an hour or so earIier. As ve refIecled on lhe
mining going on lhere, ve asked vhy lhere vere so many young
foIks in lhe ils ralher lhan in schooI. Il lurned oul lhe young boys
and girIs dreamed lhal lhey vouId slrike Iucky and make enough
lo eilher ay lheir vay lhrough basic educalion or ay a decenl
dovry vhen lhe lime vas rie. Hoe.
This hoe drove lhe communily lo creale dangerous ils lhal
vere abandoned over a vide area, osing greal danger lo bolh
man and beasl. Iach il vas aboul 90cm in diameler and u lo
800cm dee yavning ils of deslruclion vilh neilher varning
signs nor barriers.
efore moving on lo MoriIa, ve had meelings vilh reresenla-
lives from aboul 40 neighbouring communilies and shared exe-
riences vilh lhem aboul lhe chaIIenges of Iiving in lhe shadovs
of veaIlh. One chaIIenge here vas a Ieakage of cyanide inlo lhe
Iandscae and robabIy inlo one of lhe valer bodies on vhich
some of lhe communilies deend for olabIe valer. We gol lo
MoriIa al nighl and vere loId ve couId check inlo lhe mayor's
gueslhouse, bul firsl ve vere lo ay a courlesy visil lo lhe mayor.
The mayor vas an affabIe feIIov in a humbIe brick home vilh a
corrugaled melaI roof. We vere nol veIcomed in lhal house. We
vere received in a more lradilionaI oen-sided lhalch house inlo
vhich you IileraIIy had lo bov Iov lo be abIe lo enler. Ierhas a
vay of aying obeisance lo lhe mayor`
Afler Ieasanlries vere exchanged, ve soughl lo Iearn vhelher
any fraclion of revenues accruing from lhe goId mines made
lheir vay lo lhe communilies. Il lurned oul lhal a fair chunk vas
conlroIIed by lhe mayor's office, and used mainIy for adminis-
lralion of lhe dislricl. There vas no eIeclricily in lhe viIIage and
lhe mayor had lo make use of a rivale eIeclricily generalor. The
mining comany exlended a Iighl oinl lo lhe viIIage square
vhere lhe mayor's office and lhe gueslhouse vere Iocaled. When
ve gol lo lhe square il vas aIready dark excel for lhe soIo Iighl
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
HP
oIe exlended lhere from lhe miner's cam. Under lhe fIoodIighl,
some kids vere Iaying soccer vilh so much guslo il vas imme-
dialeIy easy lo see vhy MaIi is such a good soccer nalion.
MoriIa is reuled lo be lhe second Iargesl goId mining
communily in MaIi afler SadioIa. This is lhe base of RandGoId,
a comany lhal vas said lo have exerienced lhe mosl frequenl
cIashes belveen mining comany vorkers and managemenl, and
on one occasion belveen lhe comany and IocaI ouIalion. In
2005, lhe comany fired more lhan 200 vorkers for lheir aIIeged
roIe in 'inciling' vorkers over a ay rise.
The viIIage lhal ovns lhe Iand vhere lhe goId mine sils is
nov in lhe shadov of lhe rising iIe of residues from lhe goId
ore, knovn as laiIings. Il is a smaII coIIeclion of a fev homes and
a heaIlh cenlre lhal IocaIs cIaim calers mainIy lo |unior vorkers
from lhe mine. The visibIe sign lhal lhis viIIage is acluaIIy near
a mine is lhe heavy coal of dusl lhal resls on il. When Rand-
GoId firsl arrived lhe eoIe vere hoefuI lhal lhey vouId gain
emIoymenl vilh lhe comany. Al lhe oulsel some viIIagers vere
hired as casuaI Iabour lo cIear lhe bush so lhal vork couId slarl on
lhe concession. Hovever, soon afler lhe iniliaI bush cIearing lhe
gales vere shul againsl lhe IocaIs.
When ve asked lhe mayor vhy lhey did nol demand beller
environmenlaI slandards and economic revards from lhe goId
comany, lhe ansver ve gol vas leIIing: vho can fighl a huge
mining comany` ul some are doing |usl lhal as ve viII see.
The groundsveII for resislance in Kono is somevhal lenlalive,
as can be erceived in MoriIa or TomboIa. Kono, a var-ravaged
lovn in Kono dislricl, in easlern Sierra Leone, is knovn for ils
diamond mines. Indeed, in lhese arls aImosl everyone dreams
of slumbIing on a iece of lhe rock. During lhe Sierra Leonian
civiI var, Kono vas moslIy heId by lhe rebeIs and vas severeIy
damaged. When I visiled Kono on 10 November 2009, lhe anni-
versary of lhe murder of Ken Saro-Wiva of Nigeria, I couId nol
heI vondering vhen non-vioIenl resislance vouId rise here. Or
vouId il`
The drive from Ireelovn lo Kono vas smoolh unliI ve gol
lo a oinl vhere lhe road ceased lo exisl in lhe usuaI sense. The
slrelch from lhere lo Kono vouId ordinariIy be covered in, say, 90
minules, bul il nov lakes four hours if you are adel al driving
HD
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lhrough cralers. The lraffic is leIIingIy Iighl, aarl from some four-
vheeI-drive vehicIes and lhe occasionaI car meanl for five eoIe,
bul generaIIy Ioaded vilh len or more.
The vegelalion is Iush, lhe hiIIs beaulifuI. No vonder many say
lhal Kono dislricl vas lhe breadbaskel of Sierra Leone. If il sliII
is, lhen il musl be lough gelling lhe bread or lhe baskel lo olher
regions vhere lhe roduce is needed. SevereIy rallIed, |oIled,
|oslIed and knocked aboul in every direclion, I decided lhere musl
be somelhing I couId do lo dislracl my allenlion from lhe heinous
road. Soon I began lo lake nole of lhe viIdIife lhal crossed lhe
road or scurried aIong. Wilhin a shorl sace of lime I counled
four fal squirreIs hoing lo onIy squirreIs knov vhere. Wilhin
lhe same sace of lime I sav lhree guineafovI and five crovs.
Nol Iong lhereafler ve haened on a fIock of crovs and I knev
counling lhem vouId be a hoeIess lask. On lhe bumy ride back
I slarled lo nole lhe viIdIife again. We sav squirreIs, an armadiIIo,
crovs, a gianl ral and lhen a fIock of guineafovI marching ma|es-
licaIIy across lhe road.
Things changed for Kono in 1930, vhen lhe firsl diamond vas
discovered al Gbobora slream. Since lhen diamond aclivilies have
dominaled lhe socio-economic Iife and IiveIihood of eoIe in lhe
dislricl
The scars of var are visibIe as many houses remain vilhoul
roofs. Land degradalion, valer oIIulion and olher environ-
menlaI concerns aIIegedIy rovide laIk shos for bureaucrals
and oIilicians. Kono, once a food baskel, is nov characlerised
by diminished agricuIluraI roduclion as many of lhe cilizens
have abandoned lhe farms for mines. ConsequenlIy, lhere are
quanlilies of uncovered mining ils, degraded diamond fieIds,
some of vhich are len limes Iarger lhan a slandard foolbaII
ilch, and onds of conlaminaled valer lhal are oflen breed-
ing Iaces for mosquiloes. According lo a reorl: 'Irom Sevafe
lovn lo lhe hearl of Koidu lovn and beyond, lhere is ominous
evidence of environmenlaI decreilude. The mining is bolh aIIu-
viaI and KimberIile, mechanised and non-mechanised, and is
evidenl in fronl of dveIIing houses, back of houses, in gardens,
around farms, alhs, in slreams, rivers, hiIIs and vaIIeys, and
aIong molorvays.'
13
Yengema lovn vas once described as lhe
mosl beaulifuI in lhe Kono dislricl. Ralher lhan have ils beauly
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
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enhanced by diamonds, lhe Iandscae has laken a severe bealing
and il is nov a shadov of ils former seIf.
As incredibIe as il may sound, lhe miners have uIIed dovn
bridges and houses, and aIlhough mosl residenls have exressed
concern, lhey are afraid lo voice lhem aIoud because lo oIili-
cians are behind lhese deslruclive exlraclive aclivilies. The uncon-
lroIIed mining in Yengema lovn is aIso said lo been condoned by
lhe mines varden and lhe mines moniloring officer in Yengema,
vho have aIIegedIy refused lo bring lhe erelralors lo book. A
member of Iriends of lhe Iarlh Sierra Leone vho accomanied
me on lhe lri lo Koidu, Diana T. G. Kamara, said lhal vhen she
vas groving u in lhe lovn, some miners couId come lo a house
and leII lhe ovner lhey susecled lhere vere nuggels of diamond
benealh lheir silling room. Afler reaching an agreemenl, lhey
vouId roceed lo excavale and vouId indeed somelimes find
diamonds. Whelher Iegend or lrulh, I had no need lo verify, il
shoved lhal lovnshi mining meanl miners couId knock eoIe
avay from lheir dining labIes, dig benealh lheir beds and urool
graves vhich haened lo Iie in an area susecled lo harbour an
erranl slone, more recious lhan bones.
The Yengema Descendanls' Union (YINDA) condemned reck-
Iess mining in lhe lovn. The grou argues lhal lhe vork is iIIegaI,
defying Iavs lhal sliuIale lhal no mining aclivily can lake Iace
in residenliaI areas. Houses in Yenkee Slreel in Yengema have
been largeled and a mosque, vhich vas rehabiIilaled lhrough lhe
suorl of lhe UN eace-buiIding fund, is aIso under lhreal of
coIIase because of lhe diamond mining.
14
Mining comanies do nol resenl friendIy faces. Allemls
made lo viev mining aclivilies in lhe concession areas of lhe
Koidu HoIdings vere rebuffed al lhe gale as lhe securily erson-
neI insisled lhal onIy lhe comany lo shols couId aIIov access.
UnderslandabIy so, as lhey may have chunks of diamond under
lheir labIes. ul do lhey ferry lhe gems lo lhe orls over lhe
horrendous road nelvork lhal Iinks Kono lo everyvhere eIse`
My friend MichaeI Aruna, a residenl of Kono veIcomed us and
logelher ve visiled some arlisanaI mining oinls in lhe cily. The
miners ve mel vere aII olimislic lhal erseverance ays. None
of lhem said lhey had found a meaningfuI gem in lhe asl veek
yel none vere reared lo quil. One said he had abandoned his
HI
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Iucralive carenlry business because of an arm in|ury. Today he
vas anning for diamonds, using lhal in|ured arm dexlerousIy.
One vouId nol have guessed he had any in|uries.
Aruna leIIs laIes of hov mining has calured lhe syche of lhe
eoIe in lhe lovn. He loId me slories of resislance in lhe area
and hov Koidu HoIdings marked severaI houses for deslruc-
lion in order lo mine for diamonds benealh lhem. The affecled
communilies are lo be reIocaled bul IillIe has haened yel. There
is lhe slory of one communily aclivisl vho vas offered 10mn
Ieones (aboul $2,670) lo reIocale. The man re|ecled lhe money
and insisled on being given a house, |usl Iike lhe one he had buiIl
for himseIf. Afler some monlhs he vas given a singIe-bedroom
house, cIearIy inadequale for his Iarge famiIy and nol comarabIe
lo lhe house lhal vas being demoIished. When he re|ecled lhis
offer he vas run oul of lovn and nov squals in Ireelovn as a
mining refugee.
Koidu HoIdings is a Soulh African mining comany sel u
by ils arenl comany SG Resources Limiled for lhe urose
of exIoiling diamonds in Sierra Leone. They are oeraling lhe
KimberIile ro|ecl in Kono area under a 25-year Iease agree-
menl.
15
The Nelvork Movemenl for }uslice and DeveIomenl
(NM}D) foresav lhe anlics of lhe Koidu KimberIile Iro|ecl righl
from lhe slarl. Working under lhe generaI ambil of lhe Ixlraclives
Induslries Transarency Inilialive, NM}D demanded lo knov
vhelher lhe Koidu KimberIile Iro|ecl run by Koidu HoIdings
vas above lhe Iav. In a slalemenl lhey comIained lhal vhereas
lhe comany senl coies of lhe environmenlaI imacl assessmenl
il conducled lo lhe Word ank in Oclober 2003, lhe same docu-
menls vere onIy reIeased in Sierra Leone in Iale }anuary 2004.
They asked oinledIy vhelher lhe WorId ank vas nov lhe key
slakehoIder in lhe area, disIacing lhe eoIe of Sierra Leone. In
facl, NM}D cIaimed lhal even vhen lhe documenls vere said lo
be on disIay lhey vere acluaIIy novhere lo be found. Here is an
inleresling exlracl from lhe ress slalemenl:
On Tuesday 3rd Iebruary, 2004 Ieace Diamond AIIiance (IDA)
convened a meeling of ils execulive allended by lhe Deuly
Minisler of Mines, Deuly Direclor of Mines, lhe SDO-Kono,
IarIiamenlarians, chiefs and lhe ersonneI of Koidu HoIdings
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
HK
Limiled (KHL) in order lo resoIve lhe issues and concerns so
raised. Insile of lhe ubIic oulcry and efforl of IDA, nolhing
has been done lo address lhe robIems. Inslead, His IxceIIency
The Iresidenl venl lo Kono a fev days afler lhe IDA organ-
ised meeling raising KHL |forj 'a |ob veII done' and urged
lhe eoIe of Kono lo cooerale vilh Koidu HoIdings Limiled.
This vas foIIoved by a leIevision shov disIaying lhe more
lhan 10,000 carals of diamonds aIready gollen by KHL in lhe
midsl of cries, ains and sufferings of lhe IocaI eoIe. Nol
vilhslanding lhis lhe Camaign for }usl Mining and civiI soci-
ely of lhis counlry viII nol be delerred as lhey have lhe righl lo
erform lheir conslilulionaI dulies, nameIy, lo 'make osilive
and usefuI conlribulions lo lhe advancemenl, Irogress and
veII-being of lhe communily' seclion 3(f) 1991 conslilulion.
16
In resonse lo lhe slalemenl, Koidu HoIdings cIaimed lhal lhey
had done no vrong as far as lhe environmenlaI imacl assess-
menl rocess vas concerned. Al lhe same lime lhey queslioned
NM}D's righl lo seak on behaIf of lhe affecled communilies.
17

}usl as lhe comany had firsl senl lheir environmenlaI imacl
assessmenl reorls lo lhe WorId ank, so lhe resonse lo lhe
NM}D ress slalemenl and camaigns vere senl nol lo lhe NGOs,
bul lo lhe MuIliIaleraI Inveslmenl Guaranlee Agency of lhe WorId
ank. The slrong Iinks belveen mining cororalions and inlerna-
lionaI financiaI inslilulions cannol be denied.
Il is nol cIear hov much of lhe rofil of Koidu HoIdings
incororaled in Selember 2003, and ovned by SG Resources
Limiled lhrough ils subsidiary SGR Diamonds Limiled
18

goes lo lhe Sierra Leonean slale. When commerciaI mining of
diamonds began, lhe monooIies for iron ore and diamonds
vere heId by lvo foreign comanies, Sierra Leone DeveIomenl
Cororalion (DILCO) and Sierra Leone SeIeclion Trusl (SLST),
and lhey vere obIiged lo ay lhe governmenl a mere 5 er cenl
of vhalever rofils lhey made, if any. The comanies aIso heId
Ieases lhal vere for 90 years.
The rise of mineraIs as a ma|or income earner in Sierra Leone
foIIovs lhe same lra|eclory as seen in olher nalions in Africa. y
1931 mineraIs made u Iess lhan 5 er cenl of domeslic exorls.
This rose dramalicaIIy lo 43 er cenl in 1950 and 86.7 er cenl
in 1961. Al lhal lime diamonds accounled for 60 er cenl of
HL
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mineraI exorls and 43 er cenl of aII exorls.
19
WhiIe mining
look lhe rime osilion, agricuIlure suffered a corresonding
decIine. A ma|or slaIe in lhe counlry has been rice, and before
mineraI exlraclion ushed farmers off farms, lhe counlry vas seIf-
sufficienl in rice. Rice shorlages conlribuled lo videsread riols
in 19556, reciilaled by a diamond rush in vhich hoes vere
abandoned for ans.
The vebs of resislance kee groving. They may aear lenu-
ous, bul lhese vebs are as resiIienl as lhose sun by siders. The
slrenglh of lhese vebs is crealed and reinforced by communily
memories of innocence Iosl. Having one's environmenl unrecog-
nisabIy aIlered is an imelus for queslions lo be raised.
WhiIe our core vaIues and elhicaI fabric are one and lhe same
lhroughoul humanily, ve recognise lhal nalionaI vaIues and a
sense of elhics have been assauIled al ersonaI, communily, slale
and nalionaI IeveIs, making il a mere commonsense concIusion
lhal lhe maller requires a radicaI and hoIislic inlerrogalion. As
Ieaders aear before courls of Iav and as lrulh commissions and
robes of differenl sorls lake Iace in various arls of Africa, ve
see lo vhal delh lhe sense of righl has been disIocaled. Il becomes
aarenl lhal unIess radicaI surgery is carried oul ve vouId be
allemling lo lreal a lerminaI cancer vilh mere anaIgesics.
The conversion of ubIic goods inlo rivale roerly lhrough
lhe rivalisalion of our olhervise commonIy heId naluraI envi-
ronmenl is one vay neoIiberaI inslilulions remove lhe fragiIe
lhreads lhal hoId African nalions logelher. IoIilics loday has
been reduced lo a Iucralive venlure vhere one Iooks oul mainIy
for relurns on inveslmenl ralher lhan on vhal one can conlrib-
ule lo rebuiId highIy degraded environmenls, communilies and
a nalion. This is one of lhe benefils lhal slrucluraI ad|uslmenl
rogrammes infIicled on lhe conlinenl lhe enlhronemenl of
corrulion.
=(% /:,&%& "2 @6#%,)<& )#9 -%$,"<%:@
Afler cenluries of Iunder lhe mineraI veaIlh of lhe conlinenl
remains massive and lhus lhe magnelic uII she has for forlune
seekers. In lhe boveIs of lhe conlinenl are 75 er cenl of lhe
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
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vorId's Ialinum grou of melaIs (cobaIl, chromium, elc), 50 er
cenl of lhe goId, 4550 er cenl of lhe diamonds, 2530 er cenl
of lhe bauxile, 10 er cenl of lhe nickeI and coer, 12 er cenl
of lhe uranium, 7 er cenl of lhe manganese and 5.8 er cenl of
lanlaIum (coIlan). CoIlan is found in lhe DRC, Nigeria, Ilhioia
and Zambia.
20
y lhe end of 2006 Ghana vas among lhe lo len roducers
of goId in lhe vorId vilh 69.8 lonnes, Zambia vas in lhe same
brackel for roducers of coer vilh 516 lonnes of lhe melaI. Soulh
Africa vas among lhe lo len in lhe roduclion of bolh nickeI and
aIuminium vilh 41.6 lonnes and 887 lonnes resecliveIy. Soulh
Africa vas lhe biggesl roducer of Ialinum (164.5 lonnes) and lhe
second Iargesl roducer of aIIadium (90.4 lonnes).
21

Africa boasls of robabIy no more lhan len er cenl of lhe
vorId's roven oiI reserves, yel she is lhe ob|ecl of desire of oiI-
guzzIing nalions of lhe Norlh, nolabIy lhe Uniled Slales and,
increasingIy, China. More rigs are cIaving inlo lhe conlinenl and
more oiI lankers and fIoaling roduclion, slorage and offIoading
(IISO) faciIilies are sringing u in lhe area. Ior examIe lhere
is lhe 114,000 lonnes IISO scheduIed lo go inlo aclive service in
2012 in IIf's Usan fieId in valers aImosl 1km dee and 100km off
lhe coasl lo lhe soulh easl of onny IsIand, Nigeria. This IISO is
designed lo slore lvo miIIion barreIs of crude oiI vilh lhe caacily
lo roduce 160,000 barreIs of oiI daiIy as veII as five miIIion cubic
melres of gas er day.
22

Wilh rodigious finds virluaIIy aII over Africa, inveslors are
going overboard lo vra u deaIs. A firsl vas recorded in 2009
off lhe coasl of Congo vhen lhe vorId's firsl fIoaling, driIIing,
roduclion, slorage and offIoading (IDISO) vesseI vas commis-
sioned. The IDISO is unique in lhe sense lhal il adds somelhing
lhe reguIar IISOs do nol have: il driIIs roduclion veIIs. The
driIIing unil is designed in such a vay lhal il can be delached
vhen lhe |ob is finished in a arlicuIar Iocalion and moved some-
vhere eIse. Moored al a delh of 1400m, lhis IDISO has lhe
caacily lo slore 1.4 miIIion barreIs of oiI, rocess 60,000 barreIs
of fueI and 40,000 barreIs of oiI er day.
23
}ohn Ghazvinian in his book Uniappc! Tnc Scran||c jcr Ajricas
Oi|, gives some reasons
24
vhy Africa's crude oiI is so allraclive. Il
offers a more favourabIe geograhic Iocalion lhan olher exlraclion
HO
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siles more of lhe nev discoveries are found in dee or even
deeer valers offshore and avay from queslioning communilies.
Anolher source of lhe aIIure is lhe facl lhal much of lhe crude oiI
found on lhe conlinenl is of lhe variely lagged sveel or Iighl. This
is easier lo refine lhan lhe so-caIIed heavy crude. The crude is caIIed
sveel because il has a Iov suIhur conlenl and is viscous. Refining
il is easy and lhe rofil is higher lhan for heavy crude. AIlhough
lhe crude may be caIIed sveel, lhe effecls on lhe IocaI communilies
vhere lhe crude is exlracled cannol be characlerised as sveel.
Ghazvinian gives lvo olher reasons for Africa's resource curse:
one is lhe conlracluaI environmenl lhal ensures oiI comanies can
make a kiIIing in lheir rofils. Many counlries in Africa accel
roduclion-sharing arrangemenls vhereby oiI comanies invesl
in lhe exIoralion and exlraclion aclivilies, recover lheir cosls
and lhen share rofils vilh lhe counlries. Il is an arrangemenl
lhrough vhich imoverished nalions can access a orlion of lhe
oiIy veaIlh benealh lheir feel. Wilhin lhis conlracluaI environ-
menl, lhe oiI cororalions decIare hov much oiI is being exlracled
as veII as vhal conslilules lhe roduclion cosls. Such roduclion
cosls oflen incIude lhe loolhicks lhal oiI comany vorkers use
in lheir cafelerias.
Sudan aIone, before ils sIil in }uIy 2011, rovided China vilh
aboul 10 er cenl of China's crude oiI needs. Thus, vhiIe lhe
nalion burned and alrocilies vere recorded in Darfur, Abyei and
olher areas, no resoIulion al lhe Securily CounciI of lhe Uniled
Nalions vouId be raised vilhoul China lhrealening lo use her
velo over. In lhis reIalionshi, oiI is lhicker lhan bIood.
Nev oiI slales are emerging aII aIong lhe Rifl VaIIey of easlern
Africa. As I vrile, Uganda is gried by oiI fever and hoes are
raised high as is oflen lhe case in nev oiI lerrilories bul lhe
higher hoe is raised, lhe Iouder lhe lhud vhen il crumbIes. As
more and more finds are made, formerIy ignored counlries are
nov receiving focused allenlion.
Take, for examIe, So Tome and Irincie, an isIand slale
and lhe second smaIIesl nalion in Africa. The ouIalion of lhis
counlry slands al Iess lhan 200,000 loday. Human habilalion is
reckoned lo have slarled in 1470 vilh lhe arrivaI of Iorluguese
lraveIIers vho came vilh Africans from lhe mainIand. The
Iorluguese ruIed over So Tome and Irincie unliI 1975 vhen
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lhey evenluaIIy boved oul due lo ouIar ressure and resisl-
ance from lhe cilizenry vhen lhe Iorluguese diclalorshi vas
overlhrovn and olher Iorluguese coIonies vere Iiberaled. Iduca-
lionaI and olher infraslruclure remained meagre lhrough years of
oIilicaI inslabiIily.
efore oiI, lhe counlry deended IargeIy on agricuIlure, incIud-
ing fishing, and on foreign aid. Ghazvinian describes lhe oIilicaI
cuIlure of lhe isIand as 'handshake oIilics' and cronyism.
25
The
counlry has exerienced 14 changes of governmenl since 1991
and il is hoed lhal oiI roduclion viII nol haslen lhe seed of
lhe merry-go-round. AIlhough serious oiI exIoralion aclivilies
began in lhe 1970s il vas nol unliI 1995 lhal il vas announced
lhal IxxonMobiI had made a big find in lhe Zafiro fieId belveen
lhe counlry and IqualoriaI Guinea. A Texas-based environmen-
laI remedialion comany, InvironmenlaI Remedialion HoIding
Comany (IRHC) enlered on lhe scene in 1997, offering lhe
governmenl lhe sum of $5mn for lhe righl lo acl as middIeman
in oiI-reIaled Iicence negolialions on behaIf of lhe governmenl.
IRHC melamorhosed inlo an oiI exIoralion comany in 1996
aIlhough invesligalions reveaIed lhal IRHC had onIy one aid
member of slaff, no driIIing equimenl and onIy $1.5mn in cash.
When IRHC ran inlo slormy valers vilh lhe governmenl lhe
resoIulion of lhe confIicl Ied lo ils conlroIIing shares being laken
u by Chrome Inergy, a Nigerian comany vilh dee oIili-
caI conneclions and infIuence on bolh shores. IRHC/Chrome
Inergy arrangemenls vilh lhe So Tome and Irincie govern-
menl in 2001 aIIoved lhe comany many riviIeges, incIuding a
15 er cenl slake in u lo four oiI bIocks as veII as 10 er cenl of
vhalever rofil lhe counlry mighl make from oiI in lhe fulure.
This neo-coIoniaI arrangemenl aIso made lhe resoIulion of lhe
marilime boundary disule vilh Nigeria a key condilionaIily for
lhe lakeover, generaling lhe }oinl DeveIomenl Zone belveen lhe
lvo counlries as a rime sol for cornering elrodoIIars.
And vhal of Ghana` In }uIy 2009, Iresidenl Obama made
lhe oinl of visiling Ghana on his firsl lri lo Africa afler being
eIecled as residenl of lhe Uniled Slales. AIlhough lhe choice vas
oslensibIy redicaled on Ghana's democralic credenliaIs, having
recenlIy conducled a cIoseIy conlesled residenliaI eIeclion in
vhich lhe oosilion von, some anaIysls do nol dismiss lhe
HN
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ossibiIily lhal once again Africa's uII vas lhe nev oiI discover-
ies, bolh onshore and offshore. Obama's visil aeared lo be lhe
Ianding of an emhalic bool on African soiI lo indicale hov vilaI
lhe GuIf of Guinea is lo Washinglon's energy securily. Wilh lhe
eslabIishmenl of lhe African Command in Oclober 2008, no one
is Iefl in doubl lhal lhe US means lo kee energy suIy channeIs
oen by any means necessary.
Ghana's offshore oiI find, lhe Iargesl in lhe asl decade in lhe
region, is named }ubiIee IieIds. The dream of an infIux of elro-
doIIars is aIready uIIing a lrain of business secuIalors inlo lhe
counlry. ul }ubiIee IieIds, redicled lo hoId 1.2 biIIion barreIs
of oiI, is firmIy in Texas-based Kosmos Inergy's killy. As Imira
Woods of lhe Inslilule for IoIicy Sludies exIained:
In May, 2009 Kosmos began lo drav bids for shares of ils slake
in lhe oiI-rich fieIds. GIobaI energy Iayers Chevron Cor,
Ixxon MobiI, RoyaI Dulch SheII, China NalionaI Offshore OiI
Comany and rilish IelroIeum aII vilh a focused eye on
Africa, and a bIoodied record on lhe conlinenl, are beginning
lo circIe Iike vuIlures. Afler aII, lhe deadIine for Kosmos Inergy
ids is }uIy 17, a veek afler Obama's visil lo Ghana.
26
And as aears usuaI in Africa, oacily and secrecy |urisdiclions
(aIso knovn as lax havens) remained cenlraI lo lhe greasy vheeI-
ing and deaIing surrounding Africa's resources.
The Icn!cn |cticu cj Bccks cIaimed in a shorl bIog iece:
The Kuanc Nkrunan MV 21, lhe IIoaling Iroduclion Slorage
and OffIoading faciIily lhal viII be used lo exIoil Ghana's
offshore oiI during lhe firsl hase of deveIomenl, is ovned
by }ubiIee Ghana MV 21 V, a seciaI urose comany incor-
oraled in lhe NelherIands. The NelherIands is hosl lo more
lhan 20,000 'maiIbox comanies' (of vhich 43 er cenl have a
'arenl' in secrecy |urisdiclions such as lhe Cayman IsIands, lhe
rilish Virgin IsIands, lhe NelherIands AnliIIes or Cyrus). Il
seciaIises as a 'asslhrough' conduil for financiaI fIovs incIud-
ing 'dividends, royaIlies and inleresl aymenls' via 'seciaI
financiaI inslilulions'. The Dulch CenlraI ank defines ring-
fenced SIIs as 'subsidiaries of foreign arenl comanies used lo
channeI cailaI lhrough our counlry, vhich has IillIe infIuence
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
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on lhe Dulch economy.' The NelherIands does nol Iace delaiIs
of lrusls on ubIic record, or require lhal comany accounls or
beneficiaI ovnershi be made avaiIabIe for ubIic record.
27
The slory of recenl rivalisalions in lhe mining seclor shed more
Iighl on hov Africa's resources conlinue lo be exIoiled. As lhe
SAIs of lhe WorId ank and lhe IMI svel across lhe conlinenl
in lhe 1980s and 1990s, Ghana's Ieadershi vas quick lo IiberaIise
lhe economy. Such oIicies had a devaslaling imacl on agricuI-
lure. The mining seclor vilnessed increased roduclivily bul no
vaIue vas added lo lhe communilies in vhose soiI lhe aclivilies
vere underlaken. We viII Iook al lhe ioneer commerciaI mining
comany in Ghana, Ashanli GoIdfieIds Comany (AGC) nov
AngIoGoId Ashanli and hov lhe reforms affecled ils oeralions.
The hislory of AGC began in 1897 and since lhen il has Iayed
a key roIe in lhe cruciaI goId-mining seclor. Irom lhe 1970s lo lhe
earIy 1980s, goId accounled for 80 er cenl of lhe mining seclor's
exorl earnings. y 1994 lhe goId sub-seclor broughl lo lhe coun-
lry a hefly 45 er cenl of ils enlire exorl revenue, veII ahead
of cocoa, vhich broughl in 25 er cenl of lolaI exorl revenue.
Iarnings from goId rose lo 94.5 er cenl of lhe lolaI revenue from
mineraI exorls in 1997, vilh diamonds, bauxile and manganese
bringing in lhe baIance.
28
The rivalisalion of lhe Ghanaian mining seclor vas receded
by a seclor-secific rogramme incIuding a MineraIs and Mining
Lav in 1986 'lo rovide lhe condilions demanded by muIlina-
lionaI mining comanies for lheir arlicialion in lhe counlry's
mining seclor'.
29
The Iav, vhich has since seen furlher revisions,
rovided lhe induslry vilh generous incenlives and reduced
lhe risks lo be borne by lhe inveslors. As arl of lhe reform
rogramme, governmenl shares in AGC vere reduced from 55
er cenl lo 19 er cenl in 1998. As lhe seclor became deregu-
Ialed, more foreign direcl inveslmenl fIoved in, amounling lo
$4bn belveen 1983 and 1998. The resuIl has incIuded a fourfoId
increase in oulul from lhe seclor belveen 1990 and 2002.
AIlhough mining brings in a good chunk of lhe exorl earn-
ings, lhe seclor does nol have a commensurale Iink vilh lhe
domeslic economy since, by ils nalure, il oerales as an encIave
induslry, vilh generous cailaI aIIovances. To underscore lhe
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minimaI imacl of lhe mining seclor on lhe domeslic economy
il is noled lhal mining has conlribuled a mere 2 lo 5 er cenl lo
lhe nalionaI GDI since indeendence, vhiIe conlribulions from
lhe agricuIluraI seclor reach 36 er cenl. ImIoymenl in mining
reresenls 5 er cenl of formaI emIoymenl in lhe counlry and
aIlhough vages in lhe seclor may aear lo be higher lhan in
olher seclors, lhis is rimariIy a resuIl of lhe high vages earned
by exalriale slaff.
30

Al one lime, AGC vas lhe soIe subslanlive lransnalionaI
cororalion from sub-Saharan Africa, vilh lenlacIes in urkina
Iaso, Cle d'Ivoire, DRC, Ilhioia, Guinea, MaIi, SenegaI, Tanza-
nia and Zimbabve. Afler AngIo American urchased Ashan-
liGoId, ils base shifled lo }ohannesburg, Soulh Africa, since lhe
Soulh African aulhorilies IiberaIised inveslmenl reIalions in 1999
as arl of lhe counly's home-grovn SAI. Il is nolevorlhy lhal
from lhe inlroduclion of SAIs inlo Africa, al Ieasl 40 African
counlries have changed lheir resource seclor inveslmenl codes in
order lo allracl foreign inveslmenl.
31
This raid comIiance vas
IargeIy achieved by making inveslmenl code revision a condilion
for lhe granling of Ioans.
We cannol Ieave lhe goId bars of Ghana vilhoul a Iook al
Obuasi, a lovn lhal has Iayed hosl lo AGC for over 100 years.
T.M. Akabzaa describes communilies vhere oen-casl mining
lakes Iace as siles vilh lhick cIouds of dusl hanging in lhe air.
ul Obuasi's mines are rimariIy hidden benealh lhe lovn and
lhe oulvard, leIIlaIe signs are lhe mounlains of laiIings in lhe
Iandscae. Akabzaa describes Obuasi lhus:
The shafls and lhe dunes of mine vasles are indeed a rough
measure of lhe amounl of veaIlh lhal has been exlracled from
benealh lhe area in lhe Iasl 107 years . Indeed, lhe enlire lovn-
shi of Obuasi resls on a sIab, vhich doubIes as a roof lo lhese
huge underground oenings. These oenings accommodale
scores of giganlic dozers, Ioaders, comressors and dumer
lrucks . hard lo miss is lhe selling of lhe modern accommo-
dalion faciIilies for managemenl and middIe-IeveI slaff of lhe
mining comany al lhe summils of some of lhe hiIIs. These
beaulifuI buiIdings conlrasl sharIy vilh lhe shanly slruc-
lures vilhin lhe Iov-Iying areas of lhe lovnshi, vhich hosl
lhe eriheraI businesses. Anolher noliceabIe fealure of lhe
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
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lovnshi is lhe conlrasl in ils road infraslruclure. AII ashaIled
roads Iead lo AGC's faciIilies such as lhe comany's hosilaI,
senior slaff residences or lhe commerciaI cenlre hosling banks,
lhe osl office and rison service vilhin lhe fringes of lhe mine.
The dusly and ol-hoIe riddIed roads in lhe lovnshi on lhe
olher hand, Iead lo ubIic seclor faciIilies incIuding lhe ubIic
hosilaI, lhe office of lhe dislricl assembIy, rivale residenliaI
areas and IocaI saleIIile communilies.
32

These vords vere vrillen in 2007. When I visiled Obuasi and
lhe oulIying viIIages in Oclober 2009 vilh AbduIai Darimani of
Third WorId Nelvork-Africa and olher friends, lhe silualion had
degeneraled. And lhal is nol surrising. Mining lovns in lhe
Soulh generaIIy exerience some boom seasons and lhen are Iefl
gasing for brealh and evenluaIIy become a shadov of lhe rom-
ise lhey once heId oul lo lheir eoIe.
Al lhe insere viIIage area lhe ains of lhe communily vere
aIabIe. A huge oen-casl mine vas abandoned al lhis commu-
nily. According lo a communily reresenlalive, lhe il vas as dee
as 100m al a oinl. A nearby schooI buiIding had lo be abandoned
by lhe communily because lhe slruclure became unsafe due lo
bIasling for goId. Al lhe lime of my visil lhe il vas aboul haIf
lhal delh, having been fiIIed vilh vasle Iaden vilh cyanide from
olher mines. In olher vords, AngIoGoId Ashanli simIy lurned
lhis area inlo a vasle dum and, afler arliaIIy fiIIing il vilh more
vasle, decIared lhal lhe environmenl had been recIaimed.
Dangerous as lhis dum is, some arlisanaI miners vere busy
digging u lhe loxic mud in search of goId. Ierhas lhey had
beIieved AngIoGoId Ashanli's cIaim lo have recIaimed lhe environ-
menl and lhoughl aII vas safe` When asked if lhey made a Iiving
from such a deadIy venlure, lhe miners said lhal lhey vere simIy
gambIers, vho had no choice. They couId sifl lhrough lhe mud
for a veek vilhoul an ounce of goId, and lhen suddenIy hil a fev
grams lhal vouId ul a IillIe food on lheir labIe. Did lhey knov lhe
loxic mud vas kiIIing lhem by inslaImenl` They did. This yavning
il of dealh laiIed off inlo a Iake aboul a kiIomelre from vhere ve
slood on lhe shouIders of lhe mine. eing loId lhal lhis silualion
vas beller lhan lhal al lhe nexl viIIage, I vas eager lo gel lhere.
Aarl from lhe saliaI disarily in lhe deveIomenl of lhe
mining communily, lhe heaIlh imacls of lhe mines resenl
II
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anolher unaccelabIe rice lo ay for some shiny melaI on one's
fingers or loolh. The laiIings and vasle onds from insere and
olher mines in lhe Obuasi area ass lheir loxic cocklaiI inlo lhe
slream al Dokyivaa communily. This environmenl bolh Iand
and valer is so oIIuled lhal lhe communily had lo be reIocaled.
Research by TWN-Africa shoved lhal bolh lhe ground and
surface valer in lhe Dokyivaa area have been severeIy conlami-
naled and lhis has equaIIy affecled lhe food cros cuIlivaled lhere
eseciaIIy fruil. I am addicled lo fruil, bul al Dokyivaa I couId
onIy shake my head as I beheId lhe succuIenl, Iov-hanging fruils
in lhe comounds and yards of lhe viIIage. There vas a high IeveI
of anxiely in lhe communily as eoIe considered lhe rosecls of
Iife in lhe nev Iocalion lo vhich lhey vere lo be moved from lheir
anceslraI Iand. AngIoGoId Ashanli made lhe decision lo reIocale
lhe communily and gave lhem lhree monlhs in vhich lo move.
33

They aIso decided on lhe vaIue of lhe comensalion lo be aid.
Some communily eoIe svore nol lo reIocale as lhe comensa-
lion vas nol enough lo ay for lhe move and lo survive. The
aradox is lhal slaying behind meanl cerlain dealh.
The area aIso has a IeveI of maIaria higher lhan lhe nalionaI
average. Diseases are allribulabIe lo lhe heavy melaIs associaled
vilh lhe induslry. These incIude cadmium, Iead, coer, mercury,
nickeI, zinc and manganese. IrevaIenl heaIlh chaIIenges incIude
maIaria, resiralory infeclions, eye infeclions, reroduclive heaIlh
robIems, hyerlension and bIood disorders.
Il vouId nol consoIe lhe oor communily of Dokyivaa lo knov
lhal lhey are nol aIone in suffering from lhe imacls of goId mines
in Africa. A sludy of lvo mines in Tanzania reveaIed equaIIy
vorrisome oIIulion IeveIs. Tesls conducled by lhe Norvegian
Universily of Life Sciences, logelher vilh lhe Universily of Dar es
SaIaam, maed concenlralions of lrace melaI in soiI, sedimenls
and valers in lhe areas cIose lo lhe Geila GoId Mine and lhe
Norlh Mara GoId Mine in norlh-vesl Tanzania.
Tanzania's Norlh Mara GoId Mine (arrick GoId) is Iocaled
near Tarime lovn in lhe Mara dislricl easl of Lake Vicloria. Ior
some lime, IocaI eoIe susecled lhe laiIing dam vas Ieaking
and vere afraid lhal lhe area vas conlaminaled, vhiIe arrick
aIIeged lhal eoIe vere sleaIing lhe Iining of lhe laiIing dam and
deslroying ies. A ma|or siII occurred here in May 2009.
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
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The academic sludy found very high IeveIs of arsenic, cadmium,
cobaIl, coer, chrome, nickeI and zinc in lhe area around lhe
siII. The environmenl vas severeIy conlaminaled and, according
lo lhe reorl:
|Ajrsenic (As) conlenls in lhe mosl conlaminaled valer samIe
vere one lo lvo orders of magnilude higher lhan lhe WHO
drinking valer guideIines (10 g/I). The mosl exlreme valer
samIe conlained 8449 g/I, vhich is aboul haIf a IelhaI dose
of arsenic for a human. CurrenlIy, lhe WHO guideIine for
maximum As concenlralion in drinking valer is 10 g/I, bul
lhis slandard is sel lo be Iovered lo 5 g/I in lhe near fulure.
34

SoiI samIes shoved high IeveIs of arsenic al lhe siII sile and
higher lhan normaI IeveIs of olher mineraIs. Il is undeniabIe lhal
lhe mine is seriousIy affecling lhe environmenl and ubIic heaIlh
in Norlh Mara.
The area around lhe AngIoGoId Ashanli goId mine al Geila
vas aIso examined. The scienlisls noled lhal aIlhough lhere
vere higher IeveIs of arsenic and olher melaIs in samIes laken,
lhey vere found lo be vilhin WHO drinking valer slandards.
Hovever, lhey furlher noled lhal lhere vere higher IeveIs in
sedimenls, robabIy suggesling an unreorled oIIulion incidenl
in lhe asl. IeoIe vilh skin robIems consislenl vilh arsenic
oisoning vere found in bolh Geila and Norlh Mara.
35

The gIobaI economic crisis and lhe lendency of mining coma-
nies lo seek lhe mosl IiberaI lax regimes ose seciaI chaIIenges
lo governmenls and eoIe in Africa. In a bid lo imrove ils
infraslruclure, Zambia's governmenl soughl lo imrove on lhe
lax regime in lhe mining seclor. Some of lhe measures refIecling
foreign ressure incIuded lhe scraing of a 25 er cenl vind-
faII lax vhich had been inlroduced in 2008. In lhal same year
lhe mining induslry kicked and screamed as lhe governmenl
inlroduced a nev variabIe rofil lax, vhich resuIled in raising
mining laxes from 31 lo 47 er cenl. In a move lo aease lhe
mining induslry, Iresidenl Ruiah anda Iedged readiness lo
're-engage mining comanies lhrough diaIogue in resoIving any
of lhe oulslanding (lax) issues, vhich may have arisen'.
36
Rales
vere again cul.
IL
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Reduced revenue due lo lhe 2008 crash in lhe coer rice,
among olher faclors, made il imossibIe for Lusaka lo deIiver on
educalionaI, heaIlh and sociaI rogrammes. Il aIso meanl Iover
roduclion in lhe mines and a resuIling culback on |obs. A lolaI of
10,000 |obs vere said lo have been Iosl as a resuIl of lhe crisis, vilh
a reduclion in ersonaI income lax lakings from 375bn Zambian
kvacha in 2007/08 lo 82.2bn kvacha in 2009/10. According lo
lhe Zambia Revenue Aulhorily (ZRA) Commissioner-GeneraI
ChrilicIes Mvansa, 'mineraI royaIly revenue feII from over 41bn
kvacha ($8.88mn) in Augusl 2008 lo 15.2 biIIion in March 2009'.
37

Wilh lhis sorl of ressure, governmenls can gel deserale. Sixly-
lhree er cenl of Zambia's exorl earnings come lhrough lhe
mines. OveraII, vhiIe Zambia is currenlIy being romoled as an
African success slory due lo lhe high IeveIs of resource-direcled
foreign inveslmenl, lhe everyday reaIily is quile differenl for ordi-
nary Zambians. Il is a cycIe lhal reIicales across much of Africa.
Africa Ioses a minimum of $148bn each year, four limes lhe
amounl broughl inlo lhe conlinenl lhrough foreign aid, and 60
er cenl of lhis is allribuled lo cailaI fIighl due lo cororale
misricing of resources exlracled from lhe conlinenl. The obvi-
ous soIulion lo lhis drain of resources is lo Iug lhe hoIe, bul lhe
referred means of lackIing lhe robIem has been lhe rovision
of more Ioans and granls accomanied by condilionaIilies lhal
undermine deveIomenl.
The Ixlraclive Induslries Transarency Inilialive (IITI) gives
arlicialing cororalions such as SheII, Chevron, VaIe, HI
iIIilon and AngIo American cause lo cheer because lhey can
beal lheir chesls and say lhey aid so much lo governmenls,
vho cannol say vhal haened lo lhe funds. The IITI lends lo
orlray lhe resource-exlracling comanies as cIean vhiIe lhe hosl
governmenls are dirly and have lo slruggIe lo achieve lhe slalus
of being IITI comIianl. y lhe Iasl quarler of 2010, lhere vere
24 counlries
38
in lhe IITI circuil and more lhan haIf of lhem vere
African. These incIude Tanzania, Gabon, Cameroon, DRC, Chad,
MaIi, Maurilania, Sierra Leone, and urkina Iaso. Il is inleresling
lo nole lhal lhe comIianl counlries in Africa so far are Niger,
Nigeria and Liberia.
The IITI Iogic, according lo Khadi|a Sharife, is lhal, 'so
Iong as lhere is discIosure of cash aymenls vilhin nalionaI
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
IM
boundaries, lransarency viII acl as a naluraI sanclion dimin-
ishing lhe olenliaI for, and reaIisalion of, corrulion. Il is a Iogic
lhal aears lo bank on oIilicaI or demand-side corrulion,
chiefIy innale lo lhe deveIoing counlry's characler - vilh coro-
ralions simIy going aIong vilh lhe syslem - a kind of vhen
in Rome resonse.' Sharife argues lhal 'lhe IITI lheory is vaslIy
differenl from lhe reaIily and has more lo do vilh cororale and
firsl vorId counlry suIy-side corrulion.'
39
When Zambia ubIished ils IITI reorl shoving aymenls
received from mining comanies for 2008 il became one of lhe
mosl recenl counlries lo make such a ubIicalion. Il is nolabIe
lhal lhe image of corrulion hangs over counlries such as Zambia
and scanl allenlion is aid lo lhe cororale lax dodging by mining
comanies, acls lhal Iine lhe ockels of middIemen in counlries
vilh coded bank accounls vhiIe deriving Zambia of hundreds
of miIIions of doIIars each year.
Zambia's firsl IITI reorl invesligaling revenues remil-
led in 2008 reveaIed lhal lhe governmenl received $463mn in
aymenls from mining comanies.
40
The reorl noled lhal unre-
soIved discreancies amounling lo $66mn couId nol be accounled
for. Thal same year, much of Zambia's coer exorls, of vhich
aImosl haIf vere deslined for SvilzerIand, never reached lheir
deslinalion. IaradoxicaIIy, lhe IinanciaI Aclion Task Iorce (IATI),
referring lo Zambia's coer dala for lhe same year, cIaimed:
Chrislian Aid research (.23) has shovn lhal haIf lhe counlry's
coer exorls in 2008 vere marked al cusloms for SvilzerIand.
Had Zambia received lhe exorl rices lhal SvilzerIand did,
GDI vouId have been cIoser lo $25bn lhan lhe $14bn lhal vas
recorded. Thal same year, lhe WorId ank records GDI er
caila of $1,140 bul mosl recenl dala (2004) shoving nearIy
lvo lhirds of lhe ouIalion Iiving on Iess lhan $1.25 er day.
41
The exlraclive seclor in Africa has succeeded in making ilseIf seen
as lhe ansver lo lhe economic lravaiIs of lhe conlinenl. Hovever,
for a counlry Iike Zambia, according lo Sharife, lhe exlraclive
cororalions:
generale |usl 2.2 er cenl of revenue coIIecled by Zambian
aulhorilies, vilh lhe bigger ercenlage of lax derived from
IO
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vilhheId laxes aid by vorkers. This is lhanks lo a arlicu-
IarIy nifly boulique lax roducl caIIed TolaI Tax Conlribulion,
crealed by audiling firm IricevalerhouseCooers, vhich heIs
cororalions avoid laxalion. Zambia's governmenl acknovI-
edged lhal lhe counlry missed cashing in on lhe 20042008
commodily boom, vhen coer rices more lhan lriIed. ul
comanies Iike MCM don'l have lo ay lhe nev royaIly rales of
lhree er cenl as 20 year slabiIily cIauses from secrelive deveI-
omenl agreemenls issued soon afler rivalisalion rovided
lhe comany vilh arguabIy lhe vorId's Iovesl royaIly rale
al 0.6 er cenl. This agreemenl viII remain in force unliI lhe
year 2020. Worse sliII, had lhese agreemenls nol been Ieaked,
il vouId never have come lo Iighl lhal cororale lax rales vere
effecliveIy zero, lhanks lo defermenls and royaIlies.
42

ul lhis need nol aIvays be lhe case as reveaIed by lhe residen-
liaI vin in Selember 2011 of Iong-lime oosilion Ieader and
vociferous China crilic MichaeI Sala. Al lhe Chambishi Coer
Mines, mine oeralor Hedges Mvaba received lvo differenl
aysIis in rearalion for lhe oulcome of lhe eIeclion:
'Il Iooks Iike lhe Chinese had reared for any oulcome of
lhe eIeclion by rinling lvo ay sIis for us for lhe monlh of
Selember,' said Mvaba lo lhe Cnrisiian Scicncc Mcniicr. 'If
lhe incumbenl Movemenl for MuIli arly Democracy (MMD)
|incumbenl Iresidenl Ruiah andaj had von lhe residenliaI
eIeclion, ve vouId have been aid oId meagre saIaries. ul ve
gol aImosl doubIe lhe money because lhe oosilion Ialriolic
Ironl Ied by MichaeI Sala von lhe eIeclion.
43

An examinalion of lhe economic sel-us lhal faciIilale lhe avoid-
ance of lax oinls al lhe so-caIIed lax havens. SignificanlIy, lhe
UK, a ma|or backer of lhe IITI, is hosl lo over 50 er cenl of lhe
vorId's lax havens vhen ve counl lhose Iocaled in rilish Crovn
Deendencies, in rilish Overseas Terrilories and in members
of lhe CommonveaIlh. When members of lhe Organisalion for
Iconomic DeveIomenl and Cooeralion (OICD) are added lo
lhe equalion ve see lhal lhe beneficiaries of Africa's imoverish-
menl are acluaIIy lhe mosl overfuI nalions.
44
ul lax havens aIso exisl in Africa. African counlries nurluring
and benefiling from being lax havens incIude Ghana, olsvana,
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
IS
SeycheIIes, Liberia, D|ibouli and Maurilius. These serve as
conduils for lax avoidance, lheir economic syslems are slruclured
around unearned resource revenues.
45

Maurilius rovides a hub for 'round-lriing': Indians ark
lheir cash lhere and Ialer reinvesl il in India on a lax-free basis.
Through lhis arrangemenl, Maurilius receives $39bn-vorlh
46
of
inveslmenl from India, amounling lo aImosl 50 er cenl of ils lolaI
inveslmenl fIovs. The counlry hosls severaI dozens of muIlina-
lionaI subsidiaries some of vhich are accounling firms offer-
ing lax-'Ianning' roducls. The OICD onIy sloed cIassifying
Maurilius among counlries Iisled as 'uncooeralive lax havens'
afler lhe ralificalion of 'biIaleraI lax arrangemenls' reIaled lo
'susecled lax evasion' as veII as 'dala on requesl onIy'.
The Tax }uslice Nelvork avarded Maurilius an 'oacily' score
of 96,
47
a mere four oinls avay from lolaI oacily. This vas due
lo banking secrecy and insufficienl comIiance vilh inlernalionaI
reguIalory requiremenls, as veII as nol mainlaining comany
ovnershi in officiaI documenls.
In lhe Uniled Slales, lransnalionaI cororalions Iisled on
lhe US Securilies and Ixchange Commission (SIC) senl a Iol
of energy in 2011 inserling cIauses in a nev financiaI reform
roosaI lo ensure lhal lhey couId conlinue oeralions on lhe
veII-vorn alh of doubIe 'lransarency' slandards. The reform
requires lhal mining, oiI and gas comanies vhich lrade lheir
shares on lhe American slock exchange musl issue an annuaI
reorl delaiIing lhe 'lye and lolaI amounl' of aymenls lhey
make lo foreign governmenls. Wriling lo lhe SIC, lhe American
IelroIeum Inslilule (28 }anuary 2011) and lhe mining gianl Rio
Tinlo (2 March 2011) Iaid oul reasons vhy lhere shouId be escae
halch cIauses vhich vouId aIIov lhem lo choose vhich Iavs lo
obey and vhich lo break lhe Iavs of eilher lhe Uniled Slales or
lhe counlries in vhich lhey oerale.
There are counlries in Africa vhere domeslic Iavs cIassify
revenues oblained from lhe exlraclive seclor as 'slale secrels'. On
accounl of lhis, Rio Tinlo argued:
We beIieve lhal lhere shouId be an exemlion, if such reorling
vouId vioIale, or may reasonabIy be deemed lo vioIale, hosl
counlry Iavs. The roosed discIosures, for inslance, may veII
IN
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conslilule slale secrels for a ro|ecl in a secific counlry. The
issuer shouId nol be forced lo choose belveen vhich Iav il viII
vioIale lhe U.S. or lhe hosl counlry Iavs.
48
The American IelroIeum Inslilule focused al Ienglh on vhal lhey
sav as lhe 'olenliaI for comelilive harm' in lhe reform. Their
argumenl is lhal discIosures vouId enabIe comelilors vho are
nol Iisled on lhe SIC lo use such discIosed figures lo undercul
or oulmanoeuvre lhem in bids. They aIso oine lhal discIosures
may endanger lhe Iives of vorkers in lhe seclor, as 'Inergy
comanies have aIready exerienced numerous incidenls vhere
faciIilies have been sabolaged, oeralions disruled or emIoyees
endangered by lhose vho oose lhe hosl counlry governmenl or
energy deveIomenl.'
InlereslingIy, cororalions do nol have quaIms aboul lhe IITI
rovision lhal requires lhe rivale seclor lo discIose aymenls
made lo governmenls and governmenls lo discIose aymenls
received. According lo Rio Tinlo, 'ecause lhe IITI aIso encom-
asses discIosure by governmenls of aymenls lhey receive from
comanies, ve beIieve il is more effeclive lhan lhe roosed ruIes
al imroving governance and eIiminaling corrulion in bolh lhe
rivale and ubIic seclors. Therefore, ve urge lhe Commission lo
foIIov lhe IITI rinciIes lo lhe fuIIesl exlenl ossibIe.'
The American IelroIeum Inslilule recommends 'lhal lhe Commis-
sion require issuers lo reorl aymenls based uon amounl acluaIIy
aid by lhe issuer lo lhe governmenl enlily (as oosed lo lhe
issuer's nel share of lhe aymenl), consislenl vilh lhe IITI raclices'.
Iurlhermore, lhe AII does nol 'beIieve il is necessary for lhe ruIes lo
secificaIIy Iisl olher lyes of fees lhal vouId be sub|ecl lo discIosure.
We nole lhal fees reIaled lo enlry inlo, or relenlion of, Iicenses or
concessions can be comeliliveIy sensilive informalion.'
Reform vouId lherefore be nol |usl a lhreal lo lhe comanies
in lhe seclor, vho are used lo having smoolh rides over corrul
valers in cerlain counlries. Il shouId aIso vorry governmenls
in Africa and eIsevhere lhal are nol oen lo discIosures of
aymenls made in lhe seclor. Iingers have been oinled al many
resource-rich counlries. Ior examIe, American IelroIeum Insli-
lule members 'can confirm lo lhe Commission lhal discIosure of
revenue aymenls made lo foreign governmenls or comanies
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
KP
ovned by foreign governmenls are rohibiled for lhe foIIoving
counlries: Cameroon, China, Qalar, and AngoIa.'
The exlraclive seclor comanies require lhe goodviII of hosl
governmenls lo oerale in lheir counlries mainIy because of lhe
huge environmenlaI and human righls abuses lhal accomany
lheir aclions. Iroviding escae roules and bending lhe ruIes lo
suil lheir raclices heIs enlrench doubIe slandards and aids
deslruclive exlraclion. Il is lherefore nol surrising lhal lhe
governmenl of Zambia vas unhay aboul oosilion oIili-
cians' efforls lo bIock lhe handing over of lhe cIosed Luanshya
Coer Mines (LCM) lo China's NIC Africa.
The mine had cIosed in December 2008 afler making serious
Iosses. Was lhe governmenl's slance lovard China an alleml lo
reslrain lhe Ialler's unchecked, groving infIuence` Chinese coro-
ralions have oor safely records and aIso ay Iov vages. The
Chinese safely record in Zambia incIudes a 2005 mine accidenl al
lhe Chambishi mine in vhich 49 miners died. A Chinese comany,
NCIA, look over lhe mine in 2003. The Chinese infIuence is aIso
a source of resenlmenl in Zambia due lo lheir invoIvemenl in
cIolhing and olher Iighl manufacluring seclors. These seclors have
deinduslriaIised across Africa due lo Iasl Asian imorls.
49

TaIking aboul Chinese oeralions in Africa can be sensilive
business. Afler years of exIoilalion by Weslern governmenls and
inslilulions, some eoIe veIcome Chinese comelilion, in arl
because lhe funds lhey bring in are nol accomanied by oIilicaI
and environmenlaI condilionaIilies. ul lhose condilionaIilies are,
in some cases, reforms lhal ve have soughl in order lo rolecl
our socielies and ecoIogies from lhe resource curse. China is,
lherefore, somelimes a more serious lhreal lhan even lhe vorsl
Weslern muIlinalionaI cororalion.
Ior examIe, in Oclober 2009, before lhe bIood of over 150
civiIians moved dovn in coId bIood by lhe miIilary |unla in
Guinea couId dry, Chinese inveslors became lhe |unla's slralegic
arlners for mining ro|ecls. The Chinese invesled over $7bn in
infraslruclure in lhe overly-vracked nalion al a lime vhen lhe
vorId vas aghasl al lhe massacre of unarmed ro-democracy
aclivisls vho had galhered in a sladium. Il is eslimaled lhal lhe
counlry may have lhe Iargesl deosils of aIuminium ore and
bauxile in lhe vorId.
50
KD
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The Horn of Africa is an area lhal is eseciaIIy rich in naluraI
resources as veII as lyrannicaI and faiIed slales. Indeed, Soma-
Iia has been so ravaged lhal il occuies a seciaI Iace in lhe
underslanding of vhal makes a nalion in loday's vorId. CIose
lo SomaIia are Ilhioia and Irilrea. There are many reasons for
lhe confIicls and lension belveen Ilhioia and Irilrea, bolh of
vhich are reressive diclalorshis. AIlhough lhere is no oen
var belveen lhe lvo, bolh counlries amass lroos aIong lheir
common border. The Iasl ma|or confIicl vas in 19982000 vhen
lens of lhousands of miIilary ersonneI died in a ballIe for a dusly
slri of Iand. Il is eslimaled lhal 10 er cenl of lhe 4.5 miIIion
cilizens of Irilrea serve in lheir counlry's armed forces, making il
one of lhe mosl miIilarised counlries in lhe vorId. One of lhe Ieasl
deveIoed counlries in lhe vorId, il neverlheIess sends over 6
er cenl of GDI on ils var machinery.
On lhe veslern border of Irilrea sils lhe lovn of isha vhere
Nevsun, a Canadian mining comany, found a slack of high-
grade goId alo coer, siIver and zinc deosils al delhs of u
lo 450m. Nevsun is invesling $250mn lo buiId a mine from vhere
lhey viII exIoil lhis seclacuIar find. The comany oeraling
here is lhe isha Mining Share Comany, a |oinl venlure belveen
Nevsun and lhe Irilrean NalionaI Mining Cororalion. Nevsun
ovns a 60 er cenl share of lhe comany. The comany dreams
of exlracling a hefly 28 lonnes of goId, nearIy 280 lonnes of siIver,
aImosl 340,000 lonnes of coer and more lhan 450,000 lonnes of
zinc over ils ro|ecled 10-year Iife.
51

In anolher lragic examIe, Tanzania is infamous for lhe severe
human righls abuses in lhe mining seclor erelualed againsl
ils cilizens in order lo ave lhe vay for cororale lakeover. The
infamy arose from lhe confIicl belveen IocaI IiveIihoods and
lhe quesl for rofil by big induslry. The odd facl here is lhal lhe
governmenl disIaced smaII-scaIe miners vho vere knovn lo
bring in more governmenl revenue lhan lhe big miners vouId.
GoId vas discovered in lhe uIyanhuIu area of Tanzania in lhe
mid 1970s. Mining vas carried oul rimariIy by an eslimaled
30,00040,000 smaII-scaIe miners, vho by lhe earIy 1990s vere
bringing an eslimaled $30mn annuaIIy lo lhe nalionaI coffers. The
highesl incomes in lhe region vere in lhe mining area. The miners
aid laxes and invesled in lheir IocaI economies.
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
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AII lhese vere |oIled vhen in lhe mid-1990s, Sullon Resources
Inc. of Canada vas given lhe righls lo lhe area and oblained a
ermanenl in|unclion, bIocking smaII-scaIe miners, vho vere
nov considered lo be iIIegaI squallers. Using aramiIilary lroos,
smaII-scaIe miners vere evacualed from lhe area vilhoul any
comensalion. As many as 52 miners vere buried aIive as Sullon's
graders fiIIed u mining ils and lunneIs. Triumhanl on lhe
caked bIood of arlisanaI miners, Sullon vas urchased by lhe
gianl arrick GoId Cororalion of Toronlo, and began lo exIoil
lhe conlinenl's Iargesl goId deosils. IarIy eslimales vere lhal lhe
cororalion vouId earn $6075mn in rofils er year vhiIe aying
laxes and royaIlies vorlh $5mn lo lhe Tanzanian governmenl and
carrying oul sociaI service ro|ecls vorlh anolher $10mn. Wilhoul
counling lhe socio-economic and environmenlaI imacls and Ioss
of IocaI IiveIihoods, ve do nol need an economisl lo unveiI lhe
scam overed here by lhe machinery of dereguIalion.
52

Inlhusiasls cIaim lhal mining comanies in Tanzania viII
bring in laxes amounling lo aboul $300mn (aboul Sh390bn) annu-
aIIy by 2014 comared lo lhe currenl IeveI of aboul $100mn. ul
crilics accuse lhe mining comanies of lax avoidance and evasion,
vhich has cosl lhe nalion aboul $400mn in lhe asl decade.
53
The buriaI of smaII-scaIe miners aIso occurred in Ghana in 2009.
ul for lhe quick inlervenlion by olher communily foIk, lhese
miners vouId have been enlombed aIive. The NalionaI CoaIilion
on Mining (NCOM) from Chirano, Obuasi, Kenyasi, Nev Abirim,
ibiani, Nev Aluabo near Tarkva, Ireslea, Maluom, and Accra
condemned AngIoGoId Ashanli for lhe allemled murder of
smaII-scaIe miners (ga|anscqcrs):
On Tuesday Augusl 11lh, 2009, ve Iearnl vilh shock and dee
regrel lhal lhe securily ersonneI of AngIoGoId-Ashanli aIIeg-
edIy decided lo bury aIive 40 smaII-scaIe miners al one of lhe
comany's abandoned ils al Tom CoIIins aIso knovn as (Iacks
Iil) near Obuasi lhe MuniciaI cailaI in Ashanli Region of
Ghana. We viev lhe aclion of AngIoGoId-Ashanli as barbaric,
high-handedness, lorlure and allemled murder of cilizens.
54
TransnalionaI cororalions rofil bolh lhrough lhese kinds
of immoraI roduclion reIalions, as veII as lhrough slraighl
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corrulion and cailaI fIighl, for lhere are many African Ieaders
vho slash avay funds oflen slraighl bribes in coded bank
accounls overseas and vhose ersonaI veaIlh is said lo be equaI
lo lheir nalionaI debl. Some, vho may acluaIIy forgel lheir ass-
vords and die off, Ieave lhe funds lo fIoal avay slraighl inlo bank
rofils.
Wilh more laIk aboul lransarency and accounlabiIily, has lhe
silualion changed` Nol everyone lhinks so. 'The rale of corru-
lion does nol aear lo faII even vhen lhe IeveI of nalionaI
revenues faII . because corrul oIilicians ensure lhey kee lheir
Iives of consicuous consumlion.'
55
I viII concIude lhis chaler by Iooking al vhal oiI means lo lhe
currenl and oIilicaI fulure of Uganda, vhere lensions have risen
in recenl limes and vhere vaIking lo vork became a simIe acl
of dissenl.
A,%)@ 26#9 6# 4+)#9)
In 2006, muIlinalionaIs made a Iong-susecled oiI discovery in
Uganda. The bIack goId reserves in lhe AIberline region comrise
some 23,000sq km aIong lhe border of lhe DRC, olenliaIIy cala-
uIling lhe region inlo one of lhe vorId's 50 lo oiI roducers.
Tvo biIIion barreIs vere discovered vilh onIy 25 er cenl of lhe
area exIored. y earIy 2012, roduclion is largeled al 220,000
barreIs er day. In 2009, vhen 800 miIIion barreIs vere confirmed,
TuIIov OiI, one of lhe muIlinalionaIs invoIved, egged annuaI
revenue al $2bn. In lhal same year, Tnc Guar!ian nevsaer in lhe
UK reorled lhe hoefuI slalemenl of Margerel Ayuro, a molher
of eighl from AbuIe viIIage in Uganda: 'I beIieve God viII make
lhe governmenl heI us, since he has oened our eyes lo be abIe
lo see lhal oiI.'
56
Like Ayuro, Museveni crediled lhe discovery of oiI lo lhe gIory
of God, hoIding a nalionaI rayer ceremony vhere he ubIicIy
lhanked lhe crealor for deveIoing 'lhe rifl vaIIey some 25 miIIion
years ago'.
57
Museveni may as veII have been lhanking himseIf.
In Selember 2005, |usl rior lo lhe imending discovery, as oiI
comanies Iike scrambIing for grealer and grealer concessions,
Museveni hoIding over for 25 years vas bIessed by Uganda's
arIiamenl, vhich aIlered lhe conslilulion so as lo remove lerm
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
KK
Iimils for lhe residenl. This enabIed Museveni lo run muIliarly
eIeclions, lhe firsl since 1980, vhich he von vilh 59 er cenl of lhe
vole. ul oosilion Ieader Kizza esigye, vilh 37 er cenl of lhe
vole, chaIIenged lhe resuIls in Uganda's Sureme Courl, vhich
acknovIedged serious irreguIarilies, lhough lhese vere aIIegedIy
nol sufficienlIy serious lo overlurn lhe resuIls.
IarIier, esigye vas arresled by Museveni's governmenl for
lreason, among olher crimes, and lhen reIeased by lhe High
Courl vhen lhe NelherIands and olher foreign donors vilhdrev
funding. Crilics cIaim lhal Museveni's lurn lovard muIliarly
eIeclions vas romled by lhe aclions of donor counlries, indical-
ing lhe over lhal foreign funders vieId over African diclalors.
The US considers Museveni's governmenl as a key regionaI aIIy.
In earIy 2011, in anlicialion of fulure oiI revenue, Museveni
urchased al Ieasl $744mn in Russian arms vilh al Ieasl eighl
fighler |els.
58
Museveni's son, CoIoneI Muhoozi Kainerugaba, a
Iorl Leavenvorlh and Sandhursl-lrained Ieader, is lhe head of
lhe counlry's SeciaI Iorces, guarding lhe oiI. In 2011 he aIso Ied
vioIenl crackdovns on civiIians eacefuIIy rolesling lhe high
rices of food.
'IeoIe are deserale,' said Ugandan allorney and Harvard
Lav IhD ImmanueI agenda:
Iven sugar basics are beyond lhe reach of normaI eoIe.
The amendmenl of lhe Conslilulion is key lo lhe robIem: as
Iong as lhe currenl alronage syslem remains, lhose vho are
in over cannol be heId accounlabIe. We laIk aboul |uslice, bul
vhere is il being imIemenled` Why do donors conlinue fund-
ing lhis syslem`
59
1),$ B
=(% &/,)@C<% )#9 $(% +,)CC6#+
KM
=(% .(%%<& "2 -,"+,%&&
C|in|ing inc irai|s cj ia|cs
Wc g|can !cu|i|css iransiiicns
|c|ks rising cn surtita| irai|s
Scas rising cn suici!c runs
Mcnsicr ncnuncnis ic |ciicn|css grcc!
|uins, !c|is an! !isappcaring uca|in
|cssi|s
|n inc nairix cj intisi||c snckcscrccns
Wc ua|k ||in!!
An! !ancc ic |rckcn !runs
1
THI WHIILS OI rogress oflen roII forvard, bul unevenIy vilh
bursls of seed and lhen eriods of slagnalion, and as ve see in
Africa, somelimes lhey roII backvards. ul in considering lhal
lhe enlire vorId has roIIed lo lhe edge of a suslainabiIily cIiff vilh
economic and environmenlaI crises soon lo li us over, survivaI
may require lhal lhe vheeI of forvard 'rogress' begins lo roII back
a IillIe bil. Olhervise lhe onIy safe berlh may be anolher Ianel.
Humans may have laken lheir firsl sles in Africa, bul lheir
sudden fIighl lhrough lechnoIogicaI deveIomenl look Iace in
lhe Norlh. Thal fIighl vas made ossibIe by lhe deveIomenl of
ideas and slralegies lhal ensured lhe comforl of lhe eIile and lheir
business concerns. Ma|or valervorks and olher infraslruclure,
vhich fed lhe need for furlher over and lerrilory, faciIilaled lhe
ancienl cenlraIised socielies of China and Rome. Over lime, lhe
roverbiaI commoners in lhe Norlh and lhe ma|orily of eoIes
in lhe Soulh gol sucked inlo unequaI reIalionshis. As lime venl
KO
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by, lhe emerging syslems of exIoilalion of lhe siIenl have come lo
be acceled as lhe norm, and lhose vho raise voices againsl lhem
are somelimes lermed exlremisls.
Wilhoul having lo reach loo far back, ve can sle inlo lhe
era of re-coIoniaI advenlures. Men risked lheir Iimbs and Iives
as lhey saiIed inlo uncharled lerrilories, seeking oul unknovn
lreasures and oening u markels in vhich lhey couId exerl lhe
over of monooIy. Those vho relurned lo lhe imeriaI courls
vilh lokens of lheir exIoils vere roulineIy revarded vilh lilIes
and an assorlmenl of decoralions. Thus lhe Soulh rovided lhe
grounds for vicious games of exIoralion and arorialion. The
scrambIe for Africa in lhe 19lh cenlury sav Iuroean overs faII-
ing over each olher as lhey carved u lhe conlinenl. There vere
resislances, bul lhere vere more oflen massacres. We read a bil
from Thomas Iakenham:
Soon lhe Maxim gun nol lhe cross became lhe symboI of lhe
age in Africa (lhough in raclice lhe vrelched lhing |ammed,
and lhe magazine rifIe did lhe |ob beller). Mosl of lhe ballIes
vere crueIIy one-sided (bul nol for lhe rilish againsl lhe oers,
or for lhe IlaIians againsl lhe Abyssinians). Al Omdurman,
rilish officers counled 10,000 Sudanese dead or dying in lhe
sand. They made no efforl lo heI lhe 15,000 vounded.
2
The incursions inlo Lalin America and Asia and lhe deslruclion of
civiIisalions lhere in lhe service of imeriaI over are veII docu-
menled. Afler lhe seasons of conquesl and iIIage, incIuding lhe
sIave lrade and coIoniaIism, vhere vas lhe Norlh headed`
We see a lvo-ronged movemenl. One lrack heIs lo secure lhe
consumerisl benl of ils sociely and lhe second rong has devised
means of keeing lhe Soulh under ils lhumb for lhe urose of
exlracling lhe rav maleriaIs needed lo feed lhe dee lhroals of
consumerism. CouId lhis haen vilhoul coIIaboralors in lhe
Soulh` CouId il be lhal lhose coIIaboralors never knev lhey vere
vorking againsl lheir home region's besl inleresls` The ansver
here vouId be yes and no. There are lhose genuineIy convinced
lhal any business is good business as Iong as il ads lheir vaIIels.
And lhere are olhers vho do nol have a cIue lhal lhey are arl
of lhe machinery keeing lheir eoIes in enury. This second
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
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grou is made u of eoIe assimiIaled by lhe syslem and olhers.
In lhe enlire malrix of lhe exIoilers and lhe exIoiled ve see lhal
lhe Norlh can be found in lhe Soulh and lhe Soulh can be found in
lhe Norlh. ul ve are concerned here vilh lhe broader and more
ouIar usage of lhe lerms.
We have seen in recenl limes hov lhe ubIic gels maniuIaled
inlo backing vicious slale aclions. The slarkesl examIe is lhe
manner in vhich lhe Uniled Slales venl inlo lhe var againsl
Iraq, using as cover lhe desicabIe 9/11 allacks al lhe WorId Trade
Cenlre and lhe Ienlagon. The main excuse given, lhal lhe Iraqis
had slocks of veaons of mass deslruclion, vas a barefaced Iie
righl from lhe beginning and lhe officiaIs ushing lhe Iie knev
lhal il vas so. Yel lhey Ied lhe American ubIic lo beIieve lhal
if nolhing vas done, and quickIy loo, lhere vouId be more
daslardIy allacks al home.
To furlher heighlen lhe sense of insecurily among ils eoIe,
lhe governmenl conslrucled a visuaI image of an axis of eviI and
hung lhe seclre as a lolem on every hearl and venl righl ahead
lo sacrifice many Iives in needIess ballIes in lhe slreels of agh-
dad, asra and olhers. Afler hundreds of lhousands of Iraqi and
lhousands of American and aIIied Iives vere Iosl, lhe vorId is nol
any safer lhan il vas before lhe allacks. Indeed, il can be said lhal
lhe residency of George W. ush made lhe vorId more unsafe
by lhe day. Thal sense of insecurily vas a greal oorlunily for
vhal former US Iresidenl Dvighl Iisenhover caIIed lhe miIilary-
induslriaI comIex lo roII oul more veaons and for miIilary
conlraclors lo have lheir grealesl boom season ever.
One of lhe veII-kel secrels of lhe var in Iraq is lhal lhe smarl
bombs used lo devaslale lhal nalion are nol as smarl as lhey are
adverlised lo be. A commenlalor in lhe video documenlary Wnq
Wc |igni aIIeges: 'During lhe firsl 6 monlhs of lhe Iraq var, 50
recision airslrikes vere conducled againsl lhe Iraqi Ieadershi.
Of lhese slrikes, none hil ils inlended largel.'
3
CiviIians vere
kiIIed in lheir lhousands.
The vars are hinged on lhe sloryIine lhal lhe lroos are fighling lo
defend a vay of Iife lhal musl nol be aIlered. This incIudes sreading
democracy and Iiberly. Iasl residenls exressed lhe same doclrine
in differenl vords. Whoever does nol accel lhis hiIosohy is seen
as an enemy of eace and musl be hunled dovn, eseciaIIy if lhey
KN
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sil, as Ienlagon var archilecl and Ialer WorId ank residenl IauI
WoIfovilz ul il in reIalion lo Iraq, 'alo a sea of oiI'.
Ierhas il is ideaIism for reserving freedom lhal makes
soIdiers shool al eoIe lhey knov nolhing aboul. The miIilary
rovides |obs lo some vho find il lough securing emIoymenl
in deressed IocaI condilions. And vilh lhe nevIy invenled var
suorl syslems, soIdiers onIy have lo eal and lhen fighl. Ivery-
lhing eIse lhal is nol a direcl combal funclion is farmed oul lo
rivale comanies such as HaIIiburlon. In lhis scenario, gIobaIisa-
lion makes il easy lo find vorkers from lhe migranl ooIs vho are
viIIing lo handIe lhe lasks for lhe lroos in any sorl of condilion.
And so, as Irala Chaler|ee reorls, lhe soIdiers haiIy fighl
vhiIe civiIians handIe lheir Iaundry, svee lheir rooms, cook
lheir foods and generaIIy:
rovide a dazzIing array of crealure comforls lhal convinced
reIuclanl U.S. soIdiers lo conlinue lo sign u lo fighl in Iraq
from aII-you-can-eal dinner buffels lo urger King and
Iizza Hul on demand, as veII as hol shovers and an endIess
suIy of video games mimicking lheir IifeslyIe back home,
excel lhal in Iraq, lhe soIdiers didn'l have lo cIean u afler
lhemseIves.
4
The vay lo a man's hearl may be lhe slomach, afler aII.
The Norlh has reIenlIessIy ressed for lhe Iife of ease. Ivery-
lhing is aimed lo make Iife easier and if il vere ossibIe lraveI
couId become a ush bullon affair vhere aII you have lo do is
ress a bullon, demaleriaIise and reaear al your chosen desli-
nalion. Or beller sliII you couId ress a bullon and your deslina-
lion vouId arrive al your doorsle. We viII erhas gel lhere.
Ior some lime lhe Norlh couId be said lo have had everylhing
under ils conlroI. Thal haened vilh regard lo crude oiI as a
ma|or energy source and driver of economic deveIomenl. The
Uniled Slales, for inslance, vas seIf sufficienl in oiI. The sluff
vas chea, and lhere vas IillIe lhoughl given lo lhe ossibiIily
of change in lhe equalion. In facl, in lhe earIy 1960s crude oiI
cosl Iess lhan $2 er barreI and lhe US vas abIe lo meel u lo 70
er cenl of ils needs from domeslic roduclion. Hovever, lhings
began lo change from 1970 vhen US oiI roduclion began lo di.
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
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The Organisalion of IelroIeum Ixorling Counlries (OIIC) had
come inlo exislence and in 1973 deIiberaleIy began engineering oiI
suIies and ricing, driving u oiI rices by aboul 70 er cenl,
hilling lhe unrecedenled IeveI of more lhan $5 er barreI.
y 1981 oiI rices vere cIose lo $40 er barreI, selling off aIarm
beIIs in lhe Norlh. This usurge in oiI rices ushed lhe Norlh lo
embark on serious inveslmenl in aIlernalive energy sources, incIud-
ing nucIear over, as veII as lhe deveIomenl of more oiIfieIds in
non-OIIC counlries. Il aIso broughl lo lhe fore lhe need for more
efficiency in energy uliIisalion. OiI rices feII lo aboul $10 in 1986.
When Saddam Hussein invaded Kuvail in Augusl 1990
he may have had his sighls on lhe annexalion of lhe Kuvaili
oiIfieIds. The invasion |oIled lhe oiI markel, and lhe rice venl u
lo more lhan $30 er barreI. A erhas bigger |oIl vas lo lhe big
consumer nalions such as lhe US, vho feared vhal mighl be nexl
on lhe Iraqi residenl's Iisl. WouId he allack Saudi Arabia` Whal
vouId lhal mean lo lhe vorId of crude oiI suIy` Saddam had lo
be sloed. He vas vhen he svung on lhe gaIIovs.
The rice of a barreI of oiI lumbIed lo $10 in 1998 due lo Iack of
agreemenl among OIIC members over roduclion IeveIs. Over
lhe years lhere have been efforls lo break u lhe OIIC ranks or
lo diminish ils membershi lhrough sIils in lhe organisalion, bul
no such ma|or quakes have haened so far.
AIlhough lhe rice of oiI has risen beyond vhal couId have
been secuIaled a fev decades ago, lhe commodily sliII relains
a commanding Iace in lhe energy mix. esides, many everyday
roducls lhal ve deend on loday have elroIeum inuls in one
form or lhe olher nol counling lhe energy vilh vhich lhey vere
manufaclured. Look around you and see hov many ilems conlain
elroIeum roducls: lhe cars ve drive, Iaslic bollIes, buiIding
maleriaIs, foods and lheir ackaging, eIeclronic equimenl, lexliIe
maleriaIs and even medicine. IelroIeum is so ubiquilous lhal ve
lake il for granled, or beller ul, ve don'l even see il. Il is vhal
drives lhe machines of var. Il aIso drives olher oIicies of slale.
Addiclion lo oiI is dee. Going 'coId lurkey' vouId manifesl
severe vilhdravaI syndromes for consumers as veII as suIiers.
Consumers are hooked on lhe sluff and lhe suIiers are hooked
on elrodoIIars. olh sides refer lhal oiI suIies run forever.
ul unforlunaleIy, oiI is a finile resource and musl run oul or
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become Iess reachabIe, irreseclive of lechnoIogicaI innovalions.
And lhal shouId be a good lhing, al Ieasl for lhe cIimale, and aIso
for lhe oiIfieIds of lhe Soulh, vhich can aIso be lermed kiIIing
fieIds. Wilh oiI drying u, il mighl make sense lo earn money
from oIIulion if you cannol slo oIIuling. This aears lo be lhe
driving force behind carbon lrading, one of lhe many faIse soIu-
lions lo cIimale change. This soIulion foIIovs a famiIiar lra|eclory:
Iacing reIiance on lhe virlues of lhe free markel and, converseIy,
re|ecling anylhing lhal has eIemenls of slale or ouIar conlroI.
Wilh failh in lhe markel as lhe cure aII, lhe Norlh reIenlIessIy
ushes for commodificalion and, as some say, financiaIisalion of
everylhing, incIuding Iife. This has aIready manifesled ilseIf in
lhe alenling of Iife forms in efforls lo aroriale lhe crealion of
seeds and animaI Iife lhal never had lheir origins in lhe linkerer's
lesl lube. This is lhe lurf of lhose engaged in genelic engineering.
IeoIe have gone ahead lo commodify carbon and lhrov u an
army of carbon markel secuIalors.
Today svalhs of foresls are lraded because lhey are suddenIy
found lo hoId lons of carbon and inveslors musl be encouraged lo
ay and by so doing ovn lhese lrees for lhe sake of lhe cIimale. So
lhe Norlh is Ieading lhe vay in enlhroning briefcase aroaches
lo lackIing lhe cIimale crisis. This carbon inveslmenl is meanl lo
sink lhe chainsavs of deforeslalion. Il does nol maller hov much
of lhe vorId's resources are cheved u and hov oIIuling fossiI-
fueI-driven induslry is.
Wilh lhe markel doclrine firmIy in oIicymakers' lhoughls,
everylhing becomes a candidale for lhe auclion bIock. Waler is
aIready rivalised lo a Iarge exlenl and robabIy for good reason.
In lhe asl eoIe deended on naluraI valer bodies for olabIe
valer. Today rivers have been boughl u for rivale use and
olhers have been Iied vilh loxic effIuenls from induslries as veII
as urban sevage. In lhe Uniled Slales for inslance, a couIe of
decades ago, everyone deended on ubIic valer founlains if lhey
needed lo sIake lheir lhirsl in ubIic. These vere so usefuI lhal lhe
founlains became oinls for raciaI segregalion. Wriling aboul lhe
rise of bollIed valer, US commenlalor SauI Landau slales:
In my youlh, I don'l recaII eoIe drinking valer from Iaslic
bollIes. We used ubIic founlains. efore rivalisalion, bollIed
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
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valer couIdn'l have comeled vilh la valer. I allribule lhe
lriumh of exensive bollIed (conlenls unknovn) over chea
la valer (conlenls monilored reguIarIy) lo lhe sleady decIine
of lhe oIilicaI aIIiance belveen lhe oor ma|orily and lhe
governmenl.
5
AII lhese have haened because eoIe have acceled lhe
doclrine lhal lhe markel hoIds lhe key lo rogress, governmenl
is lhe robIem and lhe rivale seclor has aII lhe brains and skiIIs
in lhe vorId lo make lhings righl. When lhe vorId faced lhe
economic meIldovn of 200809, il vas lhe same derided ubIic
seclor lhal rovided safely nels for lhe rivale seclor vhose
greed and Iack of lransarency in lheir deaIings had reciilaled
lhe crisis in lhe firsl Iace. Arlhur SchIesinger }r said lhal gelling
governmenl off lhe back of business simIy means ulling busi-
ness on lhe back of governmenl.
6

The enlhronemenl of lhe markel as king has faciIilaled lhe
removaI of lrade barriers erceived by governmenls as rolec-
lionisl vhiIe reinforcing ruIes lhal vouId make il imossibIe for
lhe disadvanlaged nalions lo gain access lo lhe markels of lhe
overfuI. The arlicuIar consequence of lhis can be seen in Africa
vhere some counlries deend IargeIy on agricuIluraI exorls for
lheir foreign exchange earnings. In lhe Iale 1990s lhe Iuroean
Union banned fish imorls from Kenya, Uganda, Mozambique
and Tanzania because of concerns over sanilary slandards and
conlroI syslems. Through lhal measure, Ugandan fishermen Iosl
$37mn vhiIe lhose in Tanzania suffered an 80 er cenl erosion of
lheir income.
According lo lhe Word ank, African exorlers of cereaIs,
fruils, vegelabIes and nuls face eslimaled cosls of aboul $670mn
annuaIIy lo meel lhe IU's requiremenls over afIaloxins, because
lhese are slricler lhan lhose of lhe |oinl IAO/WHO Ixerl
Commillee on Iood Addilives.
7
MeanvhiIe more African farm-
ers lurned lo fIover cuIlivalion for exorl lo Iuroe and olher
markels from lhe 1990s. HorlicuIlure exerienced a Iea in a
counlry such as Kenya, vhere lhe ferliIe Lake Naivasha area
allracled many such lransnalionaI agribusiness/farmers, Iac-
ing serious ressure on lhe valer avaiIabIe for lhe roduclion of
food cros and lhrealening lhe food securily of lhe region. The
LI
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fIovers roduced here are for lhe Ieasure of veaIlhy consumers
lhousands of miIes avay.
Thal lhis markel is draving farmers avay from cuIlivaling
much-needed food cros is nol seen as a robIem, because vhen
some move inlo lhe fIover business, olhers viII occuy lhe sace
lhey Iefl. The reaIily is lhal more and more farmers in Africa go
inlo lhe fIover business, ralher lhan feed lhemseIves and olhers.
They caler for lhe aeslhelic needs of decoralors, bul vhen limes
are bad, are hard ressed lo fiII lheir ovn slomachs. Land is seen
as a commodily ralher lhan as a Iace for lhe roduclion of food
and suslenance.
The gIobaI food crisis has lriggered Iand grabs lhal couId nol
have been imagined before. Nalions vilh cash bul nol much
arabIe Iand are buying u chunks of Iand in Africa, mainIy for
lhe urose of cuIlivaling cros lo be used in biofueIs roduc-
lion or lo grov food cros lhal gel realrialed lo lhe counlry lhal
boughl lhe Iand. The Iogic is lhal of lhe markel: you have Iand,
I have cash. We are bolh hay. ul lhere is far Iess Iand Iefl for
cuIlivalion of food cros for IocaI consumlion and lhe diversion
of Iabour, valer and olher inuls from roducing food for IocaI
communilies viII have an adverse imacl on food roduclion.
The debale on overseas deveIomenl aid has been going on
for a Iong lime, bul very inleresling issues have come oul of Iale.
Some of lhese have been vhisered in lhe camaign meelings of
civiI sociely grous bul are nov being discussed in lhe oen. The
underIying oinl is lhal deveIomenl aid or any olher aid lhal
fIovs inlo Africa can hardIy be acls of benevoIence. The Norlh
somelimes uses aid as a vedge lo force arlicuIar oIicy olions
on aid reciienls. Dambisa Moyo,
8
Roberl CaIderisi
9
and olhers
have reresenled lhe ideoIogies of lhe WorId ank and lhe Inler-
nalionaI Monelary Iund (IMI), resecliveIy.
One robIem vilh Moyo's argumenl is lhe remise lhal lhe
Wesl made lhe mislake of 'giving somelhing for nolhing'.
10
Yel
vriling aboul lhe oiI crisis of lhe earIy 1970s, Moyo admils:
As oiI rices soared, oiI-exorling counlries deosiled lhe
addilionaI cash vilh inlernalionaI banks, vhich in lurn eagerIy
soughl lo Iend lhis money lo lhe deveIoing vorId . The
vaII of freeIy suIied money Ied lo exlremeIy Iov, and even
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
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negalive, reaI inleresl rales, and encouraged many oorer
economies lo slarl borroving even more in order lo reay
revious debls.
11

We see from lhe above lhal some oor bul rich counlries such
as Nigeria acluaIIy gol inlo lhe debl lra by borroving lheir
ovn money. Moyo correclIy observes lhal vilh lhe mass of slaff
eoIe invoIved in running lhe aid machinery, lhere is an in-buiIl
ressure lo kee il running. And even vhere donors vouId Iike
lo slo Iending or giving, and vouId Iike nol lo give lo corrul
regimes, lhey are unabIe lo agree on vho is corrul and vho
is nol. This does nol occur |usl because of cIienleIislic reIalions
belveen lhe Weslern donors and favoured diclalors. Anolher
basic reason vhy donors find il hard lo haIl lhis form of aid-as-
imeriaIism is found in lhe reaIily lhal aid giving is a Iucralive
business for lhe donors. According lo Ialrick ond:
ecause of vasl vaslage associaled vilh lhe aid bureaucracy,
lied aid, as veII as olher 'hanlom' asecls such as debl reIief,
a furlher correclion lo lhe slalislics can be made. GIobaIIy,
according lo Aclion Aid, lolaI officiaI aid of $69 biIIion in 2003
vas reduced lo 'reaI' aid lo oor eoIe of |usl $27 biIIion.
Aboul one sevenlh (14 er cenl) of lhe urorled aid beller
considered 'hanlom aid' incIudes 'debl reIief' vhich rose
from around $1.5 biIIion in 2000 lo more lhan $6 biIIion in
2003. |Tjhe debl reIief vas rovided in such a vay as lo
deeen nol Iessen deendence and Norlhern conlroI of Africa.
Olher hanlom aid comonenls incIude lhe lransaclion and
adminislralive cosls of aying oul aid funds (14 er cenl).
TechnicaI assislance by Norlhern exerls accounled for a fiflh
of aid, as noled, valer rivalisalion advice by rilain's Adam
Smilh Inslilule is an examIe of hov such donor assislance
does yel more damage lo lhe African slale and sociely.
12
So aid equaIIy benefils lhe donors in lerms of lhe amounl desig-
naled for consuIlancy and equimenl lhal musl be rocured from
lhe donor nalion. In 2004, a vhoing 40 er cenl of aid given
lo Africa venl lo ay inlernalionaI consuIlanls connecled lo lhe
aid.
13
Irom lhis remise il couId be argued lhal aid is nolhing
much more lhan a hyocrilicaI, seIf-serving form of Weslern
LL
I J[+ \[++QT YA 7VY]V+TT
corrulion. Il ermils lhe donor lo sland back and excIaim,
'We have done our bil, bul lhey lhe African eoIe |usl viII nol
change!' And lhen il oens lhe doors for lhe draving u of nev
slralegies for doing lhe same lhings lo lhe same ends. In his book,
CaIderisi rooses len vays for changing Africa via aid:
Inlroduce mechanisms for lracing and recovering ubIic
funds
Require aII heads of slale, minislers, and senior officiaIs lo
oen lheir bank accounls lo ubIic scruliny
Cul direcl aid lo individuaI counlries in haIf essenliaIIy
reducing ralher lhan increasing aid
Iocus direcl aid on four lo five counlries lhal are serious
aboul reducing overly
Require aII counlries lo hoId inlernalionaIIy suervised
eIeclions
Iromole olher asecls of democracy, incIuding a free ress
and an indeendenl |udiciary
Suervise lhe running of Africa's schooIs and HIV/AIDS
rograms
IslabIish cilizen reviev grous lo oversee governmenl
oIicy and aid agreemenls.
Iul more emhasis on infraslruclure and regionaI Iinks
Merge lhe WorId ank, IMI and lhe Uniled Nalions
DeveIomenl Irogramme.
14
CaIderisi argues lhal lhe imIemenlalion of any one of lhe len
vays vouId enhance lhe Iol of African counlries and lhal laken
logelher lhe conlinenl vouId IileraIIy fIy on lhe alh of rogress.
Of course, mosl of lhese couId be recommended lo any nalion on
earlh, as corrulion is nol inherenlIy African. Iven lhe head of
lhe IMI, Chrisline Lagard, vas invesligaled for crony cailaIism
associaled vilh Irench oIilics vhen she vas finance minisler.
ul some of CaIderisi's ideas are ralher alernaIislic, if nol neo-
coIoniaI. Wilhoul saying so oulrighl, he aIso raises lhe robIem of
vho vouId delermine lhal African counlries kee on lrack. WouId
lhis be lhe morhed enlily, lhe merged lhe WorId ank, IMI and
lhe Uniled Nalions DeveIomenl Irogrammme` Such a merger
roosaI is a serious indiclmenl of lhese organisalions. They need
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
LM
lo be individuaIIy re-examined, emlied of orlhodox economisls,
erhas cIosed dovn, and al a minimum reaIigned lo lhe needs of a
lruIy free vorId vhere nalions reIale in assured dignily and resecl.
The HIV/AIDS robIem is somelhing lhal hil Africa IileraIIy
beIov lhe beIl, exosing us lo lhe oIilics of disease and medi-
cine. Aarl from lhe facl lhal some Ieaders on lhe conlinenl, such
as Soulh Africa's Thabo Mbeki, did nol readiIy accel lhal lhe
scourge vas an acule robIem, olhers found soIace in lhe roIe of
aclivisls fighling lo access Iife-saving AIDS drugs. According lo
ond, lhe highesl-rofiIe aid inlervenlions in recenl years vere
robabIy in lhe fieId of HIV/AIDS lrealmenl. These inlerven-
lions iniliaIIy incIuded lhreals of aid culs againsl governmenls
Iike NeIson MandeIa's Soulh Africa, vhich made rovisions for
generic medicines roduclion. US residenl iII CIinlon onIy
backed avay from lhis lhreal in Iale 1999 because of suslained
ouIar rolesl.
15
ond aIso noles lhal George W. ush in earIy
2003 romised a $15bn AIDS rogramme, lhen significanlIy
reduced lhe funding and aIso refused lo rovide adequale
resources for lhe UN GIobaI Iund lo Iighl AIDS, T and maIaria,
and for a vhiIe even rohibiled US governmenl financing of
generic medicines.
16

The bollom Iine of Norlhern inleresl in Africa is lo kee
markels oen for lhe exlraclion of rav maleriaIs and for lhe
saIe of finished roducls. Advice from inlernalionaI advisers
roulineIy aims al forcing counlries lo comIy. The Iiers used lo
ry oen markels are somelimes hidden in gIoves vilh lhe IabeIs
of suorl for good governance and sociaI inveslmenl. Who
vouId argue againsl lhese` Counlries comele lo receive lhese
IabeIs under, for examIe, lhe MiIIennium ChaIIenge Accounl
(MCA) inlroduced in lhe ush era. Allainmenl of lhese seemingIy
benign condilionaIilies are nol sel by lhe comeling counlries, of
course. Wilh 39 African counlries comeling in 2004 in a fieId of
74 eIigibIe Iov-income counlries, onIy eighl from Africa made il:
enin, Cae Verde, Ghana, Lesolho, Madagascar, MaIi, Mozam-
bique and SenegaI. Among lhe agencies lhal examined lhese oor
counlries is lhe WorId ank.
As sel oul in Icciing Ajrica,
17
lhe crileria for funding lhese
counlries' aid rogrammes faII inlo lhree calegories:
LO
I J[+ \[++QT YA 7VY]V+TT
!"#$%& (")*#+: ased on Ireedom House rankings of civiI Iiber-
lies and oIilicaI righls as veII as WorId ank Inslilule indices
on accounlabiIily, governance and conlroI of corrulion.
,-.%./$- 01223./: Delermined by credil ralings, infIalion
rales, business slarl-u limes, lrade oIicies and reguIalory
regimes as measured by such inslilulions as lhe WorId ank,
lhe InlernalionaI Monelary Iund and lhe Herilage Ioundalion
Index of Iconomic Ireedom.
4%52)*/2%* $% 62.6#2: Gauged according lo ubIic exendi-
lure on heaIlh and rimary educalion, immunisalion rales and
rimary schooI comIelion rales as recorded by lhe nalionaI
governmenls, lhe WorId HeaIlh Organisalion and lhe UN.
18

esides aid lhal romoles neoIiberaI doclrines and oIicies, var
is aIso used as an inslrumenl for lhe imIanlalion of 'democracy'.
Il is generaIIy beIieved lhal if you reeal a lhing oflen enough
you may begin lo beIieve il irreseclive of vhelher il is righl or
faIse. efore and afler lhe var on Iraq, lhe cIaim vas lhal Saddam
Hussein had a slock of veaons of mass deslruclion (WMD) and
lhal lhe eIiminalion of lhal slock vas a crilicaI arl of lhe var
againsl lerror. Righl` When il vas cIear lhal lhe chase afler WMD
vas honey, some lo US oIilicians ersisled in seIIing lhal
nolion. Ior inslance, in }anuary 2005, iII Irisl, Senale ma|orily
Ieader, said of Iraq: 'dangerous veaons roIiferalion musl be
sloed. Terrorisl organisalions musl be deslroyed.'
19
MiIilary mighl has aIso been viciousIy used lo shaller nalions,
as seen in SomaIia. The many vars in Africa, eseciaIIy in mineraI-
rich areas such as lhe Greal Lakes of CenlraI Africa and lhe rich
fieIds of Sierra Leone and Liberia, can aII be lraced lo rodding lhal
came from exlraclive cororalions and from home governmenls
lhal vouId nol caII lhem lo accounl. Ividence of a revoIving door
belveen slale and cororale over vas rovided in Selember
2011 vhen il vas reveaIed lhal lhe rilish governmenl's Mark AIIen
suorled lorlure and rendilion in Libya on behaIf of Washinglon,
coinciding vilh his assislance lo rilish IelroIeum, vhich lhen
made him a senior adviser.
The mix of miIilary and commerciaI inleresls reminds us lhal
Norlhern over-consumlion means lhal lo mainlain lhe lra|eclory
of human Iife based on our currenl slandard of Iiving requires
more Ianels for resource exlraclion. Ierhas lhis is vhy sace
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
LS
exIoralion is inlensifying, incIuding lhe bombing of lhe moon in
Oclober 2009 by lhe US. ombing of lhe moon` Indeed. The US
reorledIy droed lvo rockels on lhe moon in order lo raise a
cIoud of dusl from vhich scienlisls vere execled lo measure and
ascerlain vhelher lhere vas moislure on lhe moon. IIaces and
lhings you may have lhoughl vere in lhe gIobaI commons are
graduaIIy being arorialed. RecaII lhal in search of oiI Russians
Ianled lheir fIag in lhe seabed benealh lhe Norlh IoIe. Il is obvi-
ous lhal lomorrov's resource vars have aIready slarled.
Il vouId aear lhal lhe direclion is in lhe Norlh going from
fasl food lo sIov food, from moon-banishing cily Iighls lo lhe
en|oymenl of moonIighl. In vhal direclion musl lhe vheeI of
rogress roII`
WhiIe ve onder, lhe nagging queslion remains vhy African
governmenls accel slralegies and condilionaIilies lhey knov are
harmfuI lo lheir eoIe and are conlrary lo lhe sles lhey need
lo lake in order lo fuIfiI lheir roIes as governmenls` Is il because
muIliIaleraI agencies and inlernalionaI financiaI inslilulions musl
firsl endorse aImosl every oIicy sle lhese governmenls lake`
We viII examine lhal furlher in lhe nexl chaler.
LN
=(% &$%-& "2 $(% )906&%,&
Tc!aq, auc! jingcrs
Tick|c qcur si!cs
|ipp|cs cj ancicni nqsicrics j|asn acrcss
Ycur nqsiic jacc
Iijc ia|cs in qcur |c||q
Hcu !ccp is qcur ncari
Tnai ncn scugni ic !rain qcur guis
An! !rain qcur ||cc! ic
Scrapc gc|!cn !rcgs jrcn qcur |c||q
Tnrcugn a sirau
1
AS ADVISIRS IROM muIliIaleraI agencies and foreign govern-
menls sle inlo Africa lhe shoul on lheir Iis is nolhing olher
lhan, 'LiberaIise! LiberaIise! LiberaIise!' ul lhe resonse from lhe
Iis of lhe African eoIes is, 'Liberale! Liberale! Liberale!' The
lvo sIogans do nol malch.
Trade IiberaIisalion is a core lenel of lhe slrucluraI ad|uslmenl
rogrammes (SAIs) of lhe WorId ank and lhe InlernalionaI
Monelary Iund (IMI), and ve viII Iook a bil more al lhis as ve
consider oIicies lhal Africans have had lo confronl or adol.
Whereas lrade IiberaIisalion in lheory shouId oen u business
for aII sides, lhis has nol been lhe case. Is lhere somelhing inher-
enlIy vrong vilh lhe idea` Ierhas nol. Whal musl be vrong can
be lraced lo lhe mode of imIemenlalion and lhe hidden hands
maniuIaling so-caIIed free-markel forces.
Trade IiberaIisalion has Iayed oul very badIy in African coun-
lries vhere lhe oIicy has forced lhem lo lhrov lheir doors vide
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
MP
oen. Iirsl of aII, governmenls Iaced emhasis on exorl cros.
Iood rices coIIased in Ghana and farmers couId nol recover
lheir cosls. In Kenya, food imorls aIso increased and lhe resuIl-
anl food duming Iayed havoc vilh IocaI farmers' IiveIihoods.
In enin, lhe conlesl vas belveen lhe governmenl's focus on
collon cuIlivalion and exorl, and lhe farmers' cry for heI in food
roduclion.
AIlhough lhese oIicies vere vrong-headed, lhe resonse of
lhe financiaI inslilulions has been lo linker vilh IabeIs and names
ralher lhan address lhe subslance. This is nol incidenlaI. Iree-
markel evangeIisls are veII enlrenched in lhe over slruclures of
lhe Norlh and kee on hammering lhe same doclrine. Afler aII,
lhey are nol lhe ones vho have lo svaIIov lhe biller iIIs.
Many have Iaced hoe for change in arack Obama's admin-
islralion. ul vilh lhe lo economic adviser none olher lhan
Lavrence Summers in 200910, vho reaIIy execled any subslan-
liaI shifl in lhe slalus quo` As chief economisl al lhe WorId ank,
he vas a slrong backer of lhe SAIs. Mr Summers is aIso knovn
for hanging on dogmalicaIIy lo absoIule osilions, according lo
Naomi KIein:
ack in 1991, Summers argued lhal lhe sub|ecl of economics
vas no Ionger u for debale: The ansvers had aII been found by
men Iike him. 'The Iavs of economics are Iike lhe Iavs of engi-
neering,' he said. 'One sel of Iavs vorks everyvhere.' Summers
subsequenlIy Iaid oul lhose Iavs as lhe lhree '-alions': rivali-
salion, slabiIisalion and IiberaIisalion.
2

Summers had, lhe same year, argued lhal hazardous vasles
shouId be disosed of in Africa:
}usl belveen you and me, shouIdn'l lhe WorId ank be encour-
aging more migralion of lhe dirly induslries lo lhe LDCs
|Lesser DeveIoed Counlriesj` I can lhink of lhree reasons:
(1) The measuremenl of lhe cosls of heaIlh-imairing oIIu-
lion deends on lhe forgone earnings from increased morbid-
ily and morlaIily. Irom lhis oinl of viev a given amounl
of heaIlh-imairing oIIulion shouId be done in lhe counlry
vilh lhe Iovesl cosl, vhich viII be lhe counlry vilh lhe Iovesl
vages. I lhink lhe economic Iogic behind duming a Ioad of
MD
K J[+ TJ+7T YA J[+ 5!^GT+VT
loxic vasle in lhe Iovesl-vage counlry is imeccabIe and ve
shouId face u lo lhal. (2) The cosls of oIIulion are IikeIy lo
be non-Iinear as lhe iniliaI incremenls of oIIulion robabIy
have very Iov cosl. I've aIvays lhoughl lhal under-ouIaled
counlries in Africa are vaslIy under-oIIuled, lheir air quaI-
ily is robabIy vaslIy inefficienlIy Iov |sicj comared lo Los
AngeIes or Mexico Cily. OnIy lhe IamenlabIe facls lhal so much
oIIulion is generaled by non-lradabIe induslries (lransorl,
eIeclricaI generalion) and lhal lhe unil lransorl cosls of soIid
vasle are so high revenl vorId-veIfare-enhancing lrade in
air oIIulion and vasle. (3) The demand for a cIean environ-
menl for aeslhelic and heaIlh reasons is IikeIy lo have very
high income-eIaslicily. The concern over an agenl lhal causes
a one-in-a-miIIion change in lhe odds of roslale cancer is
obviousIy going lo be much higher in a counlry vhere eoIe
survive lo gel roslale cancer lhan in a counlry vhere under-5
morlaIily is 200 er lhousand. AIso, much of lhe concern over
induslriaI almosheric discharge is aboul visibiIily-imairing
arlicuIales. These discharges may have very IillIe direcl heaIlh
imacl. CIearIy lrade in goods lhal embody aeslhelic oIIu-
lion concerns couId be veIfare-enhancing. WhiIe roduclion
is mobiIe lhe consumlion of relly air is a non-lradabIe. The
robIem vilh lhe argumenls againsl aII of lhese roosaIs for
more oIIulion in LDCs (inlrinsic righls lo cerlain goods, moraI
reasons, sociaI concerns, Iack of adequale markels, elc) couId be
lurned around and used more or Iess effecliveIy againsl every
ank roosaI for IiberaIisalion.
3
Wilh lhis sorl of lhinking from a chief economisl al lhe WorId ank
il can be seen very cIearIy lhal oIIulion does nol haen by chance.
Ioverly and iII heaIlh are, aarenlIy, engineered lhrough an ideo-
IogicaI mindsel lhal sees as aroriale anylhing lhal secures lhe
veaIlh of lhe mighly even if il kiIIs or diminishes lhe caacily of
lhe veak lo survive. Wilh lhis sorl of mindsel, ve see lhal oIicies
are uroseIy skeved againsl Africa. Consider lhe examIe of agri-
cuIluraI subsidies: vhen he vas US lreasury secrelary, Summers
conlinued anolher sel of oIicies massive slale subsidies for agri-
business. Those subsidies, across Iuroe, }aan and Norlh America,
exose lhe unfair slandards foisled on Africa by lhe Norlh. Il is
eslimaled lhal such subsidies lo farmers amounl lo aImosl a biIIion
doIIars a day more lhan lhe GDI of sub-Saharan Africa.
4
Subsidies
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
MH
aIso reveaI inequilies vilhin lhe Norlh ilseIf, because il is big agri-
business lhal en|oys lhe huge subsidies ralher lhan lhe smaIIhoIder
farmers in Iuroe or Norlh America.
Oflen, lhere is a lendency lo lhink lhere are no smaII-scaIe
farmers in lhe Norlh. The lrulh is lhal lhey exisl and lhal lhey
rovide essenliaI and needed vhoIesome foods lhal meel lhe
needs of IocaI communilies vilhoul having lo deend on shi-
menls of foods and roducls across vasl dislances. Mosl of lhese
smaII-scaIe farmers uliIise Iabour-inlensive, agro-ecoIogicaI melh-
ods and do lhe environmenl and IocaI communilies and neigh-
bourhoods a vhoIe Iol of good.
Il may surrise many lo Iearn lhal lhe smaIIesl 60 er cenl of
Iuroean farms receive onIy 10 er cenl of lhe subsidies avaiIabIe
in Iuroe, vhiIe lhe lo 2 er cenl receive nearIy 25 er cenl of
lhe subsidies. The ralios are even slarker in lhe US, vhere 60 er
cenl of lhe farmers receive no subsidies al aII. Conlrasl lhis vilh
lhe facl lhal in lhe Iasl decade big agribusiness lhose vho make
u lhe lo 10 er cenl and are aIso lhe richesl cornered a heaIlhy
72 er cenl of governmenl suorl.
5

We see lhe erversily in advice given lo African govern-
menls, vhich urges lhem nol lo subsidise lhe agricuIluraI seclor,
vhen ve consider lhal lhis is lhe seclor lhal rovides lhe buIk
of emIoymenl on lhe conlinenl and direclIy Iaces food on lhe
labIes of lhe ma|orily of lhe eoIe. IIace lhis reaIily side by
side vilh lhe silualion in lhe Norlh vhere onIy a liny fraclion
of lhe ouIalion is invoIved in agricuIlure. In lerms of overaII
economic oulul, agricuIlure fiIIs onIy a sIim sace. In Irance,
for examIe, il conlribules 2.9 er cenl of gross domeslic roducl
(ilseIf a biased measure), in }aan il is 1.6 er cenl. IIaced side
by side vilh aid fIovs, agricuIluraI subsidies in lhe Norlh far
oulslri lhe amounls given as aid lo Africa.
Wilh lhis conlradiclion in mind, lhe queslion lhal can Iogi-
caIIy be asked here is: does lhe Norlh deIiberaleIy aim lo hamer
rogress in Africa` Some anaIysls have resonded by saying lhal
lhis is nol lhe case, bul lhal as lrade increases over lhe years, and
due lo raid gIobaIisalion, lhere has been a need lo deveIo some
reguIalory mechanisms lo ensure lhal lhings are rediclabIe.
UnforlunaleIy, lhey say, since lhe Norlh is lhe dominanl Iayer
in such negolialions, lhey ensure lhal lhe agreemenls and ruIes
MI
K J[+ TJ+7T YA J[+ 5!^GT+VT
do nol harm lheir ovn economies. And, unforlunaleIy, lhey harm
someone eIse. Some of lhese measures ensure lhal free markel
forces are onIy aIIoved lo oerale vhere il suils lhe inleresls of
lhe dominanl Iayers. An examIe is lhe brain drain lhal has hil
Africa over lhe years, vilh skiIIed African Iabour gelling readiIy
absorbed inlo lhe vorkforce of lhe Norlh vhiIe Iess skiIIed foIks
are roulineIy refused enlry inlo lhose same markels.
Lel us Iook al lhe SAI cocklaiI and vhal il aimed lo achieve.
The seIIing ilch of lhe SAIs and currenl economic advice
remains lhe cIaim lhal lhe slralegies viII Iace lhe conlinenl on a
nev alh lo deveIomenl lhrough lhe exorl markel. Irogressive
regimes in olher conlinenls have, in conlrasl, aimed lo achieve
imorl subslilulion, vhich vouId obviousIy Iead lo a Iea
forvard for lheir counlries.
eginning in lhe 1980s, lhe IMI and WorId ank imosed a
neoIiberaI economic agenda on African counlries seeking finan-
ciaI assislance incIuding debl reIief. This agenda is calured in
vhal is generaIIy referred lo as condilionaIilies. They incIuded:
Minimisalion of lhe slale lhrough rivalisalion of slale
enlerrises
LiberaIisalion of lhe economy lo aid resource exlraclion as veII
as exorl-orienled oen markels. This incIuded lhe eIiminalion
of imorl conlroIs
Reduced roleclion of domeslic induslries
Higher inleresl rales and auslerily lo Iover consumer demand
and lhus curlaiI infIalion, and encourage savings. Igged on
by Washinglon, mosl African Ieaders demanded lhal cilizens
lighlen lheir beIls, vhiIe lhe Ieaders' vaislIines videned
IIiminalion of subsidies on food and agricuIluraI roducls
RemovaI or veakening of financiaI reguIalions such as currency
conlroIs, vilh lhe aim of allracling foreign inveslors.
On lhe vhoIe, lhe SAIs vere assembIed lo ensure lhal African
counlries vouId reduce lheir deficils on exlernaI accounls and
al lhe same lime achieve a baIanced governmenl budgel. The
condilions sel by lhe IMI and lhe WorId ank vere bound lo
cause more robIems lhan lhe ones lhey vere suosedIy sel lo
soIve. Culs in ubIic exendilure meanl lhal sociaI rogrammes
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
MK
vere lhe firsl lo be hil. Iducalion, heaIlhcare and housing readiIy
received lhe hammer vhiIe sending on lhe miIilary and oIice
vas lyicaIIy raised lo kee lhe unruIy masses quiel.
The inlroduclion of lrade IiberaIisalion meanl lhe duming
of chea agricuIluraI and induslriaI roducls on lhe conlinenl
lhereby undermining IocaI roduclion. Such imorls incIuded
rice, vheal, miIk, chicken and even maize. The immediale
oulcomes incIuded lhe coIIase of agricuIlure as veII as fIedg-
Iing induslriaI seclors. y 1989, Adebayo Adede|i and olher
economisls al lhe Uniled Nalions Iconomic Commission for
Africa roosed lhe 'African AIlernalive Iramevork lo SlrucluraI
Ad|uslmenl Irograms for Socio-Iconomic Recovery and Trans-
formalion' as an aIlernalive lo lhe orlhodox rescrilions of lhe
WorId ank and lhe IMI. When lhis framevork vas resenled
al lhe Uniled Nalions GeneraI AssembIy in November 1989, il
vas veIcomed as 'a basis for conslruclive diaIogue'. Il is very
oignanl lhal onIy one counlry voled againsl lhe resoIulion. Thal
counlry vas lhe Uniled Slales.
6

As described by one of lhe vorId's Ieading maverick inleIIeclu-
aIs, Noam Chomsky of lhe Massachusells Inslilule of TechnoIogy,
Washinglon's ideoIogy oosed Adede|i's ideas on rinciIe:
A cenlraI arl of neoIiberaI doclrine is vhal's caIIed 'minimis-
ing lhe slale.' Thal's Iong-slanding WorId ank doclrine. Il
runs exaclIy counler lo ils anaIysis and lechnicaI sludies, and
nov even ils roosaIs, vhich is maybe somelhing vorlh
lhinking aboul. ul ulling lhal aside, minimising lhe slale
means maximising somelhing eIse. Thal is, decision-making
conlinues. Il doesn'l disaear, bul il conlinues eIsevhere.
Where does il conlinue` The doclrine leIIs you lhal il shifls
lo lhe eoIe, bul again, lhal hardIy rises lo lhe IeveI of a bad
|oke. The decisions are shifled inlo lhe hands of unaccounlabIe
rivale over, acluaIIy lolaIilarian inslilulions lhal are unac-
counlabIe, and il shifls avay from lhe ubIic arena, vhere al
Ieasl in rinciIe lhere can be some measure of ubIic arlicia-
lion and infIuence and conlroI. Thal amounls lo a very shar
allack on democracy. Il's inlended lhal vay and obviousIy has
lhal characler. And il's nol al aII surrising lhal rivale over
areciales il, and il's onIy reasonabIe lo suose lhal il viII
conlinue. Al Ieasl lhey viII lry.
7
ML
K J[+ TJ+7T YA J[+ 5!^GT+VT
The African framevork recognised lhal lhe SAIs faiIed lo
address lhe need for imroved sociaI and lechnoIogicaI infra-
slruclure and faiIed lo mobiIise lhe enlhusiasm, suorl and
crealive abiIilies of lhe eoIe and grassrools organisalions.
8

Moreover, lhey Ied lo a Ioss of |obs, cIosure of businesses and
lhus sociaI uheavaIs 'IMI riols' across lhe conlinenl as basic
necessilies disaeared from markel sheIves or vere oul of reach
of a seriousIy disemovered eoIe.
This framevork diagnosed lhe underIying causes of Africa's
socio-economic crisis as lhe slruclure of an economy:
lhal obIiges Africa lo kee roducing commodilies il does nol
need because ils eoIe consume very IillIe of such commodi-
lies vhiIe il deends on olher eoIe for lhe roduclion of ils
ovn needs. Il is a slruclure of deendency ralher lhan seIf-
reIiance. Il is a slruclure lhal is more imorl-exorl orienled
lhan roduclion-orienled.
Il venl ahead lo suggesl lhal Africa musl sel u an African
Iconomic Communily by lhe year 2000 as envisaged by lhe Lagos
IIan of Aclion. The African Iconomic Communily vouId vork
lo uliIise lhe advanlages of lhe conlinenl and romole roducl
seciaIisalion for a Iarge and unified African markel. This vouId
haen if lrade barriers vilhin lhe communily are removed and
if lhere is an agreemenl on sles lo reduce comelilion belveen
counlries in lhe sub region, such as by ralionaIised roducl
seciaIisalion. The lhird roosed Iank vas lhal lhe communily
shouId ooI resources for research and deveIomenl and engage
in freeIy sharing exeriences in lhe aIicalion of research resuIls.
AII of lhis embodied lhe siril of democralic Ianning. Nolhing
couId be furlher from Washinglon's agenda.
}oseh SligIilz, former chief economisl al lhe WorId ank, vas
crilicaI of lhe ank and lhe IMI:
The IMI Iikes lo go aboul ils business vilhoul oulsiders asking
loo many queslions. In lheory, lhe fund suorls democralic
inslilulions in lhe nalions il assisls. In raclice, il undermines
lhe democralic rocess by imosing oIicies. OfficiaIIy, of
course, lhe IMI doesn'l 'imose' anylhing. Il 'negoliales'
lhe condilions for receiving aid. ul aII lhe over in lhe
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
MM
negolialions is on one sidelhe IMI'sand lhe fund rareIy
aIIovs sufficienl lime for broad consensus-buiIding or even
videsread consuIlalions vilh eilher arIiamenls or civiI soci-
ely. Somelimes lhe IMI disenses vilh lhe relence of oen-
ness aIlogelher and negoliales secrel covenanls.
9
In 1999 lhe IMI reIaced slrucluraI ad|uslmenl rogrammes
vilh lhe Ioverly Reduclion and Grovlh IaciIily (IRGI) and ils
IoIicy Iramevork Iaers vilh Ioverly Reduclion Slralegy Iaers
(IRSI) as lhe nev recondilions for Ioan and debl reIief. The
IRSIs are nolhing more lhan a reackaged SAI. Al a meeling
in May 2001 in KamaIa, African civiI sociely grous crilicised
IRSI as mere vindov-dressing lo imrove lhe IMI and WorId
ank's decIining Iegilimacy. They aIso sav lhe conlenl of IRSIs
as ulling cororale righls before sociaI, human and environmen-
laI righls. The rogramme bIocked any sace for inuls by IocaI
eoIe vhiIe granling lhe IMI and WorId ank more conlroI 'nol
onIy over financiaI and economic oIicies bul over every asecl
and delaiI of aII our nalionaI oIicies and rogrammes'.
10

The IRSIs vere inlroduced oslensibIy in recognilion lhal
nalionaIIy ovned arlicialory overly reduclion slralegies
shouId rovide lhe basis of aII WorId ank/IMI concessionaI
Iending and for debl reIief under lhe enhanced heaviIy indebled
oor counlries (HIIC) inilialive. The HIIC vas Iaunched by lhe
G7 in 1996 al lheir summil in Lyon and vas 'enhanced' al lheir
1999 summil in CoIogne, suosedIy lo rovide deeer, more
raid reIief lo a vider grou of counlries, and lo increase lhe
inilialive's Iinks vilh overly reduclion.
11
Three dozen counlries
are said lo have benefiled from lhe HIIC by lhe end of }une 2009
vhiIe 26 olhers have reached lhe comIelion oinl. According
lo lhe WorId ank, a counlry enlers lhe race lo be cIassified as a
heaviIy indebled oor counlry vhen il can shov lhal il has:
a currenl lrack record of salisfaclory erformance under IMI
and IDA-suorled rograms, a Ioverly Reduclion Slralegy
(IRS) in Iace, and debl burden indicalors lhal are above lhe
HIIC Inilialive lhreshoIds using lhe mosl recenl dala for lhe
year immedialeIy rior lo lhe decision oinl. Al lhe decision
oinl, many credilors, such as lhe ank, lhe IMI, muIliIaleraI
deveIomenl banks, and Iaris CIub biIaleraI credilors, begin lo
MO
K J[+ TJ+7T YA J[+ 5!^GT+VT
rovide debl reIief, aIlhough many of lhese inslilulions main-
lain lhe righl lo revoke lhis if oIicy erformance faIlers.
12
The firsl sles incIude signing an agreemenl vilh lhe IMI for lhree
years and vilhin lhal lime lhe counlry's economic decisions musl
be firsl aroved and lhen slriclIy monilored by Washinglon. The
condilions allached lo lhe HIIC, as noled by civiI sociely grous,
resenl SAI in anolher garmenl. Macroeconomic oIicies such
as lhe inleresl rale and currency (monelary oIicy), governmenl
budgels (fiscaI oIicy) and vhal lhe counlry imorls and exorls
(lrade oIicy) are off lhe labIe, nol u for negolialion vilh civiI
sociely. Some linkering al lhe margin is ermilled bul mosl NGOs
lhal arliciale in HIIC adol lhe neoIiberaI remises so do nol
chaIIenge over.
When lhe lhree-year eriod ends, lhe WorId ank and lhe IMI
conducl a reviev rocess lo delermine if lhe oIicies adoled by
lhe counlry are sufficienl lo enabIe il lo reay ils debl. Hov do
lhey figure lhis oul` They check lo see if lhe ralio belveen lhe
resenl vaIue of lhe debl lhe counlry oves and lhe annuaI vaIue
of exorl revenue exceeds 150 er cenl. Anylhing above lhal is
considered unsuslainabIe and lhe counlry lhus quaIifies lo be
cIassed as a HIIC.
13
The HIIC inilialive currenlIy idenlifies 40 counlries, mosl of
lhem in sub-Saharan Africa, as olenliaIIy eIigibIe lo receive debl
reIief (see TabIe 1).
14
Did HIIC debl reIief deIiver lhe goods` Nol according lo lhe
IMI, vhich admilled in ils 2009 reorl 'The imIicalions of lhe
gIobaI financiaI crisis for Iov-income counlries' lhal debl reIief
vas onIy a maller of a reduced slock of debl, bul lhe fIovs of debl
aymenls acluaIIy slood lo vorsen. In olher vords, lhe GIeneagIes
debl reIief romises vere onIy designed lo conlinue miIking Africa.
efore ve move from revieving slrucluraI ad|uslmenl and ils
melamorhosis, ve shouId briefIy examine lhe WorId ank and
lhe IMI lhemseIves. These lvo bodies cIaim lo be incIusive inslilu-
lions lhal resecl lhe equaIily of nalions as eilomised by lhe one-
counlry, one-vole Uniled Nalions. The facl is lhal lhe IMI oer-
ales more Iike a lransnalionaI cororalion and enlry is deendenl
on lhe urchase of shares by governmenls. Hovever, a counlry
cannol |usl vaIk u and decide lo buy u lhe ma|orily of shares
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
MS
in lhe IMI. The ralios are so veII guarded lhal lhe conlroIIing
overs remain in lhe Norlh. y ils inlernaI vorkings, lhe manag-
ing direclor of lhe IMI musl aIvays be roduced by lhe Iuroe-
ans, as vilnessed in lhe farcicaI rocess of reIacing Dominique
Slrauss-Kahn in 2011. The number lvo sol is reserved for lhe US.
The WorId ank is simiIarIy aarlheid-ordered, bul inslead of a
'Iuroeans OnIy' sign (as found in Soulh Africa before 1994), lhe
WorId ank residenl's door says 'US cilizens onIy'.
Can lhese inslilulions be reformed given lhese kinds of
conslrainls lo democracy` Slrauss-Kahn roudIy cIaimed lhal lhe
queslion of IMI Iegilimacy vas sellIed in November 2010, vhen
he arranged lhal al some fulure dale lhe Iuroean Union mighl
give u seals and voling over lo sIighlIy baIance lhe inslilulions,
bul il lurned oul lhal lhe main beneficiary of a loken 6 er cenl
shifl in voling over vas China no friend of lhe African oor
and environmenl and Africa's voling veighl decIined.
Africa has lhe smaIIesl share of voling righls al lhe IMI,
disadvanlaging lhe conlinenl's oIilicaI cailaI in crilicaI decision-
making oIicies. The media ubIicalion Ioomberg, in an arlicIe
enlilIed 'IMI eIecloraI malh doesn'l add u', slaled:
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The dislorlions dale back lo lhe 1940s vhen lhe deveIoed
vorId of Iuroe and lhe U.S. had mosl of lhe vorId's cash,
knov-hov and Ieadershi. Voling righls vere skeved accord-
ingIy. Under a genlIeman's agreemenl among nalions, lhe U.S.
cIaimed lhe lo |ob al lhe WorId ank, vhich rovides deveI-
omenl aid, vhiIe Iuroe look lhe IMI, vilh ils emhasis on
governmenl rescue Ioans and auslerily Ians. .
To see vhal's vrong vilh lhe eIecloraI malh, consider
eIgium and raziI. eIgium is lhe vorId's 20lh Iargesl economy,
vilh a 1.86 ercenl voling share in lhe IMI. raziI is a vaslIy
Iarger and more ouIous nalion, ranked in lhe vorId's lo 10
economies, vilh lriIe eIgium's oulul. Al lhe IMI, hovever,
raziI is lhe veakIing vilh |usl 1.72 ercenl of lhe vole.
15
A furlher robIem is ideoIogy, as lhe case of Hernando de Solo
shovs.
=(% 69%"<"+? "2 <606#+ /)-6$)<
In order lo Iover oIilicaI and IegaI risks, a fuIIy fIedged, ro-
cororale rebooling of an African counlry's roerly righls
can assisl enormousIy. A ro-oor ideoIogy comes in handy.
According lo Anuradha MillaI of lhe US-based OakIand Inslilule,
in counlries Iike Zambia, foreign inveslors can acquire Iand by
offering lhe chief as IillIe as a bollIe of }ack DanieIs vhiskey.
This is oflen orlrayed as lhe roducl of a Iack of roerly
lilIing in Africa, vhere Iand is shared, oflen lhrough cuslomary
Iavs. ul lhis is messy, and a beller arrangemenl is referred.
Across lhe vorId, such informaIIy conlroIIed assels are described
by Ieruvian economisl Hernando de Solo as $9 lriIIion-vorlh
of 'dead cailaI',
16
Iocked avay from lhe biIIions of ruraI oor
because of lhe Iack of rivale roerly righls (lhrough lilIing)
and securilisalion. Once a roerly righl is aIied lo Iand or a
house, lhen il can be regislered and a Iien laken by a bank in a
deeds office, and lhis gives lhe ovner lhe ossibiIily of draving
credil bul al lhe risk of Iosing lhe coIIaleraI. Wilh lhe coIIase of
much of lhe hye over microcredil because of disaslers in Soulh
Asia (200,000 debl-reIaled suicides in lhe Indian slale of Andra
Iradesh since 2000, for examIe) and, indeed, across lhe vorId,
lhis is a dangerous recie for a nev round of disIacemenl.
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
OP
Yel, de Solo is a ceIebrily adviser lo governmenls, ranging from
Arislide's in Haili rior lo 2004, lo lhe UK's Dovning Slreel, lo
Washinglon's While House and Russia's KremIin. In 2004, de Solo
vas even described by iII CIinlon as 'lhe vorId's mosl imorlanl
Iiving economisl'.
17

OminousIy, hovever, de Solo has co-oled lhe Ianguage of
|uslice by defining lhe remise of overly as Iack of access lo
rivale roerly and credil. Irom lhere comes many of lhe ideo-
IogicaI ressures associaled vilh rivalisalion.
Take Uganda: in 1998, Iresidenl Yoveri Museveni eager
lo orlray himseIf as a nev kind of African Ieader ushering in
a davn of lransarenl governance began a Iand rivalisalion
rogramme crealing, in lheory, a roerly markel resonding lo
markel 'demand'. This rendered lhe buying and seIIing of Iand
a far easier, and simIer, issue for inveslors. Dislricl Iand boards
began lhe rocess of seIIing Iand. ul for lhose ruraI eoIe vilh-
oul oIilicaI access, IegaI over and lhe finance lo comele vilh
high-overed inleresls, as Ic Mcn!c Oip|cnaiiquc vriles, 'Iand
reform became a Iand grab.'
18
So, vho reciseIy does lhis IegaIism benefil`
In an inlerviev vilh Wcr|! Pc|icq jcurna|, de Solo describes lhe
rocess by vhich foreign inveslors receive invioIabIe roerly righls.
These same righls, he cIaims, shouId be given lo lhe vorId's oor:
So here comes an American comany, for examIe. They gel a
roerly righl from lhe Ieruvian governmenl and lhal ro-
erly righl is in lhe form of a concession. Il eslabIishes lhal il's
lheirs, rovided you renev agreemenls and commilmenls over
so many years, bul il's a roerly righl. And lhey're going lo
have il for 60 years, 120 years, or il's unIimiled . Then lhal
roerly righl vhich has been rolecled by lhe biIaleraI
inlernalionaI lrealy lhal has been signed belveen Ieru and lhe
Uniled Slales gels inscribed and bIessed by lhe Uniled Slales
Overseas Irivale Inveslmenl Cororalion (OIIC), vhich issues
guaranlees lhal makes il inleresling for everybody lo Iook al
lhal roerly, because il's gol lhe backing of OIIC. Then lhal
roerly righl goes lo lhe MuIliIaleraI Inveslmenl Guaranlee
rogram of lhe WorId ank, vhere again il is ralified by ils 187
member counlries, vho of course viev lhis as a vay of guaran-
leeing inveslmenl in deveIoing nalions.
19
OD
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According lo de Solo, lhis 'erfecled' roerly righl can be ossessed
by lhe ovner lo any crilicaI inveslor or financiaI hub, from WaII
Slreel lo London, as a lilIe lhal, 'even lhe Ieruvian congress can'l
lake avay'. ul, slaled de Solo, vhiIe lribes may have lhe same
amounl of Iand righl nexl door, lhe difference 'slriclIy lhe aer'
is bolh vasl in raclicaI lerms and vaslIy unequaI.
Yel Iand lilIing and aII lhal accomanies il does nol faII inlo a
vacuum bul inlo a secific socio-economic circumslance: neilher
lhe OIIC, WorId ank, nor any olher neoIiberaI inslilulion viII
lake lhe lime or lroubIe lo imIemenl lhe same carefuI righls for
lhe oor. As Ugandan hislorian Ihares Mulibva comIained,
lhe laking of ugandan Iand by foreigners, 'is causing a Iol of
resenlmenl. There is bad bIood belveen lhe nev ovners of
Iand in uganda and lhe aganda easanls.'
20
UnsurrisingIy,
erhas, de Solo's book Tnc Mqsicrq cj Capiia|
21
cIaims lhal lhe
US's WiId Wesl fronlier examIe of roerly lilIing heIs exIain
lhal counlry's success. ul lhere is no menlion of lhe Ioss of lhe
nalive eoIes, save lhal lhey did nol undersland lhe concel of
'ovning' Iand.
Inforcing lhe ideoIogy are lhe rellon Woods inslilulions
and lheir SAIs. As aIready described, lhe SAI may veII be lhe
singIe mosl olenl looI used in lhe emascuIalion of lhe African
conlinenl, ensuring lhal lhe conlinenl relains an emly bovI in
her hands, ready lo veIcome furlher heI lhal furlher deeens
her vuInerabiIily. The kinds of lensions generaled in lhe rocess
are conducive lo lhe oulbreak of Africa's resource vars, anolher
case of lhe inlernalionaI syslem amIifying lhe robIems caused
by exlraclivism.
E%&":,/% .),&
CenlraI Africa has resenled seciaI difficuIlies vhen il comes
lo handIing confIicls vilhin lhe conlinenl. The confIicls in Sierra
Leone, Liberia and Cle d'Ivoire langenliaIIy invoIved neigh-
bouring slales, bul vere nolhing comared lo lhe inlricale enlan-
gIemenl of lhe slales in lhe CenlraI Africa vars. ConfIicls lhal
invoIved Rvanda, Uganda, Democralic ReubIic of Congo (DRC)
and AngoIa somelimes gol so comIex lhal il vas never cIear
vhelher combalanls vere roxies for siIenl arlies.
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
OH
In lhose confIicls and in lhe SomaIia and even Sudanese deba-
cIes, lhe roIe of exlernaI advisers, nolabIy lhe Uniled Nalions, has
been caIIed inlo queslion. One lhing lhal has been cIear is lhal
underIying causes of lhe confIicls are oflen lhe slruggIe for lhe
conlroI of naluraI resources. WhiIe fighling in lhe region musl
invoIve mercenaries, as is lo be execled, lhere are fev cases in
vhich exlernaI forces have oenIy inlervened. The vars of inde-
endence of AngoIa and lo a Iesser exlenl Namibia vere foughl
vilh lhe slrong resence of Cubans.
The gIobaI divide erecled by lhe coId var moslIy delermined
lhe queslion of vho vas fighling on vhose side in lhose years. If
a side vas suorled by lhe Soviel Union, lhe olher side vas sure
lo oblain suorl from lhe US. The maller of vhal vas Iegilimale
vas oflen ushed lo lhe back burner. In lhis vay diclalors couId
be suslained in over no maller hov eviI lhey gol as Iong as lheir
resence in lhe seals of over secured lhe inleresls of lhe ro-
ing overs and bIocked lhe access of lhose on lhe olher side.
This scenario vorked veII for alenlIy corrul Ieaders such as
Iresidenl Mobulu of Zaire (nov lhe DRC).
Wilh regard lo lhe Rvandan genocide, il vouId aear lhal
vhiIe eIgian divide-and-ruIe dales back generalions, lhe imme-
diale seeds of lhe confIicl vere sovn as earIy as in 1990 vhen
Tulsi exiIes in Uganda formed lhe Rvandan Ialriolic Ironl and
aimed lo seize over in Rvanda. The ensuing confIicl allracled
allemls al sellIemenl lhal incIuded lhe Arusha Ieace Agreemenl
of 1993. Hovever, lhe assassinalions of lhe residenls of Rvanda
and urundi in a 1994 Iane crash Ied lo a over slruggIe lhal
lriggered lhe genocide, Ieaving a miIIion viclims and aboul lhree
miIIion refugees oul of a ouIalion of 7.5 miIIion. Al lhe lime of
lhe massacre, a Uniled Nalions Assislance Mission for Rvanda
vas aIready in Iace. Il couId nol slo lhe bIoodshed, in arl
because, as US Iresidenl iII CIinlon Ialer admilled, lhe eoIe of
Rvanda vere simIy nol riorilies in 1994.
Are elhnic differences aIvays a ma|or cause of confIicls in
Africa` In lhe Rvandan case, lhe Hulus and lhe Tulsis are knovn
lo videIy inlermarry. The ordinary eoIe Iived al eace vilh
lheir neighbours in lhe lrue African lradilion. The robIem is vilh
lhe Ieaders vho seek lo creale encIaves and lerrilories for lhem-
seIves, lhey find lhe elhnic card easy lo Iay. They use lhese cards
OI
K J[+ TJ+7T YA J[+ 5!^GT+VT
lo sov susicion, halred and fear in lhe hearls of lheir eoIe
and IileraIIy Iead lhem lo sIaughler lheir neighbours. As il is vilh
lhe Hulus and Tulsis of Rvanda, so il used lo be vilh lhe I|avs,
Ilsekiris and Urhobos of lhe Niger DeIla of Nigeria.
ConfIicls in lhis arl of Africa form a vioIenl brev: elhnic
cIeavages, oIilicaI over and conlroI of resources. As much
as oulsiders inlervene lo |oin in lhe exIoilalion of lhe naluraI
resources in lhe region, bIame for lhis slale of affairs musl resl
squareIy on regionaI Ieaders. Take lhe case of lhe var vaged
by lhe Iale Laurenl-Desire KabiIa and his AIIiance of Demo-
cralic Iorces for lhe Liberalion of Congo-Zaire (ADIL) againsl
lhe Mobulu governmenl in 1996. The ADIL vas suorled by
Uganda, Rvanda, urundi and AngoIa. The AngoIans suorled
lhem aIIegedIy as a ayback for Mobulu's suorl for Savimbi's
UNITA againsl lhe AngoIan governmenl. KabiIa began lo vork
againsl his aIIies afler a year in office and lhal raised nev IeveIs of
confIicl as he aIigned himseIf vilh lhe Hulus in lhe region. Afler
lhe assassinalion of KabiIa, in }anuary 2001, his 29-year-oId son
look over lhe reigns of over.
Al lhe heighl of lhe confIicls in lhe Congo axis lhere vere
u lo nine armies in lhe fray. The diamond markel lhal lhrived
in KigaIi, even lhough Rvanda does nol have any diamonds,
highIighled lhe Iunder of DRC's resources. A Uniled Nalions
reorl issued in AriI 2001 accused Uganda and Rvanda of
Iundering diamonds, coer, cobaIl, goId and coIlan from DRC.
Zimbabvean and AngoIan commanders vho heIed KabiIa even
en|oyed seciaI soiIs of var: lhey vere given righls lo mine
recious mineraIs in lhe zones lhal lhey defended.
22

In many of lhese confIicls, lhe Uniled Nalions forces have
Iayed a eacekeeing roIe and are usuaIIy nol invoIved in
direcl combal excel in seIf-defence. Hovever, lhere have been
accusalions lhal lhe eacekeeers fighling on lhe side of DRC
governmenl forces allemled lo ush lhe miIilia of lhe Demo-
cralic Iorces for lhe Liberalion of Rvanda (IDLR) oul of DRC
and inlo Rvanda. The Uniled Nalions denied comIicily in lhe
alrocilies lhal foIIoved lhe allacks. The Uniled Nalions Mission
in Congo (MUNUC) is said lo be lhe vorId's Iargesl UN eace-
keeing mission vilh 20,000 eacekeeers and a budgel of $1.3bn
in 2009.
23
GeneraIIy, Africa has allracled Iarger number of UN
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
OK
eacekeeers lhan any olher region. In lhe 1990s, oul of 32 oera-
lions, 13 vere in Africa.
NeverlheIess, lhe UN faiIed seclacuIarIy in SomaIia and lhis
aears lo have ul a damer on lhe oulIay of resources and
inlervenlions eIsevhere. AnaIysls bIame lhe Uniled Slales for lhe
faiIure of lhe SomaIi slale, given ils roIe in encouraging Ilhioian
residenl, MeIes Zenavi, lo invade in earIy 2007. The US sliII
has dee inleresls in hov lhe silualion Iays oul in lhal counlry
as lhey back lhe unily governmenl lhal somehov oversees lhe
nalion. During her visil lo Africa in 2009, lhe US secrelary of
slale, HiIIary CIinlon, cIaimed lhal Irilrea vas suorling Soma-
Iia's aI-Shabab miIilanls, vho are fighling lo loIe lhe unily
governmenl.
24
These advisers incIuding cororalions lhal urchase greal
svalhes of Iand (such as }arch, as ve discuss beIov) seem lo
have a rediIeclion for vorking rimariIy for lheir ovn seIf-inler-
esl ralher lhan lhe inleresls of lhe nalions lhey cIaim lo be heI-
ing. Africa has been a ready sace for scenario Ianners lo lesl oul
lheir dreams. There are reorls of mining comanies sonsoring
rebeI grous in counlries such as Sierra Leone so as lo secure lhe
sace for lhe comanies lo Iool lhe region of mineraI resources in
exchange for cash vilh vhich lhe rebeI Ieaders can rocure vea-
ons and Iive fIamboyanl IifeslyIes. Counlries vilh resource-rich
regions silling on lheir borders have used lhe same laclics. olh
Uganda and Rvanda have been accused of sonsoring cross-
border confIicls in order lo grab mineraI resources in DRC.
Liberia suffered one of lhe vorsl civiI vars. Ior many eoIe,
lhe slory of Liberia is one of bIood diamonds. Ior olhers il is a slory
of rubber vilh Iireslone al lhe hearl of lhe robIem. ul lhere is
anolher seclor lhal musl nol escae our focus in lhis counlry and
lhal is lhe iron and sleeI seclor, Ied by Lamco, a Liberian-Svedish-
American comany. Il cIosed sho in 1989, in lhe vake of lhe
counlry's firsl civiI var. ArceIorMillaI, currenlIy lhe vorId's Iargesl
sleeI enlily, enlered lhe scene in 2005, negolialing a 25-year conces-
sion lo mine and deveIo iron ore around lhe counlry's norlh-vesl
border vilh Guinea. Afler lvo decades of vicious civiI var, Liberi-
ans vere eager lo gel lhe economy back u and running. ArceIor-
MillaI engaged vilh lhe lhen-NalionaI TransilionaI Governmenl,
|usl lhree monlhs rior lo democralic eIeclions, and moved for lhe
OL
K J[+ TJ+7T YA J[+ 5!^GT+VT
|uiciesl agreemenl lhey couId gel: lhe bargain bin rice of $900mn.
Thal deaI gave lhem aslonishing concessions, incIuding conlroI
over hov much royaIly lhey vouId ay, because, according lo
Iriends of lhe Iarlh, lhe mineraI deveIomenl agreemenl does
nol 'secify lhe mechanism lo sel lhe rice of ore and Ieaves oen
lhe basis for inlra-comany ricing, crealing a slrong incenlive for
MillaI lo seII lhe ore al beIov markel vaIue lo an affiIiale, vhich
vouId reduce lhe acluaI royaIlies aid'.
25

This is nol uncommon. Cororale misricing faciIilales over 60
er cenl of Africa's annuaI iIIicil fIighl, eslimaled al a minimum of
$148bn annuaIIy. ArceIorMillaI nol onIy crealed a comany slruc-
lure lhal shieIded lhe arenl comany from being heId resonsi-
bIe for lhe aclions of lhe subsidiary. The comany vas aIso given
lhe excIusive righl lo lvo ma|or Liberian nalionaI infraslruclures:
a raiIvay Iine and lhe Iorl of uchanan. The onIy lime lhe govern-
menl of Liberia couId use lhe orl or lhe raiIvay vas if lhere
exisled sare caacily, effecliveIy granling lhe comany quasi-
governmenlaI slalus. Among olher heaviIy maniuIaled cIauses,
ArceIorMillaI vas aIIoved lo mainlain ils ovn unchecked secu-
rily force, vas exemled from human righls or environmenlaI
IegisIalive acls inlroduced in Liberia, and vas given lhe righl lo
exroriale Iand aImosl al viII.
26
Indeed, in a counlry emerging
from a deadIy civiI var, lhis vas a bIank cheque for gross vioIa-
lion of bolh firsl generalion (civiI and oIilicaI) as veII as second-
generalion (economic, sociaI and cuIluraI) righls.
We knov of lhese robIems lhanks lo courageous non-rofil
organisalions such as GIobaI Wilness, aulhors of lhe 'Heavy
MillaI' reorl,
27
vhich vas used by lhe governmenl of Iresidenl
IIIen }ohnson-SirIeaf as a guide lo conlracl renegolialion. She
allemled lo |unk some of lhe more exIoilalive cIauses, incIud-
ing lhe use of lhe raiIvay and lhe orl, and lhe lax hoIiday. Afler
inlense negolialions, lhe nev agreemenl vas signed in December
2006 and ralified by lhe Liberian IegisIalure in May 2007.
ul nolvilhslanding lhe imrovemenls, lhe environmenlaI
and sociaI imacls remain conlesled. The concession area Iies
in lhe Nimba Mounlain on lhe boundary vilh Guinea and Cle
d'Ivoire. The sides of lhe Nimba Mounlain in lhe neighbouring
counlries have been a nalure reserve since 1944 and currenlIy an
area amounling lo 180sq km has become a nalure reserve as veII
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
OM
as being named a WorId Herilage Sile. As a nalure reserve, lhe
area is slriclIy rolecled and is nol oen lo lourism. The Liberian
side of lhe mounlain is curiousIy nol a rolecled zone. Is iron
slronger lhan nalure and Iife` The Ioss of biodiversily due lo
mining aclivilies in lhis area is an oen secrel, bul no one is viII-
ing lo Iug lhe hoIe.
Given lhe sky-high rale of unemIoymenl, Liberians vho are
abIe lo find vork vilh lhe iron comany are nol in a good osi-
lion lo negoliale fair vages. According lo Iriends of lhe Iarlh,
lhey 'vork six lo seven days a veek in lhe lroicaI heal, and
sIee in lenls on a Iyvood fIoor. They are aIIolled a cu of rice
and sou daiIy, drink veII valer and have lheir ay docked for
hosilaI visils.'
28

F),/( $)5%& $(% >":$(%,# >:9)#
Anolher reveaIing case of deslruclive exlraclion is Soulhern Sudan,
vhere an American comany banked on lhe break-u of lhe nalion
as lhe besl oulcome for lheir business inleresls. Whal makes lhis
case more inleresling is lhe susecled Iink belveen lhe corora-
lion invoIved and ils home counlry's Slale Dearlmenl and lhe
ossibiIily lhal lhis is a fronl for a foreign oIicy game. WhiIe
}arch CailaI look a delermined sland in Soulhern Sudan, Chinese
comanies vere resenl in lhe norlh and conlinued lo dig deeer.
Though il vas iIIegaI lo do business in Sudan, }arch vas aclive
Iong before lhe counlry's 2011 sIil. The comany grabbed a 50-year
Iease on 400,000 heclares of farmIand in Soulhern Sudan's Mayo
counly from Mali NhiaI, lhe deuly commander-in-chief of lhe
Sudan IeoIes Liberalion Army. In addilion, }arch CailaI hoIds
a 70 er cenl slake in anolher comany vilh righls lo grov cros
and rocess lhem inlo finished roducls for IocaI as veII as exorl
markels. The comany's mollo, roudIy disIayed on ils homeage
in 2011, is 'ecause Il Is YOUR Land, YOUR NaluraI Resources!'
The firm's chairman and chief execulive officer, IhiIie HeiI-
berg, loId Oi| |cticu Ajrica:
We are a ralher unique comany in a unique niche in lhal our
comany focuses on counlries in Africa lhal are undergoing
and may undergo sovereignly changes such as changes lo
OO
K J[+ TJ+7T YA J[+ 5!^GT+VT
inlernalionaI borders and lhe crealion of nev counlries oul of
currenl ones . ve alleml lo become exerls on lhe geo-oIilics
of lhose counlries undergoing sovereignly changes and eslab-
Iish key reIalionshis vilh lhe Ieadershi or olenliaI Ieaders of
lhe nev slale. In addilion, ve alleml lo sign naluraI resources
agreemenls vilh lhese Ieaders or olenliaI Ieaders even before
lhey become recognised sovereigns . |}archj beIieves in
lhe emovermenl of lhe ouIalions vho acluaIIy ovn lhe
resources, somelimes being exIoiled by olhers. }arch Iooks lo
vork vilh lhe ouIalion lo deveIo slralegies lo secure lheir
oIilicaI and economic righls of seIf-delerminalion.
29

According lo researcher Sam Urquharl:
|Tjhe firm boasls a curious casl of ex-inleIIigence officiaIs,
CIinlon era insiders and veleran neocon varriors on ils
managemenl leam. There's Larry }ohnson (ex-CIA and frequenl
commenlalor on cabIe nevs aboul lerrorism reIaled lhemes).
There's Gvynelh Todd, an ex-CIinlon adviser on MiddIe Iasl
affairs. There's even }oseh WiIson, lhe ex-U.S. ambassador lo
Niger vho became noloriousIy embroiIed in lhe rearalions
for lhe War in Iraq. AIongside WiIson, lhere's aIso } Ieler Iham,
a rominenl neo-con commenlalor, arlicuIarIy on African
issues. And, al lhe aex of lhe oeralion, lhere is IhiIie
HeiIberg. HeiIberg himseIf, frequenlIy described as a bucaneer-
ing biIIionaire, has done lime al AIG and Cilibank (a gIorious
resume for sure).
30
This comany's game Ian in Soulh Sudan faIIs squareIy inlo
lhe niche carved for cororale confIicl enlrereneurs vho seek
oul counlries in socio-oIilicaI lurmoiI and lhen ilch lheir lenls.
As lhe comany's vebsile brags, 'Since 2002, }arch has focused
rimariIy on Africa as lhe vorId Ieader in lhe grovlh olenliaI
for naluraI resources deveIomenl.'
31
Soulh Sudan became an
indeendenl slale in }uIy 2011, and }arch is a case in vhich coro-
rale inleresls benefil from sloking lhe fires of confIicl in African
counlries, vhere seIf-inleresl enlaiIs sIinlering slales.
ul }arch is nol finished, for as Urquharl exIains:
CeciI Rhodes vouId have been lruIy roud. In facl, Rhodes'
slralagem of raising aramiIilary forces lo break u lhe oer
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
OS
slale in TransvaaI anliciales }arch's ovn by a cenlury or more.
Il's cIassicaIIy imeriaIisl. In facl, HeiIberg has underlaken
a fairIy idiosyncralic reading of imeriaI hislory lo reare
himseIf for his African advenlures. As he loId reorler arry
Morgan in Iebruary 2008, 'I Iook al lhe unvinding of lhe
Olloman Imire, lhe coIIase of lhe Soviel Union, lhe lvo GuIf
Wars and lhe faII-oul from osnia & Herzegovina and I can
see lhings reverling lo a naluraI slale of equiIibrium vhere il
simIy makes no sense for some nalions lo be groued logelher
or slay in lheir earIier aIignmenl.' A year Ialer, he vas leIIing
reorlers 'severaI African slales, Sudan incIuded, bul ossibIy
aIso Nigeria, Ilhioia and SomaIia, are IikeIy lo break aarl in
lhe nexl fev years, and lhal lhe oIilicaI and IegaI risks he is
laking viII be amIy revarded.'
32
The inlraclabIe nalure of lhese confIicls can aIso be found in lhe
facl lhal lhe same resources lhal ignile lhe confIicls aIso kee lhe
fIames burning, because once any of lhe conlending arlies Iay
lheir fingers on lhe resources lhey lhen use lhe resources lo fueI
lheir var machines and ound lheir var drums. The addilionaI
sad nole is lhal somelimes lhe combalanls forgel vhy lhey slarled
lhe confIicl in lhe firsl Iace and, even vhen lhe originaI causes
have gone, lhe fighl goes on anyvay.
ON
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Pcpping
A ni||icn cxp|csicns
A sncucr cj scci
On cpcn rau ncrtcs
Oi|s nci uc||
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Ncu inc carin is a||azc
Wncrc ui|| inc pccp|c gc?
1
THI IXTRACTIVI INDUSTRIIS vouId Iike lo have everyone
beIieve lhal lhey oerale a IeveI Iaying fieId vhelher lhey are
vorking in Norlh America, Iuroe, Soulh America, Asia or
Africa. When rominenl cases lo lhe conlrary are highIighled,
some exlraclive seclor lransnalionaI comanies are quick lo say
lhal lhey are mere scaegoals and lhal lhey are nol lhe vorsl
cororalions in lhe fieId. Some induslry Iayers have loId me lo
my face lhal vhen ve comIain aboul oiI cororalions' behaviour
in Nigeria ve are mereIy biling lhe fingers lhal feed us. Some
have gone so far as lo say lhal vilhoul lhe oeralors Nigeria
vouId slarve and vouId be nolhing, mereIy Africa's aer gianl.
SheII, lhe gianl oiI cororalion, has been much condemned for
ils alrocious record in Nigeria and il conslanlIy vriggIes and
screams aboul il. Ils ma|or robIem is lhal no maller lhe deni-
aIs, lhe facls unforlunaleIy seak cIearIy. We can argue lhal lhe
cororalion has nol aIvays sel oul lo do eviI, and lhal lhe facl
lhal il inevilabIy did so vas a maller over vhich il had no choice.
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
SP
We can argue lhal vay. Yel lhal vouId nol equale lhe enance of
lhe enilenl. The comany couId cIaim lhal il is a roducl of lhe
environmenl in vhich il oerales. And ve vouId agree lhal lhe
Nigerian environmenl is ecuIiar in many vays. ul no one can
cIaim absoIulion by heaing lhe bIame on lhe economic or oIili-
caI environmenl. As Human Righls Walch ul il, 'Comanies
have a duly lo avoid bolh comIicily and advanlage from human
righls abuses.'
2
A"/:@%#$6#+ %G$,)/$60% 9%&$,:/$6"#
Oling oul of Nigeria, or Africa as vhoIe, is a lhreal lhal coro-
ralions make bul are unIikeIy lo foIIov lhrough, given lhe very
high rofil rales. In Nigeria, SheII officiaIs have argued lhal il is
nol fair for lhem lo receive such a heavy bashing for lhe sociaI
and environmenlaI robIems of lhe Niger DeIla. Al one oinl
lhey even oinled fingers al lheir comelilor, MobiI, saying lhal
since il oerales mainIy from offshore fieIds il seems lhal lhey
are excused because il is a case of 'oul of sighl and oul of mind.'
They aIso cIaimed lhal Nigeria vouId be vorse off if SheII vere
lo dearl, as no olher cororalion lhal couId lake over lheir
oeralions couId boasl a beller record in heaIlh, safely and envi-
ronmenlaI slandards.
3
A ma|or sludy
4
carried oul by Irofessor
Richard Sleiner reached lhe concIusion lhal SheII Nigeria oer-
ales veII beIov inlernalionaIIy recognised slandards lo revenl
and conlroI oiI siIIs. He gave lhe foIIoving reasons lo back lhis
concIusion:
Lack of imIemenling 'good oiI fieId raclise' vilh regard lo
ieIine inlegrily managemenl (arlicuIarIy lhe US IM reguIa-
lions, AII slandards, and AIaska's besl avaiIabIe lechnoIogy
requiremenls)
DeIay in inilialing an assel inlegrily reviev (AIR) and ieIine
inlegrily managemenl syslem (IIMS) for SheII Nigeria, vhich
admils il has a backIog in ils assel inlegrily rogramme
QueslionabIe adequacy of SheII Nigeria's AIR and IIMS, and
Iack of indeendenl oversighl
Lack of reference lo and allenlion by SheII Nigeria lo lhe Niger
DeIla as a High Consequence Area for oiI siIIs
SD
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Lack of adequale allenlion by SheII Nigeria lo lhe Niger DeIla
as an area in vhich oiI faciIilies are suscelibIe lo inlenlionaI
lhird-arly damage, requiring enhanced ieIine inlegrily and
moniloring rocedures
IxcelionaIIy high number, exlenl, and severily of oiI ieIine
siIIs in lhe Niger DeIla before, during, and afler lheir AIR and
IIMS
Lack of lransarency in SheII Nigeria lhe AIR, IIMS, |oinl
oeraling agreemenl and ils oiI siII conlingency Ian shouId
admil lo indeendenl lhird-arly evaIualion
Lack of adequale oiI siII resonse caabiIily and erformance
of SheII Nigeria.
The Sleiner reorl focused on oiI siIIs, bul il gives us a iclure
of lhe generaI silualion in lhe oiIfieIds. o van DesseI, a
former SheII head of environmenlaI sludies in Nigeria, quil
lhe cororalion in 1994 ciling rofessionaI fruslralion foIIov-
ing SheII's exlensive oIIulion and breaching of inlernalionaI
slandards. He vas quoled as saying: 'They vere nol meeling
lheir ovn slandards, lhey vere nol meeling inlernalionaI
slandards. Any SheII sile lhal I sav vas oIIuled. Any lermi-
naI I sav vas oIIuled.'
5
To be fair, SheII ilseIf has admilled
lhal ils environmenlaI slandards are Iover in Nigeria lhan
in America and Iuroe.
6
The cororalion aIso admilled lo
Chrislian Aid lhal lhe overaII iclure of lhe age and inlegrily
of lheir ieIines in lhe Niger DeIla as veII as lheir (SheII's)
lransarency vhen comared lo induslry slandards vas
incomIele.
7
TabIe 2 indicales lhe rale of ieIine faiIures in
seIecled regions. Il shovs cIearIy lhal lhe cororalion's oera-
lion in Nigeria is in a cIass by ilseIf, cerlainIy nol aIigned lo
inlernalionaI slandards.
The number of oiI siIIs and lhe reguIarily of lheir occurrence
make nonsense of any cIaims lo accelabIe slandards by any of
lhe cororalions oeraling in lhe Niger DeIla. AIlhough oiI siII
records diverge deending on lhe source, lhey aII shov lhal lhe
voIumes of loxins reIeased inlo lhe environmenl are incredibIy
high. Combined, lhey make lhe vorId-famous Ixxon VaIdez
oiI siII of 1989 aIe in comarison. Thal siII affecled 2,000km
of shoreIine vilh 320km being heaviIy or moderaleIy affecled.
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
SH
Tvenly years Ialer, lraces of lhe siII can sliII be found aIong lhe
shoreIine.
9
Renovned Nigerian environmenlaI Iav rofessor Margarel
Okorodudu-Iubara eslimaled lhal 2,105,993 barreIs of crude oiI
vere siIIed inlo lhe Niger DeIla environmenl belveen 1976 and
1990 in a lolaI of 2,800 incidenls.
10
Oulslanding incidenls incIude
lhe ruluring al SheII's Iorcados lerminaI in 1979 vhere 570,000
barreIs vere seved inlo lhe esluary and ad|oining creeks.
Texaco had ils day in 1980 al Iuniva, vhere 400,000 barreIs
of crude oiI vere emlied inlo coaslaI valers and deslroyed 340
heclares of mangrove foresls. Ior MobiI, lheir Iandmark siII vas
recorded in }anuary 1998 vhen lheir Idoho Ialform reIeased
40,000 barreIs of crude onlo lhe AlIanlic coasl, affecling al Ieasl
22 coaslaI communilies.
11
In lhe case lhal ensued, Texaco had lo
reach oul-of-courl sellIemenls vilh lhe affecled communilies.
In Oclober 2009, lhe Nigerian NalionaI OiI SiII Deleclion and
Resonse Agency (NOSDRA)
12
announced lhal 2,122 oiI siII inci-
denls vere recorded belveen 2006 and 2009. The crude Ioss vas
ul al 66,696 barreIs. There vere 252 incidenls of siII in 2006, 597
incidenls in 2007, 927 cases in 2008 vhiIe belveen }anuary and
}une 2009, 346 cases vere recorded.
13
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JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
SK
The Niger DeIla region of Nigeria has lhe reulalion of being
one of lhe mosl oIIuled Iaces on earlh. Thal reulalion has been
laken as a given, due lo hysicaI evidence of degradalion. Iossi-
bIy lhe mosl comrehensive environmenlaI audil of lhe region is
lhe Niger DeIla InvironmenlaI Survey (NDIS) commissioned by
SheII Iroduclion DeveIomenl Comany (SIDC or SheII) in lhe
1990s. The resuIls of lhal survey have nol been made ubIic as
SheII chose lo Iock lhe reorls u in ils vauIls.
Hovever, afler lhe federaI governmenl of Nigeria commis-
sioned lhe Uniled Nalions Invironmenl Irogramme (UNII) lo
assess lhe environmenl of OgoniIand, a reorl of a segmenl of lhe
Niger DeIla is finaIIy avaiIabIe. The assessmenl look 14 monlhs
lo comIele and lhe reorl vas deIivered lo Iresidenl GoodIuck
}onalhan of Nigeria on 4 Augusl 2011. Among lhe key findings are:
In al Ieasl 10 Ogoni communilies vhere drinking valer is
conlaminaled vilh high IeveIs of hydrocarbons, ubIic heaIlh
is seriousIy lhrealened . In one communily, al Nisisioken
OgaIe, in veslern OgoniIand, famiIies are drinking valer from
veIIs lhal are conlaminaled vilh benzene a knovn carcino-
gen al IeveIs over 900 limes above WorId HeaIlh Organisalion
guideIines. The sile is cIose lo a Nigerian NalionaI IelroIeum
Comany ieIine. UNII scienlisls found an 8 cm Iayer of
refined oiI fIoaling on lhe groundvaler vhich serves lhe veIIs.
This vas reorledIy Iinked lo an oiI siII vhich occurred more
lhan six years ago.
WhiIe lhe reorl rovides cIear oeralionaI recommendalions
for addressing lhe videsread oiI oIIulion across OgoniIand,
UNII recommends lhal lhe conlaminalion in Nisisioken OgaIe
varranls emergency aclion ahead of aII olher remedialion efforls.
WhiIe some on-lhe-ground resuIls couId be immediale,
overaII lhe reorl eslimales lhal counlering and cIeaning u lhe
oIIulion and calaIyzing a suslainabIe recovery of OgoniIand
couId lake 25 lo 30 years.
15
AIlhough lhe reorl vas nol concIusive on heaIlh and cro yieId
imacls, lhe facls il exosed vere sufficienlIy aIarming. The
researchers found, for examIe, hydrocarbon oIIulion u lo a
delh of 5m in lhe soiIs of OgoniIand.
Reading lhe UNII reorl, knoving lhal oiI exIoilalion vas
SL
L !+TJVF2JG^+ +gJV52JGY@
haIled in OgoniIand in 1993, il is easy lo deduce lhal lhe olher
communilies in lhe Niger DeIla lerrilory are as badIy damaged
or even more so, considering lhal nev oIIulion evenls are sliII
occurring, incIuding lhe reIease of loxic eIemenls from lhe ubiq-
uilous gas fIares.
Olher resonses lo lhe UNII reorl queslion some of ils bIind
sols. Ior examIe, Irofessor Richard Sleiner noled lhal:
The UNII reorl devoles severaI ages (161166) secificaIIy
lo arlisanaI refining al lhe odo Wesl oiIfieId, and correclIy
reorls an unforlunale increase in such belveen 2007 and 2011.
Hovever, in lhis anaIysis of oiI oIIulion in lhis region, UNII
enlireIy ignores lhe olher much Iarger source of oiI siIIed inlo
lhis same region in lhal same lime eriod lhe lvin rulures
of lhe Trans Niger IieIine (TNI) caused by SIDC negIigence
in 2008 and 2009. Togelher lhese siIIs conlribuled belveen
250,000350,000 barreIs of oiI inlo lhis syslem, orders of magni-
lude more lhan iIIegaI refining. Much of lhe oiI al odo Wesl
area IikeIy derived from lhe TNI odo siIIs.
16
=(% (%),$ "2 9),5#%&&
Moving lo lhe Congo basin, lhe mineraI veaIlh has for genera-
lions allracled lhe allenlion of imeriaI overs. The rich deosils
found here heIed lo fallen lhe coded accounls of desols and
aIso heIed lo fueI corrulion and vioIence in vicious vays. In lhe
midsl of lhe oIilicaI chaIIenges of lhe region, venlure cailaIisls
have Iearned lo delecl oorlunily in chaos, vhich is obviousIy
easy lo do if you are a arl of lhose orcheslraling lhe chaos. The
region remains allraclive lo mining comanies because lhey can
exlracl using lhe cheaesl melhods ossibIe: oen casl exlraclion
and lhe backs of a comIianl Iabour force oressed inlo submis-
sion by years of lyranny. Iresidenl Mobulu is said lo have erson-
aIIy ovned one of lhe Haul-Zaire goId mines vhiIe he aIso kel
lhe oeralions of lhe Sociele Miniere under his gaze.
The Kalanga region rovided a slrong enlry oinl for Union
Miniere (UM), vhich has been characlerised as 'lhe eilome of
coIoniaIism' in lhe 1930s. y lhe lime of indeendence, eIgian
roleclion of ils coIonies had bequealhed Moise Tshombe a
syslem caabIe of undermining democracy. AIlhough UM had
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
SM
quil lhe counlry by 1967, lhey secured a slrong slake in lhe
CongoIese Comany GIOCOMIN and relained Iucralive righls in
lhe venlure veII inlo lhe 1980s. As icing on lhe cake, lhe chairman
of UM, Idvard Sengier, is said lo have arorialed uranium
from lhe ShinkabaIove mine and shied il lo lhe US in 1940. Il
is beIieved lhal Congo's uranium had ils finaI resling Iace in lhe
lragedy of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, five years Ialer.
17
Desile years of Iunder, lhe Democralic ReubIic of Congo
(DRC) sliII has a huge reserve of coer and is a very imorlanl
suIier of cobaIl. The counlry aIso has good deosils of goId,
aIlhough mosl of lhe mining here is done by arlisans vho ine
avay as lhey an for lhe yeIIov slones.
Nev mining codes aIIov generous incenlives, vhich oflen
incIude Iovered laxes and royaIly rales. In addilion, condilions
are made difficuIl for IocaI comanies lo comele, suggesling
aII lhese laclics and more are aimed al allracling direcl foreign
inveslmenl.
O6@C)C.% P :#%),$(%9
AIlhough mining comanies do nol aear lo mind mining in
confIicl zones, il does aear lhal al limes lhey are vary of being
associaled vilh cerlain oIilicaI figures. This aears lo have been
lhe redicamenl of Rio Tinlo Ic vhen lhey couId nol inoinl
exaclIy vhere in Africa lheir Murova diamond mines are Iocaled.
The mines are indeed in Zimbabve, bul due lo lhe heaviIy lainled
human righls record of Iresidenl Mugabe, his unique economic
oIicies and nol so unique vays of vinning eIeclions, Rio mighl
underslandabIy vanl lo bIur lhings a IillIe bil. A ress slalemenl
issued by lhe comany on 29 May 2008 gave generaI informa-
lion such as lhal lheir ArgyIe diamond mine is in AuslraIia, lhal
lhe Diavik mine is in Canada, and lhal Murova is simIy 'in
Africa'.
18
CouId lhey have forgollen vhere lhe Murova mine, a
key conlribulor lo lheir $1bn diamond business, is Iocaled`
The slory of Zimbabve and her diamonds vouId make your
skin cravI. Irivale securily forces as veII as lhe ubIic ones lreal
oor Zimbabveans vho haen lo vork around lhe mines such
as lhe one discovered in Marange in 2006, vhich is eslimaled
lo hoId $800bn vorlh of diamonds
19
in a brulaIIy exIoilalive
SO
L !+TJVF2JG^+ +gJV52JGY@
manner. More recenlIy, il vas reveaIed by lhe C Panarcna
rogramme lhal a lorlure cam knovn as 'Diamond ase' a
remole coIIeclion of lenls cIosed in by barbed vire fencing
imrisoned miners vho vere subsequenlIy lorlured. According
lo one reIeased risoner quoled anonymousIy by lhe C, 'They
beal us 40 vhis in lhe morning, 40 in lhe aflernoon and 40 in
lhe evening.' The man sliII couId nol use one of his arms afler lhe
bealings and couId bareIy vaIk. 'They used Iogs lo beal me here,
under my feel, as I Iay on lhe ground. They aIso used slones lo
beal my ankIes.'
20

Zimbabve has had ils fair share of oIilicaI chaIIenges and
conslrucls vilh many aclors and Iayers. The over-sharing
arrangemenl belveen lhe Movemenl for Democralic Change
(MDC) Zimbabve's main oosilion arly and Mugabe's
ZANU-II has nol done much lo insuIale lhe nalion from lhe
cIavs of deslruclive exlraclion. WhiIe Iand remains a conlenlious
issue in Zimbabve, lhe sleing u of diamond exIoilalion
eseciaIIy by Chinese inleresls has broughl in nev ains.
One of lhe mosl nolorious of lhe Chinese Iayers in lhe
diamond fieIds of Marange, Zimbabve is lhe China InlernalionaI
Iund (CII) a rivale Chinese enlily vilh lhe record of being
lhe counlry's Iargesl knovn foreign inveslor.
21
CII has a conveni-
enl base in Hong Kong vhere lhe secrecy |urisdiclion aIIovs lhe
lhriving of a huge nelvork of more lhan 30 oaque subsidiaries,
knovn as lhe '88 Queensvay Grou'.
22
Though Hong Kong does nol rovide banking secrecy, coma-
nies vilhin ils |urisdiclion are nol required lo incIude delaiIs of
lrusls, comany ovnershi, or beneficiaI ovnershi on ubIic
and officiaI records.
23
There are secuIalions lhal CII is cIoseIy
lied lo lhe Chinese slale lhrough revoIving door officiaIs as veII
as by backdoor financing, resource lrading and hidden beneficiar-
ies. Chinese officiaIs refule lhese susicions and insisl lhal lhere
are no officiaI lies vilh CII.
The comany's lies vilh anolher African slale, AngoIa, are nol
so easy lo deny. Il is said lhal Ieading officiaIs of CII are inler-
lvined vilh AngoIan officiaIs such as ManueI Vicenle, chairman
of lhe board, as veII as a senior erson in lhe AngoIan slale oiI
comany, SonangoI, lhrough al Ieasl nine differenl |oinl venlures
under lhe umbreIIa of China-SonangoI. Vicenle is aIso knovn lo
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
SS
run AngoIa's Iargesl hone oeralor, UnileI, vilh lhe residenl's
daughler, IsabeI. In addilion, il is beIieved lhal CII is lhe source of
$2.9bn in funding for AngoIan conslruclion ro|ecls, adminislered
by AngoIa's Gabinele de Reconslruo NacionaI, according lo
informalion given by a former lo governmenl officiaI. AngoIa's
Iifelime diclalor, Iduardo Dos Sanlos, counls Xu }inghua, head of
lhe CII and aIso aIIeged lo be a Zimbabvean arms deaIer,
24
as an
oId miIilary academy cIassmale in lhe Soviel Union.
25
InlereslingIy, China-SonangoI and CII are said lo have invesled
$7bn in Guinea and $8bn in Zimbabve.
26
The comany, Sino-
Zimbabve, incororaled as Sino-Zim Diamond Limiled vilh rools
in Hong Kong, shovs lhe cIose lies belveen inlernalionaI diamond
magnale Lev Leviev, lhe AngoIan governmenl and lhe CII.
An|in is anolher comany mining diamonds in Zimbabve.
The comany, a |oinl venlure, began oeralions in 2009 and heId
10,000 heclares of Iand al Chirasika in Marange. The comany
Ialer discovered nev diamond deosils in Chiadzva al a Iace
IocaI anners caII }esi. The comany's Iand hoIding exanded
raidIy lo over 30,000 heclares over a shorl san of lime. Moreo-
ver, lhe comany oeraled behind a lhick miIilary shieId. Indeed,
IocaIs susecl lhal some of lhe Chinese vorkers in lhe mines are
acluaIIy miIilary ersonneI.
Whal is nol in doubl is lhal senior managers al An|in run lhe
mines Iike a miIilary formalion. Ierhas lo ease reIalions belveen
lhe Zimbabveans and lhe Chinese lhe comany oerales a duaI
form of adminislralion vilh lhe Chinese running lheir ovn affairs
in lerms of slaff managemenl, vhiIe lhe Zimbabvean miIilary
lake care of securily-reIaled issues.
The Iack of lransarency in lhe oeralions in lhe diamond
fieIds is calured by reorls slaling lhal:
In }anuary 2011 lhe residenl addressed lhe chiefs' conference
in Kariba and briefed lhem on lhe silualion in Marange, high-
Iighling lhal lhe comany had nol slarled mining diamonds al
Chiadzva bul vas busy buiIding houses for resellIing eoIe
al Arda Transau in Odzi. One monlh Ialer Iebruary lhe
governmenl announced lhal lhe comany had a slockiIe of
one miIIion carals and vas availing KI |KimberIy Irocessj
cerlificalion.
27

SN
L !+TJVF2JG^+ +gJV52JGY@
In a silualion Iike lhis, il is nol al aII surrising lhal lhe voIume of
diamonds mined here can onIy be secuIaled on.
Zimbabve's Iarai Maguvu, an imrisoned diamond researcher
and human righls aclivisl, vho according lo Tnc |ccncnisi maga-
zine vas a 'firsl cIass' source, direcls lhe Marange-based Cenlre
for Research and DeveIomenl (CRD). He says:
WhiIsl I can'l commil myseIf lo menlioning names, our obser-
valions indicale lhal some very senior miIilary ersonneI and
veII Iaced oIilicians are direclIy invoIved in lhe mining
oeralions of An|in. The invoIvemenl of lhe army in diamond
mining in Marange is lhe saddesl lhing lhal has haened lo
lhe find of lhe cenlury.
28
Maguvu vas arresled as an enemy of lhe slale in 2010 because
he vas aIIegedIy 'endangering nalionaI securily' for having infor-
malion reIaling lo lhe Zimbabvean miIilary's gross human righls
vioIalions al Marange's diamond mines.
29
Maguvu vas arresled
|usl as lhe aoinled monilor of lhe KimberIey Irocess, Abbey
Chikane, vas lo meel him. He simIy vaIked inlo lhe embrace
of slale inleIIigence officiaIs vho vere aIso resenl. Chikane
cIaimed lhal faiIing lo inform lhe Zimbabvean slale vouId have
been iIIegaI. Charges broughl againsl Maguvu vere evenluaIIy
droed afler considerabIe inlernalionaI Iobbying by ma|or IocaI
and inlernalionaI NGOs and civiI sociely movemenls incIuding
GIobaI Wilness.
>":$( 72,6/)Q& %R"<6
HisloricaIIy, Soulh Africa vas said lo have slreels of goId. In facl,
}ohannesburg is even IabeIIed as 'eGoIi', lhe cily of goId. This is
bolh because lhe rovince of Gauleng, vhere }ohannesburg is
based, conlribules over 30 er cenl of GDI lo Soulh Africa's econ-
omy and aIso because lhe cily ilseIf has yieIded some 45,000 lonnes
of goId firsl lo coIoniaIisls Iike CeciI Rhodes, exIoiling resources
in lhe name of lhe rilish crovn, lhereafler lhrough muIlinalionaIs
such as AngIo American, backed by lhe aarlheid governmenl, and
more dislanlIy, lhe US and UK, lheir arlners in exIoilalion.
Nov, vhen commerciaI ubIicalions Iike Tnc Ajrica |cpcri
carry arlicIes headed, 'Comanies rofil from loxic valer',
30
il is
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
NP
lime lo sil u and lake nolice. An arlicIe ubIished in lhe maga-
zine cIaimed lhal beyond hysicaI exIoilalion of resources Iies a
more devaslaling resource curse: environmenlaI oIIulion, chiefIy
acid mine drainage (AMD). Characlerised by high acidily, heavy
melaIs, saIls and suIhales, 40 miIIion Iilres of high corrosive,
radioaclive and loxic AMD has Ieached inlo lhe IocaI ecosyslem,
conlaminaling groundvaler. The arlicIe cIaimed lhal in 2002,
lhe Wesl Rand basin began decanling from underground mines,
siIIing bolh over-ground and underground inlo inlerconnecled
lunneIs and mining cavilies. Though lhe ro|eclion vas made in
1996, governmenl inaclion enabIed mining comanies using |usl
7 er cenl of valer, bul causing 75 er cenl of oIIulion lo Soulh
Africa's valer-scarce environmenl lo eIide lhe cosls of oIIulion,
cIassified as 'exlernaIilies'.
31
Oflen, civiI sociely movemenls and NGOs are broughl in lo
reresenl lhe reaIilies and 'inleresls' of 'exlernaI slakehoIders'. ul
lhis lime, so obvious vas lhe case, lhal even eoIe Iike hydroIogisl
GarfieId Krige, a former valer lechnoIogisl for mining comany
}CI vho formed arl of lhe environmenlaI leam lhal conducled
lhe invesligalion, oenIy slaled on lhe record lhal, 'Aarl from
having meeling afler meeling and discussing lhe issues around lhe
AMD, nolhing in reaIily has been done since 1996.'
32

He venl on lo reveaI lhal governmenls' behaviour olenliaIIy
aided mining houses lo eilher dum mines or seII/lransfer assels
and IiabiIilies (incIuding AMD) lo nev ovners. Aclive comanies
Iike DRD GoId |uslified lhe slance, cIaiming lhey vere nol reson-
sibIe for lhe hisloricaI robIem of oIIulion as lhey occuied lhe
mine for |usl 5 er cenl of ils oeralionaI Iife and mined 0.5 er
cenl of lhe lolaI number of lonnage exIoiled.
Iven Mike MuIIer, a former direclor generaI of lhe Dearl-
menl of Waler Affairs and Ioreslry, loId lhe magazine lhal DRD's
submission lo lhe Securily Ixchange Commission in Nev York
reveaIed 'subslanliaI financiaI IiabiIilies and varned lhal envi-
ronmenlaI issues reIaled lo valer managemenl vere erhas lhe
singIe biggesl IiabiIily facing lhe comany'. DRD GoId recenlIy
decIared rofils of R100mn, chiefIy allribuled lo lhe saIe of oId
mines vhich incIuded environmenlaI IiabiIilies.
Hov much is lhe lolaI rice lag of valer oIIulion caIcuIaled
lhus far` Africa Iarlh Observalory Nelvork (AION) reorl
ND
L !+TJVF2JG^+ +gJV52JGY@
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2
0-C0
2
energy equalions for SA' eslimaled, 'lhal valer lrealmenl
and desaIinisalion Ianls lo handIe AMD vouId cosl R360bn over
15 years.'
33
When lhe governmenl of Soulh Africa's Dearlmenl of Waler
Affairs (DWA) reIeased lhe resuIls of an exerl reorl assessing
lhe lhreal osed by AMD, lhe vords used vere, 'a maller of
urgency'. The governmenl roceeded lo aIIocale ubIic funds for
lhe uming and lrealmenl of mine valer in lhe veslern, cenlraI
and easlern basins. ul many of lhe cororalions in queslion, asl
and resenl, Iive in deniaI. The agricuIluraI lrade associalion of
Soulh Africa, knovn as AGRI-SA, reresenling more lhan 70,000
commerciaI farmers, ubIicIy decIared: 'We knov lhal Soulh
Africa is a valer-scarce Iand and if ve aIIov for conlaminalion of
our groundvaler resources, ve are heading for serious lroubIe.'
ObviousIy, lhe exlraclive seclor machinery cares mosl aboul
rofils and vhiIe lhey iIe u lonnes of 'recious' melaIs, lhe
consequences of lheir aclivilies receive recious IillIe allenlion.
8,"#D/<)9 <"0%
A vhiIe before Lansana Conle brealhed his Iasl as residenl of
Guinea, he senl a dislinclIy unfriendIy and unexecled Ieller
revoking lhe Iicence of mining comany Rio Tinlo's inleresl in lhe
Simandou mounlain range's iron-rich mines. The ro|ecl had lhe
fuII backing of lhe InlernalionaI Iinance Cororalion (IIC)
34
lhe
WorId ank's rivale-seclor Iending arm vhich had invesled
$35mn in lhe iron mine venlure. Il vas aIso nol an easy season for
lhe IIC, vhich al lhe same lime vas exIoring lhe ossibiIily of a
$500mn slake in a massive aIuminium ro|ecl in lhe counlry. The
cIose arlnershi or vedIock belveen lransnalionaI cororalions
and inlernalionaI finance inslilulions couId nol be beller iIIuslraled
lhan here, vhere in lhe face of uncerlainly, Rio Tinlo couId seak
nol onIy for ilseIf bul aIso for lhe IIC. efore lhe IIC couId say
anylhing, Rio Tinlo slaled lhal il and lhe IIC 'remain commilled lo
lhe ro|ecl'.
35
Wilh a vaIue ul al $6bn il is easy lo see vhy lhe IIC
vouId nol hesilale lo cIimb inlo bed vilh lhe mining moguI. WhiIe
lhis vas going on, Chinese inveslors vere aIready eeing lhrough
a crack in lhe door. The Guinean officiaIs overseeing lhese deaIs
couId nol sIee vilh bolh eyes cIosed because vilhin lhe sace of
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
NH
a veek, Conle fired lhe officiaI vho firsl raised queslions on lhe
Simandou agreemenl, romoled him, and lhen sacked him again.
InlereslingIy, an officiaI of Transarency InlernalionaI (founded
by a former WorId ank officiaI) sided vilh lhe mining comany,
cIaiming lhal Guinea 'vouId miss oul on aII lhe benefils' and
lhal 'lhe big Iosers vouId be Guinea's imoverished eoIe if lhe
ro|ecl vas canceIIed'. Il vas nol cIear hov much Guinea's oor
vouId sland lo gain from lhe ro|ecl, and vhal aII of lhe benefils
vouId be. Al lhal lime, Transarency InlernalionaI ranked Guinea
as one of lhe vorId's mosl corrul counlries. And yel lhis officiaI
beIieved lhe same syslem vouId deIiver ubIic goods`
Wilh lhe enlry of lhe miIilary |unla inlo lhe over equalion in
Guinea, Rio Tinlo may have lhoughl lhal lhings vouId become
rosy once more. They vere in for a rude shock vhen lhe miIilary
|unla ceded haIf of Rio Tinlo's acreage lo a rivaI mining comany,
SG Resources, ovned by IsraeIi biIIionaire eny Sleinmelz.
36

The ballIe for conlroI of lhe mounlain range mining area raged.
Rio Tinlo insisled lhal il relained fuII mining righls lo lhe acre-
age bul lhe Guinean governmenl caIIed lheir bIuff and decIared
fIalIy lhal ils decision vas finaI. WhiIe lhe comany cIaimed lhal
lhey need lhe enlire acreage lo make lhe ro|ecl viabIe, observers
beIieved lhal lheir grouse vas lhal lhe haIf lhal vas given lo SG
Resources vas richer in ore lhan lhe seclion lhey heId.
In lhe slruggIe lo relain mining righls over lhe enlire area,
Rio Tinlo aIso used lhe IocaI oor communilies lo Iead vilh lhe
governmenl on lhe comany's behaIf, on lhe grounds lhal some of
lhe viIIagers vere emIoyed by lhe comany and mighl Iose lheir
|obs if lhe comany did nol relain lhe enlire area. In olher ubIic
advocacy, Rio Tinlo cIaimed lhal lheir concession vas onIy 738sq
km vhiIe 3,333sq km vas heId by anolher unnamed comany.
They aIso cIaimed lhal Rio Tinlo's concession area reresenled
onIy a fraclion of lhe over 20,000sq km of iron ore exIoralion lilIe
avarded lo olher comanies in Guinea.
37
In March 2011, lhe |inancia| Tincs Iauded lhe ruIe of Guinea's
nev residenl, AIha Conde, vho had ended lvo decades of
brulaI diclalorshi and corrulion.
38
Conde's suorlers incIude
overfuI backers such as George Soros, described as his 'biIIion-
aire hiIanlhroisl adviser', vorking lo heI devise nev mining
codes. Olhers, Iike Mamadou SyIIa, one of Guinea's richesl men,
NI
L !+TJVF2JG^+ +gJV52JGY@
a renovned arms deaIer and former cheerIeader for Conle, have
Iess reulabIe inleresls.
Corrulion is big business in Guinea: lhe 2008 miIilary cou
under Calain Moussa Dadis Camara faciIilaled lhe ubIic seclor
making 85 rocuremenl deaIs vorlh $1.5bn.
39
}usl lhree foIIoved
lhe IegaI lender rocedures. UnliI lhe cou, Camara, friendIy vilh
Conle, vas bareIy knovn oulside arlicuIar miIilary unils. His
reasons for lhe cou` 'I had no choice afler lhe dealh of lhe resi-
denl: I had lo eilher lake over or Ieave lhe counlry . had |lhen
head of lhe Guinean armed forces Diarraj Camara laken over, I
vouId have lo go inlo forced exiIe lo escae a cerlain dealh!'
40
When Iooking al lhe broad slrokes, Guinean Iresidenl AIha
Conde, lhe counlry's firsl democralicaIIy eIecled Ieader, seemed
lo make a slrong move lovard |uslice. ul lhe finer delaiIs reveaI
olhervise: over 42 er cenl of aII lhe ubIic lenders from lhe 85
deaIs vere aIIocaled lo KerfaIIa Ierson Camara, head of buiIding
cororalion Guicoress.
41
Conde's RassembIemenl du IeuIe de
Guinee (RIG) arly vas IargeIy financed by KerfaIIa.
42
In }uIy 2011, Conde vas aImosl assassinaled vhen his resi-
dence vas allacked. He exressed vords of gralilude lo lhe
residenliaI guard vho vaIianlIy defended his comound.
43
'Our
enemies viII nol be abIe lo slo Guinea's rogress,' said Conde,
vho is crediled vilh ending lvo years of miIilary |unla ruIe. Yel,
according lo one Ajrica Ncus reorler based in Conakry, 'The
demonslralion of oosilion arlies in Guinea had been vioIenlIy
reressed by securily forces in Conakry. On Tuesday, securily
forces surrounded areas vhere oosilion Ieaders and olhers
Ianned lo meel for a eacefuI rolesl march againsl lhe exaclions
of AIha Conde's regime.'
44
TaIking of exIoilalion, very fev silualions couId malch lhe
shameIess shov lhal vas enacled in lhe Luhvind|a communily in
Soulh Kivu rovince of DRC. The occasion vas lhe officiaI hand-
ing over of a secondary schooI lhal vouId caler for 150 sludenls.
Anolher ro|ecl lhal vas commissioned lhal day vas a olabIe
valer syslem. Whal made il a shov of shame is nol |usl lhal lhe
arno Ioundalion, lhe charily arm of lhe Canadian goId mining
comany lhe arno Cororalion, donaled lhe faciIilies. (This
comany's vhoIIy ovned Tvangiza goId ro|ecl is Iocaled cIose
lo Luhvind|a.) The shame here is lhal lhis is lhe firsl high schooI
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
NK
lo be buiIl nol |usl in lhe communily, bul aIso in lhe enlire region.
And lhe valer suIy vouId serve a ouIalion of 18,000 eoIe
in four viIIages. The queslion vas, vhere had lhe governmenl
been` If il is said lhal lhe cenlraI governmenl is far removed from
Luhvind|a, vhere had lhe rovinciaI governmenl been`
A crovd of viIIagers came oul on 8 May 2009, robabIy lo see
governmenl officiaIs vho had robabIy never visiled lhere revi-
ousIy. These dignilaries incIuded: HonourabIe CeIeslin Mbuya,
DRC minisler of lhe inlerior and securily, lhe HonourabIe Louis
Leonce Muderva, governor of Soulh Kivu rovince, }ean CIaude
Mashini, deuly-direclor lo lhe DRC rime minisler's office,
ImiIe aIeke, residenl of lhe Soulh Kivu IrovinciaI AssembIy,
AureIie ilondo, former Soulh Kivu vice-governor and adviser lo
lhe rime minisler, Yav TshibaI, vice-governor of Kalanga rov-
ince, CoIelle MakiIa, Soulh Kivu minisler of mines, and Iserance
aharanyi, Mvamikazi (molher of lhe lribaI chief) and member
of lhe Soulh Kivu AssembIy for Luhvind|a. AIso allending vere
IocaI federaI and rovinciaI members of arIiamenl and over 15
lribaI chiefs. A Iarge deIegalion of anro emIoyees vas Ied by
comany residenl and CIO Mike IrinsIoo.
45
Whal a benevoIenl comany, anro musl be, you vouId be
lemled lo say unliI you considered lhe lolaI iclure of lheir
resence in lhe region. The comany is aIIeged lo have cul a deaI
vilh an infamous and vioIenl miIilia lhal Iayed a ma|or roIe
in lhe Rvandan genocide of 1994. Those vho knov hov lhings
vork in such areas cIaim lhal anro vouId have had no choice
olher lhan lo reIale lo lhe miIilia grou, knovn as lhe IDLR, or
lhe Iorces Democraliques de Liberalion du Rvanda, in some
vay if lhey vanled lo safeIy dig u biIIions of doIIars vorlh of
goId for lhemseIves and lheir inveslors. anro ovns four mines
in lhe easlern DRC rovince of Soulh Kivu, a rugged Iandscae
of |ungIes, voIcanoes and miIIions of oor CongoIese. anro esli-
maled lhal lhey couId exlracl 10 miIIion ounces of goId from lhe
area and lhal lhey couId make $10bn if lhe rice of goId slayed
around $950/oz. Wilh more slricl environmenlaI IegisIalion al
home, and vilh funds readiIy coming from lhe Toronlo Slock
Ixchange, Canadian mining comanies head for nalions vhere,
as }ohn Lasker ul il, 'lhe environmenlaI Iavs are veak and lhe
oIilicians chea.'
46
NL
L !+TJVF2JG^+ +gJV52JGY@
The accusalion againsl anro is lhal lo dig u hundreds of
miIIions of doIIars vorlh of goId, lhe comany simIy had lo cul
deaIs vilh lhe IDLR, a miIilia grou lhal had been eseciaIIy
vicious in allacking lhe civiIian ouIalion and sreading a reign
of lerror lhrough murder, rae, lorlure, exlorlion, kidnaings
and forced laxalion. Tvo Ieaders of lhis grou, Ignace Murva-
nashyaka and Slralon Musoni,
47
vere arresled in Germany in Iale
2009, vhiIe a Ieader of anolher vioIenl grou, GeneraI Laurenl
Nkunda, vas arresled in earIy 2009. WhiIe Ignace Murvanshyaka
and Slralon Musoni aeared al lhe InlernalionaI Courl of }uslice
in May 2011, facing charges of crimes againsl humanily, il vas
nol cIear vhelher Rvandan aulhorilies viII ever aIIov GeneraI
Nkunda lo sland in lhe dock. In lhe asl, eace has been eisodic
in lhese arls because lhe resource vars here suck in many coun-
lries and a Ielhora of miIilia grous. Wilh lhe arehension of
some of lhe Ieaders of lhese miIilias il is hoed lhal lhis cycIe viII
be broken.
Iurlher soulh, DRC is keeing aIerl aIong lhe borders vilh
AngoIa. Mainlaining good neighbourIiness across borders in
mineraI rich regions can cosl Ienly of money. IarIy in 2009,
AngoIa reorledIy invesled $13mn lo increase miIilary alroIs
aIong ils border vilh DRC lo slem lhe fIov of iIIegaI immigranls,
some of vhom came from as far avay as SenegaI. Wilh a 2,000km
Iand border, lhere are enough reasons lo lrigger squabbIes
belveen lhe neighbours. And AngoIan lroos are knovn lo have
made incursions inlo DRC, oslensibIy lo conlroI lhe fIov of iIIegaI
immigranls inlo ils lerrilory.
48
AngoIa, lhe vorId's fiflh biggesl diamond roducer, aIIovs
onIy comanies lhal arlner vilh slale-run firm Indiama lo
exIore for diamonds. Tough measures againsl immigranls are
oflen laken under lhe cover of fighling diamond smuggIers.
Iar avay in lhe US, bolh lhe House of Reresenlalives and lhe
Senale assed a biII lo kee mineraIs lainled vilh bIood from gelling
inlo lhe counlry. Recognising lhal mineraIs fueI confIicls, eseciaIIy
in lhe Congo basin, lhe biarlisan IegisIalive biII
49
requires US
comanies lo lrack and discIose lhe origins of mineraIs used in
common eIeclronics incIuding ceII hones and Ialo comulers.
These incIude lin, lanlaIum or lungslen. Where lhe mineraIs origi-
nale from DRC, imorlers have lo discIose lhe mine of origin.
50

JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
NM
The Iure of DRC goId, casserile, and coIlan vas so slrong in
lhe Iale 1990s, Uganda and Rvanda invaded vilh roxy miIilias
and lheir ovn armies. MineraIs readiIy affecl eace aIong nalionaI
boundaries. In 2000, according lo }ohn Lasker, lhe Rvandan miIi-
lary and some oIilicians:
made $250mn moving coIlan oul of easlern DRC lo Weslern-
based mining comanies and melaI lraders vho lhen soId lhe
resources lo comanies lhal manufaclured arls for lhe Iikes
of Sony and MoloroIa. CoIlan, vhen rocessed becomes lhe
ovder lanlaIum, vhich is used in lhe making of caacilors
caacilors needed lo make ceII hones, video game consoIes,
and comulers so vaIuabIe lo veslern ersonaI lechnoIogy.
51

SadIy, lhe Iundering of lhe conlinenl lransIales inlo direcl Ioss of
human Iives, as vas lhe case in DRC vhere lhe quesl for ersonaI
eIeclronics reorledIy cosl lhe Iives of lhree lo five miIIion
CongoIese and olher Africans.
WhiIe lhe IegisIalive efforls venl on in lhe US, lhe DRC
aulhorilies have been laking a cIose Iook al deaIs seaIed during
lhe 19982003 var and under lhe lransilionaI governmenl. A
number of lhe agreemenls vere signed vilh mining comanies,
and as mighl be execled during lhose difficuIl days, deaIs vere
easiIy made vilh Iess lhan lransarenl arrangemenls. When lhe
governmenl decided lo reviev lhese agreemenls in 2007, some
of lhe comanies vere unabIe lo convince lhe governmenl lhal
lhey vere serious aboul doing business. They vere execled lo
roduce, among olher lhings, feasibiIily sludies on lheir coer,
goId or diamond enlerrises.
As arl of lhe mining revievs, lhe governmenl canceIIed lhe
Canadian miner's Kingamyambo Musonoi TaiIings (KMT) ro|ecl
in lhe counlry's coer and cobaIl hearlIand of Kalanga in Augusl
2009. Tenke Iungurume (TIM) coer mine of Ireeorl-McMo-
Ran aIso faiIed lo oblain a cIean biII of heaIlh in lhe reviev, and
officiaIs from lhe US-based firm scamered lo DRC lo fix lhings.
52
Nigeria's Niger DeIla has righlIy been said lo be one of lhe mosl
crude-oiI-oIIuled regions in lhe vorId loday. The evidence on
lhe ground, in lhe valers and in lhe air confirms lo a casuaI visi-
lor lhal lhis is lhe case. Hovever, lhere are olher loxic Iaces lhal
NO
L !+TJVF2JG^+ +gJV52JGY@
eoIe scarceIy hear aboul. In 2006 lhe mining lovn of Kabve in
Zambia gained infamy as one of lhe lo len vorsl oIIuled lovns
in lhe vorId, according lo a reorl ubIished by lhe Iacksmilh
Inslilule of Nev York. CIosed in 1994, lhe mine and smeIler are no
Ionger in oeralion, bul according lo lhe inslilule, lhey:
have Iefl a cily oisoned from debiIilaling concenlralions of
Iead in lhe soiI and valer from sIag heas lhal vere Iefl as
reminders of lhe smeIling and mining era. In one sludy, lhe
disersaI of Iead, cadmium, coer and zinc in soiI exlended
over a 20km circumference from lhe smeIling and mining
rocesses. The soiI conlaminalion IeveIs of aII four melaIs
are higher lhan lhose recommended by lhe WorId HeaIlh
Organisalion.
53
Kabve, in cenlraI Zambia, firsl came under lhe solIighl in lhe
earIy 1900s vhen lhe area vas oened u lo foreign miners
lhrough lhe Rhodesian roken HiII DeveIomenl Comany. The
mines of Kabve yieIded high-grade zinc, Iead ores and vana-
dium. They allracled a raiIvay Iine as veII as a hydro over
Ianl lo make il easier lo exIoil lhe area. On accounl of lhe
unreguIaled smeIling oeralions lhal have gone on for years in
lhe area, Kabve has high IeveIs of Iead oisoning. The IeveIs of
Iead found in chiIdren's bIood in lhe area are u lo 10 limes above
ermissibIe Iimils.
Wilh more lhan 100 years of mining, and vilh lhe lransilion
lo democralic governance, Soulh Africa suddenIy has lo deaI
vilh lhe issues of heavy oIIulion from lhe induslry. Under lhe
aarlheid regime environmenlaI racism vas a nice lerm and ils
guiding rinciIes meanl lhal loxic induslries couId be siled
vilhin raciaIIy defined Iines. The same haened vilh loxic
chemicaI dums.
The Soulh African environmenlaI |uslice grou, groundWork,
grous Iike lhe Soulh Durban Communily InvironmenlaI AIIi-
ance and olher cilizen-driven organisalions have vorked lo
exose lhese reIics of racism, demanding a cIean u and ossibIy
a cIear oul. A loxic lour of lhe Soulh Durban area reveaIs very
dislurbing reaIilies. In lhe aarlmenl bIocks cIose lo lhe SheII
refinery, for examIe, il is difficuIl lo find a home vilhoul aslhma
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
NS
sufferers. Indeed, kids ack lheir inhaIer kils as olhers ack lheir
Iunch boxes vhiIe Ieaving for schooI. ul lhal is |usl one area of
a big counlry.
Decades of environmenlaI conlaminalion have affecled lhe
counlry's valer, ulling lhe food chain and cilizens' heaIlh al risk,
as discussed earIier. The cIosure of mines does nol eIiminale lhe
robIem. An admission in 2008 by a Ieading valer researcher al
lhe CounciI for Scienlific and InduslriaI Research (CSIR) droed
Iike a bomb vhen he said: 'The lrulh of lhe maller is lhal as a
nalion ve don'l knov hov lo deaI vilh lhis robIem because il
has never haened lo us before.' The researcher, Dr Anlhony
Turlon, added lhal, 'This vas aIvays suressed before because
eoIe didn'l maller in lhe re-1994 Soulh Africa. AII ve've done
so far is see lhe li of lhe iceberg. We cerlainIy don'l have any
coherenl governmenl slralegies yel.'
54
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One area lhal has received serious allenlion in lerms of scien-
lific sludies is in soulh-vesl }ohannesburg, in a vaIIey lhrough
vhich runs lhe Wonderfonleinsruil river. This river runs from
lhe mining lovn of Randfonlein lo CarIelonviIIe and Khulsong,
and inlo lhe Mooi river. This Ialler river rovides valer for lhe
universily lovn of Iolchefslroom. Sludies shov lhal lhe sedi-
menl in lhe Wonderfonleinsruil is conlaminaled vilh radioac-
live uranium and high IeveIs of olher heavy melaIs in vaslevaler
discharged from IocaI mines. These vaslevalers vere nol lrealed
lo accelabIe IeveIs before being discharged inlo lhe valer bodies.
Under lhe aarlheid regime, reguIalion vas Iax and even loday
enforcemenl of reIevanl Iavs does nol aear lo be enlhusiaslic.
Mining los lhe Ieague of vasle sources in Soulh Africa. Loca-
lion of vasle dums in disadvanlaged areas by lhe aarlheid
governmenls soved lhe seed of disconlenl lhal sliII generales
resislance loday. Such dums are found mainIy in areas cIose lo
vhere bIack, coIoured or Indian ouIalions reside, according lo
lhe coIour bars of lhe aarlheid era.
A loxic lour of lhe Durban area is nol comIele vilhoul a visil
lo UmIazi. This is one of lhe so-caIIed lovnshis occuied by
bIack Africans in lhe Durban area. A hazardous vasle dum vilh
no Iining vas crealed here in lhe 1980s under lhe KvaZuIu home-
Iand governmenl. The dum vas cIosed foIIoving ersislenl
rolesls by residenls of UmIazi, bul before lhen and even afler lhe
cIosure, Ieakages from lhe dum have oIIuled bolh lhe Isiingo
and UmIazi rivers in lhe area.
The sad reminder here is lhal lhere is more conlroI and regu-
Ialion on lhe handIing of hazardous vasles in Soulh Africa lhan
in many olher African counlries. The exlracl, use and dum
roensily of induslry has rendered lhe African environmenl a
loxic sou lhal cilizens shouId be rolecled from. Whal ve see
from counlry lo counlry is lhal foIIoving abandonmenls or mine
cIosures IocaI ouIalions move inlo lhe hazardous ils lo scrae
for Ieflover gems and end u being exosed lo grave danger.
Again ve see criminaI negIigence on lhe arl of African Ieaders as
veII as crass oorlunism by nalionaI and lransnalionaI corora-
lions vho oerale beIov induslry slandards on lhe conlinenl. ul
is lhis a oIicy faiIure or is lhere somelhing more syslemic here`
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1
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THI WORLD CONTINUIS lo sland in deniaI of lhe facl lhal
cIimale change is lriggered mainIy by sociely's conlinuaI reIi-
ance on fossiI fueIs. The Iarger robIem is lhe currenl form of
civiIisalion, based on Weslern-slyIe consumlion driven by for-
rofil cororalions. Weaning lhe vorId off hydrocarbons cannol
be osloned for ever, and il vouId aIso give us lhe chance lo
address lhe olher ma|or socio-economic cancers. CiviIisalions
have come and gone nol |usl on accounl of miIilary or oIilicaI
conquesl, bul aIso because of a faiIure lo adal lo chaIIenges.
Ioorer nalions are undeniabIy al lhe receiving end of cIimale
change and for many, lhe slruggIe for survivaI is IileraIIy a svim
againsl lhe lide in a lurbuIenl, rising sea. Nolvilhslanding lhe facl
lhal African governmenls and African inslilulions are vorking on
coing slralegies lo deaI vilh cIimale variabiIilies, a number of
faclors sland in lhe vay of lheir abiIily lo coe vilh currenl and
unrediclabIe fulure condilions. These Iimiling faclors incIude
overly, veakened inslilulions and fragiIe ecosyslems.
Africa feeds herseIf mainIy lhrough roduclion by her army
of famiIy farmers, eseciaIIy vomen, reresenling aImosl 70
er cenl of lhe ouIalion. This farming IargeIy deends on
direcl rainfaII, and cIimale change is lhus a unique lhreal here.
The conlinenl is aIready ersislenlIy affecled by droughl. LocaI
droughls occur every year and conlinenlaI crises seem lo occur al
Ieasl once a decade.
2
Wilh reIenlIess oIIulion by induslriaI socie-
lies and lhe inexorabIe rise of gIobaI lemeralures, il is very cIear
lhal lhe conlinenl is being cooked on carbon fires.
The InlergovernmenlaI IaneI on CIimale Change (IICC) reck-
ons lhal cIimale change viII grealIy comromise agricuIluraI
roduclion in Africa. The aneI figures lhal in some counlries,
yieId from syslems lhal are rain-fed may decIine by as much as 50
er cenl by 2020.
3
When cIimale change affecls lhe biodiversily of
lhe conlinenl il has a direcl imacl on a eoIe vhose Iives are so
cIoseIy inlerlvined vilh lheir environmenl. CIimale change lhreal-
ens lhe IiveIihoods, food avaiIabiIily and heaIlh of lhe ouIalion.
Moreover, Africa is a conlinenl comIeleIy surrounded by
valer, bul suffers annuaIIy from droughls lhal somelimes reach
crisis IeveIs. CoaslaI erosion, fIooding and subsidence have
aIready affecled mosl of ils coaslIine and robIems are bound lo
increase unIess urgenl aclions are laken lo buiId resiIience.
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DPH
There is no argumenl lhal vilh lhe excelion of a fev ockels
lhe Niger DeIla's gas fIaring by oiI comanies, Soulh Africa's
Iskom coaI-fired eIeclricily generalors and SasoI's oiI-from-coaI/
gas Ianls Africa Iays a very minor roIe in emissions of carbon.
Those ockels aside, lhe conlinenl's asl economic aclivily did
nol make any significanl conlribulion lo lhe accumuIaled gIobaI
slock of carbon. The main vay CO
2
emissions vere generaled vas
lhrough lhe exlremeIy biased use of coaI-based eIeclricily, vhich
vas rimariIy direcled lovards mineraI and cash-cro exlraclion,
rocessing and lransorl.
As a resuIl, vhereas in olher regions lhe key issues concern
hov lo reduce carbon emissions, in mosl of Africa lhey concern
lhe adalalion of roduclion and human survivaI lo a dele-
rioraling ecoIogy. This survivaI shouId IogicaIIy incIude a higher
amounl of emissions, as eoIe svilch from fueIvood lo eIeclric-
ily so as lo adal lo lhe Uniled Nalions rediclion lhal nine oul
of len easanls viII nol be abIe lo grov food by 2100. In addilion,
vhiIe lhe main adverse consequences of gIobaI varming in olher
regions may occur in lhe fulure, lhe consequences are aIready
aarenl in Africa. So adalalion is a cruciaI rocess, vhich our
vision of cIimale |uslice shouId inform.
One of lhe faclors lhal viII Iay havoc vilh African geooIilics
is lhe movemenl of human ouIalions. CIimale refugees viII
disdain nalionaI boundaries and seek beller cIimes vherever lhey
can find lhem. Cross-border migralions can lrigger serious confIicl.
Ior examIe, al one lime lhe urkinabe ouIalion residenl in
Cle d'Ivoire vas u lo 40 er cenl of lhe hosl counlry's ouIa-
lion and lhis conlribuled lo lhe disIocalion of oIilicaI dynamics
lhal evenluaIIy resuIled in civiI var. One of lhe Ieading figures
in lhe oIilicaI scene in Cle d'Ivoire, AIassane Ouallara, vas
revenled from conlesling eIeclive osls in lhe mid-1990s simIy
because he heId duaI cilizenshi being bolh Ivorian and urki-
nabe. The facl lhal he had reviousIy been lhe governor of lhe
Wesl African CenlraI ank and rime minisler, and had on occa-
sions acled as residenl of lhe counlry, counled for nolhing once
lhe elhnic card couId assure olhers of easier access lo over.
4
He
evenluaIIy became residenl of lhe counlry in 2011 afler a slandoff
vilh lhe lhen-silling residenl, Laurenl Gbagbo, vho refused lo
accel eIeclion resuIls gIobaIIy acceled as being von by Ouallara.
DPI
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AIready lhere are massive movemenls of eoIe from droughl-
rone zones, migralions lhal seek lo escae lhe famine lhal
foIIovs lhe dislorlion of cIimalic regimes. Governmenls vail unliI
disasler slrikes and holos of vire-lhin kids and lheir arenls
fIood gIobaI leIevision nelvorks. Rain faiIures on lhe Horn of
Africa sound aIarms of imending calaslrohe, bul lhese are
ignored by fal cals in governmenl houses, insuIaled by ouIence
and rings of raise singers.
There are Iinks belveen ouIalion movemenls, due lo lhe
droughl in lhe SaheI, and lhe confIicl in Darfur, as asloraIisls
seeking valer resources cIash vilh sedenlary arabIe farmers.
5

CIimale change assures us of much more movemenl across
borders in lhe fulure. When lhis hils in Africa, il oflen sels eoIes
in differenl cams vho oughl lo Iive logelher and generales
confIicls vhere lhere oughl lo be none. CIimale disIacemenls are
bound lo generale furlher confIicls in Africa, erhas more lhan
in any olher region.
IroosaIs on hov lo lackIe cIimale change have ranged from
lhe Iudicrous lo lhe more reaIislic. One roosaI is lhe manufac-
lure of seciaI anaI Iugs for callIe since lhey reIease a Iol of melh-
ane vhen lhey farl. There vere even argumenls as lo vhelher
cIimale change vas reaI and if so vhelher il vas a naluraI and
inevilabIe henomenon or somelhing lo vhich human aclivilies
conlribuled. One of lhe key exIanalions offered for naluraIIy
occurring lemeralure rises vas lhe oulul of lhe Danish mele-
oroIogisl, Knud Lassen. He roosed lhal an 11-year cycIe of
sunsol aclivilies on lhe surface of lhe sun malched lhe allern of
gIobaI lemeralures. The meleoroIogisl caIIed for caulion vhen
he found lhal recenl lemeralure surges couId nol be exIained
by lhe sunsol aclivilies and soIar cycIes aIone.
6

In an era of disasler economics vhere oorlunilies for exIoi-
lalion emerge vilh every crisis, lhe cIimale chaos has rovided
a broad Iay sace for venlure cailaIisls. Thal sace vas ried
oen al lhe Kyolo negolialions vhere lhe Uniled Slales negolia-
lors insisled on lhe incIusion of markel mechanisms for lackIing
cIimale change. Indeed, lhey insisled lhal lhey vouId nol endorse
lhe rolocoI unIess markel mechanisms vere given ride of
Iace. Thus lhe iII CIinlon adminislralion senl an uIlimalum
lo lhe negolialors lhrough lhe lhen vice-residenl, AI Gore, and
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DPK
successfuIIy ressed for lhe Kyolo IrolocoI lo become a sel of
carbon lrading inslrumenls.
7
Al lhe end of lhe day, lhe vorId
succumbed lo US ressure and lhe resl is nov hislory. The irony
is lhal afler enlhroning lhe markel as lhe saviour of lhe vorId's
cIimale, lhe US vouId nol endorse lhe Kyolo IrolocoI and nov
fighls lo kiII il aIlogelher.
According lo George Monbiol,
8
lhe vorId as of nov has no
aIlernalive lo lhe vilaI need for miligalion. According lo him,
efforls lo sel lhe alhs lovards miligalion vere sabolaged by lhe
CIinlon adminislralion even before being abandoned by ush.
CIimale miligalion chaIIenges are being allended lo haIf-hearl-
edIy by lhe olher rich nalions. In shorl, lhe gIobaI cIimale laIks
have so far lolaIIy faiIed. And by aII accounls, lhe largels lhese
laIks have sel bear no reIalionshi lo lhe science and are anyvay
negaled by IoohoIes and faIse accounling. Moreover, vhere
nalions Iike lhe UK meel lhe largels sel by lhe Kyolo IrolocoI lhey
do so by oulsourcing lheir oIIulion lo olher counlries.
WhiIe counlries dilher aboul vhal can be done gIobaIIy lo avoid
a 2 degree CeIsius rise in gIobaI lemeralures, olhers have Iearned
from lhe Kalrina fIoods lhal shoved lhe sofl underbeIIy of lhe US
and lhal no one is immune lo vhal is coming in lhe fulure. Thus,
Germany is sending C600mn on one nev sea vaII for Hamburg
vhiIe lhe NelherIands Ians lo send C2.2bn on dykes before
2015. WhiIe lhese measures may be inadequale, lhey are indica-
lors of vhal rich nalions are caabIe of doing in a bid lo survive
lhe coming fIoods. The queslion is, vhal viII haen lo lhe oor`
Whal is lhe resonse lo lhe cries of lhe smaII isIand slales such as
TuvaIu vhose cilizens are aIready becoming cIimale refugees`
You cannol save smaII isIand slales from sinking lhrough lhe
secuIalions of carbon rofileers. Aclions lo lackIe cIimale change
are nol commodilies lo be auclioned or havked in markel squares
or on lhe sIiery fIoors of slock exchanges. The ideoIogues of
ca-and-lrade or lrade before you ca are loo smarl by haIf. They
Iay lheir hands on carbon credils and lhen heI everyone by
shrevdIy uliIising markel mechanisms lo aIIocale emissions in
lhe mosl efficienl and cosl-effeclive vay. CouId lhere be a vay lo
code each carbon enlrereneur's carbon slock so lhal lhey couId
be lracked lo be sure lhal lhey same slock is nol being reused
and resoId or lhal lhose arlicuIar carbon squads are nol causing
DPL
M 2QGW5J+ 2[5YT 5@! A5QT+ TYQFJGY@T
arlicuIar cIimale calaslrohes somevhere` The carbon markel is
lhe sluff of high ficlion, and lhe besl of our imaginalive vrilers
cannol begin lo gel near lo lhese markel big shols.
eginning from lhe grandmolher of markel mechanisms such
as lhe so-caIIed CIean DeveIomenl Mechanism (CDM) ve are
nov seeing granddaughlers such as lhe Reducing Imissions from
Deforeslalion and Ioresl Degradalion (RIDD). A number of falher
and molher mechanisms faII in belveen, deaIing vilh one carbon
off-selling mechanism or lhe olher. The mosl IausibIe concel
behind lhese markel mechanisms is lhal lhey rovide lhe basis
for rivale seclor inveslmenl in efforls lo lackIe cIimale change.
Less sublIy ul, lhese mechanisms rovide oorlunilies for lhe
rivale seclor lo conlroI lhe ace and nalure of ro|ecls aIIegedIy
designed lo lackIe cIimale change, bul vhich in reaIily advanlage
vesled inleresls vhiIe aIIoving rimary cororale oIIulers lo
evade accounlabiIily. This exIains vhy lhese schemes for carbon
offsels reaIIy usel some eoIe and communilies.
There is no disuling lhal lhe usurge in gIobaI lemeralures
is due IargeIy lo lhe amounl of carbon reIeased inlo lhe almos-
here. Carbon is a basic buiIding bIock in every Iiving lhing,
Ianl or animaI. Our soiIs are Ioaded vilh carbon and so are our
air and oceans. We lake in oxygen and exhaIe carbon dioxide.
IIanls do lhe reverse and ve coexisl haiIy suIying each
olher's carbon dioxide or oxygen needs. The robIem is lhal over
lhe Iasl lvo cenluries humans have dramalicaIIy increased lhe
amounl of carbon dioxide and olher greenhouse gases reIeased
inlo lhe almoshere. Il is eslimaled lhal aboul 26 biIIion lonnes
equivaIenl of CO
2
is reIeased lhis vay yearIy. One vay lo visuaIise
hov CO
2
Iays a vilaI roIe in lhe cIimale equalion is lo see lhe gas
as enveIoing lhe enlire earlh, occuying a beIl around il, so lo
seak, in lhe Iover almosheric regions. There are severaI olher
gases lhere, bul lhe essenliaI difference is lhal lhis gas, aIong vilh
olher greenhouse gases, aIIovs lhe energy from lhe sun lo reach
lhe earlh bul sIovs dovn lhe escae back inlo sace of lhe energy
refIecled from lhe earlh's surface. This buiId-u of energy is lhe
greenhouse effecl.
The queslion lhal confronls humanily is hov lo lackIe lhis
carbon in lhe almoshere. Whal shouId eoIe do` Do ve slo
reIeasing carbon inlo lhe almoshere` Whal vouId lhal enlaiI`
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DPM
Are lhere accelabIe IeveIs lhal ve can kee lo so as nol lo reach
lhe oinl of no relurn vilh a runavay cIimale change` These
queslions have engaged lhe imaginalions of many and a variely
of soIulions have been offered.
One inleresling roosed soIulion is carbon sequeslralion. In
lhis scenario you couId conlinue vilh business as usuaI, reIeasing
as much carbon as you Iease, onIy ensuring lhal lhe carbon is
calured and slored or sequeslered. TechnoIogisls have been al
vork on carbon sequeslralion lechnoIogies, vilh some aIready
undergoing lesls bul vilh none IikeIy lo be ready for raclicaI
use unliI aboul 2020.
9
MeanvhiIe, carbon offselling is gaining
ground in some quarlers vilh lhe roosilion lhal one couId
oIIule in one arl of lhe vorId, and lhen have lhe oIIulion
offsel in anolher arl of lhe vorId. Ior examIe, a comany
in Iuroe couId kee on sloking lhe almoshere vilh carbon,
bul Ianl a lree Ianlalion somevhere in Africa and since lhe
lrees absorb carbon, lhe comany can feeI salisfied lhal lhey are
carbon neulraI. Il is a convenienl ficlionaI scenario. The comany
cIeans u ils conscience, lhose selling u lhe Ianlalion gel aid.
Communilies vhose Iands are laken u lo sel u lhe Ianlalions
may gel |obs as Ianlalion hands and erhas receive some form
of comensalion for Iosl farmIands. Whal lhe communilies can be
sure of is lhal lheir Iands viII sIi oul of lheir gras.
The CDM can somelimes be aIied lo ridicuIous exlremes.
Take, for examIe, lhe markeling of gas fIare sloing ro|ecls
as CDM ro|ecls. Through such ro|ecls, oiI cororalions and lhe
Nigerian governmenl hoe lo cIaim carbon credils for heIing
'fighl' cIimale change. The reaIily is lhal gas fIaring has been an
iIIegaI aclivily in Nigeria since 1984 vhen lhe Nigeria Iav on gas
re-in|eclion came inlo effecl. Any reduclion or sloage of fIaring
is simIy a reduclion or haIling of a criminaI aclivily and brings
aboul no addilionaIily such as lhe CDM rocess requires. Any
comensalion for such an aclivily fIies in lhe face of reason. Gas
fIares are lhe mosl cynicaI manifeslalions of cororale insoIence
in lhe face of cIimale change and environmenlaI heaIlh. The fIares
reIease greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, melhane and
nilrous and suIhur oxides. Aarl from lhese, lhe fIares reIease
olher harmfuI subslances lhal grealIy affecl human heaIlh.
There is no cerlainly aboul hov much carbon a arlicuIar lree
DPO
M 2QGW5J+ 2[5YT 5@! A5QT+ TYQFJGY@T
absorbs. In any case, vhen lhe lree evenluaIIy dies, vhere viII lhe
carbon go` Offsels aIIov induslriaIised nalions lo lake no sle lo
haIl lheir oIIuling aclions, incIuding consumlion reduclions, al
home vhiIe underlaking hyolhelicaI culs eIsevhere in lhe deveI-
oing vorId. AIlhough deveIoing regions Iike Africa may receive
some economic incenlives lhrough lhe offsel markels, lhere is
no indicalion lhal lhe amounls lransferred are adequale, fair or
enough lo miligale lhe reIenlIess oIIulion going on in lhe norlh.
According lo Carbon Trade Walch, vhal offsel comanies do
is nolhing more lhan seIIing eace of mind lo consumers, lhus
breeding comIacency. They aIso osil lhal lhe mosl oIIul-
ing cororalions and oIilicians use offsels as a chea means
of greenvash, 'as dislraclion from lheir inherenlIy unsuslain-
abIe raclices and refusaI lo lake more serious aclion on cIimale
change'. In addilion, crealive accounling couIed vilh 'dubious
scienlific melhodoIogies' are used by some offsel raclilioners lo
infIale rofil. Iurlhermore, our knovIedge of lhe carbon cycIe is
Iimiled and il is nol ossibIe lo say vhelher Ianlalions have a
osilive benefil in lerms of miligaling cIimale change, 'Iel aIone
exaclIy quanlifying lhe suosed benefil inlo a seIIabIe commod-
ily'. IinaIIy, il is imossibIe lo delermine a hyolhelicaI baseIine
from vhich lo measure vhal vouId have haened if lhe carbon
offsel ro|ecl vas never embarked on.
10

We aIso hear of ca-and-lrade syslems. These have been
characlerised as syslems by vhich governmenls issue Iicences
or ermils lo aIIov oIIuling induslries lo oIIule. As crilicaI
researchers Tamra GiIberlson and Oscar Reyes remark, 'Inslead of
cIeaning u ils acl, one oIIuler can lhen lrade lhese ermils vilh
anolher vho mighl make equivaIenl changes more cheaIy
. In raclice, lhe scheme has faiIed lo incenlivise emissions
reduclions.'
11

efore ve lurn lo lhe |uslice asecl of cIimale change, ve
cannol avoid bringing u lhe queslion as lo vhy humans are
avoiding laking reaI aclions, embracing reaI soIulions lo a reaI
robIem, bul ralher endorsing a series of faIse soIulions. Il is Iike
Iaying lhe cIovn in lhe face of lragedy or making |esl in lhe
house of mourning. If increased slocks of carbon in lhe almos-
here cause lhe chaIIenge, lhe reaI aclion musl be lo draslicaIIy
reduce lhe reIease of more carbon inlo lhe almoshere. If lhe
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DPS
reIease of carbon is moslIy lhrough lhe use of fossiI fueIs, lhen
lhe soIulion musl Iie in a radicaI shifl from lhis driving force. If
carbon sequeslralion is lhe vay lo go, lhen lhe besl vay lo ensure
lhis is lo Ieave lhe crude oiI or bilumen in lhe soiI and lhe coaI in
lhe hoIe, and lo fIee lhe gas fracking business. Il is so simIe lhal
il is aImosl sluid nol lo see il.
V<6#9 /<6@)$% #%+"$6)$",&
CIimale negolialions, from Durban in Iale 2011 onvards, viII
increasingIy confronl lhe issue of cIimale |uslice. The almoshere
is a common sace, a gIobaI commons. InduslriaIised nalions
umed a disroorlionale amounl of emissions inlo lhe almos-
here and lhey have cornered a disroorlionale amounl of
gIobaI resources, IargeIy by exIoiling nalions lhal are on lhe
olher side of lhe coin. CIimale imacls are aIready being feIl in
a severe vay in Africa as veII as in olher regions of lhe gIobaI
Soulh. Cenluries of exIoilalion have veakened lhe resiIience of
lhese regions and in lackIing cIimale change lhese hisloricaI facls
musl be addressed. One vay of addressing lhis is by lhe aymenl
of cIimale debl lo make lhe needed financiaI and lechnoIogicaI
resources avaiIabIe lo lhese vuInerabIe regions.
The Conference of Iarlies al Coenhagen and lhe foIIoving
one al Cancun did nol generale oulcomes consislenl vilh scien-
lific varnings lhal lhe vorId faces a severe cIimale crisis. Coen-
hagen ended vilh an accord searheaded by Iresidenl arack
Obama of lhe Uniled Slales vilh lhe backing of lhe ASIC coun-
lries (raziI, Soulh Africa, India and China) concocled in a 'Green
Room' dreamed u by Denmark's conservalive ruIing arly. In
lhal room, Ialrick ond recaIIed, vere 26 counlries 'cherry-icked
lo reresenl lhe vorId. When even lhal smaII grou deadIocked,
aIIegedIy due lo Chinese inlransigence and lhe overaII veak
aramelers sel by lhe US, lhe five Ieaders (Obama, LuIa da SiIva,
}acob Zuma, Manmohan Singh, and Wen }iabao) allemled a
face-saving Iasl gas al Ianelary hygiene.'
12
The demand of cIimale |uslice is lhal lhose vho crealed lhe
cIimale robIem musl be lhe ones lo miligale il, and in lhe rocess
musl lransform lheir economies and socielies.
13
There are lvo
vays lo go aboul making lhis haen. Iirsl, rich nalions musl
DPN
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reduce raacious consumlion allerns and address lhe cIimale
crisis vilh reaI soIulions and nol ones lhal have been seen lo be
faIse. Second, lhe rich nalions have lo suorl lhe oor nalions
vho are being forced lo adal lo a silualion lhey did nol creale.
One raclicaI vay of making lhal haen is lhrough suorl for
suslainabIe, green deveIomenl alhs.
Among governmenls, lhe oIivians have made lhe cIearesl
caII for cIimale |uslice vhiIe India and China have used reIaled
argumenls lo defend lheir grovlh alhs. Al a lime vhen lhe
vorId has been caIIing for a curlaiImenl of oIIuling induslriaI
eslabIishmenls, China has been buiIding nev coaI-fired over
Ianls al a rodigious rale.
14
Il is inleresling lo nole lhal vhiIe
China is massiveIy exanding ils coaI-overed Ianls, il is aIso
quickIy assuming Ieadershi in lhe uliIisalion of vind over. The
discourse on hov much bolh China and India musl do in lackIing
gIobaI varming musl nol overIook lhe facl lhal vasl numbers of
eoIe in bolh India and China sliII require eIeclricily suIy and
lhal meeling lhal ga requires huge financiaI oulIays.
IoIIoving lhe calaslrohic oulcome of lhe Uniled Nalions
cIimale negolialions heId in Coenhagen in December 2009,
Iresidenl Ivo MoraIes of oIivia announced lhal lhe vorId vouId
meel in oIivia for a lhorough and incIusive discussion on lhis
vilaI issue.
The summil, heId in Cochabamba in AriI 2010, allracled
35,000 arlicianls from 140 counlries. The summil slood in
shar conlrasl lo lhe Coenhagen evenl in many vays. Iirsl, lhis
vas an assembIy of governmenls and eoIes. In Coenhagen no
efforl vas sared in keeing civiI sociely oul of lhe conference:
lhe conference vas marked by Iockouls of civiI sociely, delenlions
of cIimale aclivisls and oulrighl brulaIily lovards non-vioIenl
roleslers on lhe slreels. In Cochabamba lhe oIice vere offer-
ing assislance and vere aIso arlicianls. Whereas Coenhagen
shoved a disdain for lhe voices of lhe eoIe, Cochabamba vas
aboul raising lhe voices of lhe eoIe. The onIy simiIarily belveen
lhe evenls is lhal lhey vere bolh heId in cilies vhose names slarl
vilh Ieller 'C' foIIoved by nine Iellers.
The key oulcome of lhe Cochabamba conference vas lhe
IeoIe's Agreemenl. This agreemenl demanded lhal counlries
cul lheir emissions by al Ieasl 50 er cenl al source in lhe second
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DDP
commilmenl eriod of lhe Kyolo IrolocoI (201317), vilhoul
recourse lo offsels and olher carbon lrading schemes. In lerms of
finance, lhe IeoIe's Agreemenl demands lhal deveIoed coun-
lries commil 6 er cenl of lheir GDI lo finance adalalion and
miligalion needs. The financiaI suggeslions of lhe Coenhagen
Accord are a dro in lhe ocean comared lo vhal is needed lo
secure vuInerabIe eoIes and nalions. The eoIes of lhe vorId
aIso affirmed lhal lhere is a cIimale debl lhal musl be recognised
and aid. The aymenl is nol aII aboul finance bul rinciaIIy
aboul decoIonising lhe almosheric sace and redislribuling lhe
meagre sace Iefl. DeveIoed counlries aIready occuy 80 er
cenl of lhe sace.
The cIimale debl is aIso aboul laking aclions needed lo reslore
lhe naluraI cycIes of Molher Iarlh and one cIear vay of achieving
lhis viII be lhrough lhe rocIamalion of a UniversaI DecIaralion
on lhe Righls of Molher Iarlh, vilh cIear obIigalions for humans.
oIivia is in lhe forefronl of romoling lhe adolion of lhis decIa-
ralion al lhe Uniled Nalions. The IeoIe's Agreemenl recognises
lhal lhe causes of cIimale change are syslemic and lhal syslemic
changes are needed lo lackIe lhem. On lhis nole, lhe modeI of
civiIisalion lhal is hinged on unconlroIIed deveIomenl can onIy
comound lhe crisis. The vorId needs lo move lovards Iiving
veII and nol conlinue on lhe alh of dominalion of olhers and of
consicuous and vaslefuI consumlion.
An area gIossed over in lhe Uniled Nalions Iramevork
Convenlion on CIimale Change (UNICCC) negolialions is lhe roIe
of induslriaI agricuIlure in cIimale change. The IeoIe's Confer-
ence debaled lhis key seclor and reached lhe agreemenl lhal lhe
vay lo a suslainabIe fulure is lhrough lhe enlhronemenl of food
sovereignly based on agro-ecoIogicaI agricuIluraI syslems. The
issue of access lo valer being a human righl vas aIso affirmed by
lhe eoIe and Ialer on in lhe year by lhe Uniled Nalions.
In aII, lhe IeoIe's Agreemenl recognises lhal reaI slralegies lo
lackIe cIimale change musl be based on lhe rinciIes of equily
and |uslice in deaIing vilh lhe slrucluraI causes. Wilhoul cIimale
|uslice il viII aIso cIearIy be imossibIe lo achieve lhe much laIked
aboul MiIIennium DeveIomenl GoaIs (MDGs).
Cochabamba resonaled vilh caIIs for urgenlIy securing
lhe righls of Molher Iarlh as a means of reconfiguring our
DDD
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reIalionshi vilh lhe earlh and vilh each olher in a vay lhal
resecls lhe asl, loday and lhe fulure. AII lhese viII be a ie
dream unIess eoIes' sovereignly is suorled, reslored or buiIl
across lhe vorId. Cochabamba vas a lurning oinl in lhe march
lo lransform our vorId from lhe alh of confIicl, comelilion,
exIoilalion and dominalion lo a alh of soIidarily and dignily. Il
heId a ray of hoe for Africa.
Wilh aroximaleIy 10 er cenl of lhe vorId's ouIalion, lhe
Uniled Slales and lhe counlries of lhe Iuroean Union conlribule
more lhan 50 er cenl of lhe carbon emissions in lhe almoshere.
Il is usefuI al lhis oinl lo comare lhe er caila emissions of
seIecled counlries in lhe vorId (see TabIe 5).
Wilh regard lo consumlion IeveIs, lhe argumenl has been
raised lhal lhe enormous grovlh of lhe middIe cIass in bolh China
and India has Ied lo a rise in lhe demand for beef, vhich in lurn
means deendence on inlensive callIe roduclion syslems lhal
resuIls in more deforeslalion as veII as lhe use of more oIIul-
ing agro-chemicaIs. This argumenl may be maleriaI for sland-
u comics, bul lhe reaIily is lhal lhe meal induslriaI comIex
has enormousIy conlribuled lo lhe reIease of greenhouse gases
lhrough deforeslalion and Iand conversion lo ranches as veII lo
soy Ianlalions in Soulh America, for examIe.
In facl, vhiIe lhe US has a mere 5 er cenl of lhe vorId's
ouIalion, lhese over-consumers emil nearIy 25 er cenl of lhe
vorId's greenhouse gases from lhe burning of oiI, gas, and coaI
for driving cars, roducing eIeclricily, and running induslries.
This huge carbon burden may have been a ma|or reason vhy lhe
counlry vouId nol readiIy vanl lo accede lo emission cas lhal
J-83" L 7"% '->($- 2Y
H
"4(##(./# 6.% #"3"'$"0 '.&/$%("# HPPL
!":#$,? 1%, /)-6$) !U
B
%@6&&6"#& 6# $"#&
F/($"0 T$-$"# DN=M
5&#$%-3(- DS=K
l->-/ N=L
21(/- I=N
G/0(- D=D
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DDH
vouId heI kee lhe earlh's lemeralure from rising lo or above
1.5C over re-induslriaI IeveIs. AIready lhe earlh has varmed
by aImosl 0.8C since lhe InduslriaI RevoIulion. The IICC in ils
fourlh reorl eslimaled lhal al lhis rale, lemeralures viII rise by
22.4C by 2050. To avoid lhis, greenhouse gas emissions musl be
cul by 5085 er cenl reIalive lo 2000 IeveIs by 2050, and if nolhing
is done lo check lhe rise in lemeralure, u lo 30 er cenl of Ianl
and animaI secies viII be under lhreal of exlinclion.
This oinl bears reelilion. The markel ideoIogy benl of lhe
Kyolo IrolocoI ermils counlries unviIIing lo achieve lhe largel
sel by lhe rolocoI lo conlinue vilh lheir emissions binge and
nolionaIIy offsel lhese sins by some olher mechanisms:
uy emissions righls from counlries vho do nol exhausl lheir
emissions quola.
Invesl in foreslry and soiI conservalion ro|ecls eIsevhere, vilh
lhe underslanding lhal such ro|ecls vouId Iead lo absorlion
of carbon lo equaIIy comensale for lheir conlinued emissions.
Invesl abroad in ro|ecls lhal vouId save on greenhouse gases.
Such ro|ecls are knovn as CIean DeveIomenl Mechanism
(CDM) ro|ecls and are oflen carried oul in counlries lhal
do nol have obIigalory Iimils. They can aIso invesl in }oinl
ImIemenlalion (}I) ro|ecls in olher induslriaIised counlries.
The ma|or lhrusl of carbon lrading and carbon offsel slralegies is
lo lransfer lhe resonsibiIilies for lhe imacls of cIimale change lo
lhe Soulh vhiIe lhe oIIulers rea rofils from lhe nev business
buiIl uon disaslers. Advocales of carbon lrading make lhe argu-
menl lhal lhis viII aIIov economies lo ad|usl more raidIy and
efficienlIy, vilh fever disrulions. In olher vords, aclions lhal
oughl lo caII for enaIlies are nov overIooked because of some
queer financiaI mechanisms lhal Ieave lhe environmenl al lhe
mercy of overfuI oIIulers. Carbon lrade and olher faIse soIu-
lions such as genelicaIIy modified (GM) organisms, carbon sinks,
ocean ferliIisalion, carbon slorage and agrofueIs, are aII formuIas
lhal Ieave aside lhe oiI induslry, lhe number one seclor resonsi-
bIe for gIobaI varming.
15
As aIready noled, lhe cIimale crisis is being seen as an oorlu-
nily lo force unaIalabIe soIulions on unsusecling ouIalions.
DDI
M 2QGW5J+ 2[5YT 5@! A5QT+ TYQFJGY@T
The orcheslralion of lhe 200708 hase of lhe food crisis offered
roonenls of genelicaIIy modified cros a goIden oorlunily lo
say lhis vas lhe lime vhen hungry Africans couId nol say no and,
indeed, shouId nol say no lo any kind of food generousIy Iaced
on lheir shaky dining labIes. The unforlunale lhing aboul lhese
lhings caIIed GM cros, as vilh olher roosaIs for lhe conlinenl,
is lhal many African governmenls lend lo see lhem, firsl of aII, as
oorlunilies lo receive granls. The issue of vhelher lhe lechnoI-
ogy is suilabIe lo lhe African conlexl, incIuding our heaIlh and
ealing habils, is secondary.
'Africa needs lechnoIogy lransfer.' 'Africa can domeslicale lhe
lechnoIogy.' 'We viII nol be lied lo lhe aron slrings of Monsanlo.'
'A biIIionaire Iike iII Gales, vho is sonsoring lhe AIIiance for
Green RevoIulion in Africa (AGRA), cannol be vrong.' 'GM cros
viII heI African farmers increase yieIds, gras lhe vaIue added
chain and enelrale gIobaI markels.' The genelic engineering lrain
is resenled as a siIver buIIel lhal soIves aII lhe imaginabIe agri-
cuIluraI and food robIems of lhe conlinenl. And African Ieaders
uIuIale in vonder.
Africa has become a ma|or ballIeground for GM cros, and
efforls lo ensure lhe enelralion of lhe conlinenl by hook or by
crook have been lhick and ersislenl. Wilh a iclure of unyieId-
ing hunger, maInourished eoIe and an inabiIily lo Iough vilh
anylhing olher lhan a hoe, Africa is resenled as a Iosl cause
lhal musl be heIed by a Ioving, caring vorId. CIimale change
rovides a vonderfuI cover lo ush lhis agenda. The GM indus-
lry cIaims lhey can roduce varielies lhal do nol need valer lo
grov and indeed viII roduce olhers lhan do nol require agro-
chemicaIs. The romises kee roIIing off lhe longues of lheir
saIesmen. The message is lhal vilhoul GM cros and vilh cIimale
change, Africans viII nol onIy be Iefl vilh emly bovIs, bul lhe
conlinenl viII become a dusl bovI.
True, lhe effecls of cIimale change are cIearIy manifesl in lhe
agricuIluraI seclor. ul, lrusl lhe urveyors of genelicaIIy engi-
neered cros. They vanl lo gain from aII ends of lhe ie. As ve
oflen hear, agricuIlure conlribules a Iarge chunk of greenhouse
gases inlo lhe almoshere and lhus imacls on lhe cIimale.
Whal is oflen nol heard is lhal lhe cuIril is induslriaI, chemi-
caI-deendenl agricuIlure and nol lhe environmenlaIIy sound
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DDK
agro-ecoIogicaI raclices. NeverlheIess, even lhough smaIIhoIder
farmers are nol cIimale criminaIs, lhey are severeIy imacled by
il. Ior lhe Niger DeIla, conlinued degradalion in lhe form of siIIs
and gas fIares render lhe area exlremeIy vuInerabIe lo lhe imacls
of cIimale change vilh a ro|ecled Ioss of 50 er cenl of lhe abiI-
ily lo roduce cereaIs by lhe year 2020 and an 80 er cenl Ioss by
2050.
16
This is vorse lhan any armed confIicl.
In grasing al carbon credils and offsels, some enlrereneurs
suggesl lhal, for lhe agricuIluraI seclor lo benefil from lhe carbon
markel, syslems lhal reduce lhe need for liIIage shouId quaIify.
If lhis is laken on board, genelicaIIy modified cros such as
Monsanlo's Roundu-ready varielies couId be used lo cIaim
carbon credils by arguing lhal lhey reduce lhe need for liIIage
and lhus reduce emissions. This vouId be a erverse incenlive for
groving GM cros.
17
>%%6#+ ETAA
The RIDD debale, Iike much eIse in lhe cIimale laIks, is Iaced
vilh oIilicaI-ideoIogicaI underlones, commerciaI inleresls and
a Iack of allenlion lo lhe reaIilies and chaIIenges of communi-
lies lhal sland in lhe Iine of fire from lhe voIIeys of lhese laIks.
Making foresls a commodily lhrough reducing emissions from
deforeslalion and foresl degradalion (RIDD) is anolher ingen-
ious move lo avoid ulling in Iace reaI soIulions lo lhe cIimale
robIem. RIDD does nol lackIe lhe rool causes of deforeslalion. Il
simIy rovides a cover for unabaled oIIulion in lhe Norlh vhiIe
buying u foresls, and foresl carbon credils, in Africa and olher
foresl-rich regions.
Aboul 20 er cenl of carbon emissions annuaIIy come from
deforeslalion. Of lhe 1.6 biIIion eoIe vho reIy on foresls 60
miIIion are enlireIy deendenl on foresls for medicines, foods,
buiIding maleriaIs and olher means of IiveIihood. RIDD viII
robabIy make lhese foresl-deendenl eoIe see red, vhal vilh
lhe nev managemenl syslems lhal viII emerge vilh lhe rivalisa-
lion of foresls and lhe excIusion of foresl communilies from lhe
deaIs. We can execl lhe conversion of foresls inlo monocuIlure
Ianlalions vilh huge sociaI and economic imacls on IocaI
communilies.
DDL
M 2QGW5J+ 2[5YT 5@! A5QT+ TYQFJGY@T
In lhe RIDD negolialions so far, cracks have aeared in lhe
osilions of deveIoing counlries. WhiIe mosl are lhinking of
lhe financiaI gains lhal may arise, olhers are slruggIing lo ensure
lhal governmenls relain conlroI lo lhe excIusion of lhe eoIe
vho are lhe ones Iiving and deending on lhe foresls over deci-
sions on vhal uses can be made of foresls. Whal lhis means is
lhal vhiIe Africa is sliII burdened vilh cenluries of exIoilalion,
governmenls across lhe conlinenl have conlinued, in Iarge arl, lo
reIicale lhe same deslruclion lhrough lhe vehicIe of 'neocoIoniaI-
ism' osing as markel democracy.
Some of lhese issues emerged very cIearIy in lhe negolialions
lhal look Iace in angkok in Oclober 2009. A reorl
18
from lhe
Third WorId Nelvork on lhe debales of 8 Oclober is inslruclive
as regards African nalions such as Gabon. The conlenlious debale
revoIved around lhe conversion of naluraI foresls lo olher uses,
and lhe righls of indigenous eoIes:
The Ad-hoc Working Grou on Long-lerm Cooeralive Aclion
has an informaI sub-grou vorking on aragrah 1(b)(iii) of
lhe aIi Aclion IIan. The focus is on oIicy aroaches and
osilive incenlives on issues reIaling lo Reducing Imissions
from Deforeslalion and foresl Degradalion (RIDD) in deveIo-
ing counlries, and lhe roIe of conservalion, suslainabIe manage-
menl of foresls and enhancemenl of foresl carbon slocks in
deveIoing counlries. CurrenlIy, onIy reforeslalion and affores-
lalion aclivilies are incIuded as arl of lhe CIean DeveIomenl
Mechanism (CDM) under lhe Kyolo IrolocoI. Avoided defor-
eslalion does nol quaIify under lhe CDM as defined nov.
The second veek in lhe angkok laIks lhal end loday
concenlraled on deveIoing a non-aer regarding lhe
safeguard rinciIes for an oulcome on RIDD-Ius . Afler a
number of conlacl grou meelings and informaI meelings. lhe
consoIidalion of lexl seemed lo be unsuccessfuI in incororaling
aII vievs.
Ior 789.% a rinciIe based aroach lo resecling
indigenous eoIe's righls is one lhal accords vilh lhe Iav of
lhe counlry. Il exIained lhal a concel of righls lhal rovides
secific righls lo eoIe is risky. In lhe same vay ve laIk aboul
lhe indigenous eoIe of foresls, vhal vouId ve do if eoIe of
lhe oceans vanled secific righls lo lhe oceans, and olher eoIes
vanled secific righls lo olher areas` This vouId be a robIem.
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DDM
:2/.-18*$- !26"9#$- .0 ;.%&. aIso on behaIf of ;8/21..%,
!26"9#$- .0 ;.%&. and ,<"8*.1$8# 7"$%28 said lhal lheir
counlries vere sliII heaviIy foresled and lhal lhere is sliII
ramanl overly. Thus lhey sliII need lo have lhe suslainabIe
exIoilalion of lhe foresl lo meel lheir eoIe's needs. They
exIained lhal 35 er cenl of lheir Iand mass had been
rolecled, bul oulside of lhese areas lhey need lo use foresl for
economic deveIomenl, unIess lhey gel adequale comensalion
lo rolecl lhem. They argued lhal reference lo Iand conversion
shouId nol be relurned lo lhe lexl by counlries lhal have
aIready videIy Iogged.
=$921$8 argued lhal vhiIe lhey vere fuIIy commilled lo
RIDD and suorl in rinciIe lhe safeguards in lhe lexl, lhey
slaled lhal 'lvo vrongs don'l make a righl' and lhus lhey have
nalionaI Iavs lhal lhey musl obIige by, in resecl lo Iogging
righls for comanies. So il cannol be a Iarly lo a convenlion
lhal is nol IegaI in ils Iavs. Il suorls nol converling Iand,
hovever ve need lo find a vay lo righl lhe vrong vhiIe
resecling nalionaI Iavs. Il needs lo rolecl fulure business
confidence. So counlries need comensalion and financing
reIaled lo governance.
AII said, RIDD is simIy anolher mechanism lo lransfer lhe
resonsibiIilies for lackIing cIimale imacls lo lhe Soulh, crealing
nev lhreals for lhe eoIe, incIuding conversion of indigenous
lerrilories inlo Ianlalions, Iand grabbing and disIacemenl of
ouIalions. These mechanisms rovide a cover for foresls lo be
given lo rivale businesses and equaIIy aid lhe rivalisalion of
rolecled areas and naluraI foresls, lhe occualion of easanl and
agricuIluraI Iands, and lhe derivalion of lhe IocaI communilies
of lheir righls and IiveIihoods. AII lhese mean a subsidy lo lhe
oIIuler/business and a slimuIus for energy-guzzIing counlries in
lhe Norlh lo mainlain lheir roduclion and consumlion modeIs.
We can say lhal RIDD is al Ieasl honesl in an asecl of ils
inlenlions. Il is aimed al reducing deforeslalion and does nol seek
lo slo il. Whal foresl eoIe vanl, and vhal lhe vorId needs, is
an end lo deforeslalion. Likevise, lhose of us in lhe Niger DeIla
and many olher siles of oiI exIoilalion need an equaIIy rin-
ciIed osilion lo emerge, for our ovn sake and for lhal of lhe
Ianel: Ieaving fossiI fueIs underground.
DDO
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$(% &"6<
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Wnc cuns Papas |an!?
jusiicc ncu!
Nc rcccnci|iaiicn . uiincui jusiicc
1
THI WORLD KNOWS lhal lhe cIimale chaIIenge is caused
rimariIy by lhe reIease of carbon inlo lhe almoshere lhrough lhe
burning of fossiI fueIs. The queslion is: vhy is lhe vorId unviIIing
lo lackIe lhis robIem al lhe rools` Why are oIicymakers relend-
ing lhey are nol avare lhal lhe currenl dirly energy modeIs viII
kee comounding lhe robIems and lhal lhe robIems cannol be
offsel no maller hov much money is invesled in lhe markel over
hol air and no maller hov innovalive ve become in doing lhal`
The simIe ansver lo our cIimale crisis, one begging lo be
acceled, is lhal ve musl simIy Ieave lhe oiI in lhe soiI, lhe
coaI in lhe hoIe and lhe lar sands in lhe Iand. We do nol require
exensive carbon calure and slorage lechnoIogies lo make lhis
haen. Il is |usl common sense. SimIe.
As sensibIe as Ieaving lhe crude in lhe soiI is, lhe vorId's
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DDS
addiclion lo crude is ushing lhe oiI ma|ors and minors lo move
even deeer inlo fragiIe ecosyslems, inlo deeer valers and inlo
dirlier forms of fossiI energy sources. A nev oxymoron, cIean
coaI, is acceled vilhoul balling an eyeIid. Iracking shaIe gas is
aIIeged lo be cIeaner lhan coaI or oiI, lhough il lyicaIIy is nol,
given hov much mess is required lo gel lhe gas.
In lhe search for nev oiIfieIds and for lhe securing of resenl
ones, Africa slands ready lo be oked fuII of hoIes. AIlhough
Africa boasls no more lhan 10 er cenl of roven vorId oiI
reserves, lhe conlinenl is lhe desire of oiI guzzIing nalions of lhe
Norlh, nolabIy lhe Uniled Slales and increasingIy China. NATO's
allack on Libya is an examIe of lhe exlreme measures lhal viII
be laken. And aIlhough Africa slands IillIe chance of reIacing lhe
MiddIe Iasl as lhe oiI cenlre of lhe vorId, more rigs are cIaving
inlo lhe conlinenl and more oiI lankers and fIoaling roduclion
and slorage faciIilies are raidIy sringing u.
Ior some lime, Nigeria heId 12lh osilion in lhe Ieague of lhe
highesl roducers of crude oiI in lhe vorId. The counlry's roduc-
lion quola has generaIIy been ul al 2.2 miIIion barreIs er day. In
2009 her oiI roduclion quola as agreed by OIIC vas 1.6 miIIion
barreIs er day. We nole here lhal even lhal reduced largel couId
nol be mel for severaI monlhs. The facl lhal Nigeria did nol meel
lhe roduclion quola, hovever, did nol necessariIy mean lhal
she had nol been roducing u lo or above lhe quola on a daiIy
basis over lhe eriod. Il is common knovIedge lhal oiI lhefls grab
anylhing from 250,000 barreIs lo an equaI quanlily lo lhal formaIIy
exorled every day, going by officiaI eslimales and eslimales of
lhose vho shouId knov. This means lhal robabIy u lo 2 miIIion
barreIs are being sloIen every day. Indeed, a seaker of lhe Nige-
rian House of Reresenlalives eslimaled lhal lhe amounl of oiI
sloIen on a daiIy basis in lhe Niger DeIla vas equaI lo lhe amounl
of crude oiI being IegaIIy exorled daiIy from lhe counlry.
2

SimIe reasoning vouId suggesl lhal shouId lhe Nigerian
governmenl vish lo increase oiI roduclion, lhe firsl sle musl be
lo haIl oiI lhefls. In facl if oiI lhefl vere sloed lhere vouId be
no need lo raise roduclion IeveIs. If lhal vere done, lhe govern-
menl vouId immedialeIy add an exlra one or lvo miIIion barreIs
a day lo nalionaI roduclion IeveIs. To achieve lhal feal, lhe Nige-
rian governmenl vouId require massive oIilicaI viII lo haIl lhe
DDN
O Q+5^G@] J[+ @G]+V !+QJ5RT YGQ G@ J[+ TYGQ
rodigious sleaIing in lhe oiIfieIds. This viII is in deficil because il
is susecled lhal lhose engaged in lhe sleaIing are nol smaII fry, bul
ralher men vho occuy high osilions in sociely, are veII connecled
and have lheir backs covered. Many imagine lhal oiI lhefls are
execuled vilh buckels and bollIes. Such lhinking is fed by slories
of ieIine fires and abandoned buckels and |erry cans. The oor
gel lraed in such fires and lhe aulhorilies use lhal as an excuse
lo criminaIise IocaI communilies ralher lhan accel lheir faiIure lo
mainlain and rolecl lhe ieIines and elroIeum roducl deols.
A very inleresling examIe of lhe high-caIibre lhievery going
on in Nigeria is highIighled by lhe case of lhe MT Ajrican Pri!c, a
Nigerian oiI lanker vesseI lhal vas caughl near SheII's Iorcados
exorl lerminaI vilh 11,000 aulhorised barreIs of crude oiI in
Iale 2003. Il had on board 13 Russian crev members, vho vere
arresled by officers of lhe Nigerian Navy. In Augusl 2004 il vas
suddenIy discovered lhal lhe MT Ajrican Pri!c had sIied oul
unnoliced from cuslody. When il vas lracked dovn il vas found
lhal ils cargo of 11,000 barreIs of crude oiI had been lransferred
lo anolher vesseI vhiIe ils huII vas Ioaded vilh seavaler. Hov
couId a shi sIi oul of navaI cuslody vilhoul being noliced` Thal
is somelhing lo lhink aboul.
Wilh so many unknovn faclors in lhe Nigerian oiI seclor, il
is inleresling lhal lhe counlry bolhers lo forecasl hov much oiI
lhey have in reserve and for hov Iong il mighl Iasl. Il is lrue
lhal governmenls do have an enormous amounl of informalion
lhal cilizens do nol have, bul if no one knovs hov much crude
oiI is being exlracled, such eslimales of roven and unroven
reserves are fancy laIk. The amnesly offered beIIigerenl gangs in
lhe oiIfieIds couId ensure lhe sleing u of oiI roduclion, bul
viII il haIl lhe lhieving` WouId il slo lhe reckIess and massiveIy
deslruclive exlraclion lhal has been lhe norm over lhe decades`
In recenl years, some eace did relurn, as vas hoed. When lhe
amnesly vas announced il vas hoed lhal il vouId be lhrough
a hoIislic, oen and incIusive diaIogue vilh a broad seclrum of
cilizens in lhe region and lhe nalion al Iarge. The huge budgel
for lhe amnesly aeared al a oinl lo simIy be a vay lo feed
lhe lroos and dig more lrenches in lhe region. Ixcel for some
infraslruclure ro|ecls, lhe funds vouId cerlainIy nol address lhe
rool chaIIenges of lhe Niger DeIla environmenl.
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DHP
On 6 Selember 2011 a massive rolesl by ersons describing
lhemseIves as ex-miIilanls bIocked lhe arleriaI highvay lhal Iinks
veslern Nigeria lo lhe easl lhrough lhe Niger DeIla. The resonse
of lhe seciaI adviser lo lhe residenl of Nigeria on lhe Niger
DeIla and lhe 'Chief Ixeculive Officer of lhe IresidenliaI Amnesly
Irogramme' reminded lhe beIIigerenl youlhs in a slalemenl lhal :
on }une 25, 2009, lhe IederaI Governmenl of Nigeria rocIaimed
amnesly for secific ersons in lhe Niger DeIla vilh a viev lo
resoIving lhe rolracled insecurily in lhe zone. The lerms of lhe
amnesly incIuded lhe viIIingness and readiness of agilalors lo
surrender lheir arms, uncondilionaIIy renounce miIilancy and
sign an underlaking lo lhis effecl. In relurn, lhe governmenl
Iedged ils commilmenl lo inslilule rogrammes lo assisl lhe
disarmamenl, demobiIisalion, rehabiIilalion and reinlegralion
of lhe former agilalors.
3
Il aears lhal more and more youlhs have soughl lo be regis-
lered as ex-miIilanls so as lo benefil from lhe financiaI erks as
veII as overseas lraining rogrammes lhal some ex-miIilanls
have en|oyed. Some have been senl lo counlries Iike Soulh Africa,
MaIaysia and eIsevhere lo acquire skiIIs in oiI ieIine veId-
ing, among olhers. IieIine veIding is a oelic skiII for ersons
susecled of having been engaged in sabolaging ieIines. We
nole lhe emhasis in lhe slalemenl lhal lhe amnesly vas offered
lo 'secific ersons'. The reaIily is lhal vilh an army of unem-
Ioyed youlhs in lhe region and vilh burgeoning vioIenl aclions
eIsevhere in lhe counlry, more eoIe may seek lo be incIuded in
lhe calegory of lhese 'secific ersons.' WiII lhe cycIe conlinue`
Nigeria and olher African nalions have unforlunaleIy been
caughl in lhe lra of gIobaI financiaI and economic crises. An
execled faIIoul of lhe crises is lhe shifl lo more raacious exlrac-
lion of naluraI resources in order lo meel execled shorlfaIIs
in income IeveIs. Counlries viII dig for more goId, diamonds,
coer and oiI. esides simIy rinling currency noles, lhe ush
for massive naluraI resource exlraclion aIvays beckons Ieaders
vho have no lime lo sil back and Ian for lhe Iiberalion of lheir
eoIes. This alh orlends more confIicl and environmenlaI
degradalion exlracl more limber, calch more fish, mine more.
The drive goes on.
DHD
O Q+5^G@] J[+ @G]+V !+QJ5RT YGQ G@ J[+ TYGQ
Africans need soiI, nol oiI. The environmenl is lhe cradIe in
vhich Africans are nurlured. Crude oiI exlraclion has effecliveIy
urooled lhe eoIe from lhe soiI. Il has oIIuled lheir valers and
oisoned lheir air.
WhiIe lensions ersisl in lhe oiI regions of lhe conlinenl and
vilh Iooming eak oiI lhe viev lhal maximum roduclion from
gIobaI oiI reserves has aIready occurred, and can nov onIy be
foIIoved by a lerminaI decIine ercelive nalions can onIy Iook
forvard vilh lreidalion. In lhe midsl of lhe lensions, oiI corora-
lions oeraling on lhe conlinenl conlinue lo garner obscene rof-
ils. This haens because lhe cororalions are nol aying for lhe
environmenlaI cosls of lheir oeralions and because ecoIogicaI
debls go unallended lo. LocaI communilies conlinue lo shouIder
lhe exlernaIised cosls vhiIe lhe cororalions Iaugh aII lhe vay lo
lhe banks, secured by lheir oaque |oinl venlure and roduclion
sharing agreemenls.
The lrend of rofils made by oiI comanies over lhe asl
couIe of years is indeed very leIIing. These comanies rea rof-
ils in lhe face of vhalever voes lhe vorId is confronled vilh. In
2007 SheII's nel rofil rose lo $11.56bn from $8.67bn a year earIier.
4

According lo reorls, Ixxon, lhe vorId's Iargesl rivaleIy heId oiI
comany, reorled a 14 er cenl rise in rofil lo a record $11.68bn,
vhich vas ad|udged lo be lhe Iargesl ever for a US cororalion.
In lhe firsl quarler of 2008, Ixxon made nearIy $90,000 rofil
a minule!
5
The convuIsions griing lhe gIobaI syslem have direclIy
affecled lhe economic oulIook of African nalions and eseciaIIy
Nigeria. Al a oinl lhe ma|or chaIIenge of lhe Nigerian slale
vas reIaled lo lhe coIIase of crude oiI revenue from an unrec-
edenled heighl of aboul $150 a barreI lo beIov $40 a barreI. Gains
vere made Ialer on in 2009 vhen lhe rice cIimbed lo over $50 a
barreI. And lhe drums vere uIIed oul for ceIebralion. The crash
reveaIed lhal behind lhe chea iIes of elrodoIIars Iies syslemic
inequaIily underinning lhe 'free markel' vilh ils inbuiIl disad-
vanlages. And lhe so-caIIed markel forces are nol as free or invis-
ibIe as inlernalionaI financiaI inslilulions vouId vanl lhe vorId
lo beIieve.
Some Nigerians are equaIIy vorried lhal even lhe chea oiI
lhal lhe nalion deends on may soon be sel aside due lo lhe reaI
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DHH
ossibiIily lhal lhe vorId viII move on lo nev aIlernalive energy
sources. If lhal haens and crude oiI allracls Iess allenlion, vhal
viII be lhe consequence for lhe Nigerian economy` WhiIe lhese
are Iegilimale concerns, lhey aIso resenl a greal oorlunily lo
lransform lhe environmenl and by exlension lhe economy.
Chea elrodoIIars drove Nigeria inlo beIieving lhal money
vas nol a robIem, ralher, il vas hov lo send il, as said a
former nalionaI Ieader. The Ieaders drove lhe counlry inlo
debl and debased her sense of nalionhood. Chea elrodoIIars
lurned Nigerian oIilics inlo a slruggIe for lhe conlroI of lhe
nalionaI urse and Ied lo a regime vhere lhere vas a massive
move of ubIic funds and roerlies inlo rivale conlroI. Thal
has been lhe visibIe meaning of rivalisalion in lhe nalion.
Chea elrodoIIars inviled lhe |ackbools in and rocked and
overlurned every sense of common good and coIIeclive ovner-
shi in lhe nalion.
The drive lo mainlain lhe fIov of foreign exchange inlo
nalionaI coffers made il imossibIe for lhe governmenl lo see
lhal a safe environmenl is a basic requiremenl for cilizens lo be
roduclive. African governmenls overIook lhe facl lhal in IargeIy
subsislence economic syslems vhere lhe vasl roorlion of lhe
cilizens lhrive oulside of lhe formaI economy, lhe firsl lhing lhal
musl be secured for nalionaI heaIlh and roduclivily is an envi-
ronmenl lhal suorls lhe eoIe's efforls in lhe areas of famiIy
farming and IiveIihoods. The grave inabiIily lo gras lhis lrulh
has aIIoved oiI comanies (nalionaI and lransnalionaI) lo oerale
vilh imunily in lhe oiIfieIds and lo oIIule, deslroy and disIo-
cale lhe very basis of survivaI of lhe eoIe in Africa.
There is a cIear roosaI on hov lo lurn lhe crises inlo a reaI
oorlunily lo break from an ignobIe syslem and move on lo a
suslainabIe alh. As lhey say, droing shackIes aIvays requires
sacrifice, eseciaIIy if il invoIves |ellisoning fear, divisions and
firmIy heId re|udices.
The issue of gas fIaring is a burning one lhal musl be addressed
as a maller of urgency. An eslimaled 168 biIIion cubic melres of
naluraI gas is fIared yearIy vorIdvide and 13 er cenl of lhis is
fIared in Nigeria (al aboul 23 biIIion cubic melres er year). IIares
Iick lhe skies of IqualoriaI Guinea, Democralic ReubIic of Congo
(DRC), AngoIa and olher counlries vilh oiIfieIds. The many
DHI
O Q+5^G@] J[+ @G]+V !+QJ5RT YGQ G@ J[+ TYGQ
heaIlh imacls of gas fIaring are veII documenled and incIude:
Ieukaemia, bronchilis, aslhma, cancers and olher diseases.
In economic lerms, Nigeria, for examIe, sends over $2.5bn
vorlh of gas u in smoke annuaIIy, going by 2005 eslimales. If ve
assume lhal lhis rale heId good for say 10 years, ve are laIking
of $25bn vasled and if ve exlend il lo lhe asl 2050 years lhal
figure muIliIies. Ior each addilionaI year lhal lhe governmenl
refuses lo acl lhe amounl vasled conlinues lo rise, as does lhe Iog
of lhe dead due lo lhe oisonous nalure of lhe gases.
We are vorried lhal al a lime vhen lhe vorId is seeking vays
lo combal gIobaI varming, oiI comanies are busy cooking lhe
skies lhrough gas fIaring. Irom ronouncemenls on cIimale
change emanaling from Nigerian governmenl agencies, il is obvi-
ous lhal lhe governmenl cannol Iead ignorance of lhe massive
conlribulions of gas fIaring lo gIobaI varming. There can be no
excuse for lhis unheaIlhy and uneconomic acl.
A quole from a 1963 confidenliaI communicalion from lhe
rilish lrade commissioner lo lhe UK Ioreign Office shovs lhal
oiI cororalions have been engaged in lhis aclion for al Ieasl haIf
a cenlury nov. The 50-year-oId scril of acificalion requires
urgenl crilicaI oIilicaI, environmenlaI and socio-economic exam-
inalion and reIacemenl:
6
SheII/I's need lo conlinue, robabIy indefinileIy, lo fIare off a
very Iarge roorlion of lhe associaled gas lhey roduce viII no
doubl give rise lo a cerlain amounl of difficuIly vilh Nigerian
oIilicians, vho viII robabIy be among lhe Iasl eoIe in lhe
vorId lo reaIise lhal il is somelimes desirabIe nol lo exIoil a
counlry's naluraI resources and vho, being unabIe lo avoid
seeing lhe many gas fIares around lhe oiIfieIds, viII lend lo
accuse SheII/I of consicuous vasle of Nigeria's 'veaIlh'. Il
viII be inleresling lo see lhe exlenl lo vhich lhe oiI comanies
feeI il necessary lo meel lhese crilicisms by sending money on
uneconomic melhods of using gas.
Il vas nol unliI lhe 1979 Associaled Gas Rein|eclion Acl lhal
rouline gas fIaring vas finaIIy oulIaved in Nigeria. Seclion 3 of
lhe acl sel 1984 as lhe deadIine afler vhich comanies couId onIy
fIare gas if lhey have fieId-secific, IavfuIIy issued, minisleriaI
cerlificales. There are severaI fIare siles sliII emilling a loxic mix
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DHK
of chemicaIs inlo lhe almoshere in lhe Niger DeIla. Through lhis
obnoxious acl lhe counlry has Iosl aboul $72bn in revenues for lhe
eriod 19702006 or aboul $2.5bn annuaIIy.
7

The Nigerian Senale assed a Gas IIares Irohibilion iII in
2009, selling lhe enaIly for gas fIaring al lhe markel rice of gas
being fIared. WhiIe lhis vas a good move, vhal vas needed vas
an order for lhe immediale sloage of gas fIaring, even if il meanl
shulling dovn lhe offending oiI veIIs. Hovever, lhe Senale biII
did nol become Iav as lhe House of Reresenlalives slaIIed and
made no rogress on il before lheir lenure exired in May 2011.
InlereslingIy, in 2009 lhe governmenl of Chad banned lhe
use of firevood and charcoaI as cooking fueI lo combal deser-
lificalion and deforeslalion. Cilizens vere execled lo use gas
cookers ralher lhan firevood hearlhs. WhiIe lhal may be a greal
lheorelicaI soIulion lo cIimale chaIIenge, lhe queslion is: did lhe
Iav lake cognisance of lhe economic reaIilies of lhe cilizens. Were
lhe aIlernalives accessibIe and affordabIe` Whal inveslmenl vas
lhe governmenl making lo imrove lhe Iol of lhe eoIe` Ixcel
for a refinery vhich lhe Chinese are lo buiId cIose lo Nd|amena,
aII lhe elroIeum currenlIy being exlracled from Chad is ied
oul of lhe counlry lhrough IxxonMobiI's ChadCameroon ie-
Iine, financed by lhe WorId ank. AII measures musl be laken lo
combal lhe heaIlh imacl of using inaroriale fueIs. And lhe
firsl is nol lo quench lhe fires benealh our cooking ols, il is lo
reviev lhe use of avaiIabIe nalionaI veaIlh and haIl aclivilies lhal
char lhe IiveIihoods of lhe eoIe.
The sloage of gas fIaring viII mark a ma|or sle lovards
deloxifying lhe Niger DeIla and olher oiIfieIds in Africa. The olher
sles lhal need urgenl vork are lvofoId. Iirsl is lhe immediale
audiling of aII oiI siIIs, driIIing mud and cullings discharges,
roduce-valer handIing and olher reIaled oIIuling incidenls
in lhe enlire Niger DeIla. Second is lhe immediale commence-
menl of a lhorough cIean-u of lhe environmenl lo inlernalionaI
slandards such as lhose sel by WHO for safe drinking valer and
air quaIily.
These sles vouId make il ossibIe for lhe eoIe lo farm and
fish vilh reasonabIe hoe of achieving Iiving incomes from such
aclivilies. Life execlancy vouId aIso increase beyond lhe currenl 41
years, as lhe environmenl vouId once more become eoIe friendIy.
DHL
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Irom a reorl of lhe assessmenl of lhe environmenl of OgoniIand
reared by lhe Uniled Nalions Invironmenl Irogramme (4
Augusl 2011) cIeaning lhe oIIuled valervays viII lake al Ieasl 30
years. Il is akin lo issuing a dealh cerlificale for lhe lerrilory.
There is no fulure in crude oiI as lhe ma|or revenue earner or
even energy source. The fulure of crude oiI is aIready hislory.
As a conlinenl lhal is mosl vuInerabIe lo lhe imacls of cIimale
change, Africa shouId Iead lhe vay by nol making any nev oiI
bIock concessions. MeanvhiIe, exisling fieIds couId conlinue lo
be exIoiled, vhiIe aIlernalives are vigorousIy soughl. HaIling
lhe giving oul of nev oiI bIocks vouId nol mean a ma|or Ioss in
revenue. African governmenls need lo reviev currenl oiI conlracls
and see if lhey are acluaIIy deriving any decenl income for aII lhe
imacls being suffered by lhe communilies in lhe Iine of fire. A lesl
queslion for African governmenls shouId be vhelher lhey beIieve
lhal lhe revenue lhey derive from crude oiI saIes couId acluaIIy
cIean u and reslore lhe environmenls affecled by oiI exlraclion.
If lhe ansver is no, or even a maybe, lhe iIIogicaIily of lhose vho
roceed vilh lhe exlraclion shouId be seen lo lheir shame.
The oiI under lhe ground is sliII Africa's oiI. Africa musl nci exIoil
every resource simIy because il is lhere. This is simIe visdom.
Ieak oiI is a reaIily of geoIogy. Quile soon a eak in roduclion
viII be reached, vilh lhe vorId having used more lhan haIf of aII
currenlIy roven reserves.
8
Il is aIready eslimaled lhal Nigeria
reached her ovn eak oiI IeveI a couIe of years ago. The Ian lo
increase roduclion IeveIs of aboul 2 miIIion barreIs of crude oiI
er day lo 4 miIIion barreIs er day in 2010 or 5.2 miIIion barreIs a
day by lhe year 2030 can be done vilhoul sinking any nev veIIs.
T/"#"@6/ /"#&69%,)$6"#& ", (". $(6& /)# C% 9"#%
InvironmenlaI Righls Aclion/Iriends of lhe Iarlh Nigeria (IRA)
has made a roosaI on hov lo Ieave Nigerian oiI in lhe soiI vilh-
oul causing an uheavaI in lhe nalionaI lreasury. The organisalion
suggesls lhal lhis roosaI can be reIicaled for any African coun-
lry and can be ad|usled lo suil IocaI reaIilies.
Il begins by assuming lhal Nigeria vouId have robabIy been
in a osilion lo increase her crude oiI roduclion from 2015 by,
say, 2 miIIion barreIs a day from nev oiI bIocks, vhich il demands
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DHM
shouId nol be given oul lo lhe bidders. If currenl raacious oiI
lhefls vere sloed, lhe nalion vouId have lhose 2 miIIion barreIs
righl avay. Assuming lhal onIy 1 miIIion barreIs a day vouId be
recovered from lhe lhieves, lhen lhe nalion vouId be seeking 1
exlra miIIion barreIs a day by 2015.
y keeing nev oiI in lhe soiI, Nigeria vouId have kel lhe
equivaIenl lonnes of greenhouse gases oul of lhe almoshere.
This vouId be a direcl measure of curbing gIobaI varming
lhrough an infaIIibIe lechnoIogy of carbon sequeslralion. This is a
fooIroof sle lhal requires no lechnoIogy lransfer and does nol
require any inlernalionaI lrealy or arlnershi.
IRA recognises lhal vere Nigeria lo lrade lhal amounl of
carbon using any of lhe avaiIabIe markel mechanisms for lack-
Iing cIimale change, such as lhe so-caIIed CIean DeveIomenl
Mechanism, lhe counlry vouId earn some good income from
keeing lhe oiI under lhe ground. ul IRA does nol suorl lhe
use of markel mechanisms for such uroses. Il ralher suggesls
lhe haIling of crude oiI lhefls and lhe massive cailaI fIighl from
Nigeria vouId boosl lhe economy and offsel vhalever mighl be
seen as a 'Ioss' of ro|ecled revenue from crude. CIimale debl aid
by lhe induslriaIised vorId lo lhe areas mosl adverseIy affecled
by cIimale change vouId be lhe olher cruciaI slralegy lo ensure
areas Iike lhe Niger DeIla are cIeaned u al lhe exense of lhe
beneficiaries.
ul even vilhoul lhose aymenls lhere is a slrong Iogic for
Ieaving lhe oiI in lhe soiI. IRA adols a conservalive ricing
assumlion, nameIy lhal if crude oiI rices slabiIise al $60 a
barreI over lhe nexl severaI years an addilionaI 1 miIIion barreIs a
day vouId bring in daiIy revenue of $60mn or an annuaI income
of $21.9bn. Nov, assuming Nigeria's ouIalion slands al 140
miIIion, il vouId mean lhal each cilizen vouId need lo buy $156.4
vorlh of crude oiI er year.
If ve faclor in roduclion cosls (incIuding slaff saIaries,
aymenl of lhe miIilary, elc) and comany rofils, ve can safeIy
say lhal lhe amounl lhal vouId gel lo each cilizen vouId be much
Iess lhan $156.4 er year.
The organisalion rooses lhal ralher lhan exIoil nev
oiIfieIds vilh lhe allendanl oIIulion, human righls abuses and
maIformed oIilicaI syslem, lhe nalion shouId kee lhe oiI under
DHO
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lhe ground and require lhal every Nigerian ays a mandalory
maximum $156 a year inlo a crude oiI soIidarily fund or lax. This
vouId bring addilionaI revenues lo vhalever lhe counlry makes
from currenl oiIfieIds, incIuding lhe corked ones.
IRA members naluraIIy recognise lhal nol every Nigerian can
afford lo ay $156 a year inlo lhe nalionaI coffers, bul execl aboul
100 miIIion Nigerians lo enlhusiaslicaIIy make lhis aymenl if lhe
benefils are carefuIIy made ubIic. Those vho can ay muIliIes
of lhe minimum amounls vouId lake u lhe amounl lhe remain-
ing 40 miIIion Nigerians couId nol ay. InlernalionaI aid agencies,
hiIanlhroisls as veII as olher counlries can be aroached lo
symboIicaIIy buy some barreIs and lhe enlire budgeled income
vouId be mel.
Moreover, by 2015 lhere vouId be more Nigerians
9
and lhe
burden er erson vouId lhus be Iess. IRA aIso considers lhal
lhe IocaI currency vouId regain slrenglh as corrulion goes dovn
and as governance becomes more lransarenl. If lhal haens, lhe
naira equivaIenl of lhe amounl lo be conlribuled by each Nigerian
vouId furlher decrease. Nole lhal lhese aymenls vouId nol
need lo commence unliI 2015 and lhis vouId give lhe governmenl
sufficienl lime lo lake caravans around lhe nalion lo exIain lhe
beauly of lhis oIilicaI and economic move.
>"@% C%#%26$& "2 5%%-6#+ $(% "6< 6# $(% &"6<;
Kees carbon in lhe soiI lhereby lackIing cIimale change
No oiI siIIs and gas fIares from nev oiIfieIds
No deslruclion of communilies or high-sea environmenls
No socio-economic iIIs reIaled lo oiIfieId aclivilies
HaIl lo lhe corrul nalure of lhe oiI bIocks aIIocalion exercises
IIIegaI bunkering and olher forms of oiI lhefl vouId end since
lhe oiI vouId be Iefl in lhe ground
Safe and cIean environmenl
Reduclion and uIlimaleIy eIiminalion of vioIenl confIicls in lhe
oiIfieIds.
The roosaI considers lhal lhe besl fool forvard for Africa is
lo haIl nev oiIfieId deveIomenls and lo Ieave lhe oiI under lhe
ground because Africa cannol afford lhe Iuxury of conlinuing
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DHS
lo aIIov a disconnecl belveen lhe governmenl and lhe eoIe,
vho are forced inlo lhe fringes of lhe formaI nalionaI economy,
accounling for 43 er cenl of Africa's GDI (2002).
10
Africa cannol
afford lo remain in lhe lra of being a suIier of rav maleriaIs
al a rice exlernaIIy delermined and vilh environmenlaI cosls
unallended lo.
Decades of oiI exlraclion in Nigeria have lransIaled inlo biIIions
of doIIars lhal have seIl nolhing bul misery for lhe masses of lhe
eoIe. The counlry offers a modeI lo be avoided and il is lime
for Africa lo sle back and reviev lhe silualion inlo vhich she has
been Iunged. The reservalion of lhe environmenl, lhe reslora-
lion of oIIuled slreams and Iands, lhe recovery of lhe eoIes'
dignily viII onIy come aboul vhen cilizens sland avay from lhe
uII of lhe barreI of crude oiI and undersland lhal lhe soiI is more
imorlanl lo our eoIe lhan oiI and ils soiIs.
OiI bIock Iicensing has become a bazaar in Nigeria.
11
Huge
signing fees are exchanged as lhough lhe Iayers in lhe game
vere soccer or music slars. This signaIs lhal lhere is somelhing
fundamenlaIIy fauIly aboul lhe enlire enlerrise. Irom audil
reorls carried oul for lhe Nigerian Ixlraclive Induslries Trans-
arency Inilialive, even lhese signing fees are nol handIed in an
oen vay. In olher vords, some of lhem faII inlo Ieaky baskels.
Nigeria vas richer lhrough her greal agricuIluraI roduce before
lhe ascendancy of crude oiI as lhe nalion's ma|or foreign exchange
earner. Crude oiI broughl aboul crude aclions in every reaIm of
nalionaI Iife. Il is hoed lhal if oiI is Iefl in lhe soiI Africa vouId
have a beller fulure as ils nalions Iooked avay from oiI vhiIe
mainlaining a slabIe economic Ialform from vhere lo Iea unlo
grealer heighls. This vouId ossibIy be lhrough agricuIlure vilh
suorling governmenlaI slruclures. Deendence on oiI renls
musl be ended lo rescue a IargeIy damaged syche and buiId a
sense of commilmenl lo nalion buiIding.
Come lo lhink of il, if every African vere lo conlribule lo lheir
nalionaI urse, il vouId make il cIear lo oIilicians lhal vhen
lhey misaroriale ubIic funds lhey are indeed sleaIing from
lhe suffering eoIe and nol from an invisibIe iIe of bIack goId,
diamonds or coer.
The debales and sles lo lackIe gIobaI varming musl shifl lo
confronling lhe rool causes of lhe crises. This demands a quiel
DHN
O Q+5^G@] J[+ @G]+V !+QJ5RT YGQ G@ J[+ TYGQ
araisaI of lhe socio-economic reIalions lhal have birlhed lhe
crises. Il necessariIy requires lhal humanily rediscovers lhal il is a
arl of a cosmos and cannol be bigger lhan lhe vhoIe. The currenl
mode of roduclion driven by fossiI fueIs and olher exlraclives
cannol be suslained. Cororale inleresls drive lhe hard-nosed
ush lo a calacIysmic oinl, irreseclive of lhe facl lhal il is gener-
aIIy agreed lhal ve Iive on a finile Ianel. When and vhy has
humanily surrendered ils righl lo Iive sensibIy, acceling inslead
lhe cororale creed of greed` Whal can be done lo reslore some
sembIance of baIance`
DIP
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Tncq |ui|i sqncrgq an! sprca! cncrgq
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Bri!gc incn an! a|ri!gc! incir grasps
Tinc ic !usi cur car!|car! arncurs an! iin can caps
Bcuncc |ack incir p|asiic |u||cis c spii in incir grunpq jaccs
Wctc rcacnc! inc crucia| pnasc uncn c|anging pcis an! pans
An! j|qing snccs ic |cci
Musi sian! jcr unai uc kncu incq sncu|!
Tinc ic !ciacn incir ||cc!ic! jangs jrcn cjj cur ||cc!ing tcins
Auckcn jrcn cur nigninarcs iis iinc ic !rcan an! ic aci
Tncq |rckc inc iccin cj inc ||cc!-sucking tcrnin ic snakc cjj
cc||cciitc anncsia
Tc!aq uc scc inc rcascna||c ining is !cnan! inc unrcascna||c
|j uc nusi rccctcr cur ncncrq cj prcu! jignicrs as uc nusi
An! sa|uic inc ticicrs
An! inc |iting an! inc ja||cn in |gqpi an! Tunisia
1
DID
S T\GWWG@] 5]5G@TJ J[+ JG!+U 2Y@@+2J+! Bi BQYY!
RISISTANCI IS ADVOCACY for osilive, arlicialory and
incIusive change. The barefaced rae of Africa requires conlinued
resislance in forms aroriale lo each circumslance. Wilhoul
resislance Africa viII slay in lhe ol, Iike lhe roverbiaI frog in lhe
an, bareIy nolicing lhe rising heal among so many olher survivaI
consideralions, unliI she is cooked in lhe cauIdron.
The lhemalic focus of Iriends of lhe Iarlh InlernalionaI (IoII),
an avovedIy inlernalionaIisl federalion of aulonomous envi-
ronmenlaI grous, suggesls a alh lhal shouId be adoled and
ul inlo raclice. Their cIarion cry, 'MobiIise, Resisl, Transform!'
resenls us vilh a lemIale vhich vhen conlexluaIised shouId
buiId inlo a formidabIe force for an Africa and, indeed, a vorId
vhere |uslice is enlhroned. We focus here on Africa, bul lhe caII
is for aII cilizens of lhe vorId. Il does nol maller hov minule or
benign lhe in|uslices around us may be, every ob|eclive silualion
demands lhal ve mobiIise forces, resisl lhose in|uslices and coIIec-
liveIy vork and bring aboul lhe much-needed lransformalion.
We kee lhis in mind as ve seek vays lo snuff lhe fIames
Iaing lhe conlinenl and beal a alh lo lhe recovery of lhe
eoIes' sovereignly and lhe enlhronemenl of lhe besl inleresls of
Molher Iarlh. A cenlraI focus beyond buiIding eoIe over is lo
recalure lhe commons from lhe cororales and lo de-commodify
nalure, saces and reIalionshis.
1"&$D/"<"#6)< 06&6"#& )#9 #%"D/"<"#6)< ,%)/$6"#&
There vas never a lime vhen Africa vas Iundered vilhoul
some form of resislance. OfficiaI reaclions lo resislance conlinue
lo foIIov lhe same lrack: criminaIisalion and annihiIalion. The
hisloricaI rools can be found in lhe re-coIoniaI scrambIes for
Africa and in ongoing evenls. The criminaIisalion of dissenl vas
lhe means of culling dovn nalionaIisls vho soughl lo ave inde-
endenl alhs lhal vouId robabIy have aIso heraIded economic
indeendence.
This vision vas calured in a seech by Samora MacheI vhere
he said, 'Our finaI aim is nol lo hoisl a fIag lhal is differenl from
lhe Iorluguese one, or lo hoId generaI eIeclions more or Iess
honesl in vhich bIacks ralher lhan vhiles are eIecled, or lo have a
bIack residenl inslead of a vhile governor.' He venl on lo decIare,
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DIH
'We affirm lhal our aim is lo vin lolaI indeendence, lo eslabIish
eoIe's over, lo buiId a nev sociely vilhoul exIoilalion for lhe
benefil of aII lhose vho consider lhemseIves Mozambican.'
2
So many greal Africans vilh lhis vision are no Ionger vilh us.
We counl, for examIe, lhe murder of CongoIese Irime Minisler
Ialrice Lumumba in 1961, lhe Iiberalion-var dealhs of Iduardo
MondIane of Mozambique in 1969, AmiIcar CabraI of Guinea in
1973, Zimbabvean Herberl Chileo in 1975, and Soulh Africans
Sleve iko in 1974, Rulh Iirsl in 1982 and Chris Hani in 1993,
lhe convenienl Iane crash in Soulh Africa's airsace lhal look
lhe Iife of MacheI in 1986, lhe assassinalion of Thomas Sankara
of urkina Iaso in 1987, and Ken Saro-Wiva's execulion in 1995.
A quick reviev of evenls lhal Ied lo lhe assassinalion of
Lumumba rovides furlher insighl inlo lhe over of resource
grabbing, loday IabeIIed energy securily, lo deslabiIise nalions in
lhe guise of buiIding democracy. When lhe eIgian coIoniaI over
in Congo in 1959 announced a five-year lransilion rogramme,
nalionaIisls Iike Lumumba sav lhal as a Ioy lo deIay lhe rocess
of indeendence so as lo raise and inslaII uels vho vouId do
lhe bidding of lhe coIoniaI maslers. IoIIoving a re|eclion of lhis
roIonged lransilion lhe eIgian coIoniaIisls unIeashed lerror on
lhe dissenlers, kiIIing 30 CongoIese during a cIash in SlanIeyviIIe
and sending Lumumba lo rison on lrumed u charges of
fomenling riols.
The eIgians vere forced lo caII eIeclions earIier lhan lhey had
Ianned and Lumumba's arly, lhe MNC, von a IandsIide 90 er
cenl of lhe voles in SlanIeyviIIe. Wilh lhe lurn of evenls, lhe coIo-
niaI governmenl began lo discuss lhe rocess of disengagemenl in
earnesl. They heId a round labIe conference in russeIs in }anuary
1960 and vere forced lo reIease Lumumba from rison lo faciIi-
lale his arlicialion. Il vas al lhis meeling lhal 30 }une 1960 vas
sel as lhe dale for indeendence afler eIeclions. The MNC von a
cIear viclory al lhe eIeclion and Lumumba vas inviled lo form a
governmenl as lhe rime minisler, vhiIe }oseh Kasavubu look
office as residenl. Ialrice Lumumba vas in lhe saddIe of over
for bareIy six monlhs before his assassinalion al lhe command of a
eIgian army officer and desile lhe roleclion rovided for him
by lhe Uniled Nalions as he soughl lo lraveI lo SlanIeyviIIe, an
area conlroIIed by his suorlers.
DII
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Unils of lhe CongoIese army oosed lo lheir eIgian
commander rebeIIed and lhis rovided lhe cover under vhich lhe
mineraI-rich Kalanga rovince rocIaimed secession. In lhe guise
of going in lo rolecl eIgian nalionaIs, lhe coIoniaI army venl lo
Kalanga lo defend and nurlure lhe secession Ied by lhe infamous
Moise Tshombe. Wilh lhe nascenl governmenl yel lo sellIe dovn,
a sIil emerged belveen lhe rime minisler and lhe residenl,
and CoIoneI }oseh Mobulu, Ieader of lhe CongoIese army, seized
over in a miIilary ulsch. The alh for lhe Iunder of Congo,
Ialer named Zaire, vas lhus Iaid on lhe bIood slained sands of
Kalanga. More lhan olher resource-rich counlries in Africa, DRC
remains ecuIiarIy voIaliIe on accounl of ils rich slock of resources.
In Kenya, lhe fighl for indeendence had some rools in lhe
resislance of lhe eoIe lo being mere sharecroers on lheir ovn
Iand. The Mau Mau resislance ushed againsl rilish Iand grab-
bers in lhe earIy 1950s. Al lhe heighl of lhe slruggIe, lhe rilish
broughl in lroos from IngIand and bombed oul lhe Aberdares
and aIso lhe Mounl Kenya area. In lhe ensuing confronlalions, 100
rilons Iosl lheir Iives vhiIe lhousands of Kenyans vere eilher
kiIIed in combal or hanged.
3

Was Africa finaIIy acified by lhe eIiminalion or removaI from
office of lhe mosl rogressive nalionaIisl Ieaders in lhe immediale
osl-indeendence years` Is il righl lo characlerise Africa loday
as being run by bIoodlhirsly varIords vho seciaIise in using
chiId soIdiers and Iundering resources in creeks of bIood` Is
Africa a conlinenl lurned againsl ilseIf and Iefl behind by every-
one excel lhal her mineraIs resources and, nov, Iand are ob|ecls
of desire` Whal ve find on cIoser examinalion is a veb of resisl-
ance, one lhal has nol been broken by years of reression. The
slruggIes lhal emerged look many forms, eseciaIIy lhrough civiI
sociely organising or ouIar urisings. We begin, hovever, vilh
lhe over of vomen.
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When a fuII hislory of lhe slruggIes for eoIe's Iiberly is vrillen,
lhe roIes Iayed by vomen viII nol be ignored. In miIilary lerms,
lhe Amazons of Dahomey
4
sland oul for bravery in ballIe. The
Amazons vere an aII-femaIe army lhal rovided bodyguards for
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DIK
lhe king of Dahomey and aIso look arl in ballIes. The formalion
came inlo being in lhe 18lh cenlury and Iasled for over a hundred
years. The Amazons vere a force of 6,000 lo 8,000 vomen, aboul a
lhird of lhe Dahomey army. SimiIar lroos vere found among lhe
Ashanli in vhal is nov Ghana. They vere fearIess and skiIIed.
5

AIlhough lhe roIe of vomen in lhe oIilicaI deveIomenl of
African sociely is hardIy ro|ecled as significanl, lhe lrulh is lhal
lhey are dominanl in lhe informaI Iabour force and food roduc-
lion syslem, as veII as slrong oIilicaI aclors. The Aba vomen's
riols againsl un|usl laxalion in Nigeria (19281930) and lhe more
recenl resislance of Niger DeIla vomen lo lhe reckIess behaviour
of oiI comanies in lheir lerrilory sland oul as vivid examIes in
vhich vomen have been in lhe vanguard for change.
In combaling Chevron's environmenlaI imunily, lhe vomen
of lhe Niger DeIla uliIised lhe over of lheir nakedness lo occuy
and shuldovn oiI inslaIIalions from 2002 lo 2003. Taking a cue
from lhese vomen in lhe Niger DeIla, 'Naked rolesls muIliIied
around lhe vorId as vomen vere insired lo bare aII lo resisl lhe
ush allack on Iraq.'
6
The naked olion vas lhe uIlimale veaon
lhal lhe vomen vieIded againsl lhe aggressive oiI corora-
lions. Their slralegies aIso incIuded breaking u deaIs made by
men vilh lhe cororalions vhich did nol address lhe vomen's
rool grievances such as lhe bIalanl deslruclion of lheir fishing
grounds and farmIands by oiI siIIs and gas fIares. The vomen
equaIIy forged aIIiances vilh olher men vho slrenglhened lheir
demands for lhe roleclion of lheir IiveIihoods and |obs for lheir
husbands and sons.
In lhose days of non-vioIenl resislance Ied by lhe vomen,
IeIicia Ilsero, lhen 67 years oId, loId fieId monilors from Inviron-
menlaI Righls Aclion:
We are lired of comIaining. The Nigerian governmenl and
lheir Chevron have lrealed us Iike sIaves. Thirly years liII nov,
vhal do ve have lo shov by Chevron, aarl from lhis big yard
and aII sorls of machines making noise, vhal do ve have`
They have been lhrealening us lhal if ve make noise, lhey viII
slo roduclion and Ieave our communily and ve viII suffer,
as if ve have benefiled from lhem. efore lhe 1970s, vhen ve
vere here vilhoul Chevron, Iife vas naluraI and sveel, ve
DIL
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vere hay. When ve go lo lhe rivers for fishing or foresl for
hunling, ve used lo calch aII sorls of fishes and bush animaIs.
Today, lhe exerience is sad, I am suggesling lhal lhey shouId
Ieave our communily comIeleIy and never come back again.
See, in our communily ve have girIs, smaII girIs from Lagos,
Warri, enin Cily, Inugu, Imo, Osun and olher arls of Nigeria
here every day and nighl running afler lhe vhile men and slaff
of Chevron, lhey are doing roslilulion and sreading aII sorls
of diseases. The slory is loo Iong and loo sad.
7
=(% >),"D'6.) <%+)/?
The heighl of non-vioIenl organising in Nigeria vas reached in
lhe Ogoni slruggIe chamioned by lhe Movemenl for lhe SurvivaI
of lhe Ogoni IeoIe (MOSOI) under lhe Ieadershi of Ken Saro-
Wiva. The Ogoni eoIe organised lhemseIves inlo MOSOI in
Augusl 1990 and quickIy roduced lhe foundalionaI Ogoni iII
of Righls.
8
The Ogoni used lheir iII of Righls lo arlicuIale lheir
grievances vilh lhe Nigerian slale as veII as againsl lhe SheII
IelroIeum DeveIomenl Comany, vhich vas oeraling in lheir
Iand. The documenl aIso sel oul lhe demands of lhe Ogoni eoIe
for economic and oIilicaI inlegralion inlo lhe Nigerian slale
vhiIe mainlaining lheir righls lo deveIo as a eoIe. In addilion,
lhey demanded a haIl lo lhe deslruclive oiI exlraclion aclivilies
of SheII and lhe remedialion of lheir desoiIed environmenl. If
observers execled lhe emergence of MOSOI lo be a fad lhal
vouId fizzIe oul, lhey vere mislaken. Under lhe charismalic Iead-
ershi of Ken Saro-Wiva, MOSOI became a mass movemenl of
lhe Ogoni and gaIvanised suorl from bolh vilhin and oulside
Nigeria. The movemenl aIso had aclive vings for young eoIe,
vomen and sludenls. Il vas a force lhal couId nol be ignored.
AIlhough MOSOI reached lhe goseI of non-vioIence, lhe
Nigerian slale aaralus, lhen conlroIIed by lhe miIilary, chose lo
use force lo siIence communily voices. WhiIe lhe eoIe execled
lhal governmenl vouId resond osiliveIy lo lheir demands,
vhal lhey gol vas a rude shock. The miIilary governmenl sel u
a seciaI miIilary lask force lo sorl oul lhe Ogoni eoIe. This lask
force is lhe molher of lhe }oinl MiIilary Task Iorce ouIarIy
caIIed lhe }TI lhal became a ermanenl fealure in lhe govern-
ance of dissenl in lhe Niger DeIla.
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DIM
The miIilary lask force unIeashed againsl lhe Ogoni eoIe
vas Ied by a nolorious army officer, CoIoneI IauI Okunlimo, vho,
afler visiling mayhem on lhe eoIe, reorledIy boasled lhal he
knev over a hundred vays of kiIIing a erson and lhal he had
onIy lried a fev so far. This vas lhe era in vhich lhe miIilary used
lheir IogislicaI and financiaI overs lo engage in vasling oera-
lions in OgoniIand. y 1993 lhe Ogoni eoIe had excIuded SheII
from lheir Iand and lhe comany hasn'l oeraled lhere since.
The November 1995 hanging of Ken Saro-Wiva, afler a kangaroo
courl handed dovn a dealh verdicl on lrumed-u charges of
invoIvemenl vilh lhe murder of four Ogoni Ieaders, inlensified
lhe resoIve of lhe Ogoni eoIe, and lhey revenled SheII from
relurning lo lhis Iand and lhe oiI lhe comany so coveled.
Al lhe end of 2009 SheII and lhe governmenl of Nigeria hired
lhe Uniled Nalions Invironmenl Irogramme (UNII) lo assess
lhe exlenl of lheir decades-oId oIIulion in OgoniIand. Conlro-
versies eruled over vhelher lhe reorl vas falaIIy comromised
by SheII's funding of lhe rocess. The conlroversy vas infIamed
vhen a UNII officiaI vas quoled as saying lhal IocaI eoIe
caused aboul 90 er cenl of lhe oiI siIIs in OgoniIand. In lhe heal
of lhe conlroversy, SheII cIaimed lhal lhey doIed oul lhe $9mn
required for lhe assessmenl based on lhe oIIuler-ays rinciIe.
This admission of comIicily slands in conlrasl lo lhe comany's
earIier, ersislenl cIaims lhal lhey are nol lhe oIIulers.
WhiIe some may see lhe SheIIUNII arlnershi as an exam-
Ie of ubIicrivale cooeralion vhereby a ubIic enlily is
hired lo assess lhe mess made by a rivale enlily, olhers see il as
a erfecl fil for a differenl melahor: governmenls as shoeshine
boys of cororalions. If SheII is righl in ils asserlion lhal no olher
oiI comany oeraling in Nigeria can do beller lhan lhey do in
lerms of sociaI, environmenlaI and olher records, lhen lhis shouId
ermil a very differenl concIusion: no oiI comany shouId oer-
ale in lhe DeIla. The Ogoni have a slrong case vhen lhey insisl
lhal lheir oiI musl be Iefl underground, as currenlIy chamioned
by civiI sociely grous incIuding lhe recenlIy formed Ogoni CiviI
Sociely IIalform and lhe Ogoni SoIidarily Iorum.
Communily organising has conlinued in lhe region. Grous
Iike Chikoko rose lo lhe occasion and vorked vilh lhe I|av Youlh
CounciI lo chamion lhe Kaiama DecIaralion in December 1998.
DIO
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A foIIov-u Oeralion CIimale Change, in }anuary 1999, aimed
al exlinguishing gas fIares in lhe region, vas mel vilh ulmosl
brulaIily.
9
The UNII InvironmenlaI Assessmenl of OgoniIand
affirmed lhal lhe comIainls of lhe Ogoni eoIe, and by exlen-
sion olher oiI-bearing communilies, are rooled in facl ralher lhan
ficlion. In some Iaces lhe valer on vhich eoIe deend has
IeveIs of benzene lhal is 900 limes above WorId HeaIlh Organi-
salion IeveIs. In olhers lhe soiI is oIIuled by hydrocarbons lo a
delh of 5m.
Resislance lo SheII, Chevron and lhe olher inlernalionaI oiI
comanies conlinues unabaled, because lheir deslruclive exlrac-
live aclivilies are as degrading as lhey have ever been. Yes, lhey
have oIished lheir Ianguage, bul lhal is aImosl aboul aII lhal has
changed in lhe driIIing and kiIIing fieIds of Africa.
U6<.)$/( 8#$%,#)$6"#)< <6#5)+%&
One of lhe ma|or civiI sociely resonses vas lhe 1996 found-
ing of a SoulhSoulh nelvork, OiIvalch InlernalionaI. Il look
ils firsl sles in Quilo, Icuador and sread ils vings across lhe
vorId, having grous mainIy in lhe Soulh bul some in lhe gIobaI
Norlh. The signaI difference lhal OiIvalch inlroduced vas lhal
il gave voice and soIidarily lo communily organisalions deser-
aleIy lrying lo defend lheir environmenls. The embryonic slage
of OiIvalch vas incubaled in lhe offices of Accin IcoIgica,
an organisalion of aclivisls assionale aboul lhe heaIlh of lhe
Icuadorian environmenl, ob|ecling deeIy lo lhe environmen-
laI oIIulion in lhe Icudarion Orienle and ready lo vork vilh
communilies lo demand a change.
AIlhough ragmalic in ils demands, OiIvalch remained reso-
Iule againsl deslruclive fossiI-fueI exlraclion. Time is conlinu-
ousIy senl in lraining communily environmenlaI monilors lo
valch over lheir environmenl. The monilors are nol academics
or rofessionaIs carrying oul invesligalions, and reaIise lhal lheir
reorls may nol hoId u in a courl of Iav vhere adversariaI
|udiciaI syslems oflen require Iaboralory lesls of valer, soiI and
air samIes lo rove exaclIy vhal lhe oIIulanls vere, vhen
lhey occurred and vho lriggered lheir inlroduclion inlo lhe
environmenl.
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DIS
SliII, lhe monilors in lhe Icuadorian Amazon in Lago Agrio,
in }acinlo or anyvhere eIse in lhe Sucumbios are veII lrained
lo knov lhe consliluenl oIIulanls in oiI siIIs, vaslevalers,
driIIing mud, gas fIares and olher loxic oululs of lhe oiI indus-
lry. They are lrained lo lake nole of changing bio-indicalors in
lheir environmenl. Ior examIe, if verdanl vegelalion begins
lo lurn yeIIov, viIl and die, lhey have lo lake nole of lhal and
lhen observe if lhere vere nev human or induslriaI aclivilies in
lhe area. The monilors are aIso lrained lo kee labs on changing
heaIlh and demograhic allerns.
Ior Accin IcoIgica lhis vas a cardinaI aroach lo rais-
ing a brigade of eco-defenders. They used a moniloring cam
in lhe Amazonian |ungIe |usl oulside Lago Agrio a cam run
in a suslainabIe vay, on soIar over and recycIed vasle valer
syslems. Irom here lhey Iaunched moniloring forays on a regu-
Iar basis.
The sringboard of resislance had been Iaid by massive and
barefaced oIIulion of lhe Amazon by ChevronTexaco over
years of unconlroIIed exIoilalion, unreslrained environmenlaI
desoIialion and barefaced decelion of lrusling communilies. In
summing u lhe reIalionshi of lhis cororalion vilh lhe commu-
nilies in vhich lhey oerale, OiIvalch observed:
The comany does nol onIy avoid laking resonsibiIily for
lheir aclions bul aIso manages a simIe 'soIulion' lo confronl
lhe demands of lhe IocaI socielies vhere lhey oerale. When
lhey are negolialing ermils and lrying lo eIiminale resislances,
lhey offer everylhing Slales do nol rovide lo lheir cilizens,
bul vhen lhe eoIe comIain because of lhe faiIure lo deIiver
lhose offers, and lhe environmenlaI damage rovoked by lheir
oeralions, due lo deslruclion of roerly and human righls
vioIalions, lhe comany lurns around and bIames lhe Slale. Il
is a vin-vin silualion for ChevronTexaco.
10
ChevronTexaco's environmenlaI foolrinl in Icuador evenluaIIy
forced lhe cororalion lo quil lhe counlry, handing lhe Iegacy over
lo Ielroecuador, vhich, slarling from such a herilage, vas doomed
lo gel caughl in lhe veb of loxic ooIs and oison. Afler embark-
ing on a oIIulion lour of VenezueIa, Curacao, Ieru and Icuador
in 1997, I vas aslounded al lhe massive lraiI of dealh Iefl by
DIN
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ChevronTexaco. Il requires imunily and a deadened conscience
lo do business lhe vay lhese oiI ma|ors oerale in lhe gIobaI
Soulh. My lour vas a arl of OiIvalch InlernalionaI's exchange
visils, vhich aIso sav aclivisls from Lalin America visil lhe Niger
DeIla in Nigeria. SeveraI exchanges have been conducled belveen
African counlries such as AngoIa, Cameroon, Chad, Gabon,
Ghana, MaIi, Mozambique, Nigeria and Soulh Africa.
The desoIialion of lhe Icuadorian Amazon by ChevronTex-
aco uslages even SheII in Nigeria. esides gas fIares, loxic vasle
ils and olher oisons dumed inlo lhe Amazon, ChevronTexaco
reguIarIy sel onds of crude oiI on fire, causing a crude oiI rain
lhal coaled everylhing in grime roof los, cIolhes drying on
Iines, cros and Iiveslock. The lhing aboul crude oiI oIIulion is
lhal il cannol be vished avay. Il simIy does nol disaear, as can
be seen in Icuador severaI years afler Chevron dearled.
IinaIIy, |uslice vas announced in 2011: an $8.6bn fine on Chev-
ron for heaviIy oIIuling lhe Icuadoran Amazon lhrough seriaI
oiI siIIs belveen 1964 and 1990 . Chevron boughl Texaco in 2001
and so inheriled ils IiabiIilies.
The case againsl Chevron vas firsl foughl in a Nev York courl,
vhen lhe Iainliffs soughl $27bn in a case firsl fiIed in 1993. ul,
on lhe execlalion lhal il vouId be easier lo inlimidale a lhird
vorId |udge, lhe firm succeeded in gelling lhe courl lo agree lhal
lhe Iegilimale Iace lo lry lhe case vas Icuador. The Iainliffs and
lheir young IegaI leam vere, hovever, lenacious. In a slalemenl
issued soon afler lhe |udgemenl vas deIivered, Chevron decIared,
'The Icuadorian courl's |udgmenl is iIIegilimale and unenforce-
abIe,' and lhal il vas 'lhe roducl of fraud and is conlrary lo lhe
Iegilimale scienlific evidence.' Their slalemenl vas Iaced vilh
oen lhreals: 'Chevron does nol beIieve lhal loday's |udgmenl is
enforceabIe in any courl lhal observes lhe ruIe of Iav . Chevron
inlends lo see lhal lhe erelralors of lhis fraud are heId accounl-
abIe for lheir misconducl.' And, of course, Chevron venl on lo
aeaI againsl lhe |udgmenl. ecause Chevron refused lo accel
lhe |udgemenl and aoIogise, lhe fine soon doubIed.
Cororalions such as Chevron fighl hard lo avoid IiabiIily even
vhen caughl in lhe acl vilh a smoking gun sliII in lheir hands. The
eoIe of lhe region suffer lhe imacls of lhe oIIulion on lheir
heaIlh lhrough diverse cancers, bIood disorders and olher such
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diseases. The cororalion aIso Iefl behind ieIines lhal oflen run
above lhe ground, somelimes so lhal eoIe have lo sloo benealh
lhem lo gel inlo lheir homes. One of lhe more alrocious acls of
'cororale sociaI resonsibiIily' vas lhe raclice of using loxic driII-
ing muds lo make buiIding bIocks for schooIs in lhe area. Reorls
aIso abound of loxic vasles from oiI aclivilies being sread on
communily roads as a sociaI service. The sad lhing, hovever, is lhal
afler lhe oeralions vere laken over by lhe nalionaI oiI comany,
Ielroecuador, lhere sliII does nol aear lo be significanl resecl
for lhe environmenl or lhe eoIe in lhe region.
Chevron erhas soughl lo dislracl allenlion from lhe verdicl
in Icuador by moving across lhe AlIanlic, lo lhe bIoodslained
and oiI-soaked creeks of lhe Niger DeIla. The Iink and lhe liming
vere inescaabIe. The comany announced vilh much fanfare
a sIash of $50mn, oslensibIy lo ignile economic deveIomenl
and lackIe confIicl in lhe region lo vhich, il musl be said, lhe
comany admilled lo being a conlribulor in lhe asl. They aimed
lo channeI funds lhrough lhe comany's Niger DeIla Iarlnershi
Inilialive and lhe Uniled Slales Agency for InlernalionaI DeveIo-
menl (USAID). ul lhis is lokenislic, since lhe oiI comany hires
onIy a liny fraclion of lhe miIIions of eoIe il has imoverished
lhrough lhe deslruclion of lhe creeks, svams, farmIands and
foresls lhal lhey deend on for lheir IiveIihoods. A fev miIIion
senl on communily deveIomenl cannol comensale for lhe oiI
siIIs, gas fIares and lhe duming of olher loxic vasles.
The comany has Ioads of money and Ienly of lime. The oor
indigenous eoIe and lhe canpcsina in lhe Amazon foresl or lhe
Niger DeIla have neilher of lhose. To lhe oor eoIe il is a fighl
for survivaI. Ior lhe oiI moguI il is an image lhing. When Chevron
boughl Texaco, il shouId have been obvious lhal lhey urchased
bolh lhe assels and lhe IiabiIilies.
H,"@ $(% 7@)X"# $" 8<)Y%
ChevronTexaco slands accused of alrocious vioIalions of human
righls in IIa|e communilies of lhe Niger DeIla. In one incidenl, on
28 May 1998 al Iarabe oiI Ialform, Chevron's assauIls invoIved
lhe use of lhe Nigerian miIilary aboard heIicolers rovided
by Chevron. Il vas a case of summary execulions of unarmed
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youlhs, lorlure, and vanlon deslruclion of Iives and roerlies. A
case ensued in Uniled Slales Dislricl Courl in San Irancisco, and
aIlhough lhe |ury iniliaIIy ruIed againsl lhe Iainliffs in ovolo
el aI v Chevron, lhe conlexl cerlainIy demonslrales lhe bIalanl
socio-economic, ecoIogicaI and oIilicaI in|uslice lhal ervades
lhis area.
U lo 20 er cenl of ChevronTexaco's lolaI oiI roduclion in Nige-
ria comes from lhe IIa|e communilies. The firm has oeraled here as
Chevron Nigeria Limiled (CNL) since 1962 vhen il slarled exIora-
lory aclivilies, and in 1968 oiI exIoilalion began al lhe Okan OiIfieId.
Olher oiIfieIds such as Meren, Iarabe, Isan, MaIu, Ivan, OoIIo and
Ouekaba vere added from 1968 onvards.
The oiI gianl's aclivilies in lhe area raised hoes and dashed
lhem immedialeIy, as inevilabIy haens in oiI-deendenl coun-
lries of lhe Soulh. y lhe lime of lhe 1998 incidenl, afler 30 years
of uninlerruled crude oiI exIoilalion, lhe eoIe of IIa|e had
been given onIy lhe foIIoving benefils from lhe oiI gianl: a singIe
vooden secondary schooI for lhe 42 communilies vhich slrelch
over 60km aIong lhe AlIanlic coasl, lvo |ellies and one bore hoIe
(lhal vas oul of commission). In lhe same eriod, lhe oiI comany
had emIoyed 2,500 Nigerians, bul onIy lvo eoIe from lhe
surrounding communily.
One Chevron officiaI vho Iayed a roIe in lhe debacIe slaled
in his 2003 decIaralion lo lhe courl, 'CNL and ils conlraclors lried
lo hire as many communily eoIe as ossibIe and oflen aIso
hired ghosl vorkers such as communily members vho vere
nol needed for a ro|ecl or vho Iack lhe reIevanl skiIIs. These
are aIso members vho vere ul on lhe ayroII even lhough lhey
vere nol execled lo reorl for vork.' He aIso slaled lhal in order
lo make lhese ingenious arrangemenls lhey had lo idenlify lhe
communilies' reresenlalives, and lhal il vas exlremeIy difficuIl
'for us al CNL lo dislinguish Iegilimale reresenlalives of lhe hosl
communilies from individuaIs ursuing lheir ovn schemes of
exlorlion or fraud'.
y lhis arrangemenl, Chevron encouraged fraud by doIing
oul saIaries lo ersons vho did no vork, bul served as a slandby
leam of reservisls vho couId be reIied uon lo defend comany
inleresls even againsl lhose of lhe communily. Their melhod of
idenlifying communily Ieaders vas arbilrary as lhey aarenlIy
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did nol use exlanl communily slruclures and inslead erecled
araIIeI ones. These are aII melhods of dividing communilies and
buiIding lensions and confIicls.
When I visiled lhe lerrilory len years afler lhe Iarabe Ialform
kiIIings, lhings had degeneraled even furlher. The canaIs oened by
Chevron for lheir equimenl conlinue lo degrade lheir fresh valer
sources due lo lhe inlrusion of saIl valer from lhe oen sea. On
accounl of lhe deslruclion of fresh valer sources, some IIa|e eoIe
have lo deend on vaslevaler from a borehoIe buiIl by Chevron al
Ouekeba. The borehoIe al Ouekeba vas made for lhe urose of
cooIing Chevron's gas lurbine and lhe eoIe felch lhe hol valer lhal
comes from lhis inslaIIalion and musl vail a Iong lime for lhe valer
lo cooI and for sedimenls lo sellIe before lhey can use il.
Communily eoIe had aroached lhe comany faciIily,
mereIy asking if lhey couId laIk lo Chevron over lheir environ-
menlaI and IiveIihood concerns. The communily made many
efforls lo meel vilh Chevron and aIso soughl heI from govern-
menl channeIs lo make lhis haen. When lhese efforls faiIed,
youlhs decided lo embark on a eacefuI direcl aclion. On 25 May
1998, 121 of lhem Ianded on a barge allached lo lhe Iarabe Ial-
form. The foIIoving day, De|i Haaslru, CNL's communily reIa-
lions manager, mel vilh lhe youlhs on lhe Ialform. The youlhs
demanded lhal senior Chevron officiaIs meel vilh Ieaders in lhe
Ikorigho communily. Al lhe meeling lhe nexl day, lhe communily
asked CNL for lhe foIIoving:
1 Resloralion of lheir environmenl lo ils naluraI slale.
2 ImIoymenl for communily youlhs.
3 Localion of an oeralionaI office or lank farm in IIa|e Iand.
4 Conslruclion of an embankmenl lo check sea incursion and
coaslaI erosion.
5 Irovision of sociaI amenilies such as a modeI schooI, olabIe
valer suIy, and a lovn haII as Chevron oflen comIained of
a Iack of meeling venue in lhe communily.
6 Negolialion for any vork lo be done in IIa|e Iand.
7 Comensalion for Ioss of fishing grounds lo lhe eIders.
8 More schoIarshis for lhe youlhs.
9 Aoinlmenl of indigenous IIa|e conlraclors as ermanenl
conlraclors, as vas lhe raclice in olher slales of Nigeria.
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Afler lhe meeling lhe officer asked for lime lo consuIl vilh his
head office in Lagos and said he vouId send a resonse lvo days
Ialer, on 29 May 1998. On receiving lhis informalion aboul lhe
rogress of lhe laIks, lhe youlhs on lhe barge decided lhal lhey
vouId disconlinue lheir rolesl lhe foIIoving day and relurn lo
Ikorigho lo be a arl of lhe negolialions. ul before lhey couId
Ieave, soIdiers Ianded on lhe Iarabe Ialform al 6.30am in lhree
Chevron heIicolers. The soIdiers reorledIy shol al lhe youlhs
indiscriminaleIy and lhe unarmed youlhs simIy had no chance.
Tvo vere kiIIed and 30 suffered gunshol vounds. The facl lhal
lhe youlhs vere nol armed vas confirmed by Chevron's ovn
decIaralion.
Survivors and reresenlalives of lhe communilies fiIed lhe
suil Larry ovolo el aI v Chevron. The Iainliffs incIuded Larry
ovolo, oIa Oyibo (vho died in 2001), assey }e|e and Sunday
}ohnbuI. The case look eighl and a haIf years of Iiligalion and
four veeks of lriaI and demanded inlensive and commilled vork
by lhe Iainliffs and lheir Iavyers (Traber & Voorhees, as veII
as lhe rivale Iav firms of HadseII & Slormer and SiegeI & Yee,
lhe Cenler for ConslilulionaI Righls and lhe IIeclronic Ironlier
Ioundalion). Allemls by Chevron lo have lhe case lhrovn oul of
lhe US courl or lried in Nigeria vere rebuffed by lhe |udge, vho
agreed vilh lhe roseculors lhal lhere vas an undeniabIe umbiIi-
caI cord Iinking Chevron lo lhe incidenl. When lhe case even-
luaIIy venl lo courl, aII lhe Iainliffs olher lhan Larry ovolo
and scores of vilnesses vere lraveIIing oul of lheir immediale
communilies for lhe firsl lime. Mosl soke no Ianguages olher
lhan Yoruba and Nigerian IngIish.
When |udgemenl vas deIivered on 1 December 2008, lhe |ury
cIeared Chevron of aII charges. This vas in sile of lhe ruIing by
}udge Susan IIIslon of lhe San Irancisco dislricl courl lhal CNL
'ersonneI vere direclIy invoIved in lhe allacks, lransorled lhe
Nigerian securily forces, aid lhe securily forces and knev lhal
lhe securily forces vere rone lo use of excessive force'. Richard
Herz, an allorney al IarlhRighls InlernalionaI and co-counseI for
lhe Iainliffs, reacled lo lhe verdicl saying, 'The enlire hislory of
crude oiI exlraclion in Nigeria has been slrevn vilh doIIars for lhe
cororalion and oIilicians bul lears and bIood for IocaI eoIe.
Chevron musl accounl for ils unreIenling acls of inane brulaIily
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lo lhe defenceIess eoIe of lhe Niger DeIla region ... AIlhough
lhe Iainliffs did nol revaiI, Chevron nov knovs lhal il cannol
conceaI comIicily in human righls abuses from ubIic scruliny.'
11

The oulcome of lhe case has nol shul dovn lhe |udiciaI quesl
for |uslice. Afler lhe ruIing, lhe arroganl Chevron allorneys
soughl comensalion from lhe communilies vhen lhey fiIed a biII
of cosls for $485,159. Hovever, lhe |udge agreed vilh lhe Iain-
liffs lhal lhe faclors veigh againsl avarding cosls lo defendanls.
The |udge found lhal:
The economic disarily belveen Iainliffs, vho are Nigerian
viIIagers, and defendanls, inlernalionaI oiI comanies cannol
be more slark. The lriaI Iainliffs have fiIed decIaralions allesl-
ing lhal lhey cannol afford lo ay any cosls or fees in lhis case.
They have |obs vorking in a elroI slalion (earning as much
as $100 er monlh), oeraling a kerosene business ($867 er
monlh), doing odd |obs such as culling or seIIing firevood,
fishing, and conslruclion ($60 er monlh), seIIing sare arls
for fishing boals ($1271 er monlh), buying and seIIing fish
($465 er monlh), coIIecling renl ($207 er monlh), buying and
reseIIing cIolhes ($567 er monlh), oeraling a smaII slore ($233
er monlh), or are sludenls len of lhe Iainliffs are minors
and have no income.
12
The courl aIso found lhal avarding cosls lo defendanls in lhis
case vouId have a 'chiIIing effecl . on fulure civiI righls Iili-
ganls'. The courl decIared lhal:
Al rool, lhis case vas an alleml by imoverished cilizens of
Nigeria lo increase accounlabiIily for lhe aclivilies of American
comanies in lheir counlry. IIainliffs' uIlimale faiIure al lriaI
does nol delracl from lhe facl lhal lhis vas a civiI righls case.
The lhreal of delerring fulure Iiliganls from roseculing human
righls cIaims in lhe fulure is eseciaIIy resenl in a case such as
lhis, vhere Iainliffs have aIlry resources and defendanls are
Iarge and overfuI economic aclors. ReIaledIy, lhe Courl finds
lhal lhis case resenled cIose and comIex queslions. Nolhing
aboul lhe case vas simIe from delermining lhe aIicabIe
Iav lo oblaining ermission for Iainliffs lo lraveI abroad, lhis
case resenled unique chaIIenges.
13
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When Chevron cIaimed lhal lhe Iainliffs' faiIure al lriaI demon-
slraled lhal lheir cIaims never had meril lo begin vilh, lhe courl
disagreed vilh Chevron.
14
The Iainliffs fiIed an unsuccessfuI
aeaI againsl Chevron, seeking a reversaI or relriaI. In lhe
aeaI, lhe allorneys for lhe Iainliffs observed lhal Chevron
cIaimed lhal lhe IIa|es' mindsel vas vired lo favour 'hoslage-
laking' and 'kidnaing' and lhal 'il's somelhing lhal lhey vouId
do'. The aeaI aIso slaled lhal lhe Dislricl Courl oughl lo have
Iaced lhe burden on Chevron lo rove lhal lhey vere acling
in seIf-defence vhen lhey orcheslraled lhe kiIIing of unarmed
roleslers al lhe Iarabe IIalform.
In sile of lhe iniliaI defeal, lhe case added slrenglh lo lhe veb
of resislance againsl reckIess oiI ma|ors. The veb viII gel slronger
and Iarger. Insiring slruggIes for environmenlaI |uslice o u
in many arls of lhe vorId and lhere is an urgenl need lo veave
lhese logelher inlo a gIobaI force lo Iiberale Molher Iarlh from lhe
cIavs of miners and secuIalors.
Take lhe examIe of lhe Augusl/Selember 2011 rolesls al
lhe gales of lhe While House in lhe US againsl a lar sands ie-
Iine roosed lo Iink lhe mines in Canada lo refineries in lhe
US. The rolesls quickIy echoed around lhe vorId as aclivisls
|oined in soIidarily in raziI, Igyl, Germany, India, Ieru and
Soulh Africa. The inlernalionaIisl nalure of environmenlaI |uslice
rolesls oinls lhe vay lo redirecling over reIalions in a vorId
vilh vaIues skeved againsl nalure and againsl lhe Iess overfuI.
The rolesls al lhe While House vere mel vilh lhe arresl of
hundreds of cilizens, bul lhe aclivisls had laken a delermined
sland in civiI disobedience and had dravn a Iine in lhe sand.
Iroleslers are concerned aboul lhe calaslrohic imacls of lar
sands on lhe cIimale as veII as lhe imacls of lhe ieIine and
reIaled loxic subslances on valer resources and viIdIife. There
have been reorls of a rise of rare cancers among Iirsl nalion
eoIes of Canada vho Iive cIose lo lhe lar sands fieIds.
The roosed Keyslone XL ieIine is designed lo lransorl
700,000 barreIs of crude oiI er day lo deIivery oinls in OkIa-
homa and soulh-easlern Texas. The 36-inch ieIine vouId
consisl of aboul 327 miIes of ieIine in Canada and 1,384 miIes
in lhe US. According lo Tom GoIdloolh, execulive direclor of lhe
Indigenous InvironmenlaI Nelvork:
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Our Indigenous-Nalive Nalions of lhe U.S. and Canada musl
unile lo oose lhe Keyslone XL ieIine and come logelher lo
find IocaI, cIean, renevabIe energy lo reduce our carbon foolrinl
and sur lhe economy. There are loo many ma|or safely, environ-
menlaI and ubIic heaIlh hazards ossibIe in lhe Keyslone XL
IieIine ro|ecl. The cosl and risks of buiIding an oiI ieIine
across our lradilionaI homeIands vilh imorlanl aquifers, valer-
vays, naluraI Iands and velIands is loo greal al lhis lime. Our
homeIands vilhin lhe Ianned corridor of lhis ieIine have
many cuIluraI and hisloricaIIy significanl areas lhal have nol
lhoroughIy been assessed and are in danger of being deslroyed.
The negalive and very deslruclive human righls imacls of lhe
Keyslone XL ieIine lransorling dirly oiI from lhe lar sands
region of norlhern Canada have nol adequaleIy been assessed in
lhe finaI IIS. Iirsl Nalions in lhe lar sands region have consisl-
enlIy been making reorls of devaslalion of lheir environmenl,
lheir valers, air, and more recenlIy lheir heaIlh. Cancers Iinked
lo elroIeum conlaminalion are on lhe increase.
15
The ideaI of communily ovnershi of communily resources
requires lhal ve undersland lhal lhis means lhe eoIe acluaIIy
have fuII righls over lheir Iands and lerrilory. Il aIso suoses lhal
eoIe have lhe righl lo free, rior, informed consenl before any
aclion or aclivily is execuled on lheir Iand or lerrilory. Il recIudes
silualions vhere a handfuI of Ieaders cIaim lo reresenl commu-
nilies and become avns in lhe hands of cailaI, seII lheir eoIe's
alrimony and Ioad lheir ockels vilh lhe Iool.
In conlrasl, lhe maxim in loday's gIobaI oIilicaI Iandscae is
lhal mighl is righl. The rise of uniIaleraIism under lhe US resi-
dency of George W. ush rendered muIliIaleraIism more or Iess
cosmelic. The rise of rescrilive neoIiberaIism has shallered
slale sovereignly. And couching aII lhis in lerms of advancing lhe
democralic ideaIs of Iiberly and fair comelilion aIIovs Washing-
lon and ils aIIies lo fib aboul miIilary humanism. This scenario
has been arorialeIy calured by Naomi KIein as 'disasler
cailaIism'
16
a silualion vhere disaslers are seen as oorluni-
lies lo imose a re-Ianned suerslruclure lhal inevilabIy denies
overIess cilizens of lhe vorId lheir righls. The vhoIe idea is lo
hil lhe eoIe so hard lhal lhey are ushed inlo a slale of shock
and vhiIe in lhal condilion lhey are unabIe lo reacl coIIecliveIy
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or cogenlIy lo lhe harm being infIicled on lhem. Such disaslers
are increasingIy man-made, aIlhough even naluraI disaslers are
equaIIy exIoiled lo disossess lhe veak. An examIe can be seen
in oorlunislic sIum or seafronl cIearances vhere lhe Iand is
lhen grabbed by big venlures.
The alh of crude oiI deveIomenl has been slrevn vilh skeI-
elons and soaked in human bIood across lhe vorId. The ongoing
case in Nigeria is a gIaring examIe. Memories of a lhree-decade
var in AngoIa beginning in 1975 and arguabIy foughl over oiI
are sliII fresh. In 1999, as lhe firsl barreIs of crude oiI vere shied
from Sudan, so did lhe var belveen governmenl forces and lhose
of lhe Sudanese IeoIe's Liberalion Army escaIale. When ve lurn
our eyes lo lhe MiddIe Iasl ve see lhe rav silualion of var vaged
for rofil and resource arorialion and conlroI.
17
If lhis scenario
shouId bIossom unchecked, vhal ve exerience loday viII end
u being nolhing more lhan a vhimer. There aears lo be a
direcl correIalion belveen oiI and vioIence of various kinds. Hov
besl lo fighl back, so as lo veave yel more lhreads inlo lhe veb of
resislance and lransformalion`
RecaII lhal lhe MOSOI slruggIe over OgoniIand shoved us an
exceIIenl examIe of non-vioIenl slruggIe for communily righls, and
recaII lhe vioIenl resonse of lhe slale, a signaI lhal dissenl vouId nol
be loIeraled. When olher arls of lhe Niger DeIla eruled in vioIenl
confronlalions belveen 2005 and 2009, lhe uIlimale resonse before
lhe Nigerian residenl offered an amnesly vas a miIilary assauIl
on Gbaramalu kingdom and neighbouring communilies. Armed
miIilanls rose in lhe oiIfieIds for a Ielhora of reasons. Ior a couIe
of years kidnaing and hoslage-laking became very Iucralive
business for some of lhe so-caIIed miIilanls. OiI comany vorkers
and lhe miIilary ersonneI found good business in negolialing lhe
reIease of hoslages as veII as in lhe securing of conlracls vilh miIi-
lanls for lhe roleclion of oiI ieIines and olher inslaIIalions.
The IeveIIing of Gbaramalu communily in May 2009 vas
achieved by a combinalion of aeriaI and sea raids, an ob|ecl Iesson
lo lhe varIords al miIilanl 'Cam 5' Iocaled cIose lo lhe commu-
nily. When I visiled one of lhe refugee cams al Ogbe I|oh, near
Warri, one of lhe survivors, Mrs Akoaboere HeIme of Okore-
koko kingdom, recounled lhal vhen lhe invasion look Iace lhe
lhundering sounds of gunshols came unexecledIy, vilh eoIe
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scamering heIler-skeIler vilh IillIe or no lhoughls and lime lo
rescue lheir chiIdren and lhe eIderIy. In her ovn bid lo save her
molher and baby, her six veeks oId daughler feII in lhe river and
in her anic slale of mind she did nol reaIise lhis for a vhiIe unliI
she sav lhe baby fIoaling miracuIousIy on lhe valer.
18
Soon afler lhis lhe Nigerian residenl announced an amnesly lhal
vas lo exire in Oclober 2009 and offered lo rehabiIilale lhose vho
Iaid dovn lheir arms. One afler lhe olher, lhe varIords scamered
around for handshakes of lhe hysicaI as veII as financiaI variely.
Some of lhe Iess rominenl varIords vere disIeased al nol receiv-
ing lhe same sorl of recognilion lhal olhers did. Some comIained
lhal vhiIe lheir coIIeagues vere hosled in five slar holeIs lhey had lo
be conlenl vilh sIeeing under lhe ziIIion slars in lhe sky.
The ending of miIilancy lhrough an amnesly decIaralion raised
a number of queslions. One of lhe veII-knovn Ieaders of armed
grous, AIha|i Asari Dokubo, re|ecled an offer of amnesly, saying
lhal he had never commilled any crime and lhal if anylhing he
had engaged in a |usl slruggIe for seIf-delerminalion. Olhers,
such as Henry Okah, embraced lhe amnesly bul Ialer senl signaIs
lhal suggesled lhe slunl mighl nol end miIilancy in a suslainabIe
vay. Okah said in an inlerviev on lhe cabIe leIevision channeI AI
}azeera lhal lhe Nigerian governmenl had exaggeraled lhe gains
of lhe amnesly and lhal lhe eace achieved vas lenuous indeed.
He vas aIso quoled as saying lhal lhe acluaI number of miIilanls
vho had surrendered veaons in lhe amnesly exercise vas nol
even 4 er cenl of lhe numbers cIaimed by lhe governmenl.
19
In facl, lvo Ieaders of armed grous, Chief Governmenl
TomoIo (vhose Cam 5 near Gbaramalu vas crushed by lhe
miIilary) and Aleke Tom, al a oinl decIared lhal lhey regrelled
acceling lhe amnesly. Their grouse vas lhal a monlh afler lhe
amnesly vas acceled aII lhey vere engaged in vas an endIess
series of meelings vilh officiaIs from lhe residency vilhoul a
cIear indicalion of vhal lhe oulcomes vouId be. According lo
Chief Governmenl TomoIo, 'There vas no need for endIess meel-
ings . lhings shouId be haening naluraIIy and very fasl in lhe
Niger DeIla afler lhe amnesly rogramme. We have discussed
issues of deveIomenl of lhe region over and over. We don'l need
any exerl or consuIlanl lo come and leII us vhal ve need in lhe
region.'
20
DKN
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Desile misgivings on lhe conslruclion of lhe amnesly
rogramme by lhe Nigerian governmenl, a IeveI of eace has
revaiIed in lhe oiIfieIds as evidenced by lhe facl lhal by earIy 2011
lhe counlry vas abIe lo allain ils OIIC oiI roduclion quola. Al
lhe heighl of miIilanl aclivilies in lhe region, oiI roduclion had
faIIen sharIy.
AnaIysls of lhe origins of armed resislance in lhe Niger DeIla
have cIaimed lhal il slarled oul as oIilicaI lhugs hired by lhe
ruIing oIilicaI arly in Rivers slale for lhe urose of eIeclion
rigging. Olher grous are said lo have risen for lhe oIilicaI
reason of seeking |uslice for a viciousIy exIoiled region. Some
vho seciaIised in kidnaing arenls, vives or chiIdren of oIi-
licians and olher ersons erceived lo be rich, for lhe urose
of receiving a ransom, may have engaged in nolhing olher lhan
Iain criminaI aclivilies. ul lhere vere olhers vho cIaimed lhal
men vho vere engaged in lhe business of crude oiI lhefl, IocaIIy
caIIed iIIegaI bunkering, aIso raised armed grous.
Seaking al lhe NalionaI Inslilule for IoIicy Sludies a
resecled inslilulion for lo oIicymakers in Nigeria lhe gover-
nor of Nigeria's DeIla slale, ImmanueI Uduaghan, asserled lhal
oiI comanies vere invoIved in lhe iIIegaI aclivilies. He aIso said
lhal lhe inlernalionaI communily vas comIicil in lhe lhefls since
lhere vas a ready markel for lhe sloIen crude.
21
In lhe viev of
Dime|i ankoIe, al lhal lime seaker of lhe Nigerian House of
Reresenlalives, aboul haIf of Nigeria's crude oiI roduclion is
sloIen. He summed u lhal if lhal eslimale is correcl, il means
lhal Nigerian crude may run oul sooner lhan execled.
22
Olher
anaIysls beIieve lhal Nigeria is acluaIIy Iosing more of lhe crude
oiI lhan il is seIIing officiaIIy as a resuIl of lhe connivance of secu-
rily agencies lhal are meanl lo haIl such raclices. Through lhis
lhe counlry is eslimaled lo Iose US$1.6bn lo oiI lhieves annuaIIy.
Reorls aIIege lhal some lo navaI officers, serving and relired,
have rivale ieIines lhal run from lhe Iorl Harcourl area lo
Ikel and lhal lhese ies serve as conduils lhrough vhich lhey
sihon crude oiI, vhich is Ioaded onlo vesseIs and shied lo
refineries on olher shores incIuding Soulh Africa.
23
If lhis is lrue,
lhen lhe inlernalionaI communily is guiIly of abelling and fueI-
Iing lhe coIIeclive robbery of lhe eoIe of lhe Niger DeIla of
lheir alrimony. As for lhe invoIvemenl of securily officiaIs in
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
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lhis erfidy, il is a sad commenlary on lhe connivance of African
Ieaders in lhe iIIage of lhe conlinenl.
As lhough il vas a season of amneslies, lhe residenl of Niger
aIso decIared an amnesly for Tuareg rebeIs vho vere fighling
for a higher sIice of lhe revenues accruing from oiI and uranium
mining in lhe norlheasl region of Agadez. The rebeIs, incIuding
lhe main grou, lhe Niger }uslice Movemenl, Iaid dovn lheir
veaons in }une 2009 afler lvo years of fighling.
24

The deslruclion of lhe Niger DeIla communily of Gbaramalu
and nearby communilies before lhe amnesly lo lhe miIilanls
vas nol lhe firsl lime lhal lhe Nigerian slale had descended on a
resource rich-communily vilh maximum force. InlereslingIy, oiI
comanies evacualed lheir ersonneI from lhe area shorlIy before
lhe bombardmenl slarled, suggesling lhal lhey may have received
varnings lhal an assauIl vas aboul lo lake Iace in lhe area.
When Tombia lovn vas allacked by lhe Nigerian miIilary
oslensibIy lo disIodge armed fighlers, SheII reorledIy evacu-
aled ils slaff vilh heIicolers |usl before lhe allack. As calured
in Cru!c Wcr|!,
25
'heIicolers and seedboals aII bul deslroyed il
|lhe communilyj, lhough soIdiers, before lorching lhe beller huls,
made of vood, Iooled lhem of anylhing lhal meriled Iooling,
incIuding ols and ans.' Tvo viIIagers vere kiIIed in lhal allack.
The deeesl confIicl and vioIence have nol been infIicled by
lhe over of lhe gun, nor by lhe burning of Umuechem,
26
lhe
massacre al Odi
27
or Odioma, lhe devaslalion of Ogoni and lhe
exlra-|udiciaI murders of Ken Saro-Wiva and olher Ieaders. The
grealesl vioIence is lhe mass oisoning of communilies lhrough
oIIulion.
R%#:6#% #)$6"#)< <%)9%,&(6-
Lale November 2009, vhiIe visiling lhe Nigerian minisler of
informalion, lhe VenezueIan ambassador, in a susension of
diIomalic nicelies, soke from his hearl aboul vhal he feIl aboul
his hosl nalion. Il vas arlicuIarIy slriking as lhe Nigerian minis-
ler of informalion's el ro|ecl vas lhe rebranding of Nigeria, a
ro|ecl lhal some observers equaled lo using coIourfuI bandages
lo make a feslering sore aear accelabIe. This is vhal ambas-
sador Inrique Iernando ArrundeII loId lhe minisler:
DLD
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In VenezueIa, since 1999, ve've never had a rise in fueI rice.
We onIy ay $1.02 lo fiII lhe lank. Whal I ay for vilh N12,000
here (Nigeria), in VenezueIa I'II ay N400. Whal is haening
is simIe. Our Iresidenl (Hugo Chavez) decided one day lo
conlroI lhe induslry, because il beIongs lo lhe VenezueIans. If
you don'l conlroI lhe induslry, your deveIomenl viII be in lhe
hands of lhe foreigners.
You have lo have your ovn counlry. The oiI is your coun-
lry's. Sorry I am leIIing you lhis. I am giving you lhe exerience
of VenezueIa. We have 12 refineries in lhe Uniled Slales, 18,000
gas slalions in lhe Wesl Coasl. AII ve are doing is in lhe hands
of lhe VenezueIans.
efore 1999, ve had lhree or four foreign comanies vork-
ing vilh us. Thal lime lhey vere laking 80 er cenl, and giving
us 20. Nov, ve have 90 er cenl, and giving lhem 10. ul nov,
ve have 22 counlries vorking vilh us in lhal condilion.
Il is lhe VenezueIan condilion. You knov vhy` Il is because 60
er cenl of lhe income goes lo sociaI rogrammes. Thal's vhy ve
have 22,000 medicaI doclors assisling lhe eoIe in lhe commu-
nily. The eoIe don'l go lo lhe hosilaI, doclors go lo lheir houses.
This is because lhe money is handIed by lhe VenezueIans. Hov
come Nigeria lhal has more lechnicaI manover lhan VenezueIa,
vilh 150 miIIion eoIe, and very inleIIecluaI eoIe aII around,
nol been abIe lo gel il righl` The queslion is: If you are nol handIing
your resources, hov are you going lo handIe lhe counlry`
So, il is imorlanl lhal Nigeria lakes conlroI of her resources.
We have no iIIilerale eoIe. We have over 17 nev universilies
lolaIIy free. I gradualed from lhe universily vilhoul aying
one cenl, and lake lhree meaIs every day, because ve have lhe
resources. We vanl lhe resources of lhe Nigerian eoIe for lhe
Nigerians. Il is enough! Il is enough, Minisler!
28
Il is enough, Minisler! Il is enough, Iresidenl! These vords couId
have been soken lo any minisler of any of lhe resource-rich
counlries of Africa vaIIoving in lhe seIf-deIusion of grealness
vhiIe kicking around in lhe mire of corrulion and vaslefuI-
ness. The VenezueIan chaslised lhe Nigerian officiaI for vaslefuI
uliIisalion of funds from crude oiI. We lake lhis as a melahor
for vaslefuI use of funds from any naluraI resource and kee in
mind lhal lhe besl vaIue of fossiI fueIs is lo Ieave lhem in lhe soiI.
Revenue derived from crude oiI exIoilalion, for examIe, can
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DLH
hardIy finance resloralion efforls lhal may be needed foIIoving
years of imacls on lhe environmenl and eoIes.
Greal African Ieaders Iike Kvame Nkrumah, Thomas Sankara,
Ialrice Lumumba, AmiIcar CabraI, Samora MacheI, }uIius
Nyerere and olhers vouId be shuddering in lheir graves if lhey
vere lo vilness lhe Iunder lhal has ried Africa lo bils lhanks
lo lhe connivance of Ieaders vhom lransnalionaI cororalions,
venlure hiIanlhroisls and inlernalionaI financiaI advisers have
Ied by lhe nose. Sankara iIIuslraled lhe African siril needed lo
reaIign lhe conlinenl avay from economic and oIilicaI overly
and lovards Iiberaling ideas and eoIes' sovereignly. Some
may lhink Sankara vas an ideaIisl and lhus Iefl his fIank oen lo
deadIy buIIels from guns vieIded by friends. ul lhough lhese
Ieaders are dead, lheir ideas cannol be kiIIed as Sankara himseIf
decIared a veek before he vas assassinaled.
29
The ideas lhal Sankara esoused rallIed many of lhe corrul
residenls and minislers on lhe conlinenl, lhey are sliII olenl
loday and can onIy be ignored lo lhe conlinenl's sorrov. He vas
engaged in a slruggIe againsl corrulion, Iong before il became
lhe hyocrilicaI song on lhe Iis of lhe WorId ank and lhe IMI.
He reaIised quile earIy lhal corrulion vas used as a looI by lhe
inlernalionaI cailaIisl mafia lo conquer markels and iIIage lhe
resources of lhe gIobaI Soulh.
30
TaIking aboul lhe debl lra, he
couId nol be fauIled vhen he decIared, 'If ve do nol ay lhe debl,
our Ienders viII nol die. Hovever, if ve do ay il, ve viII die.'
He demanded lhe reudialion of aII odious debl, as nolhing shorl
of modern-day sIavery.
Sankara equaIIy reaIised lhal lhe mobiIisalion of lhe eoIe
vas vilaI for lhe emancialion of lhe conlinenl from lhe cIulches
of deslruclive exlraclors. To him, lhe eoIe heId lhe key lo lhe
slruggIe, and lhey fuIIy underslood bolh lhe gIory lo be gained
and lhe ains lo be borne in lhe rocess of regaining conlroI over
lheir Iives, environmenl, resources and desliny. His conviclion
vas lhal lhere vas no sense in seaking on behaIf of lhe eoIe,
bul ralher lo sland in soIidarily vilh lhem, have lhem inlegraled
inlo lhe slruggIe and, as Sean }acobs describes:
deveIo an idenlily forged in lhe fire of aclion. Ior Sankara: 'I
lhink lhe mosl imorlanl lhing is lo bring lhe eoIe lo a oinl
DLI
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vhere lhey have seIf-confidence, and undersland lhal lhey
can, al Iasl . be lhe aulhors of lheir ovn veII-being . And
al lhe same lime, have a sense of lhe rice lo be aid for lhal
veII-being.' To a greal exlenl, lhe urkinabe RevoIulion vas
an originaI exerimenl in rofound sociaI, economic, oIilicaI
and ideoIogicaI lransformalion. Il vas a boId alleml al endog-
enous deveIomenl lhrough ouIar mobiIisalion.
31
Iermil me lo Iinger a bil vilh lhe memory of Sankara and lhe
reforms he insliluled afler coming lo office in 1984:
32
He changed lhe counlry's name from Uer VoIla lo urkina
Iaso lhe Iand of lhe urighl eoIe.
He beIieved in economic seIf-reIiance, romoled IocaI food and
lexliIe roduclion and refused WorId ank Ioans. His largels
vere oIicies concerned vilh lhe reaI needs of lhe eoIe and
nol lhe diclales of lhe WorId ank or lhe IMI.
He embarked on a Iand reform vhereby lhe Iand beIonged lo
lhose vho cuIlivaled il.
He vas one of lhe earIy Ieaders lo be seriousIy concerned vilh
environmenlaI roleclion eseciaIIy againsl deserlificalion.
Sankara banned lhe syslem lhal aIIoved lribule aymenls and
obIigalory Iabour lo viIIage chiefs, aboIished ruraI oII laxes,
romoled gender equaIily in a very maIe-dominaled sociely
(incIuding oulIaving femaIe circumcision and oIygamy),
insliluled a massive immunisalion rogramme, buiIl raiIvays
and kick-slarled ubIic housing conslruclion. His adminislra-
lion aggressiveIy ushed Iileracy rogrammes, lackIed river
bIindness and embarked on an anli-corrulion drive in lhe
civiI service.
He decIined lo have his holos disIayed in ubIic buiIdings,
in slark conlradislinclion lo lhose vho usured over afler
his murder.
Sankara earned a smaII saIary (aboul $450 a monlh) and
escheved Iuxuries, incIuding firsl-cIass fIighl lickels.
He foughl corrulion and carried oul adminislralive reforms
for good governance.
He beIieved in vomen's emancialion and arlicialion in
various facels of nalionaI Iife.
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
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Many African governmenls oerale as lhough lhe eoIe do
nol exisl excel as ob|ecls lo be exIoiled or as sub|ecls lo be
suressed. This haens because lhey do nol derive lheir
mandale or Iegilimacy from lhe eoIe. They remain in office
according lo lheir ersonaI Ieasure. This is never a robIem for
lhe exlraclive induslries, vhich are hay lo reinforce lhe lhrones
of diclalors as Iong as il rovides lhem vilh a slabIe almoshere
for unmiligaled exIoilalion of lhe lerrilories. This is lhe lragedy
of Africa. The aeaI of Sankara is lhal his eoIe vere his forle
and his vision vas lo make lhem sland roud and vilh inlegrily.
Ixerience in lhe fieId shovs lhal resislance lo deslruclive
exlraclion has lo be buiIl one bIock al a lime. When aII bIocks
Iink logelher, lhere forms a vaII somelimes rolecling a vhoIe
nalion lo bIock lhe lide of raacious exIoilalion.
S6+%,6)# /"@@:#6$? -"<6$6/&
28 November 2009: on lhe road lo Goi, in Gokana IocaI governmenl
area of Rivers slale, Nigeria. I venl vilh a grou of communily
organisers on a communily exchange visil and ve had lo make
severaI delours lo avoid lhe huge cralers lhal have bedeviIIed lhe
ma|or highvay lhal lraverses OgoniIand. The communily organ-
isers came from Akva Ibom slale, Ido slale, DeIla slale, ayeIsa
slale and Rivers slale under lhe umbreIIa of lhe Hosl Communilies
Nelvork (HoCoN). The core reason for coming lo Goi vas lo see
lhe imacl of oiI siIIs from SheII's faciIilies lhal had eruled in
2004. They vouId see lhe siles and lhen relreal for refIeclion. They
vouId see hov vhal look Iace in Goi aroximales vilh vhal
lhey have exerienced in lheir ovn backyards. They vouId see
lhal in lhe oiIfieIds of lhe Niger DeIla, ain has been disroor-
lionaleIy veighled againsl lhe vrelched of lhe earlh.
Goi vas a dream communily before lhe bIack goId began lo
surl and lhen bursl inlo fIames. They had fresh valer svams
lhal vouId gel fIooded al high lide. When lhe lide receded lhe
communily eoIe had Iarge numbers of fishes lo simIy ick
u or harvesl. Olhers simIy buiIl fish onds by lhe edge of lhe
svam and vouId have lhem fiIIed u vilh fingerIings, |uve-
niIes and an assorlmenl of fishes. The Iush mangroves rovided
savning grounds for many varielies.
DLL
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The slory changed once fires from SheII's siIIs Iicked lhe
svam in 2004. Today lhe svam is no more, a beller descrilion
for il mighl be a crude loxic Iake. The lides sliII fIov and ebb, bul
bring nolhing bul sad memories lo lhe eoIe vhose boals and
fishing gear venl u in lhe oiIy infernos. Where lhe lreasures of
lhe sea used lo vash u on lhese shores, loday lhe eoIe have lo
vade lhrough lhe oiI sIick in search of fresher valers for vhalever
calch lhey can gel. WhiIe ve vere lhere, a IillIe Iad came back
from an overnighl foray vilh a Iaslic bovI of liny crabs and
some crayfish. Ior aII his efforl, his calch vas vorlh a mere 400
naira, if ve vere lo accel his rice. The Iaslic bovI vas coaled
vilh crude oiI and lhe crayfish and crabs reeked of lhe sluff loo.
He vouId vash lhe oiI off lhe crayfish before ealing lhem. ul lhal
vouId nol deloxify lhe aIready oisoned crealures. Moving avay
from lhe desoIale banks of lhe svam vilh ils burnl mangroves
and a fev surviving lrees vilh oiI-coaled rools, ve cIimbed avay
vondering vhal il musl mean lo Iive in lhis communily vilh lhe
comIeleIy devaslaled environmenl.
The HoCoN members exchanged laIes of voe. The aIso
exchanged ideas on hov lhey couId beller rolecl lheir environ-
menl and resisl deslruclive exlraclion. One resounding concIu-
sion vas lhal for a voman, lhe besl lime lo divorce a man is before
he gels you regnanl. Thal visdom vas icked u from lhe
Warao communily vomen in lhe Orinoco DeIla, VenezueIa, vhen
lhey vere resisling lhe enlrance of I inlo lheir creeks in lhe Iale
1990s. They firmIy beIieved lhal aII eoIes shouId sland logelher
in re|eclion of nev oiIfieId deveIomenl and heI vean lhe vorId
off lhe deslruclion lhal emanales from lhe bIack goId, vhose lrue
Iace shouId be vhere nalure has viseIy buried il.
The 'hosl communilies' concel is one lhal has been used by
bolh oiI cororalions and lheir arlner governmenls lo ilch one
communily againsl anolher. In mineraI-rich areas, communilies in
vhich exlraclive induslry faciIilies are Iocaled are knovn as hosl
communilies vhiIe lhose on vhose Iands no such faciIilies are
siled are, for examIe, caIIed non-oiI bearing communilies. HoCoN
redefines lhe hosl communily as one vhich hosls induslry faciIi-
lies, or suffers, or vouId be IikeIy lo suffer, imacls of deslruclive
exlraclion. This broad and incIusive definilion removes lhe shar
daggers used by lhe exlraclive induslry aclors, and unscruuIous
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DLM
governmenl agenls, lo divide communilies and ilch lhem againsl
one anolher. Africa needs crealive nelvorks such as lhese in order
lo buiId lhe force needed lo unile her eoIes.
In lhe vake of lhe amnesly granled lhe miIilanls vho miIilaled
againsl eace in lhe Niger DeIla oiIfieIds, lhe federaI governmenl
of Nigeria romised, in a slalemenl issued in November 2009, lo
aIIocale 10 er cenl of oiI revenues direclIy lo lhe communilies.
33

This ronouncemenl raised a Iol of inleresl lhal soon lurned inlo
a discussion aboul vhal conslilules a communily. The idea of a
hosl communily, and ils excIusive definilion as being lhe one on
vhose Iand an oiI comany decided lo Iocale lheir equimenl,
vas IoudIy lrumeled. ul olher communily camaigners raised
lhe concel lhal fils lhe HoCoN viev. An examIe is lhe viev
exressed by Oronlo DougIas:
The hosl communily concel is divisive, dangerous, corruling
and has never vorked. There is no 'hosl communily' lhal has
become deveIoed in lhe Iasl fifly years since lhe discovery of
oiI. We musl resisl lhe 'hosl' concel and ve musl encourage
our governmenl lo re|ecl il as veII. As nev oIicies emerge lo
address our hisloric grievances, aII red fIags of combuslibIe
characlerislics musl be idenlified and neulraIised. The commu-
nily lo me is lhe CIan or lhe NalionaIily. Thus, Ogbia, Nembe,
Gbaramalu, KoIokuma, Okrika, KaIabari, IIa|e, Mein, Oke,
Ogba, Igbema, Ilsekiri, Urhobo, Ibibio, Ogoni, Ikverre, Ilche,
I|av, Oron, Isoko elc are lhe communilies.
In our very firsl sle lovards lhe conlroI of our resources,
ve musl be cIear, deIiberale and incIusive. We musl nol give in
lo inlernaI division. Where oiI and gas is roduced or vhere il
is nol musl nol be aIIoved lo divide us . The Ogoni slruggIe
vas nol a viIIage affair. Il vas a nalionaIily commilmenl by aII
lhe eoIe of Ogoni for survivaI and |uslice.
34

Nolvilhslanding lhe above eIoquenl Iea for an incIusive under-
slanding of lhe communily, olhers queslioned lhe aramelers
of lhe offer by lhe Nigerian governmenl. Ior examIe, lhe
Conference of Ilhnic NalionaIilies of lhe Niger DeIla (CIIND)
caIIed for inlerrelalion of lhe 10 er cenl equily for oiI-roducing
communilies as veII as delaiIs of vhere reIaled cailaI ro|ecls
vouId be siled. Due lo Iack of confidence in lhe governmenl,
DLO
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lhe organisalion demanded lo knov vhal lhe offer vas based
on. '10 er cenl equily on vhal` Is il 10 er cenl equily on lhe
|oinl venlure agreemenl` We vanl lo knov lhe 10 er cenl equily
sharehoIding. When ve knov exaclIy lhe delaiIs, ve viII be in a
beller osilion lo commenl on lhe issue.'
35
Wilh so much disenchanlmenl vilh governmenl and lrans-
nalionaI cororalions, lhe eoIe musl forge aIIiances belveen
lhemseIves and lheir communilies. Il means lhe reconslruclion
of soIidarily and recIaiming eoIe's sovereignly in aII sheres
of endeavour. African governmenls are unviIIing or unabIe lo
reguIale lhe exlraclive induslries. The induslries hide behind
lhe shieId of slale inslrumenls of reression and gel avay vilh
imunily. Communilies are criminaIised vhen lhey rolesl
desoIialion. The ansver Iies in Iinking communilies and eoIes,
sharing ideas in aII vays of crealive communicalion, Iearning
from haenings and from hislory, and being ready lo confronl
lhe vieIders of over. Thal is lhe vay lo recIaim lhe heaviIy
oIIuled and overrun communily environmenls. Il means selling
u communily schooIs on suslainabiIily and environmenlaI
|uslice. Il means documenling exerience and sharing knovIedge
and visdom. Il means gelling invoIved in oIilicaI rocesses and
insisling lhal Ieaders emerge from lhe baIIol and nol by lhe buIIel.
>"<69),6$? 2", ,%/"0%,?
Communily organising and soIidarily buiIding across nalionaI
and even elhnic boundaries is essenliaI for lhe recovery of Africa.
Communilies need lo be emovered lo regain conlroI over lhe
conlinenl's rich naluraI resources. Some argue lhal communi-
lies do nol have lhe comelence lo knov vhal lo do vilh lhe
resources. We vouId counler by demanding resecl for lhe
memory and knovIedge of lhe eoIe. No one can cIaim lo knov
lhe environmenl of any communily beller lhan lhe inhabilanls
of lhal communily. Communilies have over lhe years Iearned
lo Iive harmoniousIy vilh lheir environmenls, uliIising lhe
resources lhey are endoved vilh in a suslainabIe vay. The nolion
of sacred and somelimes eviI foresls heIed reserve foresls and
cerlain lree and animaI secies. Ioresls vere nol |usl Iaces vere
limber vas harvesled or vhere carbon vas sunk so lhal someone
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DLS
oblained financiaI revards or credils. Ioresls rovided a malrix of
goods and heId a slock of riches for any communily.
SociaI norms reserved bolh lhe dignily of lhe eoIe as veII
as lhe heaIlh of cerlain resources. Ior examIe, cerlain arls of
slreams and creeks vere reserved for olabIe valer onIy and
no one vouId svim or balhe lhere. Such norms ensured lhal
lhese valer bodies vere nol oIIuled. Some communilies had
cerlain animaIs as lheir lolems. WhiIe lhe nexl communily vouId
hunl and decimale lhal secies, lhey vouId be conserved in a
communily vhere kiIIing lhem vas laboo. MineraI resources
vere mined and uliIised by guiIds in such a manner as lo reserve
lhe inlegrily of lhe environmenl. The accumuIalion of surIus or
rofil maximisalion did nol overlake lhe crilicaI need lo slay in
harmony vilh lhe environmenl.
Communily conlroI of communily resources vouId demand
lhal anyone vho vishes lo exIoil such resources vouId firsl
have lo engage in diaIogue vilh lhe communily. In much of Africa
loday, governmenls have assumed ovnershi of aII vaIuabIe
resources incIuding Iand. They cIaim lo hoId such resources in
lrusl for lhe eoIe, vhereas lhey acluaIIy hoId lhem for lhe salis-
faclion of lhe needs of lransnalionaI cororalions, oIilicaI Ieaders
and IocaI cronies. DiaIogue vilh communilies couId Iead lo lhe
rearalion of feasibiIily sludies and environmenlaI, economic
and sociaI imacl assessmenls vhere communilies vish lo
roceed vilh roosaIs for exIoilalion of avaiIabIe resources.
CrilicaIIy, diaIogue vilh communilies vouId be heId vilh lhe
underslanding lhal lhe communily reserves lhe righl lo say no lo
lhe exlraclion of any resource in lheir lerrilory. They musl relain
lhe righl lo decide vho shouId carry oul any exlraclive aclivily
on lheir Iand and hov il vouId be done. They shouId aIso have
lhe righl lo decide hov lhe benefils accruing from such exlraclion
vouId be uliIised. Many communilies vouId be viIIing lo reIease
as much as lhe governmenl vanled in lhe form of laxes, bul lhe
facl of ovnershi musl be vesled in lhe ovners of lhe roerly,
lhe communily.
A vord of caulion is aroriale al lhis oinl. We musl nol
run avay vilh romanlic vievs of communilies. SimIy because
a decision is laken by a 'communily' does nol confer on il an air
of infaIIibiIily. When communilies lake decisions vilh regard lo
DLN
S T\GWWG@] 5]5G@TJ J[+ JG!+U 2Y@@+2J+! Bi BQYY!
lheir resources il musl be on lhe basis of knovIedge, aIlhough lhis
does nol have lo be al lhe IeveI of rockel science. Oflen ve hear
officiaIdom Ieading lhal oIicies are based on scienlific facls lhal
fIy above lhe heads of ordinary eoIe. The lrulh is lhal science
musl be al lhe service of lhe communily and musl be comre-
hensibIe. Indeed, vhen ve Iook al vhal science has said aboul
cIimale change and ils recommendalions over lhe need for bind-
ing emissions culs lo avoid calaslrohic lemeralure rises, ve
musl vonder aboul governmenls' and gIobaI inslilulions' sludied
avoidance of science in lhal regard.
y resenling arliaI informalion, carbon secuIalors have
resenled foresls as mere carbon slocks lo be lraded and have
succeeded in gelling some communilies lo cede lheir foresls
for RIDD in exchange for immediale gralificalion lhrough cash
receils. This can be characlerised as oulrighl sublerfuge. The
disIacemenl of foresl communilies, lhe lransference of defor-
eslalion lo olher regions, lhe deslruclion of IocaI IiveIihoods and
lhe faIse romise of fighling cIimale change does nol slo carbon
lraders from dreaming u more avenues for Iand, soiI and valer
grabs, nol lo menlion sky grabs. Communilies musl lherefore
remain vigiIanl lo ensure lhey do nol become agenls for lhe Iay-
ing oul of a nev scrambIe for Africa.
We menlion one examIe of a Iand grab vhere |usl one 'ara-
mounl chief' signed off 600,000 heclares of communily Iand, vilh
a ossibiIily of ceding a furlher 400,000 heclares. The deaI vas
defealed lhrough resislance by lhe eoIe vilh soIidarily aclions
from grous such as lhe OakIand Inslilule.
NiIe Trading and DeveIomenl (NTD), a DaIIas, Texas-based
hrm, had enlered a deaI vilh Mukaya Iayam Cooeralive in 2008
in Soulhern Sudan. Through lhis deaI lhe comany vouId en|oy
a 49-year Iease of 600,000 heclares of Iand al lhe insuIling sum of
US$25,000. The Iease gave lhe comany fuII righls lo exIoil aII
naluraI resources in lhe Ieased Iand, incIuding lhe righl lo:
DeveIo, roduce and exIoil limber/foreslry resources on
lhe Ieased Iand, incIuding, vilhoul Iimilalion, lhe harvesling
of currenl lree grovlh, lhe Ianling and harvesling of hard-
vood lrees, and lhe deveIomenl of vood-based induslries,
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DMP
Trade and rohl from any resuIling carbon credils from
limber on lhe Ieased Iand,
Ingage in agricuIluraI aclivilies, incIuding lhe cuIlivalion of
biofueI cros (|alroha Ianl and aIm oiI lrees),
IxIore, deveIo, mine, roduce and/or exIoil elroIeum,
naluraI gas, and olher hydrocarbon resources for bolh IocaI
and exorl markels, as veII as olher mineraIs, and may aIso
engage in over generalion aclivilies on lhe Ieased Iand,
SubIease any orlion or aII of lhe Ieased Iand or lo subIi-
cense any righl lo underlake aclivilies on lhe Ieased Iand lo
lhird arlies.
36
In a silualion Iike lhis, any beIief lhal a mere rocIamalion lhal
communilies nov ovn lheir resources vouId resoIve lhe rob-
Iem of deslruclive exlraclion in Africa amounls lo no more lhan
a dream. Gelling lo lhal oinl vouId require carefuI and Iong-
dravn knovIedge-sharing meelings and consuIlalions. Il vouId
require grassrools mobiIisalions and soIidarily.
The veb of resislance buiIding across lhe conlinenl suggesls
lhal lhe slrongesl lhread viII be deIiberale slruggIe for democralic
accounlabiIily. This viII require making lhe communily unil lhe
reaI base of over, beyond lhe currenl decenlraIised deIinealion
of oIilicaI vards as resource-oor viclims of lhe neoIiberaI slale.
In lhal vay, aIlhough lhe immediale slruggIe may be for a cIean
environmenl, for cIimale |uslice or for food sovereignly, lhe uIli-
male aim is lhe lransformalion of sociely inlo one in vhich lhe
eoIe regain lrue sovereignly.
Il vouId aIso require oIilicaI mobiIisalion lo ensure lhal cred-
ibIe candidales arliciale in credibIe eIeclions. Heads of govern-
menls slaying faslened lo lheir lhrones for Iife viII nol aIIov for
lrue reform and change in Africa. Muammar Gaddafi remained
lhe Ieader of Libya from 1970 unliI cilizens fighling under lhe air
cover of NATO forces chased him off his sumluous lhrone in 2011.
MeanvhiIe, Mugabe has Iodded on since 1980 and, afler laking
WorId ank advice during lhe earIy 1990s and de-induslriaIising
his counlry's economy, he lhen drove Zimbabve lo lhe brink of
calaslrohe. Africa needs Ieaders vho hear lhe eoIe and vho are
eIecled by lhe eoIe and vho undersland lhe asiralions of lhe
eoIe.
DMD
S T\GWWG@] 5]5G@TJ J[+ JG!+U 2Y@@+2J+! Bi BQYY!
Africa has been exIoiled aImosl lo dealh. WhiIe her chiIdren
hack al each olher's Iimbs, olhers adorn lheir fingers vilh lhe
diamonds snalched from lheir Iands. WhiIe lhe bIood of her chiI-
dren fIovs in her numerous oiIfieIds, lhese fueIs roar in engines of
lhe fasl Iife and egregious consumlion far off her shores. Moun-
lains and oceans of vasle lake over Africa vhiIe her exIoilers
dance on iIes of doIIars and euros. She gass for brealh vhiIe
lransnalionaI riers and IocaI raisls Iunder her Iands.
One couId be lemled lo lhink lhal lhere is nolhing Iefl lo be
rescued in such a desoiIed conlinenl. One couId lhrov u one's
hands in desair and say veII, vhal a Iosl conlinenl. Yes, lhere
is a Iol lhal is ugIy in lhe Iand, bul lhere is sliII much undeniabIe
beauly, and lhis musl be rescued, nurlured and reserved. Africa
deserves a break, a Sabbalh of resl. She deserves a sace lo calch
her brealh. Il is onIy a uniled, avare and connecled eoIe vho
viII arise and haIl lhe lom loms of dealh, lhrov off lhe arasiles
and recIaim lhe Iand. To do any Iess may mean gelling cooked yel
again as lhe vorId moves on.
The oorlunily for Africa lo calch ils brealh and recover from
cenluries of desoIialion viII nol haen vilhoul a fighl. The
direclion for such a slruggIe is aIready seen in lhe emergence,
among olhers, of nelvorks such as CIimale }uslice Nov! (C}N).
We see lhrough C}N lhal lhis alh viII nol be eIilisl, lo-dovn,
bul broad-based and incIusive, nol rofessionaI NGO-driven, bul
seeing ilseIf as a vider socio-environmenlaI movemenl lhal does
nol excIude aclors from officiaI circIes, eseciaIIy vhen such Iay-
ers are nol sluck on lhe creed of officiaIdom. According lo ond
and Dorsey, lhose environmenlaI seciaIisls esousing neoIiberaI
|argon, 'carry oul cIimale or deveIomenl advocacy mainIy vilhin
muIliIaleraI inslilulions or from inlernalionaI NGOs, eseciaIIy in
Nev York, Washinglon, London and Geneva, |andj commilmenls
lo lo-dovn aroaches are heId vilh an aImosl reIigious fervor.'
37
The cIear erosion of muIliIaleraIism in gIobaI negolialions
make such saces arid arenas for any hoe of securing aclions
lhal vouId free Africa from lhe exIoilalive and hegemonic
overs lhal have seen her as nolhing more lhan a backvaler
for resources, human and maleriaI. Mosl of Africa's and olher
oor counlries' voling shares vilhin lhe WorId ank are nol
significanl and are slagnaling or faIIing. Iven lhe UN MiIIennium
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DMH
DeveIomenl GoaIs Iaunched in 2000 and much Ioved by African
governmenls have roved iIIusory for Africa arlIy because lhe
inslilulions lhal have broughl misery lo lhe conlinenl lhe WorId
Trade Organisalion (WTO) and lhe rellon Woods inslilulions
Iay vilaI inlermediary roIes for MDG deIivery.
The sace for emovermenl and recovery is cIearIy in lhe galh-
ering of lhe eoIes. A olenl iniliaI signaI for lhis vas Iaid in lhe
2010 IeoIe's summil on CIimale Change heId in Cochabamba,
oIivia, under lhe ausices of Iresidenl Ivo MoraIes, vho shoved
lhe vorId lhal governmenls couId sland vilh lhe eoIe, nol
againsl lhem, and insisl on righl framevorks for aclion lo be laken.
The 2011 urisings in Norlh Africa may have somevhal
bIocked oul of viev lhe many slirrings in lhe resl of Africa beIov
lhe Sahara deserl, bul lhese shov imorlanl signs lhal business
as usuaI has a lerminaI oinl and lhal change viII come.
38
The
underinnings of lhe urisings incIude rising food rices and lhis
cannol be divorced from lhe imacls of Iand grabs by secuIalors,
deslruclive exlraclion and arorialion of lhe eoIe's herilage,
cIimale change, and harsh economic reaIilies aII driven by anli-
eoIe oIilicaI aclors.
Irom Dakar lo Mogadishu and from Cae Tovn lo Cairo, lhe
eoIes of lhis conlinenl are sIovIy bul sureIy recovering lheir
voices. Do nol mislake lhe sluming, singing and |uming for a
dance arly, lhese are lhe generalors lhal over lhe dynamos and
sel lhe alh for resislance and for change.
DMI
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'% $(":+($ 6$ .)& "6< Z C:$ 6$ .)& C<""9
./
Tnc cincr !aq
Wc !ancc! in inc sircci
jcq in cur ncaris
Wc incugni uc ucrc jrcc
Tnrcc qcung jc|ks jc|| ic cur rigni
Ccuni|css ncrc jc|| ic cur |cji
Iccking up,
|ar jrcn crcu!
Wc |cnc|!
|c!-nci guns
We lhoughl il vas oiI
ul il vas bIood
We lhoughl il vas oiI
ul il vas bIood
Hcari junping
|nic cur ncuins
||caiing cn
|nciicns !rq uc||s
Wc |capi in jurq
Kncuing ii uasni junnq
Tncn uc |cnc|!
Brigni rc! pcc|s
We lhoughl il vas oiI
ul il vas bIood
We lhoughl il vas oiI
ul il vas bIood
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
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|irsi ii uas inc Ogcnis
Tc!aq ii is inc |jaus
Wnc ui|| |c s|ain inis ncxi !aq?
Wc scc cpcn ncuins
Bui ncar nc scrcans
Tcars !cni j|cu
Wncn qcu arc scarrc!
Wc sian! in pcc|s
Up ic cur knccs
We lhoughl il vas oiI
ul il vas bIood
We lhoughl il vas oiI
ul il vas bIood
Oric! icar |ags
Pc||uic! sircans
Tnings arc rca|
Wncn jcun! in !rcans
Wc scc incir snc||s
Bcnin! ni|iiarq snic|!s
|ti|, ncrri||c, ga||cus ca||c! ci|rigs
Ori||ing cur scu|s
We lhoughl il vas oiI
ul il vas bIood
We lhoughl il vas oiI
ul il vas bIood
Tnc ncatcns arc cpcn
A|ctc cur nca!s
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Tcasic! !rcans in
|n a scran||c! skq
A ni||icn ||ack nc|cs
|n a |urni cui skq
Tncir pipcs naq |ursi
Bui cur !rcans ucni |ursi
We lhoughl il vas oiI
ul il vas bIood
We lhoughl il vas oiI
ul il vas bIood
Tncq naq ki|| a||
Bui inc ||cc! ui|| spcak
Tncq naq gain a||
Bui inc sci| ui|| ||S|
Wc naq !ic
An! qci siaq a|itc
P|acc! cn inc s|a|
S|augnicrc! |q inc !aq
Wc arc inc |iting
Icng sacrijicc!
We lhoughl il vas oiI
ul il vas bIood
We lhoughl il vas oiI
ul il vas bIood
DMM
S"$%&
!()-$%, 3 8#$,"9:/$6"# P $(% -:<< "2 72,6/)
1 Ixcerl from lhe oem 'We lhoughl il vas oiI bul il vas bIood', from
Nnimmo assey's coIIeclion Wc Tncugni |i Was Oi| Bui |i Was B|cc! (2008,
2nd edilion) Ibadan, Krafl ooks
2 Iakenham, Thomas (1991) Tnc Scran||c jcr Ajrica, London, Abacus, . xxiv
3 Marx, KarI (1972) 'The fulure of rilish RuIe in India', in KarI Marx and
Iederick IngeIs, On Cc|cnia|isn, InlernalionaI IubIishers, . 82
4 Tulu, Desmond (2005) Gc! nas a Orcan A Visicn cj Hcpc jcr Our Tinc,
London, Rider, . 12
5 Ovugah, LemueI, (2007) Tnc Pc|iiics cj Nigcrias |c|aiicns uiin inc |urcpcan
|ccncnic Ccnnuniiq. |rcn Iagcs ic Icnc, Iorl Harcourl, KemueIa
IubIicalions, . 67
6 Tinc magazine (1957) 'Uniled Nalions: foursquare for Irance',
18 Iebruary, hll://vvv.lime.com/lime/magazine/
arlicIe/0,9171,809106,00.hlmIixzz1UqvcGnux
7. Iakenham (1991) . 30
8 CoIeman, }ames S. (1986) Nigcria. Backgrcun! ic Naiicna|isn, enin Cily,
roburg & Wislrom, . 56
9 O'SuIIivan, MichaeI I. (2007) 'HilIer's viclims: lhe German army
massacres of bIack Irench soIdiers in 1940', Cana!ian jcurna| cj Hisicrq,
hll://vvv.brilannica.com/bs/addilionaIconlenl/18/27866949/
HilIers-African-Viclims-The-German-Army-Massacres-of-Iack-Irench-
SoIdiers-in-1940
10 AIie, }oe A. D. (1991) A Ncu Hisicrq cj Sicrra Iccnc, Oxford, MacmiIIan
Iducalion, . 168
11 Meredilh, Marlin (2006) Tnc Siaic cj Ajrica A Hisicrq cj |ijiq Ycars cj
|n!cpcn!cncc, London, Iree Iress, . 7
12 Tulu (2005) . 256
13 Iduardo, GaIeano (1997) Opcn Vcins cj Iaiin Ancrica |itc Ccniurics cj inc
Pi||agc cj a Ccniincni, Nev York, NY, MonlhIy Reviev Iress, . 80
14 KarI, Marx (1976) Capiia|, VoIume 1, Nev York, NY, Vinlage, . 896
15 Iosler, }.. and CIark, . (2003) 'IcoIogicaI imeriaIism: lhe curse of
cailaIism in lhe nev imeriaI chaIIenge', in Leo Ianilch and CoIin Leys
(eds) Sccia|isi |cgisicr 2004, London, MerIin Iress, .1889
16 Turner, Terisa I. and Oshare, M.O. (1994) 'Women's urisings againsl lhe
Nigerian oiI induslry in lhe 1980s' in Terisa I. Turner (ed) Arisc Yc Migniq
Pccp|c Gcn!cr, C|ass c |acc in Pcpu|ar Sirugg|cs, Trenlon, N}, Africa
WorId Iress, . 1312
17 ond, Ialrick (2006) Icciing Ajrica inc |ccncnics cj |xp|ciiaiicn,
Iielermarilzburg, Durban and London, Universily of KvaZuIu-NalaI
Iress and Zed ooks, . 5591
DMO
@YJ+T
18 de SenarcIens, Iierre (2007) 'DecoIonisalion and deveIomenl, al lhe
origins of lhe UN Africa geooIilics Africa in lhe Uniled Nalions
syslem', Iaris, no. 25, }anuaryMarch, .196
19 Ibid
!()-$%, B 72,6/) 6& ,6/(
1 Ixcerl from lhe oem 'Yasuni' from Nnimmo assey's coIIeclion | Wi||
Nci Oancc ic Ycur Bcai (2011) Ibadan, Krafl ooks
2 Rodney, WaIler (1981) Hcu |urcpc Un!cr!ctc|cpc! Ajrica (revised edilion),
Washinglon DC, Hovard Universily Iress
3 assey, Nnimmo (2007) Tovards a IoIilicaI Iramevork for Iood Securily
and SuslainabIe AgricuIlure in Africa A conlribulion al lhe conference
on Can Africa Ieed IlseIf` Ioverly, AgricuIlure and Invironmenl
ChaIIenges for Africa, 68 }une, OsIo, Norvay
4 Irneslo 'Che' Guevara (2001) Tnc Ajrican Orcan Tnc Oiarics cj inc
|ctc|uiicnarq War in inc Ccngc, London, HarviII Iress, . 57
5 SvagIer, Mall (2008) 'ehind lhe var in Congo', Sccia|isi Wcrkcr, hll://
sociaIislvorker.org/2008/11/25/behind-var-in-lhe-congo
6 As quoled in SvagIer (2008)
7 'Corse Avard 2005 ress coverage', quoled in Sun!aq Tincs, hll://ccs.
ukzn.ac.za/defauIl.as`2,40,5,1168
8 SvagIer (2008)
9 Iock, Roberl (1997) 'U.S. firms seek deaIs in CenlraI Africa,' Wa|| Sircci
jcurna|, . A17, 14 Oclober
10 Monlague, D. and errigan, I. (2001) 'The business of var in lhe
Democralic ReubIic of Congo: vho benefils`', }uIyAugusl, WorId
IoIicy Inslilule
11 Ibid
12 McCarlney, L. (1998) |ricn!s in Hign P|accs. Tnc Bccnic| Sicrq. Tnc Mcsi
Sccrci Ccrpcraiicn an! ncu ii |nginccrc! inc Wcr|!, Simon & Schusler
13 angura, Ahmed O|uIIa (2008) 'InvironmenlaI degradalion in
Kono area', Ccnccr! Tincs (Ireelovn), 21 AriI, hll://aIIafrica.com/
slories/200804212037.hlmI
14 Sicrra |xprcss Mc!ia (2009) 'AIC aIIovs lovn mining in Kono', 5 Oclober,
hll://vvv.sierraexressmedia.com/archives/527
15 The comany rofiIe is avaiIabIe al hll://vvv.koiduhoIdings.com/
aboulcomanyrofiIe.hlmI
16 Nelvork Movemenl for }uslice and DeveIomenl (2004) 'The Koidu
KimberIile Iro|ecl Is Koidu HoIdings Lld above lhe Iav`', ress
slalemenl, 11 Iebruary, hll://vvv.minesandcommunilies.org/arlicIe.
h`a694
17 ank Informalion Cenlre (2004) 'Koidu HoIdings Limiled denies any
vrongdoing or vioIalion of IIA oIicy', 14 }anuary, hll://vvv.bicusa.
org/IN/ArlicIe.705.asx
18 Koidu HoIdings (2011) 'Key facls', hll://vvv.koiduhoIdings.com/
comany-key-facls.h
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DMS
19 AIie, }oe A. D. (1990)
20 Akabzaa, T.M., Seyire, }.S. and Afriyie K. (2007) 'The gIillering faade
effecls of mining aclivilies in Obuasi and ils surrounding communilies',
Accra, Third WorId Nelvork-Africa (TWN-Africa), . 1, see aIso Kairos
(2004) Ajricas B|cssing, Ajricas Cursc. Tnc Icgacq cj |cscurcc |xiraciicn in
Ajrica, Accra, TWN-Africa
21 Tnc |ccncnisi (2009) Pcckci Wcr|! |igurcs 2008, London, Tnc |ccncnisi, .
523
22 Oi| |cticu Ajrica (2009) 'Nexans vins $9.8 miIIion loside conlracl for
Usan IISO offshore Nigeria', issue 3, . 30
23 Oi| |cticu Ajrica (2009) 'WorId's firsl IDISO nov in oeralion', issue 3,
. 27
24 Ghazvianian, }ohn (2009) Uniappc! Tnc Scran||c jcr Ajricas Oi|,
Houghlon MiffIin Harcourl, . 911
25 Ibid, . 214
26 Woods, Imira (2009) 'Obama visils Africa's OiI GuIf',
Inler-Iress Service, 12 }uIy, hll://vvv.is-dc.org/arlicIes/
obamavisilsafricasoiIguIf
27 'Resource curse' (2010) Icn!cn |cticu cj Bccks, 8 }uIy, hll://vvv.Irb.
co.uk/bIog/2010/07/08/khadi|a-sharife/5299/
28 Akabzaa el aI (2007) . 7
29 Ibid
30 Ibid
31 Kairos (2004)
32 Akabzaa el aI (2007) . 14
33 AngIoGoId couId make lhese decisions because virluaIIy lhe enlire
Obuasi is lheir concession area. They can mine vhere lhey Iease and
move vhalever slands in lheir vay.
34 Norvegian Universily of Life Sciences (2009) 'Tanzania: lrace melaI
concenlralions in soiI, sedimenls, and valers', hll://vvv.africafiIes.org/
arlicIe.as`ID22228
35 Ibid
36 Reulers (2009) 'Zambia oosilion moves lo bIock Chinese mine deaI',
24 }une, hll://vvv.miningveekIy.com/arlicIe/zambia-residenl-says-
viIIing-lo-reviev-mine-laxes-2009-06-24
37 Shacinda, Shai (2009) 'Zambia sociaI rogrammes may suffer as
coer mine revenues faII', Reulers, 18 }une, hll://vvv.mineveb.com/
mineveb/viev/mineveb/en/age504`oid85133&snDelaiI
38 IITI (2010) 'Cilizens in 24 counlries are nov abIe lo see lhe revenues
from resources', November, hll://eili.org/nevs-evenls/biIIions-revenues-
are-being-reorled.
39 Sharife, Khadi|a (2011) 'Transarency hides Zambia's biIIions', AI }azeera
}une 18, hll://engIish.aI|azeera.nel/indelh/oinion/2011/06/
20116188244589715.hlmI
40 IITI (2011) 'Zambia becomes 26lh counlry lo ubIish an IITI reorl',
23 Iebruary, hll://eili.org/nevs-evenls/zambia-becomes-26lh-counlry-
ubIish-eili-reorl
DMN
@YJ+T
41 IinanciaI Aclion Task Iorce (2011) 'TackIe iIIicil financiaI fIovs for lhe
nev bollom biIIion', 13 }uIy, hll://vvv.financiaIlaskforce.org/2011/07/
13/lackIe-iIIicil-financiaI-fIovs-for-lhe-nev-bollom-biIIion/
42 Sharife, Khadi|a (2011)
43 Cnrisiian Scicncc Mcniicr (2011) 'Zambia: nev Iresidenl Sala sels nev
mining ruIes for China', 28 Selember, hll://vvv.csmonilor.com/WorId/
Africa/2011/0928/Zambia-s-nev-Iresidenl-Sala-sels-nev-mining-
ruIes-for-China.
44 IinanciaI Secrecy Index (2010) 'The rilish conneclion', hll://vvv.
financiaIsecrecyindex.com/documenls/ISI20-20The20rilish20
Conneclion.df
45 Tnc Ajrica |cpcri (2010) 'uiIding Africa's lax havens', 2 December,
hll://vvv.lheafricareorl.com/lyerighler/index.h`osl/2010/12/02/
uiIding-African-lax-havens
46 China Offshore (n.d.) 'The Galevay: Maurilius is al lhe cenler of indian
ocean lrade fIovs connecling India, Africa, and China', hll://vvv.
chinaoffshore.com.hk/lhe-galevay.hlmI
47 IinanciaI Secrecy Index (2010) 'Maurilius', hll://vvv.
secrecy|urisdiclions.com/IDI/Maurilius.df
48 Leller from Rio Tinlo Ic lo lhe US Securilies and Ixchange Commission,
hll://vvv.sec.gov/commenls/s7-42-10/s74210-44.df
49 IaIilza, Krislin (2009)'Iconomies musl diversify, reduce focus on mining',
10 }une, hll://vvv.isnevs.nel/africa/
50 C (2009) 'Guinea confirms huge China deaI', 13 Oclober
51 The NalionaI (2008) 'Grou bIasls comany for mining deaI vilh Irilrea',
hll://vvv.lhenalionaI.ae/arlicIe/20081226/IORIIGN/883029914
52 Kairos (2004) . 28
53 The Cilizen Reorler (2009) 'Ixerls redicl lriIing of income from
mining', 8 }une, hll://lhecilizen.co.lz/neve.h`id12973
54 Slalemenl issued in Accra, Ghana (2009) 13 Augusl
55 Ieslus Iyayi, in commenls on vhal civiI sociely musl do lo raise
avareness on lhe oIilicaI underinnings of lhe environmenlaI
degradalion
56 Tnc Guar!ian (2009) 'Greal execlalions in Uganda over oiI discovery',
2 December, hll://vvv.guardian.co.uk/kaline/2009/dec/02/
oiI-benefils-ruraI-uganda
57 Ibid
58 eIfer Cenler (2011) 'Russia in Reviev', 8 AriI, hll://beIfercenler.ksg.
harvard.edu/ubIicalion/20925/russiainreviev.hlmI
59 Inlerviev vilh Khadi|a Sharife (Augusl 2011)
!()-$%, [ =(% .(%%<& "2 -,"+,%&&
1 Ixcerl from lhe oem 'WaIking bIind' from lhe Nnimmo assey's
coIIeclion, | Wi|| Nci Oancc ic Ycur Bcai (2011) Ibadan, Krafl ooks
2 Iakenham, Thomas (1991) Tnc Scran||c jcr Ajrica, London, Abacus, . xxv
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DOP
3 }arecki, Iugene (2006) Wnq Wc |igni, Sony CIassic Iiclures and CharIolle
Slreel IiIm
4 Challer|ee (2009) Ha||i|uricns Arnq Hcu a Wc||-Ccnnccic! Tcxas Oi|
Ccnpanq |ctc|uiicnizc! inc Waq Ancrica Makcs War, Nev York, Nalion
ooks, . 213
5 Landau, SauI (2007) A Busn an! Bcicx Wcr|!, CaIifornia, Counlerunch,
. 60
6 Ibid, . 61
7 Uniled Nalions Conference on Trade and deveIomenl (UNCTAD) (2008)
|ccncnic Octc|cpncni in Ajrica 2008. |xpcri Pcrjcrnancc |c||cuing Tra!c
Ii|cra|izaiicn. Scnc Paiicrns an! Pc|icq Pcrspcciitcs, Nev York and Geneva,
Uniled Nalions, hll://vvv.unclad.org/en/docs/aIdcafrica2008en.df
8 Moyo, Dambisa (2009) Oca! Ai! Wnq Ai! |s Nci Wcrking an! Hcu Tncrc
|s Ancincr Waq jcr Ajrica, London, AIIen Lane
9 CaIderisi, Roberl (2007) Tnc Trcu||c Wiin Ajrica. Wnq |crcign Ai! |sni
Wcrking, Nev Haven and London, YaIe Universily Iress
10 Moyo (2009) . 15
11 Ibid, . 1516
12 ond, Ialrick (2006) Icciing Ajrica Tnc |ccncnics cj |xp|ciiaiicn,
Iielermarilzburg, Universily of Kva ZuIu-NalaI Iress, . 334
13 IonlaneI, }acques and iays, }oI-IascaI (2007) 'Africa and lhe IMI', Ajrica
Gccpc|iiics, }anuaryMarch, . 227
14 CaIderisi (2007) . 20817
15 ond, Ialrick (1999) 'GIobaIizalion, harmaceulicaI ricing and Soulh
African heaIlh oIicy: managing confronlalion vilh US firms and
oIilicians', |nicrnaiicna| jcurna| cj Hca|in Scrticcs, voI. 29, no. 4
16 ond (2006) . 35
17 Ibid
18 Ciled in SA Inslilule for InlernalionaI Affairs e-Africa (2004) May
19 Chomsky, Noam (2007) |ai|c! Siaics Tnc A|usc cj Pcucr an! inc Assau|i
cn Ocnccracq, London, Ienguin ooks, . 25
!()-$%, N =(% &$%-& "2 $(% )906&%,&
1 Ixcerl from lhe oem 'Laguna Gualavila', from Nnimmo assey's
coIIeclion Wc Tncugni |i Was Oi| Bui |i Was B|cc! (2008, 2nd edilion)
Ibadan, Krafl ooks
2 KIein, Naomi (2009) 'Why ve shouId banish Larry Summers from
ubIic Iife', 19 AriI, hll://vvv.naomikIein.org/arlicIes/2009/04/
vhy-ve-shouId-banish-Iarry-summers-ubIic-Iife
3 Summers, Lavrence (1991) 'Lel lhem eal oIIulion', 12 December, quoled
by Aaron Ielcoff, incoming economic adviser, hll://aaronelcoff.
com/2009/01/02/Iel-lhem-eal-oIIulion/. This Ieaked memo vas firsl
ubIished by Tnc |ccncnisi, 8 Iebruary 1992
4 Guesl, Roberl (2004) Tnc Snack|c! Ccniincni. Ajricas Pasi, Prcscni an!
|uiurc, London, MacmiIIan, . 20
DOD
@YJ+T
5 oIlon, GiIes (2008) Ai! an! Oincr Oiriq Busincss an |nsi!cr |ctca|s Hcu
G|c|a|isaiicn an! Gcc! |nicniicns Hatc |ai|c! inc Wcr|!s Pccr, London,
Ibury Iress, . 218
6 'African AIlernalive Iramevork lo SlrucluraI Ad|uslmenl Irograms
for Socio-Iconomic Recovery and Transformalion' (1989) hll://vvv.
africaaclion.org/african-inilialives/aaf3.hlm
7 Chomsky, Noam (2003) |a!ica| Pricriiics, Olero, C.I. (ed), OakIand, CA,
AK Iress, . 279
8 Ibid
9 SligIilz, }oseh (2000) 'Whal I Iearned al lhe vorId economic
crisis', Tnc |nsi!cr, Tnc Ncu |cpu||ic, 17 AriI, ciled in Shah, Anu
(2008) 'SlrucluraI ad|uslmenla ma|or cause of overly', G|c|a|
|ssucs, udaled 29 Oclober, hll://vvv.gIobaIissues.org/arlicIe/3/
slrucluraI-ad|uslmenl-a-ma|or-cause-of-overly
10 rellon Woods Iro|ecl Udale (2001) 'IRSIs |usl IR, say civiI sociely
grous', hll://vvv.brellonvoodsro|ecl.org/arl-15999
11 The WorId ank (n.d.) hll://veb.vorIdbank.org/WSITI/IXTIRNAL/
NIWS/0,,conlenlMDK:20040942menuIK:34480ageIK:34370lheSil
eIK:4607,00.hlmI
12 WorId ank (2009) 'Debl reIief', hll://veb.vorIdbank.org/WSITI/
IXTIRNAL/IXTSITITOOLS/0,,rinl:YisCURL:YconlenlMDK:2014760
7menuIK:344191ageIK:98400iIK:98424lheSileIK:95474,00.hlmI
13 MiIIel, Damien and Toussainl, Iric (2004) Wnc Oucs Wnc? 50 Qucsiicns
A|cui Wcr|! Oc|i, London, Zed ooks, . 90
14 See hll://go.vorIdbank.org/4IMVXTQ090
15 Ioomberg (2011) 'IMI eIecloraI malh doesn'l add u', 25 May, hll://
vvv.bIoomberg.com/nevs/2011-05-25/lhe-imf-s-eIecloraI-malh-doesn-l-
add-u.hlmI
16 Carnegie CounciI (2002) 'The myslery of cailaI', 8 May, hll://vvv.
carnegiecounciI.org/resources/ubIicalions/morgenlhau/99.hlmI
17 G|c|a| Pc|icq jcurna| (2011) 'IrofiIe: Hernando de Solo', hll://vvv.
gIobaIoIicy|ournaI.com/raclilioners-advisery-board/hernando-de-solo
18 Vicky, AIain (2011) 'Who ovns uganda', Augusl, Ic Mcn!c Oip|cnaiiquc
19 Wcr|! Pc|icq jcurna| (2011), 'This Iand is your Iand', summer, hll://vvv.
vorIdoIicy.org/|ournaI/summer2011/lhis-Iand-is-your-Iand
20 Vicky, AIain (2011)
21 de Solo, Hernando (2000) Tnc Mqsicrq cj Capiia|, Nev York, NY, asic
ooks
22 Guesl (2004) . 5861
23 Tran, Mark (2009) 'UN denies comIicily in Congo var crimes',
11 November, Tnc Guar!ian, hll://vvv.guardian.co.uk/vorId/2009/
nov/11/congo-un-rebeIs-rvanda-kimia
24 Ian African Nevs Wire (2009) 'CIinlon lhrealens Irilrea over US faiIure
in SomaIia', 9 Augusl, hll://anafricannevs.bIogsol.com/2009/08/
cIinlon-lhrealens-erilrea-over-us.hlmI
25 Iriends of lhe Iarlh (2009) 'ArceIorMillaI in Liberia robIems lo iron oul',
in Arcc|crMiiia|, Gcing Ncuncrc S|cu|q A |cticu cj inc G|c|a| Sicc| Gianis
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DOH
|ntircnncnia| an! Sccia| |npacis in 2008-2009, May, hll://vvv.foeeuroe.
org/cororales/Ixlraclives/arceIormillaIgoingnovhereveb.df
26 Murhy, Richard (2007) 'MillaI SleeI did lhe righl lhing: viII Iireslone`'
1 May
27 GIobaI Wilness (2007) 'Heavy MillaI', 2 Oclober, hll://vvv.
gIobaIvilness.org/Iibrary/heavy-millaI
28 Iriends of lhe Iarlh (2009)
29 WiIIiams, Slehen (2009) 'A fronlier loo far`', Oi| |cticu Ajrica, no. 3
30 Urquharl, Sam (2009) 'Iragmenling Sudan lhe }arch vay',
Hi!!cn Pau, 3 March, hll://szamko.vordress.com/2009/03/06/
fragmenling-sudan-lhe-|arch-vay/
31 }arch (2011) 'Comany overviev' hll://vvv.|archcailaI.com/comany-
overviev.h
32 Ibid
!()-$%, L A%&$,:/$60% %G$,)/$6"#
1 Ixcerl from lhe oem 'Gas fIares' by Nnimmo assey
2 Human Righls Walch (1999) Tnc Pricc cj Oi| Ccrpcraic |cspcnsi|i|iiq an!
Hunan |ignis Vic|aiicns in Nigcrias Oi| Prc!ucing Ccnnuniiics, Nev York,
NY, Human Righls Walch, . 202
3 Okonla, Ike and DougIas, Oronlo (2001) Wncrc Vu|iurcs |casi 40 qcars
cj Snc|| in inc Nigcr Oc|ia, enin Cily, InvironmenlaI Righls Aclion and
Iriends of lhe Iarlh Nigeria, . 142
4 Sleiner, Richard (2008) Ocu||c Sian!ar!s? |nicrnaiicna| Bcsi Praciicc
Sian!ar!s ic Prctcni an! Ccnirc| Pipc|inc Oi| Spi||s, Ccnparc! uiin Snc||
Praciiccs in Nigcria, Amslerdam, MiIieudefensie
5 Sheehan, IauI (2001) 'Cororale sin and Iies: a symasler's Iamenl, and
a varning lo us aII', Sq!ncq Mcrning Hcra|!, hll://vvv.commondreams.
org/vievs01/0228-02.hlm
6 Levis (1996) 'Iood and oiI: a seciaI reorl: afler Nigeria reresses, SheII
defends ils record', Tnc Ncu Ycrk Tincs, ciled in RoveII, Andrev (1996)
Grccn Back|asn G|c|a| Su|tcrsicn cj inc |ntircnncni Mctcncni, London,
RoulIedge, . 293
7 Chrislian Aid (2004) Bcnin! inc Mask Tnc |ca| |acc cj Ccrpcraic Sccia|
|cspcnsi|i|iiq, . 30
8 Iigging Iroducls and Services Associalion (IISA) (2004) 'Using
benchmarking lo olimise lhe cosl of ieIine inlegrily managemenl',
ciled by Richard Sleiner (2008) Ocu||c sian!ar!s?. |nicrnaiicna| Bcsi
Praciicc Sian!ar!s ic Prctcni an! Ccnirc| Pipc|inc Oi| Spi||s, Ccnparc! uiin
Snc|| Praciiccs in Nigcria, Amslerdam, Iriends of lhe Iarlh NelherIands
9 CeIIarius, Richard (2009) 'The environmenlaI imIicalions of
unconvenlionaI oiI roduclion and exIoralion (Arlic and Canada OiI
|larj sands)', 13 Oclober, resenled al lhe conference on Ixlraclive
Induslries: Iessing or Curse` SociaI Imacls of OiI and Gas Induslry,
russeIs, eIgium
DOI
@YJ+T
10 Okorodudu-Iubara, Margarel T (1998) Iau cj |ntircnncnia| Prcicciicn
Maicria|s an! Tcxis, Ibadan CaIlo IubIicalions, . 815
11 Okonlo and DougIas (2001)
12 NOSDRA vas eslabIished by acl of lhe NalionaI AssembIy on 18
Oclober 2006 lo rovide an inslilulionaI framevork lo coordinale and
imIemenl lhe NalionaI OiI SiII Conlingency IIan (NOSCI) for Nigeria
in accordance vilh lhe InlernalionaI Convenlion on OiI IoIIulion
Irearedness, Resonse and Cooeralion (OIRC) 1990, lo vhich Nigeria
is a signalory. The agency is mandaled lo ensure limeIy, effeclive and
aroriale resonse lo aII oiI siIIs as veII as ensuring cIean u and
remedialion of oiI imacled siles.
13 Nigerian Nevs Service reorling from Oai|q |n!cpcn!cni (2009)
'Nigeria records 2,122 oiI siIIs in four years', 6 Oclober, hll://vvv.
nigeriannevsservice.com/index.h/Your-Naira/Nigeria-Records-2122-
OiI-SiIIs-In-Iour-Years.hlmI
14 ased on dala from lhe Nigerian Dearlmenl of IelroIeum Resources
(DIR)
15 Uniled Nalions Invironmenl Irogramme (UNII) (2011) Ogcni|an! Oi|
Asscssncni |ctca|s |xicni cj |ntircnncnia| Ccnianinaiicn an! Tnrcais ic
Hunan Hca|in, hll://vvv.une.org/nevscenlre/
DefauIl.asx`DocumenlID2649&ArlicIeID8827&Ien
16 Quoled in assey, Nnimmo (2011) 'The agony of Ogoni', N|XT
nevsaer, Lagos, 11 Augusl, hll://234nexl.com/cs/cms/siles/Nexl/
Money/5738479-146/slory.cs
17 Moody, Roger (1998) Oui cj Ajrica. Mining in inc Ccngc Basin, IUCN The
Congo asin Human and NaluraI Resources, Amslerdam, . 137
18 ReguIy, Iric (2008) 'Rio Tinlo lries lo sidesle eIehanl in lhe room',
14 }uIy, hll://vvv.lhegIobeandmaiI.com/servIel/slory/LAC.20080714.
RRIGULY14/TISlory`cidaIgamgIobeedge
19 Tincs (2010) 'IabuIous veaIlh in Marange diamonds', 8 Augusl,
hll://vvv.limesIive.co.za/africa/arlicIe591181.ece/
IabuIous-veaIlh-in-Marange-diamonds
20 C (2011) 'Marange diamond fieId lorlure cam discovered', Pancrana,
8 Augusl, hll://vvv.bbc.co.uk/nevs/vorId-africa-14377215
21 See AjricaAsia Ccnji!cniia|. Zin|a|uc Ccunirq Prcji|c
22 Levkovilz, L., Ross, M. and Warner, }. (2009) 'The 88 Queensvay Grou:
a case sludy in Chinese inveslors' oeralions in AngoIa and beyond',
reared for USChina Iconomic & Securily Reviev Commission.
23 Ibid
24 Svain, }. (2011) 'ZANU in shadov of eIusive magnale', 12 March,
hll://vvv.businessIive.co.za/africa/2011/03/12/
zanu-in-shadov-of-eIusive-magnale
25 rauligam, D. (2009) Oragcns Giji. Tnc |ca| Sicrq cj Cnina in Ajrica,
Oxford, Oxford Universily Iress
26 AjricaAsia Ccnji!cniia| (2009) 'China SonangoI largels Harare's goId and
oiI', November
27 Reulers (2011) 'China's An|in Zimbabve diamond oulul hils 1 miIIion
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DOK
carals', 7 AriI, hll://vvv.businessIive.co.za/Ieeds/reulers/2011/04/07/
china-s-an|in-zimbabve-diamond-oulul-hils-1-miIIion-carals
28 Inlerviev vilh Khadi|a Sharife (}une 2011)
29 Zimbabve Melro (2010) 'Arresled diamond researcher sel u by KI
monilor', 3 }une, hll://vvv.zimbabvemelro.com/headIine/arresled-
zimbabvean-diamond-researcher-I28098sel-uI28099-by-k-
monilor/
30 Tnc Ajrica |cpcri (2011) 'Comanies rofil from loxic valer', March,
hll://vvv.lheafricareorl.com/comonenl/conlenl/arlicIe/54/5138186.
hlmI
31 Ibid
32 Ibid
33 Africa Iarlh Observalory Nelvork (AION) (2010) 'H
2
0-C0
2
energy
equalions for SA', 22 November, hll://vvv.aeon.ucl.ac.za/nevs/nevs.
h`nevsId29&slarl6
34 WikiIeaks vouId Ialer discIose lhal, according lo a US embassy officiaI, 'A
conlacl al lhe InlernalionaI Iinance Cororalion in Washinglon DC said
lhal someone had aid $US7 miIIion lo someone in lhe residency as a
bribe lo gel lhe Rio Tinlo conlracl canceIIed.' The rumour may or may
nol have been lrue.
35 IC (2008) 'IIC considers record mining inveslmenl in Guinea as ils
Simandou concession comes under disule' 11 Augusl al hll://vvv.
bicusa.org/en/ArlicIe.3871.asx
36 Holler, A. and Mallhevs, R.G. (2009) 'Rio Tinlo, Guinea sar over mining
righls miner loId lo remove equimenl, cede haIf of mineraI-rich area',
24 }uIy, hll://onIine.vs|.com/arlicIe/S124838931608377349.hlmI
37 Rio Tinlo (2009) 'Rio Tinlo Simandou ro|ecl informalion', }uIy, vvv.
riolinlosimandou.com
38 |inancia| Tincs (2011) 'Guinea lo reviev mining Iicences', 4 March,
hll://vvv.fl.com/inlI/cms/s/0/5ae818ec-469e-11e0-967a-00144feab49a.
hlmIaxzz1XDNQG}uq
39 Ajrica Ccnji!cniia| (2011) 'Conde drives a hard bargain', 8 }uIy
40 Souare, I. (2009) 'IxIaining lhe December 2008 miIilary cou d'elal in
Guinea', Ccnj|ici Trcn!s, no. 1
41 Ajrica Ccnji!cniia| (2011) 'Conde drives a hard bargain', 8 }uIy
42 Ajrica Ccnji!cniia| (2010) 'Voles and lhe mining house', 28 May
43 AI }azeera (2011), 'Guinea's residenl residence allacked', 19 }uIy, hll://
engIish.aI|azeera.nel/nevs/africa/2011/07/201171974410871681.hlmI
44 Africa Nevs (2011) 'Guinea: securily forces reress demonslralion',
28 Selember, hll://vvv.africanevs.com/sile/
GuineaSecurilyforcesreressdemonslralion/Iislmessages/39892
45 anro Cororalion (2009) 'anro Ioundalion and lhe Luhvind|a
communily ceIebrale handover of nev high schooI and olabIe valer
syslem', ress reIease, Toronlo, 11 May
46 }ohn Lasker (2009) 'Digging for goId, mining corrulion', 29 Oclober,
hll://canadiandimension.com/arlicIes/2565/hll://canadiandimension.
com/arlicIes/2565/
DOL
@YJ+T
47 Tnc Guar!ian (2009) 'Germany arresls Hulu exlremisl grou Ieaders',
Lagos, 18 November, . 10
48 AImeida, Henrique (2009) 'Ixlra lroos as iIIegaI diamond miners fIood
over DRC/AngoIa border', Reulers, 19 May
49 The Congo ConfIicl MineraIs Acl sonsored by Richard Durbin, Senale
Ma|orily Whi, aIong vilh Senalors Sam rovnback, ReubIican from
Kansas, RusseII IeingoId, Democral of Wisconsin, and CharIes Schumer,
Democral of Nev York
50 Knighl, DanieIIe (2009) 'DR-Congo: U.S. Congress moving lo lrack
confIicl mineraIs', Inler-Iress Service, 15 May, hll://vvv.isnevs.nel/
africa/nola.as`idnevs46868
51 Lasker, }ohn (2009)
52 Reulers (2009) 'DRC, Iirsl Quanlum musl reIaunch laIks
minisler', 9 Oclober, hll://vvv.miningveekIy.com/arlicIe/
drc-firsl-quanlum-musl-reIaunch-laIks---minisler-2009-10-09
53 IRIN (2006) 'Zambia: Kabve, Africa's mosl loxic cily', 9 November,
hll://vvv.irinnevs.org/Reorl.asx`ReorlId61521
54 IRIN (2008) 'Iaying lhe rice for mining', 15 Iebruary,
hll://vvv.irinnevs.org/rinlreorl.asx`reorlid76780
55 groundWork (2008) 'Wasling lhe Nalion making lrash of eoIe and
Iaces', Iielermarilzburg, groundWork Reorl
!()-$%, \ !<6@)$% /()"& )#9 2)<&% &"<:$6"#&
1 'If cIimale change vere IillIe change' is from Nnimmo assey's coIIeclion
| Wi|| Nci Oancc ic Ycur Bcai (2011) Ibadan, Krafl ooks
2 Greeneace (2005) 'CIimale change: a burden Africa cannol afford',
6 }uIy, hll://vvv.greeneace.org.uk/bIog/cIimale/
cIimale-change-a-burden-africa-cannol-afford
3 InlergovernmenlaI IaneI on CIimale Change (IICC) (2007) 'Summary
for oIicymakers', in C|inaic Cnangc 2007. |npacis, A!apiaiicn an!
Vu|ncra|i|iiq. Ccniri|uiicn cj ucrking Grcup || ic inc |curin Asscssncni
|cpcri cj inc |nicrgctcrnncnia| Panc| cn C|inaic Cnangc, Cambridge,
Cambridge Universily Iress.
4 CaIderisi, Roberl (2007) Tnc Trcu||c Wiin Ajrica Wnq |crcign Ai! |sni
Wcrking, Nev Haven, YaIe Universily Iress, . 1267
5 CoIIier, IauI el aI (2008) 'CIimale change and Africa', 6 May, hll://users.
ox.ac.uk/econco/.../dfs/CIimaleChangeandAfrica.df
6 Godre|, Dinyar (2006) 'The no-nonsense guide lo cIimale change', Ncu
|nicrnaiicna|isi, . 14
7 Lohmann, Larry (2009) 'NeoIiberaIism and lhe caIcuIabIe vorId: lhe rice
of carbon lrading', in irch, K., Mykhnenko, V. and Trebeck, K. (eds)
(forlhcoming) Tnc |isc an! |a|| cj Ncc|i|cra|isn. Tnc Cc||apsc cj an |ccncnic
Or!cr? London, Zed ooks. Il shouId be noled AI Gore evenluaIIy
became a carbon markel Iayer himseIf.
8 Monbiol, George (2009) 'A seIf-fuIfiIIing rohecy', Tnc Guar!ian, 17
March
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DOM
9 In a Ncusucck inlerviev, 'Counldovn lo Coenhagen' (November 16,
2009), for inslance, Kevin Rudd, rime minisler of AuslraIia cIaimed:
'There are a number of veII-eslabIished lechnoIogies in lhe CCS fieId.
Whal is missing, hovever, is sufficienl ro|ecls al scaIe, by vhich I mean
eIeclricily ro|ecls generaling 500 megavalls. The G8 has commilled lo
having 20 of lhese ro|ecls onIine by 2020, bul lhere are none of lhese as
of 2009.'
10 Carbon Trade Walch (2007) Tnc Car|cn Ncuira| Mqin Ojjsci |n!u|gcnccs
jcr qcur C|inaic Sins, Amslerdam, TransnalionaI Inslilule, . 54
11 GiIberlson, Tamra and Reyes, Oscar (2009) Car|cn Tra!ing Hcu ii Wcrks
an! Wnq ii |ai|s, UsaIa, Dag Hammarsk|oId Ioundalion, . 10
12 ond, Ialrick (2010) 'Mainlaining momenlum afler Coenhagen's
CoIIase: seaI lhe deaI or ''SeallIe'' lhe deaI`', Capiia|isn Naiurc Sccia|isn,
voI. 21, no. 1, . 1427
13 This is lhe osilion of Iriends of lhe Iarlh InlernalionaI and olher
cIimale-|uslice camaigning civiI sociely grous.
14 According lo Wikiedia, lhe IeoIe's ReubIic of China is lhe Iargesl
consumer of coaI in lhe vorId, and is aboul lo become lhe Iargesl user
of coaI-derived eIeclricily, gelling 1.95 lriIIion kiIovall-hours er year,
or 68.7 er cenl of ils eIeclricily from coaI as of 2006 (comared lo 1.99
lriIIion kiIovall-hours er year, or 49 er cenl for lhe US). HydroeIeclric
over suIied anolher 20.7 er cenl of China's eIeclricily needs in 2006.
Wilh aroximaleIy 13 er cenl of lhe vorId's roven reserves, China has
enough coaI lo suslain ils economic grovlh for a cenlury or more even
lhough demand is currenlIy oulacing roduclion. China's coaI mining
induslry is lhe deadIiesl in lhe vorId and has lhe vorId's vorsl safely
record vhere an average of 13 eoIe die every day in lhe coaI ils,
comared lo 30 er year for coaI over in lhe Uniled Slales. See hll://
en.vikiedia.org/viki/CoaIoverinChina
15 assey, Nnimmo (2008) 'Inlerrogaling officiaI mechanisms for lackIing
cIimale change', }une al vvv.eraclion.org
16 InlernalionaI Inslilule for AIied Syslems AnaIysis (2008) 'Iood
securily and suslainabIe agricuIlure lhe chaIIenges of cIimale
change in sub-Saharan Africa', 8 May al a side evenl of lhe Uniled
Nalions Commission on SuslainabIe DeveIomenl-16 al lhe UN,
Nev York
17 Anderson, Teresa (2009) 'ImaiI on lhe AN Iisls', 11 November
18 Lee, }osie (2009) 'Differences over indigenous eoIes' righls and foresl
conversion in RIDD-Ius', 9 Oclober, TWN angkok Nevs Udale,
no.18, hll://vvv.lvn.org.sg
!()-$%, M W%)06#+ $(% S6+%, A%<$)Q& "6< 6# $(%
&"6<
1 Ixcerl from lhe oem '}uslice nov' from Nnimmo assey's coIIeclion |
Wi|| Nci Oancc ic Ycur Bcai (2011) Ibadan, Krafl ooks
DOO
@YJ+T
2 O|o, Iric (2009) 'ankoIe Iamenls iIIegaI oiI bunkering in Niger DeIla
chaIIenges securily agencies on Ieakages in ubIic funds', Busincss Oaq,
12 November
3 Amnesly Iress Slalemenl (2011) Henry UgboIue (head of media and
communicalion) 6 Selember
4 See hll://vvv.ihl.com/arlicIes/2008/07/31/business/oiI.h
5 WorId SociaIisl Websile (2008) 'OiI gianls reorl massive rofils'
6 Augusl, hll://vsvs.org/arlicIes/2008/aug2008/oiI-a06.shlmI. This
reorl indicaled lhal 'The ma|or US oiI comanies aear headed for a
combined $160 biIIion in rofils for 2008. Thal comares lo $123 biIIion
in 2007. Ixxon and olher oiI comanies have revarded lheir CIOs vilh
muIli-biIIion doIIar ayouls. Lasl year Ixxon CIO Rex TiIIerson cashed
in $16.1 miIIion in slock olions in addilion lo his $1.75 miIIion saIary.
He aIso received a $3.36 miIIion bonus. Conoco Chairman }ames MuIva
received $31.3 miIIion Iasl year.'
6 Quoled in IRA/C}I (2005) Gas ||aring in Nigcria. A Hunan |ignis,
|ntircnncnia| an! |ccncnic Mcnsircsiiq, Amslerdam, }une. This bookIel
can be found al bolh vvv.cIimaleIav.org and al vvv.eraclion.org
7 InvironmenlaI Righls Aclion (IRA) (2008) 'IRA facl sheel on gas
fIaring', December
8 Mu|iinaiicna| Mcniicr (2007) 'The end of oiI' (ediloriaI), }anuaryIebruary,
. 6. This issue of lhe Mu|iinaiicna| Mcniicr iIIuslrales, among olhers, lhal
lhe 'Cororale conlroI of energy oIicy and energy resources, eseciaIIy
in lhe Uniled Slales, lhe counlry lhal consumes more energy lhan any
olher, is lhe singIe grealesl obslacIe lo sIov and hoefuIIy reverse lhe
vorId's headIong rush lo disasler.'
9 Al a grovlh rale of 2.025 er cenl. See hlls://vvv.cia.gov/Iibrary/
ubIicalions/lhe-vorId-faclbook/rinl/ni.hlmI
10 Cenlre for Research on MuIlinalionaI Cororalions (SOMO) (2008)
'Taxalion and financing for deveIomenl', SOMO Iaer, Oclober.
11 Nev reorls abound lo shov lhis. See for examIe, Izeobi, Obinna
(2008) 'IG susends oiI bid rounds', Tnc Puncn , 23 Augusl, hll://vvv.
unchonlheveb.com/ArlicI.asx`lhearlicArl200808231593070
!()-$%, ] >.6@@6#+ )+)6#&$ $(% $69%I /"##%/$%9
C? C<""9
1 'They charged lhrough lhe mounled lroos' is a oem from Nnimmo
assey's coIIeclion | Wi|| Nci Oancc ic Ycur Bcai (2011) Ibadan, Krafl
ooks
2 Quoled in Meredilh, Marlin (2006) Tnc Siaic cj Ajrica A Hisicrq cj
|ijiq Ycars cj |n!cpcn!cncc, London, Iree Iress. Meredilh reaches lhe
concIusion lhal il vas senlimenls such as lhis lhal roved ruinous for
Mozambique and evenluaIIy Ied lo a civiI var. We reach a differenl
concIusion aboul lhis seech. Il vas a frank decIaralion and oinled
lo lhe olimaI vay for a sovereign slale vilh a genuineIy osl-coIoniaI
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DOS
orienlalion. Those vho cIaim lo be cilizens of a nalion oughl lo agree lo
vhal vouId bring aboul lhe common good. The hislory of neo-coIoniaI
Africa is reIele vilh fraclious reaclions lo nalionaIisl moves and in lhis
vay lhe conlinenl has been ushed inlo a cuI-de-sac from vhere lhe
escae roule is bIocked by huge economic, oIilicaI and sociaI barriers.
3 Weisman, AIan (2008) Tnc Wcr|! Wiincui Us, London, Virgin ooks, .
723
4 Dahomey is loday knovn as enin ReubIic
5 Wikiedia, 'Dahomey Amazons', hll://en.vikiedia.org/viki/
DahomeyAmazons
6 Turner, Teresa and rovnhiII, Leigh (2005) 'Why vomen are al var vilh
Chevron: Nigerian subsislence slruggIes againsl lhe inlernalionaI oiI
induslry', in Turner, Teresa and rovnhiII, Leigh Tnc Ncu Tucniq-|irsi
Ccniurq Ian! an! Oi| Wars. Ajrican Wcncn Ccnjrcni Ccrpcraic |u|c, Nev
York, NY, InlernalionaI OiI Working Grou
7 InvironmenlaI Righls Aclion (IRA) (2002) 'Irolesling vomen conlinue
occualion of Chevron fIov-slalions', IRA IieId Reorl, 22 }uIy
8 Ogoni iII of Righls (2nd edilion) (1992) Iorl Harcourl, Saros
InlernalionaI. The iII of Righls vas firsl roduced in an unubIished
form in 1990
9 The reression lhal foIIoved Oeralion CIimale Change insired my
oem 'We lhoughl il vas oiI bul il vas bIood' (from lhe book of lhe same
lilIe, Krafl ooks, 2002), an exlracl from vhich aears al lhe beginning
of Chaler 1 of lhis book
10 OiIvalch InlernalionaI (2006) Cnctrcn. Tnc |igni Han! cj inc |npirc
Urgcni |njcrnaiicn cn CnctrcnTcxacc, Quilo, OiIvalch InlernalionaI
11 IRA (2008) 'Chevron lriaI: IIa|e viII aeaI ruIing', ress slalemenl,
Lagos, 3 December
12 Uniled Slales Dislricl Courl for lhe Norlhern Dislricl of CaIifornia (2009)
Larry ovolo el aI., Iainliffs, v. Chevron Cororalion el aI., defendanl,
Order Denying iII of Cosls, No. C 99-02506 SI, . 2
13 Ibid, . 3
14 See Uniled Slales Dislricl Courl for lhe Norlhern Dislricl of CaIifornia
(2009) for delaiIs
15 See hll://vvv.ienearlh.org/keyslone-xI-ieIine.hlmI`ulm
mediumemaiI&ulmsourceMyNevsIelleruiIder&ulm
conlenl109788589&ulmcamaignLelsunilevilhonevoiceKeyslon
eXLIieIineHearings1411016627&ulmlerm
16 KIein, Naomi (2007) Tnc Sncck Occirinc, London, Ienguin ooks
17 assey, Nnimmo (2007) Oi|, |ntircnncni an! Crisis |ccncnics, hll://
vvv.ambazuka.org/en/calegory/commenl/44280
18 IRA (2009) 'IRA and IoI's visil lo Gbaramalu disIaced ersons', IRA
IieId Reorl no. 207, 12 }une
19 Adebayo, SoIa (2009) 'Ix-miIilanl Ieaders susend laIks vilh IG', Tnc
Puncn (Lagos), 8 November, . 7
20 Ibid
DON
@YJ+T
21 Ovuamanam, }ude (2009) 'unkering: Uduaghan bIames oiI firms,
muIlinalionaIs', Tnc Puncn (Lagos), 8 November, . 5
22 O|o, Iric (2009) 'ankoIe Iamenls iIIegaI oiI bunkering in Niger DeIla
chaIIenges securily agencies on Ieakages in ubIic funds', Busincss Oaq,
12 November, . 8
23 Ihirim, Chuks (2009) 'Hov navaI officers aid unkering', Naiicna| Oai|q
(Lagos), 1622 November
24 Saidou, D|ibriI (2009) 'Niger Iresidenl Tand|a granls Tuareg rebeIs
amnesly', Sanc| Saqs, 26 Oclober hll://vvv.bIoomberg.com/as/nevs`
id20601116&sida.9TKAMA7DYU
25 Maass, Ieler (2009) Cru!c Wcr|!. Tnc Vic|cni Tui|igni cj Oi|, London, AIIen
Lane
26 In 1990 Umuechem communily vas sacked by mobiIe oIicemen and
500 houses vere burnl dovn and 80 ersons vere kiIIed simIy because
lhe eoIe dared lo organise a rolesl againsl lhe exIoilalion of lheir
resources vilh none of lhe benefils accruing lo lhem.
27 The Odi massacre occurred in November 1999 under lhe residency
of Chief Obsan|o, 2,843 cilizens incIuding chiIdren and lhe aged, vere
kiIIed. Ior delaiIs see IRA, A B|ankci cj Si|cncc al vvv.eraclion.org
28 Sams, Ngozi (2009) 'Manage your oiI veaIlh veII, VenezueIa urges
Nigeria', N|XT nevsaer, 24 November, hll://234nexl.com/cs/cms/
siles/Nexl/Money/usiness/5485512-147/slory.cs
29 DembeIe, Demba Moussa (2008) 'Sankara 20 years Ialer: A lribule lo
inlegrily' Iambazuka Nevs, no. 402, hll://ambazuka.org/en/calegory/
fealures/51193
30 Ibid
31 Ibid
32 }acobs, Sean Wednesday (2008) 'Sankara: daring lo invenl Africa's fulure',
Tnc Guar!ian (UK), 15 Oclober, hll://vvv.guardian.co.uk/rofiIe/
sean|acobs, and Cheriff, M.S.Y. (2007) 'Thomas Sankara: chronicIe of an
organized lragedy', Africa Nevs, 17 Selember, hll://vvv.africanevs.
com/sile/Iislmessages/11528
33 The Vanguard (2009) '10 Iercenl OiI Revenue for Niger-DeIla
Communilies' 20 Oclober, al hll://aIIafrica.com/slories/200910200994.
hlmI
34 DougIas, Oronlo (2009) 'Niger DeIla: defining lhe communily in an age
of len ercenl', Tnc Naiicn (Lagos), 8 November,hll://lhenaliononIineng.
nel/veb2/arlicIes/24636/1/Niger-DeIla-Defining-lhe-communily-in-an-
age-of-len-ercenl/Iage1.hlmI
35 Nigcrian Tri|unc (2009) 'Niger DeIla communilies demand inlerrelalion
of 10 ercenl equily for oiI hosl communilies', 16 November, hll://vvv.
lribune.com.ng/16112009/nevs/nevs11.hlmI
36 OakIand Inslilule (2011) 'Underslanding Iand inveslmenl deaIs in Africa
NiIe Trading and DeveIomenl Inc. in Soulh Sudan', Land DeaI rief,
}une, hll://media.oakIandinslilule.org/siles/oakIandinslilule.org/fiIes/
OINiIerief0.df
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DSP
37 ond, Ialrick and Dorsey, MichaeI K. (2010) 'Analomies of environmenlaI
knovIedge and resislance: diverse cIimale |uslice movemenls and
vaning eco-neoIiberaIism', jcurna| cj Ausira|ian Pc|iiica| |ccncnq, no. 66
38 See Man|i, Iiroze and IIine, Sokari (eds) (2012) Ajrican Auakcning. Tnc
|ncrging |ctc|uiicns, Oxford, Iambazuka Iress
39 Irom lhe coIIeclion by Nnimmo assey (2002) Wc Tncugni |i Was Oi| Bui
|i Was B|cc!, Ibadan, Krafl ooks
DSD
8#9%G
Aba vomen 1011, 134
Accin IcoIgica 137, 138
acid mine drainage (AMD) 90
Adede|i, Adebayo 64
ADIL (AIIiance of Democralic
Iorces for lhe Liberalion of
Congo-Zaire) 73
advisers 59, 74
African AIlernalive Iramevork lo
SlrucluraI Ad|uslmenl Irograms
for Socio-Iconomic Recovery and
Transformalion 64, 65
African Iconomic Communily,
roosed 65
AGC (Ashanli GoIdfieIds Comany)
30, 31
agricuIluraI exorls 523
agricuIluraI subsidies 612
agricuIlure 13, 62, 64, 101, 110,
11314
agro-ecoIogicaI agricuIluraI syslems
110
aid 535, 567, 63
AIDS 56
Akabzaa, T.M. 31
AIIen, Mark 57
AIIiance of Democralic Iorces for
lhe Liberalion of Congo-Zaire
(ADIL) 73
Amazon river 13840
Amazons of Dahomey 1334
AMD (acid mine drainage) 90
American IelroIeum Inslilule 38, 39
amneslies (Nigeria) 120, 1489
AngIo American 17
AngIoGoId Ashanli (jcrncr|q Ashanli
GoIdfieIds Comany) 30, 32,
33, 42
AngoIa 71, 72, 87, 95
An|in 889
arorialion 47
ArceIorMillaI 745
armed miIilanls 1479
ArrundeII, Inrique Iernando 1501
arsenic 34
Aruna, MichaeI 22, 23
Ashanli GoIdfieIds Comany (AGC)
30, 31
scc a|sc AngIoGoId Ashanli
Associaled Gas Rein|eclion Acl 123
agenda, ImmanueI 44
anda, Ruiah 34
ankoIe, Dime|i 149
arrick GoId Cororalion 42
bauxile 26
echleI, Sleve 18
echleI Cor 17
enin 60
esigye, Kizza 44
iko, Sleve 132
insere, Ghana 32
isha Mining Share Comany 41
Iock, Roberl 17, 18
ond, Ialrick 11, 54, 108, 161
ovolo, Larry 143
brain drain 63
SG Resources 23, 92
ush, George W. 48, 56
CabraI, AmiIcar 132
CaIderisi, Roberl 55
Camara, KerfaIIa Ierson 93
Camara, Moussa Dadis 93
Cameroon 116
ca-and-lrade syslems 107
cailaI fIighl 35, 75, 126
cailaIism, as robbery 10
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DSH
carbon 105
carbon dioxide emissions 102, 105,
106, 111, 114
carbon offselling 106, 107, 112
carbon sequeslralion 106, 108
Ieaving oiI in soiI 117, 1257
carbon secuIalors 159
Carbon Trade Walch 107
carbon lrading 51, 1045, 112
CDM (CIean DeveIomenl
Mechanism) 105, 106, 112, 115
CIIND (Conference of Ilhnic
NalionaIilies of lhe Niger DeIla)
1567
Chad 124
change, resislance as advocacy for
131
Chaler|ee, Irala 49
Chevron 134, 1405
ChevronTexaco 13840
China
grovlh alh 109
IMI 68
Sudan 27
Zambia 37, 40
Zimbabve 87, 88
China InlernalionaI Iund (CII) 87, 88
China-SonangoI 87, 88
Chileo, Herberl 132
Chomsky, Noam 64
Chrome Inergy 28
C}N (CIimale }uslice Nov!) 161
CIean DeveIomenl Mechanism
(CDM) 105, 106, 112, 115
cIimale change 101
carbon dioxide emissions 102,
105, 106, 111, 114
conferences 10911
gas fIaring 123
Kyolo IrolocoI 1034, 112
reaI slralegies for lackIing 1078,
109, 110
RIDD 105, 11416, 159
science 159
cIimale debl 110, 126
cIimale |uslice 10810
CIimale }uslice Nov! (C}N) 161
cobaIl 86
Cochabamba IeoIe's Conference
10911, 162
coId var 72
coIoniaIism 45, 6, 811, 13
coIlan 26, 96
commodificalion 51
communily oIilics 1547
communily righls 146
comanies scc lransnalionaI
cororalions
Conde, AIha 92, 93
Conference of Ilhnic NalionaIilies of
lhe Niger DeIla (CIIND) 1567
confIicl enlrereneurs 77
confIicls
AngoIa 71, 72
cIimale disIacemenls 103
Cle d'Ivoire 71
DRC 1518, 71, 96
imIanlalion of democracy 57
Liberia 71, 745
resource vars 1518, 714, 147
Rvanda 71, 74, 96
Sierra Leone 71
Uganda 71, 74, 96
Congo scc Democralic ReubIic of
Congo (DRC), ReubIic of lhe
Congo
conquesl 5
consumerism 47, 49
Conle, Lansana 91, 92
cooking fueI 124
Coenhagen, Conference of Iarlies
108, 109
coer 26, 36, 86
cororale misricing 35, 75
DSI
G@!+g
cororalions scc lransnalionaI
cororalions
corrulion
IITI on 36, 39
Guinea 92, 93
oIilicians 43
SAIs 25
slruggIe againsl 152
universaI nalure of 55
Cle d'Ivoire 71, 102
de Solo, Hernando 69, 701
debl reIief 63, 67
debl lra 15
deforeslalion 114
democracy 489, 57, 64, 160
democralic accounlabiIily 160
Democralic ReubIic of Congo
(DRC)
arno Cororalion 935
confIicls 1518, 71, 96
foresls 116
hislory 1213
mining 86, 945, 96
DesseI, o van 81
deveIomenl, economic 1112
deveIomenl aid 535
diamond mining
AngoIa 95
confIicls 73
mineraI veaIlh 26
Sierra Leone 20, 215
Zimbabve 867, 889
'disasler cailaIism' 1467
Dokubo, AIha|i Asari 148
Dokyivaa, Ghana 33
Dorsey, MichaeI K. 161
DougIas, Oronlo 156
DRC scc Democralic ReubIic of
Congo
DRD GoId 90
droughls 101
Iarlh 11011, 131
ecoIogicaI imeriaIism 10
economic deveIomenl 1112
Icuador 138, 139
Iduardo Dos Sanlos, }ose 88
IITI (Ixlraclive Induslries
Transarency Inilialive) 356
emIoymenl 62
energy securily 132
environmenlaI monilors 1378
InvironmenlaI Remedialion
HoIding Comany (IRHC) 28
InvironmenlaI Righls Aclion/
Iriends of lhe Iarlh (IRA)
1257
IqualoriaI Guinea 116
IRA (InvironmenlaI Righls Aclion/
Iriends of lhe Iarlh) 1257
IRHC (InvironmenlaI Remedialion
HoIding Comany) 28
Irilrea 41
elhics 25
Ilhioia 41
elhnic differences 723
Iurafrica roosaI 67
Iuroe 62, 111
Iuroeans 4, 6
exIoralion 47
exorl cros 60
exlraclive induslries
and confIicls 15
hosl communilies 1556
hosl governmenls 356, 40, 154,
157
scc a|sc mining induslry, oiI
induslry, lransnalionaI
cororalions
Ixlraclive Induslries Transarency
Inilialive (IITI) 356
Ixxon 121
farming scc agricuIlure
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DSK
IDLR (Iorces Democraliques de
Liberalion du Rvanda) 94, 95
IDISO (fIoaling, driIIing,
roduclion, slorage and
offIoading) vesseIs 26
financiaI reform roosaIs, Uniled
Slales 389
Iirsl, Rulh 132
fish exorls 52
fIoaling driIIing, roduclion, slorage
and offIoading (IDISO) vesseIs
26
fIoaling roduclion, slorage and
offIoading (IISO) faciIilies 26
fIover cuIlivalion 523
food 60, 62
Iorces Democraliques de Liberalion
du Rvanda (IDLR) 94, 95
foresls 51, 11415, 1578, 159
IISO (fIoaling roduclion, slorage
and offIoading) faciIilies 26
free lrade 14
Iriends of lhe Iarlh scc
InvironmenlaI Righls Aclion/
Iriends of lhe Iarlh
Iriends of lhe Iarlh InlernalionaI
(IoII) 131
fueI, cooking 124
Gabon 115
gas fIares 2, 106, 1224
Gbaramalu communily, Nigeria
1478, 150
genelicaIIy modified (GM) cros
113
genocide 56, 72
Geslhuisen, Sharon 2
Ghana 26, 2833, 42, 60
Ghazvinian, }ohn 267
GiIberlson, Tamra 107
gIobaI financiaI/economic crises 120
gIobaI varming scc cIimale change
GIobaI Wilness 75
GM (genelicaIIy modified) cros 113
GodseII, obby 17
Goi, Nigeria 1545
goId mining
DRC 86, 945
Ghana 303, 42
MaIi 1920
mineraI veaIlh 26
Soulh Africa 8991
Tanzania 412
GoIdloolh, Tom 1456
governmenls
and exlraclive induslries 356,
40, 154, 157
and eoIe 154, 162
greenhouse effecl 105
greenhouse gases 102, 105
greenvash 107
Guinea 40, 913
Hani, Chris 132
hazardous vasles 601, 99
heaIlh issues, goId mining 33
heaviIy indebled oor counlries
(HIIC) 668
HeiIberg, IhiIie 767, 78
HeIme, Akoaboere 1478
Herz, Richard 143
HIIC (heaviIy indebled oor
counlries) 668
HIV/AIDS 56
Horn of Africa 41
scc a|sc SomaIia
hosl communilies 1556
Hosl Communilies Nelvork
(HoCoN) 154, 155
hosl governmenls 356, 40
Hussein, Saddam 50
IIC (InlernalionaI Iinance
Cororalion) 91
IIa|e eoIe 1401, 142
IIIslon, Susan 143
DSL
G@!+g
IMI (InlernalionaI Monelary Iund)
556, 63, 659
India 109
indigenous eoIes 115
induslriaI agricuIlure 110, 113
inlerdeendence (u|uniu) 9
InlernalionaI Iinance Cororalion
(IIC) 91
InlernalionaI Monelary Iund (IMI)
556, 63, 659
Iraq var 48
iron mining 746, 912
iron and sleeI seclor scc iron mining
Ilsero, IeIicia 1345
}acobs, Sean 1523
}arch CailaI 768
}e|e, assey 143
}esse, Nigeria 3
}ohnbuI, Sunday 143
}ohnson, Larry 77
}ohnson-SirIeaf, IIIen 75
}oinl MiIilary Task Iorce (}TI) 34, 135
}ubiIee IieIds, Ghana 29
}ubiIee Ghana MV 21 V 29
KabiIa, Laurenl-Desire 73
Kabve, Zambia 97
Kainerugaba, Muhoozi 44
Kamara, Diana T.G. 22
Kenya 60, 133
Keyslone XL ieIine ro|ecl 1456
KimberIile ro|ecl, Sierra Leone 23
Kingamyambo Musonoi TaiIings
(KMT) 96
KIein, Naomi 60, 146
Koidu HoIdings 234
Kono, Sierra Leone 20, 223
Kosmos Inergy 29
Krige, GarfieId 90
Kyolo IrolocoI 1034, 112
Iabour exIoilalion 7
Lagard, Chrisline 55
Lamco 74
Iand grabs 53
Iand inveslmenl deaIs 15960
Landau, SauI 51
Larry ovolo el aI v Chevron 1435
Lasker, }ohn 96
Lassen, Knud 103
Ieaders
aid 63
communilies 146
and confIicl enlrereneurs 77
connivance of 150, 152
elhnic differences 723
GM cros 113
need for 160
ersonaI veaIlh 43
rivalisalion 122
rogressive 133
rebeI 74
resources 120, 158
Ieadershi
genuine nalionaI 1513
vilhoul accounlabiIily 11
Liberia 71, 745, 116
Luanshya Coer Mines (LCM),
Zambia 40
Lumumba, Ialrice 132
MacheI, Samora 1312
Maguvu, Iarai 89
maiIbox comanies 29
MaIi 1820
manganese 26
markel doclrine 51, 52, 60, 112
Maurilius 38
MDGs (MiIIennium DeveIomenl
GoaIs) 110, 162
meal induslry 111
microcredil 69
migralions 102, 103
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DSM
miIilanls, armed 1479
MiIIennium DeveIomenl GoaIs
(MDGs) 110, 162
mineraIs 245, 256
scc a|sc mining induslry
mining induslry
confIicls 74
DRC 856, 945, 96
financiaI reform roosaIs 389
heaIlh issues 33
iron 746, 912
mineraIs 245, 256
smaII-scaIe miners 412
Soulh Africa 8991, 97, 99
lax regimes 34
visiling mines 22
Zambia 345, 367, 40, 97
scc a|sc diamond mining, goId
mining
MillaI, Anuradha 69
MobiI 82
Mobulu, }oseh 72, 85, 133
Monbiol, George 104
MondIane, Iduardo 132
monilors, environmenlaI 1378
Monlague, Dena 1718
MoraIes, Ivo 109, 162
MoriIa, MaIi 1920
Movemenl for lhe SurvivaI of lhe
Ogoni IeoIe (MOSOI) 135
Moyo, Dambisa 534
Mugabe, Roberl 86, 160
MuIIer, Mike 90
Murvanashyaka, Ignace 95
Museveni, Yoveri 434, 70
Musoni, Slralon 95
Mulibva, Ihares 71
Namibia 72
NalionaI CoaIilion on Mining
(NCOM) 42
nalionaI Ieadershi, genuine 1523
naluraI resources scc resources
NCOM (NalionaI CoaIilion on
Mining) 42
NDIS (Niger DeIla InvironmenlaI
Survey) 84
neo-coIoniaIism 8, 12, 131
neoIiberaIism 64, 146
NelherIands 2930
Nelvork Movemenl for }uslice and
DeveIomenl (NM}D) 23
Nevsun 41
nickeI 26
Niger 150
Niger DeIla, Nigeria 805
agricuIlure 114
amnesly rogramme 120, 1489
Chevron 134, 1405
elhnic differences 73
oIIulion 84, 85, 96, 124
vioIenl confronlalions 1479,
150
vomen 134
scc a|sc Nigeria, Nigerian oiI
Niger DeIla InvironmenlaI Survey
(NDIS) 84
Niger }uslice Movemenl 150
Nigeria
communily oIilics 1547
debl lra 54
economy 122
as modeI lo avoid 128
non-vioIenl organising 1357
vomen 1011, 134
scc a|sc Niger DeIla, Nigerian oiI
Nigerian oiI 7985, 11828
deloxificalion 1245
gas fIares 2, 106, 1224
Ieaving oiI in soiI 1258
Oben oiIfieId 24
oiI bIock Iicensing 125, 128
oiI rices 1212
oiI lhefls 11819, 149
DSO
G@!+g
eak oiI 125
scc a|sc Niger DeIla
NiIe Trading and DeveIomenl
(NTD) 159
Nimba Mounlain, Guinea/Cle
d'Ivoire 756
Nkunda, Laurenl 95
NM}D (Nelvork Movemenl for
}uslice and DeveIomenl) 23
Norlh
aid 53
commodificalion 51
consumerism 47, 49
IMI 68
inleresl in Africa 56, 623
markel doclrine 60
oiI rices 50
over-consumlion 57, 111
subsidies 61
lechnoIogicaI deveIomenl 46
Norlh Mara GoId Mine, Tanzania
334
NTD (NiIe Trading and
DeveIomenl) 159
Obama, arack 289, 108
Oben oiIfieId, Nigeria 24
Obuasi, Ghana 312
Ofehe, Sunny 3
Ogoni CiviI Sociely IIalform 136
Ogoni eoIe 1357
Ogoni SoIidarily Iorum 136
OgoniIand, Nigeria 84, 136
oiI bIock Iicensing 125, 128
oiI induslry
cIimale change 112
conlracluaI environmenl 27
gas fIares 2, 106, 1224
hislory 4951
Ieaving oiI in soiI 117, 1257
nev oiIfieIds 118
oiI bIock Iicensing 125, 128
oiI siIIs 2, 81, 825, 124, 1545
oiI lhefls 11819, 149
overviev 269
eak oiI 121, 125
rofils 121
scc a|sc Nigerian oiI
oiI soIidarily fund 127
oiI siIIs 2, 81, 825, 124, 1545
oiI lhefls 11819, 149
OiIvalch InlernalionaI 1378, 139
Okah, Henry 148
Okorodudu-Iubara, Margarel 82
Okunlimo, IauI 136
Oeralion CIimale Change 137
Organisalion of IelroIeum Ixorling
Counlries (OIIC) 50
Ouallara, AIassane 102
Oyibo, oIa 143
Iakenham, Thomas 5, 47
aIIadium 26
Iarabe Ialform kiIIings 143
eak oiI 121, 125
eoIe
and communilies 157
emovermenl 1612
and governmenls 154, 162
mobiIisalion of 152
scc a|sc eoIes' sovereignly
IeoIe's Agreemenl 10910
eoIes' sovereignly
and cIimale change 111
Ioss of 11
recIaiming 157, 160
recovery of 131
Sankara on 152
Ielroecuador 138, 140
elroIeum scc oiI induslry
Iham, }. Ieler 77
Iineau, Chrislian 6
Ialinum grou 26
oIIulion
Amazon 13840
hazardous vasles 601, 99
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DSS
Niger DeIla 84, 85, 96, 124
oiI 81, 82, 124
Soulh Africa 901
osl-coIoniaI visions 1312
osl-coIoniaIism scc
neo-coIoniaIism
overly 70
overly reduclion 66
Ioverly Reduclion and Grovlh
IaciIily (IRGI) 66
Ioverly Reduclion Slralegy Iaers
(IRSI) 66
IRGI (Ioverly Reduclion and
Grovlh IaciIily) 66
rivalisalion 1415, 122
roerly righls 69, 6971
roleclionism 14
IRSI (Ioverly Reduclion Slralegy
Iaers) 66
RandGoId 20
rebeI Ieaders 74
RIDD (Reducing Imissions from
Deforeslalion and Ioresl
Degradalion) 105, 11416, 159
ReubIic of lhe Congo 116
resislance
as advocacy for change 131
veb of 25, 133, 160
resource curse 12
resource seclor inveslmenl codes 31
resource vars 1518, 714, 147
resources 47
communily conlroI 1589
drain of 35
energy securily 132
gIobaI financiaI crises 120
eoIe's sovereignly 11
resource curse 12
resource seclor inveslmenl codes
31
vasle of funds from 151
scc a|sc exlraclive induslries,
resource vars
Reyes, Oscar 107
Rio Tinlo 389, 86, 91, 92
Rodney, WaIler 13
Rvanda 6, 71, 72, 74, 96
Sankara, Thomas 132, 1523
So Tome and Irincie 278
SAI scc slrucluraI ad|uslmenl
rogrammes
Saro-Wiva, Ken 132, 135, 136
Sala, MichaeI 37
science 159
seIf-inleresl 74
Senghor, LeooId 7
Sengier, Idvard 86
SheII 79, 805, 121, 136, 1545
SheII Nigeria 801
Sierra Leone 18, 205, 71
Sino-Zimbabve 88
sIavery 4, 7, 910
smaII isIand slales 104
smaII-scaIe farming 62, 114
smaII-scaIe miners 412
soIidarily buiIding 157
SomaIia 41, 74
Soros, George 92
SouIeymane, DembeIe 18
Soulh 47
Soulh Africa 26, 8991, 979
Soulh Sudan (jcrncr|q Soulhern
Sudan) 767, 159
scc a|sc Sudan
sovereignly scc eoIes'
sovereignly
Sleiner, Richard 801, 85
SligIilz, }oseh 656
Slrauss-Kahn, Dominque 68
slrucluraI ad|uslmenl rogrammes
(SAIs)
corrulion 25
DSN
G@!+g
melamorhosis 667
overviev 636, 71
resource seclor inveslmenl codes
31
lrade IiberaIisalion 14, 15, 59, 64
subsidies, agricuIluraI 612
subsislence economic syslems 122
Sudan 27
scc a|sc Soulh Sudan
Summers, Lavrence 60, 61
suslainabIe fulure 110, 122
Sullon Resources Inc. 42
SvagIer, Mall 16, 17
SyIIa, Mamadou 923
lanlaIum (coIlan) 26, 96
Tanzania 334, 412
lar sands ieIine ro|ecl 1456
lax havens 29, 378
Tenke Iungurume (TIM) 96
Texaco 82
Todd, Gvynelh 77
Tom, Aleke 148
Tombia, Nigeria 150
TomboIa, MaIi 1819
TomoIo, Chief Governmenl 148
lrade 11
lrade IiberaIisalion 11, 59, 64
lransnalionaI cororalions
behaviour of 79, 99, 152
cailaI fIighl 35, 75, 126
disenchanlmenl vilh 157
financiaI inslilulions 91
financiaI reform roosaIs 38
rivalisalion 1415
roduclion reIalions 423
resources 12, 158
scc a|sc spccijic ccnpanics
lrulh commissions 25
Tshombe, Moise 133
Tuareg rebeIs 150
Turlon, Anlhony 98
Tulu, Desmond 5, 6, 9
u|uniu (inlerdeendence) 9
Uduaghan, ImmanueI 149
Uganda 27, 434, 70, 71, 74, 96
UK (Uniled Kingdom) 37
UmIazi, Soulh Africa 99
Union Miniere (UM) 856
Uniled Nalions, eacekeeers 734
Uniled Nalions DeveIomenl
Irogramme 556
Uniled Nalions Iconomic
Commission for Africa 64
Uniled Nalions Invironmenl
Irogramme (UNII) 136, 137
Uniled Slales
agricuIlure 62
carbon emissions 111
financiaI reform roosaIs 389
Kyolo IrolocoI 103
mineraIs IegisIalion 95
oiI 49
var in Iraq 48
uranium 26
Urquharl, Sam 77
vaIues, nalionaI 25
VenezueIa 151, 155
Vicenle, ManueI 878
visions, osl-coIoniaI 1312
Warao vomen 155
vars scc confIicls
valer 512, 901, 989, 110, 137
WiIson, }oseh 77
vomen 1011, 1335, 155
Wonderfonleinsruil river 99
WorId ank 556, 63, 66, 67, 68, 161
Xu }inghua 88
JY 2YYZ 5 2Y@JG@+@J
DNP
Yengema, Sierra Leone 212
Yengema Descendanls' Union
(YINDA) 22
Zaire scc Democralic ReubIic of
Congo
Zambia 26, 345, 367, 40, 97
Zenavi, MeIes 74
Zimbabve 867, 889, 160
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An extremely insightful and eloquent book about what Africacando to stop
the new forms of colonisation that are being exaggerated by the chaos of
climate change.
Pablo Solon, former Bolivian ambassador to the United Nations
From slaves to diamonds to oil, over-consuming countries have taken what
they want from Africa for too long. Bassey lays out this history in rich detail and
makes clear what Africa wants: justice. Read it and join Basseys call.
Annie Leonard, author and presenter of The Story of Stuf
Allow Nnimmo Bassey to share with you the crisis facing the peoples of
Africa and their environment. His refreshing style, accessible insights and
comprehensive analysis inspire action.
David Fig, author and chair, Biowatch South Africa
This powerful indictment of greed and the ravaging of Africas riches
nonetheless ofers prospects for hope.
Camilla Toulmin, director, International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED)
People in Africa argue that natural resources are a blessing. It is the way these
are plundered and used that can turn them into a curse. Tis book examines
how the extraction of raw materials from Africa has delivered huge profts to
the North and vast damage to Africas environment and economies.
Bassey pays close attention to the oil industry in Africa and probes the roots
of climate change. He warns of its impacts in Africa, and of false solutions.
What can Africa do? And can the rest of the world act in solidarity?
Nnimmo Bassey is an activist, author and poet, director of Environmental
Rights Action, Nigeria and chair of Friends of the Earth International. He is
one of Time magazines 2009 Heroes of the Environment and co-winner in
2010 of the Right Livelihood Award (the Alternative Nobel Prize).
AN IMPRINT OF FAHAMU