Concrete Technology Lecture Notes Ordinary Diploma in Civil Engineering

Julius Ngabirano 0
REPUBLIC OF UGANDA
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SPORTS
UGANDA TECHNICAL COLLEGE - BUSHENYI

LECTURE NOTES FOR
CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY AND PRACTICES

Prepared by: Julius Ngabirano (B Sc. CIV ENG (MUK), CCA, GMUIPE)
2011
Julius Ngabirano i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- v
LIST OF FORMS --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- vi
LIST OF FIGURES------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ vi i
REFERENCES ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------vi ii
PREAMBLE ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- i x
YEAR ONE ----------------------------------------------------------------1
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ------------------------------------------------------------------ 1
1.1 Definiti on------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
1.2 Li mitati ons of concrete --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
1.3 Cement concrete----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
1.3.1 Mass (plain) concrete ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1
1.3.2 Reinforced concrete -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2
1.3.3 Light weight concrete ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 2
1.3.4 Normal weight concrete ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2
1.3.5 Heavy weight concrete ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2
1.4 Concrete materials -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3
1.5 Batching of ingredients --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3
1.5.1 Batching by volume--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3
1.5.2 Batching by weight --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4
1.5.3 Conversion from volume to weight proportions--------------------------------------------------- 4
CHAPTER 2: AGGREGATES --------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
2.1 Introducti on --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
2.2 Fi ne aggregates ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 5
2.3 Coarse aggregates --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6
2.3.1 Functions of aggregates---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6
2.3.2 Qualities of good aggregates ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 7
2.4 Testing aggregates -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7
2.4.1 Sampling -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7
2.4.2 Bulking of sand ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
2.5 Grading of aggregates ---------------------------------------------------------------------------10
2.5.1 Grading test for fine aggregates (sieve analysis) ------------------------------------------------10
2.6 Quali ty of aggregates ----------------------------------------------------------------------------12
2.6.1 Simple test for organic impurities (Colorimetric test) -------------------------------------------13
CHAPTER 3: CEMENT ---------------------------------------------------------------------------14
3.1 Introducti on --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------14
3.2 Manufacture of cement --------------------------------------------------------------------------14
3.2.1 The wet process------------------------------------------------------------------------------------14
3.2.2 The dry process ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------15
3.2.3 Comparison of the wet and dry processes of cement manufacture ------------------------------15
3.2.4 Cement manufacturing industries in Uganda ----------------------------------------------------15

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3.3 Chemi cal composi tion of cement ---------------------------------------------------------------15
3.4 Setti ng and hardening of cement ---------------------------------------------------------------16
3.4.1 Functions of the various cement compounds -----------------------------------------------------16
3.4.2 False set--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------17
3.5 Types of cement ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------17
3.5.1 Common types of cement --------------------------------------------------------------------------17
3.5.2 Special cements------------------------------------------------------------------------------------18
3.6 Admi xtures ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------19
3.6.1 Precautions taken when using admixtures -------------------------------------------------------19
3.7 Transportation and storage of cement ---------------------------------------------------------20
3.8 Physi cal properties of cement -------------------------------------------------------------------20
3.8.1 Consistence of standard paste --------------------------------------------------------------------20
3.8.2 Setting time ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------21
3.8.3 Soundness ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------21
3.8.4 Fineness of cement --------------------------------------------------------------------------------22
3.8.5 Strength of cement ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------22
CHAPTER 4: WATER-----------------------------------------------------------------------------24
4.1 Functions of water -------------------------------------------------------------------------------24
4.2 Quali ty of water for concrete works -----------------------------------------------------------24
4.3 Water-cement rati o ------------------------------------------------------------------------------24
4.4 Sea water ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------25
CHAPTER 5: FRESH CONCRETE--------------------------------------------------------------26
5.1 Introducti on --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------26
5.2 Workabili ty ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------26
5.2.1 Slump test ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------26
5.2.2 Compacting factor test ----------------------------------------------------------------------------28
5.2.3 The Vebe (V-B consistometer) test ----------------------------------------------------------------28
5.2.4 Factors affecting workability ---------------------------------------------------------------------29
5.3 Concrete stabili ty---------------------------------------------------------------------------------29
5.3.1 Segregation ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------29
5.3.2 Bleeding--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------30
5.4 Mi xing concrete ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------30
5.4.1 Hand mixing ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------30
5.4.2 Mixing by machine --------------------------------------------------------------------------------31
5.5 General princi ples in the use of concrete mixers----------------------------------------------31
5.6 Types of concrete mi xers ------------------------------------------------------------------------32
5.6.1 Non-tilting drum mixers ---------------------------------------------------------------------------32
5.6.2 Tilting drum mixers--------------------------------------------------------------------------------33
5.6.3 Split drum mixers ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------33
5.6.4 Reversing drum mixers ----------------------------------------------------------------------------33
5.6.5 Forced action mixers ------------------------------------------------------------------------------33
5.6.6 Continuous mixers---------------------------------------------------------------------------------33
5.7 Research-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------34
5.7.1 Research (maintenance of concrete mixers)------------------------------------------------------34
CHAPTER 6: WORKING WITH CONCRETE 1 --------------------------------------------35
6.1 Transporting concrete ---------------------------------------------------------------------------35
6.1.1 Sampling concrete for test purposes --------------------------------------------------------------35

Julius Ngabirano Page iii
6.2 Placing concrete ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------36
6.3 Compaction of concrete -------------------------------------------------------------------------37
6.3.1 Manual (hand) compaction -----------------------------------------------------------------------37
6.3.2 Machine compaction ------------------------------------------------------------------------------37
6.4 Concreting in hot weather-----------------------------------------------------------------------38
6.5 Col d weather concreting-------------------------------------------------------------------------39
6.6 Research-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------40
6.6.1 Research (maintenance of vibrators) -------------------------------------------------------------40
6.6.2 Research (formwork) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------40
6.6.3 Research (steel reinforcements) ------------------------------------------------------------------40
CHAPTER 7: HARDENED CONCRETE -------------------------------------------------------41
7.1 Concrete curi ng ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------41
7.2 Durability of concrete----------------------------------------------------------------------------41
7.3 Strength of hardened concrete------------------------------------------------------------------41
7.3.1 Test for compressive strength ---------------------------------------------------------------------42
7.4 Other properties of hardened concrete --------------------------------------------------------43
7.5 Concrete defects ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------43
YEAR TWO-------------------------------------------------------------- 46
CHAPTER 8: MATERIAL AND CONCRETE TES TS - PRACTICE -----------------------46
8.1 Review ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------46
8.2 Practi cal tests -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------46
CHAPTER 9: WORKING WITH CONCRETE - 2 --------------------------------------------47
9.1 Concrete joints -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------47
9.1.1 Construction joints --------------------------------------------------------------------------------47
9.1.2 Contraction (control) joints -----------------------------------------------------------------------47
9.1.3 Expansion joints -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------48
9.1.4 Guidelines in placement of isolation (contraction and expansion) joints -----------------------48
9.2 Fi nishi ng concrete --------------------------------------------------------------------------------48
9.2.1 Floating --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------48
9.2.2 Trowelling -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------49
9.3 Yiel d of a concrete mix --------------------------------------------------------------------------49
9.3.1 Determination of yield of a concrete mix ---------------------------------------------------------50
CHAPTER 10: INTRODUCTION TO PRESTRESSED CONCRETE ------------------------51
10.1 Introducti on --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------51
10.2 Methods of prestressing concrete---------------------------------------------------------------51
10.3 Comparison of prestressed and reinforced concrete beams ---------------------------------51
10.4 Appli cati ons of prestressed concrete -----------------------------------------------------------52
CHAPTER 11: CONCRETE MIX DESIGN ------------------------------------------------------53
11.1 Definiti on------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------53
11.2 Types of Mi xes------------------------------------------------------------------------------------53
11.3 Tri al mixes ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------53
11.4 Consi derati ons in mix proportioni ng ----------------------------------------------------------53

Julius Ngabirano Page iv
11.5 Mi x desi gn procedure----------------------------------------------------------------------------54
CHAPTER 12: PRECAST PRODUCTS IN UGANDA ------------------------------------------56
12.1 Research-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------56
APPENDIX -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------57
A1: Forms----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------57
A2: Tabl es----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------59
A3: Fi gures---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------60

Julius Ngabirano v

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1-1: Conversion from volume to weight proportions ................................................. 4
Table 10-1: Comparison of prestressed and reinforced concrete beams using Figure 10-1 ... 52
Table A201: Approximate compressive strength (N/mm
2
) of concrete mixes made with a free-
water/cement ratio of 0.5............................................................................... 59
Table A202: Approximate free water contents (kg/m
3
) required to give various levels of
workability ................................................................................................... 59
Table A203: BS 882:1973 Grading requirements for fine aggregates ................................... 59

Julius Ngabirano vi

LIST OF FORMS

Form A101: Cube crushing strength result sheet ------------------------------------------------57
Form A102: Concrete mix design form-----------------------------------------------------------58

Julius Ngabirano vii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2-1: Quartering method of sampling aggregates....................................................... 8
Figure 2-2: A riffler........................................................................................................... 8
Figure 2-3: Experimental determination of the percentage bulking of sand ........................... 9
Figure 2-4: Percentage bulking against moisture content for different sizes of sand............... 9
Figure: 2-5: Grading curve for a sample of aggregates....................................................... 11
Figure 2-6: Typical grading curve for gap graded aggregates............................................ 12
Figure 3-1: The Vicat apparatus ...................................................................................... 20
Figure 3-2: Le Chatelier apparatus .................................................................................. 22
Figure 4-1: Compressive strength versus water-cement ratio ............................................. 25
Figure 5-1: The slump cone ............................................................................................. 27
Figure 5-2: Slumps of various concrete mixes ................................................................... 28
Figure 10-1: Comparison of prestressed and reinforced concrete beams .............................. 52
Figure A301: Relationship between standard deviation and characteristic compressive
strength........................................................................................................ 60
Figure A302: Graph of estimated wet density of fully compacted concrete (specific gravity is
given for saturated, surface dry aggregates) ................................................... 60
Figure A303: Relationship between proportion of fines (percentage of fine aggregates of the
total aggregates) and free water/cement ratio for various workabilities
(maximum coarse aggregate size 10 mm) ....................................................... 61
Figure A306: Relationship between compressive strength and free water/cement ratio .......... 64
Figure A307: Cement manufacture (dry and wet processes) ................................................. 64

Julius Ngabirano viii

REFERENCES

Alan Everett (1989), Materials, Mit chells
N. Jackson, R. K. Dhir (1988), Civil Engineering Materials, Fourt h edit ion, Macmillan
Singh, Engineering Materials
Brit ish St andards
Publicat ions from Ministry of Works and Transport Uganda
Publicat ions from Uganda Institution of Professional Engineers
Int ernet

Julius Ngabirano ix

PREAMBLE

This book has been solely written for use by students undertaking a programme leading to the
awards of Ordinary Diploma in Civil and Building Engineering and Ordinary Diploma in
Water Engineering. However, it may also be of great use to students pursuing a Higher
Diploma in the same disciplines.

Special appreciations are extended to my lovely parents and all those who have been an
advantage to my career, professional and moral development.

Julius Ngabirano
B. SC. CIV. ENG. (MUK), CCA (MUK), GMUIPE

September 2011

Julius Ngabirano Page 1
YEAR ONE
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definiti on
Concrete is an art ificial building and st ruct ural mat erial obt ained by mixing part icles of a semi-inert
mat erial (aggregat es), binding material (cement ) and wat er in correct proport ions. The reasonable
amount of wat er added is used t o hydrat e the binding mat erial. Concret e is present ly one of t he most
popular mat erials for t he struct ural part s of buildings and ot her civil engineering works.
When reinforced wit h st eel, it has a very high capacit y for carrying loads. Depending upon t he
cement ing or binding mat erials used, we use lime concret e or cement concret e. Cement concret e is
most common.
1.2 Li mitati ons of concrete
Concret e has some limit at ions which should be realized by both t he designers and t he builder. The
main limitat ions are:
It has a low tensile strength: This can be avoided by reinforcing the concret e by use of st eel
bars or wire fabric.
Thermal movements: During sett ing and hardening of concret e, the t emperat ure is raised by
t he heat of hydrat ion of cement it then gradually cools. These t emperat ure changes can cause
severe thermal strengt h and early cracking. This can be prevent ed by providing expansion and
cont ract ion joint s.
Drying shrinkage and moisture movements: Concret e shrinks as it dries out and even when
hardened, it also expands and cont ract s wit h wett ing and drying. These movement s
necessit at e provision of contract ion joint s at int ervals.
Creep: concret e gradually deforms under load and this can be prevent ed by using
reinforcement s both horizont ally and vert ically.
Permeability: concret e is permeable and thus joint s can form ingress of wat er. This can be
prevent ed by;
- Use of admixt ures
- Proper compact ion of concret e
- Increase on t he cement aggregat e rat io et c.
1.3 Cement concrete
This is classified under the following headings:
- Mass / plain concret e
- Reinforced concret e
1.3.1 Mass (plain) concrete
This is concret e which is st rong when it is on a firm ground and t he load t o be carried is not t oo
heavy. Mass concret e is quit e st rong in compression but weak in t ension. To make it strong in t ension,

st eel bars (reinforcement s) are imbedded in concrete and t his t hen becomes reinforced concrete.
When t he concrete has no st eel reinforcement , it is called mass / plain concret e.
1.3.2 Reinforced concrete
This is concret e wit h extra st rength creat ed so that it count eract s wit h t he t ension and makes t he
concret e st ronger. This is achieved by adding st eel bars (usually of different shapes and/or sizes), wire
fabric and expanded met al.
Depending on the densit y, concrete can also be grouped int o three t ypes:
Light weight concret e
Normal weight concret e
Heavy weight concrete
1.3.3 Light weight concrete
This is concret e with a low densit y pract ically lower 1850 kg/m
3
. The use of low densit y concret e is
governed primarily by economic considerat ions and can be achieved by;
Omitt ing t he fine aggregat es from the mix so t hat a large number of interst it ial voids is
present
Use of light weight aggregat es e.g. burnt clay product s, slat es, shale, pumice, volcanic ash et c.
Int roduct ion of large voids wit hin concret e. This type concret e is commonly called aerat ed
or foamed or cellular or gas concret e.
Uses of light weight concret e include:
- It is commonly used in mult i-storeyed struct ures
- Used in precast floors
- It is used in roof limit s
- Among the advant ages of reducing the densit y of concret e is t he use of smaller sect ions wit h a
corresponding reduct ion in t he size of foundat ions.
- The formwork is also designed t o withstand a lower pressure than would be in ordinary
concret e.
- The tot al weight of mat erials to be handled during const ruct ion is reduced wit h a subsequent
increase in product ivit y.
- Light weight concret e also gives a bett er t hermal insulat ion than ordinary concret e.
1.3.4 Normal weight concrete
This is the type concret e got from heavy aggregat es e.g. sand, gravel, crushed st ones. The densit y is in
t he range 2200 2600 kg/m
3
.
Uses of normal weight concret e include:
- It is used for radiat ion protect ion (shielding against x-ray in radioact ivit y)
- It is used in massive engineering works
- It is used in const ruct ion of bridges and dams.
1.3.5 Heavy weight concrete
This is concrete made of very heavy aggregat es e.g. iron ore, barit es and st eel punching. While much
concret e used in radiat ion prot ect ion is of normal weight, t he use of high density concret e becomes
necessary when the thickness of the shield is governed by the space pace available. Therefore, if there
is limit ed space for the shield t hickness, heavy weight concret e becomes t he best alt ernat ive.

1.4 Concrete materials
Concret e forming mat erials shall be carefully select ed so as t o get quality concret e. It has already been
introduced that cement concret e materials include cement , fine aggregat es, coarse aggregates and
wat er.
Cement
Normally, Ordinary Port land cement is used. However, for special condit ions ot her types of cement
suit ing part icular requirement s are used. Cement being hygroscopic att ract s moist ure quickly and set s.
Therefore storage of cement should be carefully at tended t o and no set or part ially set cement should
be used since it will have already lost it s original st rengt h.
Fine aggregat es
Sand and cr ushed st ones are the commonly used fine aggregat es. These should be clean and must
cont ain neither animal nor veget able matt er nor lumps of clay.
Coarse aggregat es
St one ballast , gravel and brick ballast are commonly used. These should be clean, free from organic
mat ter and should be well graded i.e. they should have part icles of various sizes so that voids of
bigger part icles are filled up by the part icles of smaller sizes.
Wat er
Only good and clean wat er should be used for making concrete. It should be free from silt , salt s or
any ot her organic matt er. Generally wat er that is good for drinking is good enough for concrete
works.
1.5 Batching of ingredients
This is t he measurement of the concrete mat erials (cement , aggregat es and wat er) in their correct
proport ions. This done through the following methods:
+ Bat ching by volume
+ Bat ching by weight
1.5.1 Batching by volume
This is commonest method in Uganda and is where a bat ch box is used to measure the ingredient s.
The basis of bat ching by volume is generally 1 part of cement t o n part s of sand (fine aggregat es) and
2n part s of coarse aggregat es. The course aggregat es are usually (but not always t he case) t wice t he
sand where as the rat io of sand t o cement depends upon t he desired st rength of t he concret e. The mass
of one bag of cement is 50 kg and is about 34.5 liters. When cement is taken out of bags, it becomes
loose, showing a considerable increase in volume. As such, bat ching concret e by t aking int o account
t he volume of loose cement is likely t o result in less cement being mixed in t he concrete. Therefore, in
bat ching ingredient s by volume, mat erials corresponding t o the whole number of cement bags should
only be used. The convenient met hod it use an open measuring gauge box wit h a capacit y of 34.5
liters. Bat ches of fine and coarse aggregat es required could t hen be measured in mult iples of these
boxes in accordance wit h t he required proport ions of the ingredient s. In measuring (bulking) sand,
due allowance should be made ot herwise t he concret e would be under-sanded.
The advant ages of volume batching include:
- It is easy to carry out
- It is economical on small sit es
However, this method of batching is less accurat e.

1.5.2 Batching by weight
This is where mat erials are weight ed on sit e and bat ched according to t heir weight s in t he correct
proport ions. This is done by using weighing machines. Provided t hat weighing machines on sit e ret ain
t heir accuracy, errors in proport ioning are negligible. Weighing machines need careful maint enance
and regular calibrat ion if reasonable accuracy is to be maint ained. It has an advant age of being more
accurat e t han batching by volume. However it is not easy t o arrange on smaller or isolat ed sit es.
1.5.3 Conversion from volume to weight proportions
If we assume t hat a 50 kg bag of cement occupies 0.0347 m
3
, t hen t he equivalent proport ions of a
nominal 1:2:4 mix are
50 2 0.0347
4 0.0347

The t able below shows how a 1:2:4 nominal mix can be convert ed into a mix by weight when t he
usual assumpt ions for the bulk densit ies of cement , sand and coarse aggregat es are made.
Loose dry
density
Proportion by
volume
Mass of per
bag of cement
Volume of per
bag of cement
Proportion
by weight
kg/m
3
k g kg/m
3
Cement 1440 1 0.0347 50.0 1.00
Sand 1600 2 0.0694 111.0 2.22
Coarse aggregates 1360 4 0.1388 188.8 3.78
Assumed volume of a 50kg bag of cement = 0.0347 m
3

Table 1-1: Conversion from volume to weight proportions

CHAPTER 2: AGGREGATES
2.1 Introducti on
Aggregates are inert mat erials mixed wit h a binding mat erial like cement, lime and wat er in t he
preparat ion of mort ar or concret e. Aggregat es constit ut e 70-75% of t he t ot al volume of mass concret e.
Therefore t he propert ies of concret e at large ext ent depend on t he propert ies of aggregat es used.
Aggregat es can be nat ural or art ificial:
Natural aggregates are formed from the nat urally occurring mat erials/rocks. The Uganda
const ruct ion indust ry ent irely uses nat ural aggregat es. During t his course of st udy, t hough not
repeat edly specified, t he t erm aggregat es shall refer to nat ural aggregat es unless ot herwise
specified. Nat ural aggregat es are usually of normal weight as t hey produce concret e of density
wit hin the usual range of 2200 2600 kg/m
3
. Nat ural aggregat es include barit e, iron ore et c.
Artificial aggregates are manufact ured from indust rial product s and are usually of light weight or
heavy weight . Art ificial aggregat es include expanded clay, shale, and slat e, st eel punching,
sheared bars et c. The advent of t hese aggregates has been att ribut ed by the growing short age of
nat urally-occurring aggregat es in some count ries like UK. It should be not ed t hat some art ificial
aggregat es are manufact ured from wast e materials t hat could have otherwise been discarded.
Aggregat e can also be of light , normal, and heavy weight s.
Light weight aggregates have a high porosit y which result s in a very low densit y. They produce
concret e of low density pract ically lower than 1850 kg/m
3
. When used, they reduce the dead
weight of struct ure allowing t he use of smaller support ing members and reduct ion of foundat ion
cost s. They also improve on the thermal insulat ion. They include pumice which is a volcanic rock,
clinker which is a well burnt fused furnace residue, diat omit e, fibre, blast furnace slag, expanded
clay, slat es, shale et c.
Normal weight aggregates produce concret e of densit y in the range of 2200 2600 kg/m
3
. These
include sand, gravel, crushed st ones obt ained from superficial deposit s of rivers, lakes, seas or
excavated from soil deposit (pit sand).
Heavy weight aggregates have a very high density and produce concret e of densit y great er than
2600 kg/m
3
. They are used in product ion of heavy concret es for nuclear and radioact ive shielding
and include magnet ite, barit es (Barium Sulphat e), iron ore and st eel punching. Their specific
gravit ies are great er t han 4.
Aggregat es can also be crushed or uncrushed depending on how they are produced. Uncrushed
aggregat es are reduced to it s present size by nat ural agent s while crushed aggregat es are obt ained by a
deliberat e fragment at ion (breaking) of rock.
Depending on the part icle sizes, aggregat es are divided into t wo classes:
Fine aggregat es
Coarse aggregat es
2.2 Fi ne aggregates
These are aggregates that pass t hrough a 5 mm sieve and are ent irely ret ained on a 0.15 mm sieve.
Most commonly used fine aggregat es are sand, crushed stone, ash and surkhi.
Sand

It consist s of small grains of silica and is formed by disint egrat ion of rocks caused by weat her. Good
qualit y sand should have the following requirement s;
- Should be hard, durable, clean and free from organic matt er
- Should not cont ain harmful impurit ies such as salt s, alkalis or other mat erial which will affect
hardening and att ack requirement s
- In nat ural sand, the amount of clay, fine silt and fine dust should not be more than 4% by
weight .
There are different t ypes of sand:
i. Pit sand / quarry sand: It is found as deposit s in soil and has to be excavat ed out. The grains
are generally sharp and if angular and free from organic matt er and clay, it is extremely good
for use in mort ar and concret e.
ii. River sand: It is obt ained from the banks and beds of the rivers and may be fine or coarse.
iii. Sea sand: It consist s of fine rounded grains of brown colour and is collect ed from sea beach.
It usually cont ains salt s and t herefore should be thoroughly washed to remove the salt s.
Crushed st one
It is obt ained from crushing wast e stone from quarries t o the part icle size of sand. When crushed from
good qualit y st one, it produces an excellent fine aggregat e.
Surkhi
This is obt ained from powdered broken brick (burnt brick). It is commonly used in t he preparat ion of
lime mort ar.
2.3 Coarse aggregates
These are aggregat es t hat are ret ained on a 5.0 mm sieve. They range bet ween 5 - 19 mm diamet er /
size. Most ly commonly used coarse aggregat es are stone ballast, brick ballast , gravel and/or shingle.
St one ballast
St ones t hat are free from undesirable mineral constit uent s and are not soft or laminat ed are broken and
screened t o have st one ballast for use in concret e.
Brick ballast
Where aggregat es from nat ural resources are eit her not available or expensive, broken brick are used
as a coarse aggregat e in lime concret e. Only well burnt good bricks should be used.
Gravel and shingle
These are obt ained from river beds, quarries and sea shores. Being hard and durable, t hese are
ext ensively used in t he preparat ion of concret e.
2.3.1 Functions of aggregates
- They provide the skeleton and st rength t o concret e
- They reduce on t he mat erial cost s. Generally, aggregat es occupy a large percent age of
concret e and are less cost ly t han cement.
- They help in restraining the amount of drying shrinkage on the sett ing and expansion of
concret e.
- They det ermine t he density of concret e i.e. by using high or low density aggregat es.
- They offer resist ance to wear by abrasion
- They impart special propert ies to concrete e.g. fire resist ance and thermal insulat ion
- Fine aggregat es fill in voids wit hin coarse aggregat es and also reduce on cement
consumpt ion.

2.3.2 Qualities of good aggregates
i. Cleanliness: impurit ies such as dust , clay, organic matt er prevent proper bonding bet ween
cement past e and aggregat es. This would affect the strengt h of concret e. The percent age of
impurit ies should not exceed 3%. In case of dust , aggregat es should be washed before use.
ii. Aggregat es should be hard and tough to resist forces of abrasion, impact , crushing, etc.
Usually st rong aggregat es make st rong concret e.
iii. Aggregat es should be durable
iv. They should not be liable to any form of shrinkage, swelling and decomposition.
v. Aggregat es should be sound and thus t hey should not be thin and elongat ed to avoid
breakages.
vi. Aggregat es should be inert, t hey should not react t o wat er component in cement so as not to
t ake part in t he hydrat ion process
vii. They should have a rough surface and a regular shape t o promot e bonding
viii. For dependable result s, t he coefficient of expansion and thermal conductivity of aggregat es
should be equal or nearly equal to that of cement
2.4 Testing aggregates
2.4.1 Sampling
When a sample of aggregat es is t aken for test ing, it should be a represent at ive sample of t he whole
st ock pile t hus it is vit al t o correct litt le aggregat es from different places rather than a sample from
one place only. Under favorable condit ions, at least 10 proport ions should be drawn from different
part s of the st ock pile. And all t hese port ions should be combined t o form t he main sample to be sent
t o t he laborat ory for t est ing.
There are t wo ways of obt aining (and / or reducing) the size of a sample, each essent ially dividing t he
sample into t wo similar part s;
Quart ering method
Riffling met hod
Quart ering method
Procedure:
i. Mix the main sample t horoughly and in the case of fine aggregat es, dampened them t o avoid
segregat ion.
ii. Heap t he mat erial into a cone and then t urn over t o form a new cone.
iii. Repeat step (ii) at least t wo t imes, t he mat erial each t ime being deposit ed at the apex of t he
cone so t hat t he fall of the part icles are evenly dist ribut ed around t he circumference.
iv. Flatt ened the final cone and then divide it int o quart ers.
v. One pair of diagonally opposit e quart ers is discarded and t he remainder forms the sample for
t est ing. If t he result ant sample is t oo large, it can st ill be reduced by st eps iii and iv. Care must
be t aken to include all the fine mat erial in t he appropriat e manner.


Figure 2-1: Quartering method of sampling aggregates
In t he above case, quart ers 1 and 3 forms the sample for t est ing. Alt ernat ively, 2 and 4 can also form
t he sample.
Riffling met hod
This is done using a riffler. This is a box wit h a number of parallel vert ical divisions, alt ernat e ones
discharging t o the left and to t he right . The sample is discharged into t he riffler over it s full width and
t he t wo halves are collect ed into t wo boxes at the bottom of the chutes on each side. One half is
discarded and riffling of the ot her half repeat ed unt il t he sample is reduced t o t he desired size. Below
is t he figure showing a riffler.

Figure 2-2: A riffler
2.4.2 Bulking of sand
The volume of a given mass of sand is dependent on the moist ure cont ent . The volume is at minimum
when sand is eit her dry or wet and maximum when sand is damp. Films of wat er are formed on t he
part icles and surface t ension t ends t o hold t hem apart causing an increase in volume (bulking).
Therefore, damp sand has more volume t han dry sand or wet sand and fine sands are more bulky than
coarse sands.
When bat ching damp sand by volume, an allowance for bulking should be made ot herwise t he
concret e or mort ar mix will be under-sanded. The allowance is made by increasing t he apparent
volume of sand and this depends on t he percent age of moist ure present and on the fineness of t he
sand. Finer sands bulks considerably more and reaches maximum bulking at higher wat er cont ent than
coarse sand.
Bulking of sand can t herefore be defined as an increase in volume of a given weight of sand caused by
t he films of wat er pushing t he sand part icles apart.

Bulking t est
Apparatus:
Flat bottomed cylinder
St eel rule
St eel rod
Method
i. Fill loosely packed damp sand in a cylinder about
2
3
of it s capacit y
ii. Measure the depth of the sand D
iii. Pour the sand on a t ray
iv. Half fill the cylinder wit h water and gradually return t he damp sand t o it while carefully
st irring wit h a st eel rod to expel all air bubbles.
v. Note t he dept h of t he sand d

100

Therefore, during volume bat ching, t he volume of damp sand used will have to be increased by t he
above percent age. When expressed as a fact or (not a percent age), it is somet imes called t he bulking
factor.

Figure 2-3: Experimental determination of the percentage bulking of sand

Figure 2-4: Percentage bulking against moisture content for different sizes of sand

Therefore, the following adjust ment s are adopt ed to account for bulking of sand:
During volume bat ching, t he volume of damp sand to be used will have t o be increased by t he
percent age bulking.
The amount of wat er present in t he aggregat es should be det ermined. The amount added to
t he mix will have to be decreased by t he weight of free moist ure present in aggregat es in
order not to alt er t he wat er-cement rat io.
During weight bat ching, t he weight of damp sand to be used will also be increased.
2.5 Grading of aggregates
This refers to the part icle size dist ribut ion of aggregat es. It is obt ained by sieve analysis which
involves dividing a sample of aggregat es int o fractions, each (fract ion) consist ing of part icles wit hin
specific size limit s, t hese (limit s) being the openings of standard t est sieves. This is done by sieving
t he aggregat es t hrough a series of st andard t est sieves and followed by calculat ing t he percent age by
volume passing the various sieves. From the result s obt ained, aggregat es can be described as:
Well graded aggregat es
Poorly graded (uniformly graded) aggregat es
Gap graded aggregat es
Well graded aggregates consist of part icles ranging from t he smallest size t o t he largest size.
Poorly (uniformly) graded aggregates consist of part icles of almost t he same size. This is likely to
cause t he mix t o be harsh and therefore difficult to compact .
Gap graded aggregates consist of part icles of ext reme sizes with the intermediat es sizes missing. A
danger of segregat ion is likely to occur when t oo many intermediat e sizes are missing.
Well graded aggregat es are best because t hey int erlock properly and leaving minimum volume of
voids t o be filled wit h the cost ly cement . They flow t oget her easily giving a workable mix, enabling
t he use of a lower wat er cement rat io result ing into a strong concret e.
2.5.1 Grading test for fine aggregates (sieve analysis)
Apparat us
BS sieves of the following sizes: 4.76 mm, 2.40 mm, 1.20 mm, 600 m, 300 m, 150 m.
Pan
Physical balance
Tray
Procedure
i. Weigh 200 g of sand
ii. St and the sieve of t he larger mesh size in t ray and put t he weighed sample on t o t he sieve
iii. Shake t he sieve horizontally in all direct ions for at least 2 minutes unt il no more than a t race
of sand passes. Ensure that all sand passing t hrough fall on to the t ray.
iv. Weigh any mat erial ret ained in t he sieve
v. Pass mat erials correct ed in t he tray via the sieve of mixed smaller mesh size as in ii and iii
and weigh any mat erial ret ained.
vi. Repeat t he procedure for the retaining sieves in the order of diminishing mesh size.

vii. Then t abulat e your result s as shown below and plot t he percent age by weight of aggregat es
passing each sieve against t he sieve sizes. The sieve sizes are plott ed on t he horizont al axis
wit h a logarithmic scale t o base 10.
Result s
BS Si eve
Mesh si ze Wei ght retai ned % retai ned
Cumul ati ve %
pas si ng
Cumul ati ve %
retai ned
4.76 mm 0 0 100 0
2.4 mm 1.6 0.8 99.2 0.8
1.2 mm 5 2.5 96.7 3.3
600 m 27.4 13.7 83 17
300 m 98 49 34 66
150 m 50 25 9 91
Pan 18 9 100
TOTAL 200
Materi al retai ned % by wei ght pas si ng
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
%

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t

o
f

a
g
g
r
e
g
a
t
e
s

p
a
s
s
i
n
g

BS Si eve Sizes

Figure: 2-5: Grading curve for a sample of aggregates

Gap graded aggregat es
As already explained, gap grading is a t ype of grading in which one or more int ermediat e size
fract ions are omitt ed. Gap graded aggregat es have a grading curve similar to t he one shown below.
The graph below shows limit ed percent age of part icles of size bet ween 2.4 mm and 300 m where t he
graph is almost horizont al are present .

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
%

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t

o
f

a
g
g
r
e
g
a
t
e
s

p
a
s
s
i
n
g

BS Sieve Sizes

Figure 2-6: Typical grading curve for gap graded aggregates
Gap graded aggregat es can be applied in:
- -- - Preplaced concrete: This is an operat ion in which t he first st age involves placing and
compact ing coarse aggregat es in t he formwork. In t he second st age, remaining voids are filled
wit h mort ar. Preplaced concret e is also referred to as prepacked concret e or intrusion concrete
or grouted concret e. This t ype of concret ing is used where ordinary concret ing met hods may
not easily apply and also in sect ions cont aining a large number of embedded it ems that have
t o be precisely locat ed. Since coarse and fine aggregat es are placed separat ely, t he danger of
segregat ion is eliminated.
- -- - Exposed aggregated concrete. In this case, a pleasing finish is obt ained since a large quant ity
of only one size of coarse aggregat es becomes exposed aft er t reatment.
2.6 Quali ty of aggregates
Aggregat es are usually ordered from quarry sit e by informing the supplier of t he required sizes. It is
however advisable t o first visit the quarry sit e and inspect the rock t ype from which the aggregat es are
being obt ained from. This will help in ascertaining the quality of t he aggregat es.
Aggregat es need to be handled carefully to avoid segregat ion and breakage on sit e. Different sized
aggregat es should be handled and st ockpiled separately and remixed only when being fed to t he
concret e mixer in the desired proport ions. To avoid breakages, coarse aggregat es should be lowered
into bins by means of rock ladders and not dropped from excessive height .
Good aggregat es for use should be:
Free from impurit ies that int erfere wit h t he processes of hydrat ion of cement
Free from coat ings t hat could prevent development of good bond bet ween t he aggregat e and
t he cement past e
Free from cert ain individual part icles which are weak or unsound in themselves
Non-react ive wit h the cement past e
Sound i.e. should be able to resist excessive changes in volume as a result of changes in
physical condit ions.
Should be of t he required st rengt h
It is bett er t o check t he qualit y of aggregat es by making act ual t est cubes.

2.6.1 Simple test for organic impurities (Colorimetric test)
A mixt ure of aggregat es and 3% solut ion of NaOH is placed in a bott le and vigorously shaken to
allow int imat e contact necessary for chemical reaction. It is t hen left for 24 hours and the color of t he
solut ion not ed. The great er the organic cont ent , t he darker the color. Yellow implies a harmless
organic cont ent whereas a darker color implies a rather high organic content .
When a darker color is obt ained, further test s e.g. compressive st rength t est s are carried out and t he
result s compared wit h concret e of the same mix proport ions but made with aggregat es of known
qualit y.

CHAPTER 3: CEMENT
3.1 Introducti on
Cement is a finely ground powder t hat when mixed wit h water, a chemical react ion (hydrat ion) t akes
place which in t ime produces a very hard and binding medium for the aggregat e part icles. It is t he
binding mat erial and t he most expensive component of concret e. Generally, cement performs t he
following funct ions:
Provide lubricat ion of t he fresh plast ic mass
Fill t he voids bet ween t he part icles of t he inert aggregat es and t hus produces wat er t ightness
in t he hardened product .
To give st rength to t he concret e in it s hardened stat e.
3.2 Manufacture of cement
Cement is made primarily from calcareous mat erials such as from limest one, and from alumina and
silica found as clay or shale.
Procedure
Quarrying of raw materials (limestone and clay)
Transport at ion of raw mat erials to factory by Lorries, t ippers, conveyor belt s, et c.
Cleaning of raw mat erials to remove dirt , leaves, et c.
Crushing of raw mat erials t o smaller sizes
Mixing of raw materials (clay and limest one) in the rat io of 1:3
Furt her grinding of raw mat erials and st orage
There are t wo met hods of the manufact ure of cement .
The wet process
The dry process
3.2.1 The wet process
i. Grounded limest one and clay are mixed in t he appropriat e rat ios and mixed wit h wat er to
form slurry in wash mills.
ii. The slurry is sieved and any coarse part icles are ret urned to t he wash mills for re-grinding.
iii. The slurry is fed into large st orage t anks where it is agit at ed t o prevent sett lement and samples
are t aken for t est ing for t he correct chemical composit ion (1:3).
iv. The slurry is fed into the upper end of a large rotary kiln which rot at es slowly about it s axis.
This kiln is a refractory-lined steel cylinder of up to 7.5 m diamet er and 230 m long and is
inclined at about 15
0
t o the horizont al.
v. The slurry ent ers t he kiln at t he cooler end and by rot at ion of t he kiln in conformat ion with t he
shape, it is subject ed t o a gradual rise in t emperat ure up to 1500
0
C and undergoes
successive chemical react ions
vi. Sint ering occurs bet ween 1300 1400
0
C and t he mat erial fuses int o small balls known as
cement clinker.
vii. The clinker is passed through coolers and t hen t o ball mills where it is ground to t he required
fineness during which 3.5% gypsum is added t o cont rol the rat e of sett ing of the cement.
viii. From t he ball mills, cement is passed through a separator and fine part icles are blown by an
air current t o t he st orage silos where it is packed for sale. The coarse part icles are passed
t hrough t he mill once again.

ix. An automat ic packing plant fills paper bags wit h a st andard weight of 50 kg.
3.2.2 The dry process
i. The raw mat erials are crushed and fed in t he correct proport ions int o a grinding (ball) mill
where they are dried and reduced in size t o a fine powder called raw meal.
ii. The dry powder (raw meal) is pumped to a blending silo where final proport ioning is done to
ensure the correct chemical composit ion.
iii. In the blending silo, t he mat erial is t hen aerat ed to obt ain a uniform mixt ure. The aerat ed
mixt ure will behave almost like a liquid wit h a moist ure cont ent of about 0.2%.
iv. The raw meal is t hen pre-heat ed t o about 800
0
C to remove all t he moist ure.
v. It is t hen fed to t he rot ary kiln and t he subsequent operat ions are t he same as t hose in t he wet
process of manufact ure.
3.2.3 Comparison of the wet and dry processes of cement manufacture
Wet process Dry process
Mixing and grinding are done in wat er Mixing and grinding are done in a dry condit ion
Requires more energy for burning since the
mat erial has a higher moist ure cont ent
Low energy required for burning due t o a
relat ively low moist ure cont ent
Size of the rot ary kiln is larger The rot ary kiln is smaller since the raw meal
cont ains no moist ure to be driven off and it is
already pre-heat ed
Relat ively expensive Economical especially when materials are
comparat ively dry
3.2.4 Cement manufacturing industries in Uganda
The Cement manufact uring indust ries in Uganda are Hima and Tororo cement indust ries. The major
limestone deposit s at Hima and Tororo have provided t he raw mat erials for Ugandas Port land cement
indust ry. There are also a number of limest one deposit s found at Muhokya in Kasese, Dura, kaku,
Bududda, Met u in Moyo and Moroto.
3.3 Chemi cal composi tion of cement
The following react ions t ake place in t he kiln;
Loss of wat er in raw mat erials (dehydrat ion)
Loss of carbondioxide from limest one (decarbonat ion) leaving Calcium Oxide.
Creat ion of the following oxides (shown against the oxides are t heir approximat e composit ion
limit s of cement )
Oxide Content in cement (%)
CaO 60 - 67 %
SiO
2
17 - 25 %
Al
2
O
3
3 - 8 %
Fe
2
O
3
0.5 - 8 %
MgO 0.1 - 4%
Alkalis 0.2 - 1.3 %
SO
3
1 - 3 %
Fusion and chemical combinat ion of t hese oxides.
Four main compounds are formed in cement clinker as a result of chemical combinat ion of
t he oxides ment ioned above

Name of compound Oxide composition Abbreviation
Tricalcium Silicat e 3CaO.SiO
2
C
3
S
DiCalcium Silicat e 2CaO.SiO
2
C
2
S
TriCalcium Aluminat e 3CaO.Al
2
O
3
C
3
A
TetraCalcium Aluminoferrit e 4CaO.Al
2
O
3
.
Fe
2
O
3
Ca
4
AF
The propert ies of cement and concret e depend on t he abundancy of these compounds. If some CaO
remains uncombined, it causes cracking in concret e.
3.4 Setti ng and hardening of cement
When wat er is added t o cement , a cement past e is formed. This past e gradually changes from a fluid
t o a rigid st at e. The t erm setting is used t o describe t his st iffening st at e. Once set, cement paste
gradually develops st rength and forms hardness. This is referred to as hardening. The process of
sett ing and hardening is caused by t he select ive hydrat ion of cement compounds. Hydrat ion includes
all the react ions of cement and wat er;
2C
3
S + 6H C
3
S
2
H
3
+ 3Ca(OH)
2

2C
2
S + 4H C
3
S
2
H
3
+ Ca(OH)
2

C
3
A + 6H C
3
AH
6
Hydrate abbreviation Hydrate name
C
3
S
2
H
3
Calcium silicat e Hydrat e
C
3
AH
6
Calcium Aluminate Hydrat e
3.4.1 Functions of the various cement compounds

It act ively hydrat es wit h wat er to form Calcium silicat e Hydrat e and Calcium Hydroxide which have
t he cement ing propert ies. It causes early st rength development bet ween 0 14 days by reducing t he
sett ing t ime and quickening hardening. The Calcium Hydroxide provides t he alkali medium for
prot ect ion against corrosion of st eel reinforcement.

The react ion of
wit h wat er is very violent and leads to rapid st iffening of the past e, a
phenomenon called flash set. In order to control this rapid hydrat ion, calculat ed amount s of gypsum
. 2
are added to t he cement clinker during cement manufact ure.

The durabilit y of concret e in sulphat e medium is governed by the TriCalcum Aluminat e cont ent.
Sulphate ions are combined wit h DiCalcium ions t o form an expansive compound which causes
disint egrat ion of the st ruct ure. To guard against sulphat e att ack, cement wit h small amount s of
TriCalcum aluminat e should be used.

It hydrat es in t he same way as
and lowers t he temperat ure during hydrat ion and is responsible for
impart ing a grey colour t o cement .

Note: Rapid hardening cement arises from a high
cont ent. Low rat e of st rength development and

low heat cement is due high
and low
cont ent . A very low
content increases resist ance

t o sulphat e att ack.
3.4.2 False set
This is a name given t o t he abnormal premat ure st iffening of cement wit hin a few minut es of mixing
wit h wat er. It differs from flash set in that no heat is evolved and remixing the cement paste wit hout
addit ion of wat er rest ores t he plast icit y of t he past e unt il it set s in t he normal manner and wit hout a
loss of st rength. Causes of false set include;
Dehydrat ion of gypsum during grinding in t he cement manufact ure
Presence of alkalis in cement
Act ivat ion of C
3
S by aerat ion at moderat ely high humidit y.
3.5 Types of cement
3.5.1 Common types of cement
1. Ordinary Port land cement (OPC)
This is t he most common cement in use. It is suit able for use in general const ruct ion works where
t here is no exposure t o sulphat es. This cement is unsound due t o presence of free lime.
2. Rapid hardening Port land cement
This generally has high t ricalcium silicat e cont ent which when combined wit h the finest grinding
cont ribut es t owards a high early st rength. It is applicable when rapid st rengt h development is desired
e.g.
- -- - When formwork is to be removed early for reuse
- -- - When sufficient strengt h for further const ruct ion is want ed as quickly as possible.
- -- - Desirable for construct ion at low temperat ures due to a high rate of heat liberat ion.
However, t he rapid gain of strengt h implies a high rat e of heat development and t herefore this cement
should not be used in mass construct ion or large struct ural sect ions. It s soundness and chemical
composit ion is similar to that of OPC.
3. Ext ra rapid hardening Port land cement
It has a higher rat e of strengt h development than rapid hardening Port land cement . It s st rengt h is
about 25% great er at 1 or 2 days. This cement is obt ained by inter-grinding a regulat ed amount of
Calcium Chloride wit h rapid hardening Port land cement and is suit able for cold weather concret ing or
when early strengt h is required but is not permitt ed for reinforced concret e due to risks of corrosion. It
should st rict ly be st ored under dry condit ions, and be used wit hin one month of dispat ch from t he
fact ory.
4. Ult ra-high early strengt h Port land cement
This is produced by separat ing the finest part icles from rapid hardening Port land cement during
manufact ure. The result is cement wit h a very high specific surface (very fine part icles). It s high
fineness and very high proport ion of gypsum gives it a very rapid rat e of strengt h development which
is more than t hat of rapid hardening Port land cement . It has no admixt ures and is t herefore suitable for
use in reinforced and prestressed concret e.

3.5.2 Special cements
5. High Alumina cement
This is produced by fusing t ogether in a furnace a mixt ure of limest one and bauxite (Aluminium Ore).
It is very expensive and has the highest rat e of strengt h development and wit h good resist ance to
sulphat e att ack. It has a slow init ial sett ing t ime but t he final set follows the init ial set more rapidly
t han I t he case of Port land cement s.
6. Low heat Port land cement
It has a high proport ion of Dicalcium silicat e mainly at the expense of t he t ricalcium silicat e and is
t herefore slow in hardening and produces less heat t han other cement s.
7. Sulphate resist ing Port land cement
It has a bett er performance in resist ing sulphat e att ack t han ordinary Port land cement due to t he
reduct ion in the t ricalcium aluminate cont ent.
8. Whit e Port land cement
It has t he same propert ies as ordinary Port land cement but is manufact ured from raw mat erials
cont aining less than 1% Iron. It s cost is about 3 4 t imes that of ordinary Port land cement.
Archit ect urally, it helps t o achieve the desired finish (colour) and also avoid st aining. When coloured
pigment s are used, they should not affect t he development of t he cement st rength.
9. Coloured Port land cement s
They are made by adding suit able pigment s to ordinary Port land cement s in case of deep colours and
t o whit e Port land cement when pale shades are required.
10. Air-entraining cement s
These are Port land cement s to which an air entraining agent has been int erground during t he
manufact uring process.
11. Port land blast-furnace cement
This is manufact ured by grinding a mixt ure of Portland cement clinker and blast furnace slag. The
proport ion of blast furnace slag is made not t o exceed 65% of the weight of the mixt ure. It has a low
heat of hydrat ion, longer sett ing t ime, and requires a relat ively low energy during manufact ure.
12. Port land - Pozzolanic cement s
They are produced by grinding t oget her a mixt ure of Port land cement and pozzolana which may be a
nat urally act ive material such as volcanic ash or pumicit e or an act ive product such as pulverized fly
ash, burnt clay or shale. Pozzolanic cement s have a high resistance to chemical disint egrat ion t han t he
base Port land cement which t hey cont ain. They have a low heat of hydrat ion, good resist ance to
sulphat e att ack and produces concret e with low permeabilit y.
13. Super-sulphat ed cement s
They are made by grinding a mixt ure of 80 85% granulat ed blast -furnace slag wit h 10 15%
calcium sulphate and about 5% of Port land cement clinker. The Port land cement clinker act s as an
act ivat or. The cement is highly resist ant t o sea wat er, sulphat es, acids and oils. These cement s should
not be mixed wit h Port land cement s because the lime released by hydrat ion of an excess amount of
Port land cement s int erferes wit h t he react ion bet ween t he slag and the calcium sulphat e.

14. Hydrophobic cement
This is a Port land cement , t o which an addit ive has been int roduced, giving t he cement part icles a
prot ect ive coat ing which inhibit s the hydrat ion of the cement. The prot ect ive coat ing (film) around t he
cement part icles is broken during the mixing of concret e and normal hydrat ion occurs but early
st rength is rat her low. It has a bett er workabilit y than ordinary Port land cement and improved wat er-
proofing propert ies and can be st ored in damp condit ions for a long t ime without det eriorat ion.
3.6 Admi xtures
These are suit able addit ives used to change the propert ies of cement t o achieve ot her specific
propert ies. They can be classified as:
i. Accelerating admixtures are added t o concret e either to increase t he rat e of early st rength
development or t o short en t he t ime of sett ing or both. They can be applied in concret e works
during rainy season, emergency repair work and for early removal of formwork.
ii. Retarding admixtures slow t he rat e of hydrat ion of concret e and are used on large or difficult
works where part ial sett ing before placing is complet ely undesirable. Their use result s in longer
sett ing t imes, slower st rengt h gain, enables long transit t imes but do not affect t he long t erm
mechanical propert ies of concret e. They are applicable in large concret e pours, sliding formwork
and hot weat her concret ing.
iii. Water reducing admixtures (plasticizers) increase the workabilit y of fresh concret e, allowing it
t o be placed more easily with less consolidat ing effort and low wat er cont ent .
iv. Superplasticizers (high-range water-reducing admixtures) are a class of plast icizers which have
fewer delet erious effect s when used t o significant ly increase workability. They are more
effect ive than plast icizers, produces flowing concret e with very high slump (more than 175 mm)
for use in heavily reinforced st ruct ures, in placement s where adequat e consolidat ion by vibrat ion
cannot be readily achieved and in product ion of high-strengt h concret e at wat er cement rat ios
ranging from 0.3 t o 0.4
v. Air-entraining agents (admixtures) add and dist ribut e t iny air bubbles in t he concrete, which will
reduce damage during freeze-thaw cycles thereby increasing concret e durabilit y. They also
improve workabilit y and reduce bleeding and segregat ion of fresh concret e. However, t hese t iny
air bubbles reduce st rengt h of hardened concret e.
vi. Pigments like ferrous oxides are used t o change color of concret e for aesthet ic reasons.
vii. Bonding agents are used to creat e a bond bet ween old and new concrete.
viii. Pumping aids improve pumpability, thicken the past e and reduce dewat ering of the past e.
ix. Water proofing admixtures are common in const ruct ion of water ret aining st ruct ures.
3.6.1 Precautions taken when using admixtures
- -- - Check the job specificat ions
- -- - Ensure t hat you use t he correct admixt ure
Never use an admixt ure from an unmarked cont ainer
Keep cont ainers closed to avoid accident al contaminat ion
- -- - Add t he correct dosage
Avoid adding a little bit extra
Always use a dispenser and wash it thoroughly at t he end t he day
- -- - If possible/recommended, add the admixt ure t o the mixing wat er
- -- - Manufact urers recommended dosage is usually adequat e
- -- - Trial mixes are import ant to determine most effect ive dosage

3.7 Transportation and storage of cement
Cement for small jobs is usually packed in 50 kg bags and t ransport ed to the sit e by Lorries. Where
large quant it ies are used, and cement silos are inst alled on t he sit e, t ransport in bulk is more
economical.
Transport of cement is ent irely a matt er of keeping it dry and it is necessary t o st ack the bags under a
shade or what ever cover is available. Every effort should be made to prevent moist ure from coming
into cont act wit h the bags at any point and it is advisable t o provide a raised floor covered wit h water
proof mat erial. Cement should be st acked in such a way t hat t he bags first delivered can be used first.
3.8 Physi cal properties of cement
The following are the physical propert ies considered when select ing cement to use for a part icular
purpose:
Fineness
Soundness
Set t ing t ime
Specific gravit y
Consist ency
St rength
3.8.1 Consistence of standard paste
St andard consistency is that consistency at which the Vicat plunger penetrat es t o a point 5 7 mm
from t he bott om of Vicat apparat us mould. Below is the figure showing a Vicat apparat us.

Figure 3-1: The Vicat apparatus
Apparat us
Vicat apparat us
Balance
Gauging t rowel
Procedure
Weigh approximately 400 g of cement and mix it with a weighed quant ity of wat er. The t ime
of gauging should be bet ween 3 t o 5 minut es.
Fill t he Vicat mould wit h t he cement past e and level it with a trowel.
Lower the plunger gent ly t ill it just touches t he cement surface.
Release t he plunger allowing it to sink into the past e.
Note t he reading on the gauge.
Repeat t he above procedure t aking fresh samples of cement and different quant it ies of wat er
unt il the reading on the gauge is bet ween 5 and 7 mm.

Report ing of Result s
Express the amount of wat er (t hat produces a past e with a reading of 5 7 mm) as a percent age of t he
weight of dry cement . The usual range is 26 33 %
3.8.2 Setting time
Cement has t wo sett ing t imes i.e. init ial and final sett ing t imes. These sett ing t imes are measured
using t he Vicat apparatus.
Apparat us
- -- - Vicat apparat us
- -- - Balance
- -- - Gauging t rowel
Procedure for det erminat ion of init ial set
i. Prepare cement paste of st andard consist ency
ii. St art stop-clock immediat ely aft er addit ion of wat er to cement
iii. Fill t he past e int o a special mould and st rike level.
iv. Posit ion the mould beneath t he vicat needle, lower t he needle gent ly to get cont act wit h t he
surface of t he past e, then release it observing t he degree of penet rat ion
v. Repeat (iv) at intervals with the needle at different point s on t he surface unt il penetrat ion is
not beyond a point 50.5 mm from the base plat e (bott om).
vi. Time from commencement of t he addit ion of the mixing wat er t o t his condit ion gives t he
init ial sett ing t ime of cement in hours and minut es. A minimum t ime of 45 minut es is
prescribed for Ordinary Port land cement and rapid hardening Port land cement (BS 12 : 1978).
Procedure for det erminat ion of final set
i. Immediat ely aft er the init ial sett ing t ime, and with t he stop clock cont inuing, change t he
needle in the vicat apparat us.
ii. The needle is fitt ed wit h a met al att achment hollowed out so as t o leave a cutt ing edge 5 mm
in diamet er and set 0.5 mm behind the t ip of the needle.
iii. Cont inue as in st ep (v) of the init ial set procedure.
iv. Final set is said t o have t aken place when the needle, gent ly lowered t o t he surface of t he
past e, makes an impression on it but the circular cut t ing edge fails to do so.
v. The final sett ing t ime is det ermined from the t ime when mixing wat er was added t o t he
cement and should not be more than 10 hours for ordinary, rapid hardening, low heat, and
blast -furnace Port land cement s.
Nat ural fact ors t hat may affect t he sett ing t ime
Temperat ure
Humidit y
Wind velocit y
3.8.3 Soundness
This is t he abilit y of a cement past e t o resist changes in volume during hydrat ion. Cement which
exhibit s expansion is said t o be unsound. It is caused by presence of impurit ies liable t o react with
moist ure result ing in expansion which can cause cracking, spalling or disint egrat ion. Test for
soundness is done using Le Chatelier apparatus. This apparat us (shown below) consist s of a small
brass cylinder split along it s generat ix. Two indicators wit h point ed ends are at tached to the cylinder
on eit her side of t he split . Hence, any expansion of t he cement causes wi dening of t he split . This
wi dening is great ly magnified and can easily be measured.


Figure 3-2: Le Chatelier apparatus
Apparat us
Le Chat elier apparat us
Balance
Wat er bat h
Procedure
Place the cylinder on a glass plat e and fill it with a cement past e of st andard consist ence
Cover the cylinder wit h anot her glass plat e and place a small weight on t his covering glass
sheet
Immerse whole assembly in wat er at about 20 25
0
C for 24 hours
Measure and record t he dist ance bet ween the t wo indicators (d
1
)
Immerse t he mould in wat er again (at the t emperat ure prescribed above) and gradually bring it
t o boiling point within a period of 25 30 minut es
Aft er boiling for at least one hour, t he assembly is t aken out and allowed t o cool
Aft er cooling, the distance bet ween the indicators is again measured (d
2
).
The increase (d
2
d
1
) represent s t he expansion of the cement , and for Port land cement s it
should be less t han 10 mm.
Note: If the expansion exceeds t his value (10 mm), anot her Le Chat elier t est is made after t he cement
has been spread and aerat ed for 7 days. The expansion of t he aerat ed cement must not exceed 5 mm.
Any cement which fails to sat isfy at least one of these t est s should not be used.
3.8.4 Fineness of cement
This refers t o t he surface area of cement part icles available for hydrat ion. Thus, for a rapid
development of st rength, higher fineness is required. However, the cost of grinding t o a higher
fineness is considerable and also t he finer the cement , the more rapidly it det eriorat es on exposure to
t he at mosphere.
Finer cement leads t o a st ronger react ion with alkali-react ive aggregat es and makes a past e, though
not necessarily concrete, exhibit ing a higher shrinkage and a great er proneness t o cracking. However,
finer cement bleeds less than coarse cement. The water cont ent of a past e of st andard consist ence is
great er for finer cement but conversely, an increase in fineness improves t he workability of a mix.
Fineness can be measured using the Lea and Nurse Permeability apparatus.
3.8.5 Strength of cement
The t est for compressive st rength of concret e is commonly used in preference t o that of mort ar or neat
cement because:
St ruct ures are mainly designed to resist concret e in compression

The st rength depends on the adhesion and strengt h of aggregat es used
Pure t ension is also not usually t ested since it is rat her difficult t o apply to concrete or mort ar

CHAPTER 4: WATER
4.1 Functions of water
Wat er has t wo funct ions in a concret e mix namely:
To enable t he chemical react ions which cause sett ing and hardening t o t ake place (hydrat ion)
To lubricat e t he mixt ure of aggregates and cement in order t o facilit at e placing and
compact ion.
Ot her uses of wat er on a sit e include:
Curing concret e
Washing aggregat es and concret e equipment s
As in other chemical react ions, t he cement and wat er combine in definit e proport ions. Concrete
cont aining a small proport ion of wat er produces a great er strengt h but is exceedingly difficult to
compact . Ext ra wat er is therefore needed t o lubricat e t he concret e. It is import ant that wat er added for
lubricat ion purposes is kept t o a minimum. A low wat er cont ent is also necessary for imperviousness,
resist ance t o frost, resist ance t o chemicals and abrasion and to minimize drying shrinkage.
If concret e is not fully compact ed, numerous bubbles of air may be ent rapped, result ing in furt her
voids. There are therefore t wo main sources of voids in concret e.
Ent rapped air bubbles
Wat er required for lubricat ion which lat er evaporates
4.2 Quali ty of water for concrete works
Generally, clean wat er suit able for drinking should be used. The presence of impurit ies such as
suspended solids, organic matt er and salt s adversely affect s t he sett ing, hardening and durabilit y of
concret e.
4.3 Water-cement rati o
The definit ion of the t erm wat er cement rat io needs clarificat ion. The difficult y arises from t he
presence, in a bat ch of concret e, of wat er from different possible sources:
1. Wat er absorbed in t he aggregat e

2. Surface wat er on t he aggregat es

3. Wat er added during mixing

Wat er from sources (2) and (3) together provides what might be t ermed as t he free water in t he mix
and therefore we can adopt that :

Where
denot es the weight of t he cement . In this equat ion, it is assumed that the aggregat es are
damp and int ernally sat urat ed. If t he aggregat es are dry, t he wat er t hat should be added during mixing
is equal t o:

will be t he wat er required for int ernal sat urat ion of the aggregates.
The relat ionship bet ween wat er-cement rat io, richness of the mix, grading of aggregat es, workability
and st rengt h of concret e was first st udied by Professor Duff Abrams in America. The conclusions
drawn from his work led to the formulat ion of Abrams water-cement ratio law st at ed as follows:
with given concrete materials and conditions of test, the quantity of mixing water is used to
determine the strength of concrete, so long as the mix is of workable plasticity.
The law implies that wit h fully compacted concrete, sound aggregat es and given cement , t he st rength
depends on t he rat io of wat er to cement . Increases in wat er-cement rat io have adverse effect s on such
propert ies as permeabilit y, resist ance to frost action, resist ance to abrasion, t ensile strengt h, creep,
modulus of rapt ure and shrinkage. Below is a graphical represent at ion of compressive st rength versus
wat er-cement rat io for a fully compacted concret e.

Figure 4-1: Compressive strength versus water-cement ratio
4.4 Sea water
Sea wat er does not normally reduce t he st rength of Port land cement concret e and may be used for
plain (unreinforced) concrete. However, t he salt s present usually lead t o efflorescence. In reinforced
concret e, these salt s promot e the corrosion of steel.

CHAPTER 5: FRESH CONCRETE
5.1 Introducti on
Care need to be taken at const ruct ion sit es while working wit h concret e in order t o obtain finished
concret e of the required st ruct ural and archit ect ural qualit y. Errors whether through lack of
compet ence or inatt ent ion t o det ail may be cost ly to be correct ed lat er or even impossible to be
corrected. There are t wo basic and desirable propert ies of fresh concret e:
Workability
St abilit y
5.2 Workabili ty
This generally refers t o t he ease wit h which a concret e mix can be handled from t he mixing point up
t o t he finally compact ed shape. It can clearly be understood through three charact erist ics:
i. Consistency: this is the measure of the wetness or fluidit y or t he abilit y of fresh concret e to
flow. This is measured by slump.
ii. Mobility: is t he ease wit h which a given mix can flow into and complet ely fill the formwork
or moulds
iii. Compactability: is the ease wit h which a given mix can be fully compact ed t o remove all air
voids.
Workability is a propert y of fresh concret e or mortar which det ermines the ease and homogeneity with
which it can be mixed, placed, compact ed (consolidat ed) and finished. For fresh concret e t o be
accept able, it should be:
Be easily mixed and t ransport ed
Be uniform t hroughout a given bat ch and bet ween batches
Be of consist ency so that it can complet ely fill the forms for which it was desi gned
Have t he ability t o be compact ed without excessive loss of energy
Not segregat e during placing and consolidat ion
Have good finishing charact erist ics
Workability can be measured by the following methods:
Sl ump test
Compact ing fact or t est
Remoulding t est
Vebe t est
Flow t est
Ball penet rat ion t est
Nassers K-probe t est
Two-point t est
5.2.1 Slump test
This is t he most common t est and is t he measure of t he consist ency of the concret e. It is used on sit e
as a check on variat ions of t he mat erials being fed to the mixer. For example, an increase in slump
may mean that wat er cont ent has unexpect edly increased or a change in t he quant it ies of t he
aggregat es added. The mould (slump cone) used in slump t est is a frust um of a cone 300 mm high


Figure 5-1: The slump cone
Apparat us
Sl ump cone
St eel t amping rod (16 mm diamet er)
Ruler
Procedure
The int ernal surface of the mould is thoroughly cleaned and applied with a light coat of oil.
The mould is the placed on a smooth, horizont al, rigid and non-absorbent surface.
The mould is t hen filled in three equal layers wit h freshly mixed concret e, each approximat ely
t o one-third of t he height of the mould
Each layer is t amped 25 t imes by t he rounded end of t he t amping rod (strokes are dist ribut ed
evenly over t he cross sect ion).
Aft er t amping t he top layer, t he t op surface is st ruck off level by means of a screeding and
rolling mot ion of the t amping rod. Then immediat ely clean off any leakages and any ot her
concret e around t he base of mould.
The mould is removed from t he concret e immediat ely by raising it slowly and carefully in t he
vert ical direct ion.
The difference in level bet ween the height of the mould and t hat of t he highest point of t he
subsided concret e is measured. This difference in height in millimet ers is called t he slump of the
concrete.
Report ing of Result s
The slump measured should be recorded in millimeters. Any slump specimen which collapses or
shears off lat erally gives incorrect result s and if this occurs, t he t est should be repeated wit h another
sample. If t he t est is repeat ed and t he specimen again shears, the slump should be measured and t he
fact t hat the specimen sheared, should be recorded.
Limit at ions of t he slump t est
It has no unique relat ionship wit h workability. It only det ect s changes in workabilit y
It occurs under self wei ght of concret e only and does not reflect behaviors under dynamic
condit ions such as vibrat ions
Result s are unreliable for leaner mixes e.g. in a shear slump
Only suit able for concret e in which t he maximum aggregat e size is less than 40 mm

Sl umps of various concret e mixes

Figure 5-2: Slumps of various concrete mixes
5.2.2 Compacting factor test
This measures the degree of compact ion achieved by a st andard amount of work and t hus offers a
reasonably more reliable assessment of the workabilit y of a concret e i.e. it is more reliable than slump
t est . The compact ing fact or apparat us consist s of two hoppers each in t he frust um of a cone and one
cylinder, the three arranged one above t he ot her. The hoppers have hinged doors at t he bott om.
Procedure
The sample of concret e is placed in t he upper hopper up to t he brim. It is placed gent ly so t hat
t here is no compact ion at t his st age.
The bottom door is opened so that t he concrete falls into the lower hopper.
The bott om door of t he lower hopper is opened and the concret e is allowed to fall into t he
cylinder.
The excess concret e remaining above the top level of t he cylinder is then cut off with t he help
of float s slid across t he t op of cylinder.
Concret e in the cylinder is weighed. This will be the weight of partially compacted concrete.
The cylinder is filled wit h a fresh sample of concret e and vibrat ed t o obt ain full compact ion.
The concrete in t he cylinder is weighed again. This weight is known as t he weight of fully
compacted concrete.
The compact ing fact or can t hen be calculat ed from the formula.

Limit at ions of t he compact ing fact or t est
Only suit able for concret e in which t he maximum aggregat e size is less than 40 mm
The procedure for placing concret e in t he measuring cylinder is t ot ally different from t hat
employed on sit e
5.2.3 The Vebe (V-B consistometer) test
This t est measures t he t ime taken to t ransform a standard cone of concret e t o a compact ed flat
cylindrical mass by means of vibrat ion and is measured in seconds. The treat ment of concret e in this
t est is comparable to t he met hod of compact ing concret e in pract ice and is sensit ive to changes in
consistency, mobilit y and compact ability as well as t he variat ions in aggregat e charact erist ics such as
shape and t ext ure. Thus t he result s are reliable and suit able for a range of mixes.
Procedure
A convent ional slump test is performed, placing t he slump cone inside the cylindrical part of
t he consistomet er
The glass disc att ached to t he swivel arm is t urned and placed on t he t op of t he concret e in t he
pot .

The electrical vibrator is swit ched on and a stop-wat ch is st art ed, simult aneously
Vi brat ion is cont inued t ill the conical shape of the concret e disappears and the concrete
assumes a cylindrical shape.
When t he concret e fully assumes a cylindrical shape, the st op-wat ch is swit ched off
immediately. The t ime in seconds is not ed.
The consist ency of the concret e should be expressed in Vebe seconds, which is equal to t he
t ime in seconds recorded above.
Limit at ions of t he compact ing fact or t est
Apparat us is expensive and requires elect ric power supply
It s accuracy t ends to decrease wit h increasing size of aggregat es, above 20 mm t he result s
become somehow unreliable
Requires good experiences in handling
5.2.4 Factors affecting workability
As already seen in the previous topics, workability can be influenced by:
i. Fineness of cement : t he workability of concret e decreases as the fineness of t he cement
increases as a result of increased specific area. Finer part icles have a larger surface area and
t herefore require more water.
ii. Wat er-cement rat io
iii. Presence of admixt ures
iv. Aggregat e size, shape, text ure, grading and absorpt ion charact erist ics
v. Rat io of coarse t o fine aggregat es
vi. Temperat ure: increase in t emperat ure speeds up evaporat ion as well as hydrat ion
vii. Humidit y: affect the rate of loss of wat er t hrough evaporat ion
viii. Wind velocit y: affect t he rat e of loss of wat er through evaporat ion
ix. Time: freshly mixed concret e loses workability wit h t ime due t o loss of wat er. Wat er can be
lost through absorpt ion by aggregat es, evaporat ion or in hydrat ion react ions.
5.3 Concrete stabili ty
This refers to the cohesion of a concret e mix. The t wo common feat ures of concret e are segregat ion
and bleeding.
5.3.1 Segregation
It is defined as t he separat ion of t he const it uent mat erials of a het erogeneous mixt ure so that t heir
dist ribut ion is no longer uniform. Large and fine part icles in a mix become separated and t his is due to
poor aggregate grading and improper care in concrete handling. Specifically, fact ors t hat affect
segregat ion include:
+ Jolt ing of concret e during t ransport at ion
+ Dropping concret e from excessive height s during placing
+ Over-vibrat ion
+ Difference in size of the part icles (large maximum part icle size)
+ High specific gravit y of coarse aggregat es increases segregat ion
+ Decrease in amount of fine part icles
+ Part icle shape and t ext ure
+ Ext reme (very low or very high) wat er-cement rat io
+ Presence of admixt ures e.g. air entrainers reduces the danger of segregat ion
A less cohesive mix has a great er t endency t o segregat ion. Segregat ion result s in blemishes, porous
layers and honey-combing. These adversely affect the hardened concret e.

5.3.2 Bleeding
During compact ion and unt il concret e has hardened, there is a nat ural t endency for t he solid part icles
t o exhibit a downward movement and displace some wat er which t hen rises to t he surface and may
leak through t he joint s in formwork. This separat ion of wat er from a mix is called bleeding. This
causes t he concret e at or near the t op surface to be weaker and less durable. Bleeding can be reduced
by avoiding over-vibrat ion, use of rich mixes, increasing the fineness of cement and use of specific
admixt ures like air entrainers.
5.4 Mi xing concrete
The main object ives of mixing concret e are:
To coat t he surface of all aggregat es wit h a cement past e
To blend all the ingredient s of concret e int o a uniform mass
There are t wo met hods used in mixing concret e namely;
- Hand mixing
- Machine mixing
5.4.1 Hand mixing
A bat ch t o be mixed by hand should be in relat ively small (affordable) amount s. The equipment
consist s of a mixing platform, t wo shovels, a met al-lined or wooden measuring box and a graduat ed
bucket (or any cont ainer wit h a known capacit y such as the common 20 litre jerycan) for measuring
wat er.
The mixing plat form used should be level, wat er t ight and clean before use. It can be;
+ An abandoned concret e slab
+ A concret e packing lot t hat can be cleaned aft er use.
+ Wooden platform having t ight joint s to prevent loss of wat er.
+ A plat form made of brickwork or st one masonry wit h joint s sealed t o prevent wat er loss
Procedure for hand mixing
Place the measured quant it ies of course and aggregat es on a raised ground on sit e.
Measure the correct port ions of cement
Put it on t op of a heap of aggregat es and spread evenly with a mixing shovel.
A measured amount of wat er is then added while mixing.
However, the following is the most commonly used hand mixing procedure on construct ion sit es in
Uganda:
- Place t he measured quant ity of sand (fine aggregat es) on the clean plat form and spread it out
in a layer of uniform thickness
- Place cement over t he sand and spread out uniformly.
- Mix t he fine aggregat es with cement using a shovel

- Turn the mix from side to side as many t imes as possible t o produce a uniform color
t hroughout . Workers doing the mixing face each other from opposit e sides of t he heap and
work from the out side t o the cent er.
- Aft er t he uniform color is got, spread the mixt ure on t he plat form and pour course aggregat es
on top
- Use t he wat ering can or a hose to add wat er while mixing. Care should be t aken t o ensure t hat
neit her wat er by it self nor wit h cement can escape.
- When all t he wat er has been absorbed, t he mixing is cont inued unt il the mix is of uniform
consistency. No soil or other extraneous material must be allowed t o become included in t he
concret e.
Advant ages of hand mixing
It is cheap for smaller jobs
It is the best alt ernat ive for unskilled personnel
Disadvantages of hand mixing
Time consuming
It is somet imes hard to get a uniform mix
It is cost ly for big jobs (in t erms of labour)
5.4.2 Mixing by machine
This involves drum t ypes of machines and each drum has it s own capacity chosen to meet t he
required quant it ies on a part icular job and the speed to which each bat ch can be laid.
Wat er is first added and t his moist ens the drums and removes any concret e adhering t o t he sides.
The remaining mat erials are t hen measured int o the drum in t heir correct proport ions. The loaded
drum is allowed t o mix for about 2 5 minut es and concret e is then ready for discharge. The
concret e is released from the drum depending on the t ype of t he drum. It is released to t he cart or
wheel barrows or dumper and driven t o t he sit e for placing.
Advant ages of machine mixing
- It is very fast
- Produces a bett er mixt ure
Disadvantages
E High init ial cost s
E May result in poor workmanship
E Requires skilled personnel t o operat e the machine
5.5 General princi ples in the use of concrete mixers
i. It is an advant age to feed cement, sand and coarse aggregat es in t he mixer simultaneously and
in such a way that t he flow of each extends over the same period.
ii. The wat er should ent er the mixer at the same t ime and over the same period like t he ot her
mat erials. Wit h many mixers, this is not possible since the rat e of flow is limit ed. In such case
it is advisable t o st art t he flow of wat er earlier.
iii. Mixing should cont inue unt il the concret e is of uniform consist ency and colour.

iv. The mixer shouldnt be loaded beyond it s rat ed capacity. Overloading result s in spillage of
mat erials and less sat isfactory mixing, in addit ion to imposing undue st rain on t he mechanical
part s.
v. The mixer should be set up accurat ely so that t here is access t o t he rot at ing drum and t he
mixt ure inside except in the case where t he t ilt ing drum t ype is horizont al.
vi. For sat isfact ory performance, t he mixer should be capable of producing a uniform concrete
t hroughout the batch. This is t o prevent t he risk of honey combing result ing from an even
dist ribut ion of st ones and sand in any part s of t he bat ch. It is advisable to discharge t he whole
bat ch into a suit able cont ainer specially made t o receive the fresh concret e rat her than to
discharge in small separat e quant it ies for example int o wheel barrows.
vii. The mixer should be run at a correct speed as st at ed by the manufact urer. The speed should be
checked regularly.
viii. Some cement mort ar from t he first bat ch of concret e mixed is left on t he blade and drum. In
order t o avoid difficult ies in placing due to shortage of fines, an ext ra 10% each of cement
and sand should be added for t he first bat ch.
ix. Regular cleaning at t he end of each spell of mixing is necessary t o prevent concrete building
up, especially if st iff mixes are in use. Considerable amount of concret e adhering to t he blade
or in t he surface of the drum reduce t he efficiency of the mixing.
x. Badly worn and bent blades should be replaced since t hey decrease efficiency. Also wear of
t he inlet and discharge chut es event ually result s in loss of mat erials and should be solved by
suit able repairs.
xi. Aft er cleaning, grease or oil should be rubbed off the mixer to decrease adherence of t he
concret e
5.6 Types of concrete mi xers
Types of concret e include:
E Non t ilt ing drum mixers
E Tilt ing drum mixers
E Split drum mixers
E Reversing mixers
E Forced act ion mixers
E Cont inuous mixers
5.6.1 Non-tilting drum mixers
This normally has a single drum (mixing chamber) rot at ing about the horizont al axis. The blades in
t he drum are arranged in such a way t o work concrete t owards discharge end of t he mixer in order to
provide a rapid rat e of discharge. The drum has 10 similar blades arranged around t he periphery
(around t he perimet er). Non-t ilt ing drum mixers are available in sizes of 200 750 litres normal bat ch
capacit ies.
Disadvantages
Slow rat e of discharge
Concret e is suscept ible t o segregat ion
Large sized aggregat es t end t o st ay in the mixer so t hat t he discharge st art s as mort ar and ends
as a collect ion of coat ed st ones

5.6.2 Tilting drum mixers
Small t ilt ing drum mixers commonly used for types of building works are generally available in t he
sizes of 100, 150, 175 and 200 litres bat ch capacit y. Those of capacit y up t o 150 litres of mixed
concret e are oft en loaded by shoveling straight into the drum while medium sizes t ilt ing drum mixers
are provided wit h a loading skip similar to that for a non-t ilt ing drum mixer. Tilt ing drum mixers
usually have a conical or bowl-shaped drum wit h vanes inside.
Tilt ing drum mixers are t he most suit ed type for concret e with large size aggregat es and because of
t heir large and rapid discharge, t hey are suit able for low workabilit y concret e.
Advant ages
- Rapid rat e of discharge
- Discharge is always good as all t he concret e can be t ipped out
- Limit ed chances of segregat ion
- Suit able for low workability concret e
- Most suit ed for concret e wit h large size aggregat es
5.6.3 Split drum mixers
Normally t hey are 2 m
3
capacit y. Their dist inct ive feat ure is t hat the drum is separat ed into t wo halves
along a vert ical plane allowing t he mixed concret e to be discharged.
5.6.4 Reversing drum mixers
Mixers in t his cat egory rot at e in one direct ion for mixing and the reverse direct ion for discharge. It
has t wo types of blades i.e. one type for mixing and the ot her for discharging. When the drum is
reversed after mixing is complet ed, t he concret e is discharged quickly.
5.6.5 Forced action mixers
These are widely used for precast concret e manufacture. The common t ype of pan mixers wit h a
rot at ing pan is fitt ed wit h a mixing st and of cast , paddles mount ed eccentrically t o t he pan. The st ars
revolves either in t he same direct ion as the pan or in t he count er direct ion but at a great er speed.
Forced act ion mixers are available in sizes from 200 litres up t o 2 m
3
normal bat ch capacity.
5.6.6 Continuous mixers
This is t he easiest type of concret e mixer. The materials are mixed and transport ed to t he discharge
and blades on t he inside of t he drum. The concret e is discharged st eadily as a cont inuous st ream and
also produces good qualit y concret e.
General note: Rules for feeding ingredient s into t he mixer depend on the desired propert ies of t he
mix and t ype of mixer. Generally, a small amount of wat er should be fed first , followed by all t he
solid mat erials, preferably fed uniformly and simultaneously in t o the mixer. If possible, a great er part
of t he wat er should also be fed during t he same t ime, t he remainder of t he wat er being added aft er t he
solids. With some drum mixers, however, when a very dry mix is used, it is necessary to feed first
some wat er and the coarse aggregat e, as ot herwise it s surface does not become sufficient ly wett ed.
Moreover, if coarse aggregat es are absent to begin with, sand or sand and cement become lodged in
t he head of the mixer and do not become incorporated in t he mix. This is called head pack.

5.7 Research
5.7.1 Research (maintenance of concrete mixers)
Read and make your own not es about t he general care and maintenance of concrete mixers

CHAPTER 6: WORKING WITH CONCRETE 1
6.1 Transporting concrete
The transport of concret e from the mixing point or plant t o the point at which it is t o be placed must
comply with some requirement s:
- Transport must be rapid so that concret e does not dry out or lose it s workability or plast icity
- Segregat ion must be reduced t o a minimum in order to avoid nonuniform concret e.
- Transport should be organized so that during placing of any part icular sect ion, delays will not
result in the format ion of const ruct ion joint s.
In order to reduce segregat ion, t he following should be observed:
Where possible, concret e carries should be equipped wit h pneumat ic t ires and the surfaces
over which t hey t ravel should be as smooth as possible. On common const ruct ion sit es, wheel
barrows are made to move over t imber well fixed t o provide smooth movement .
Concret e should not be allowed t o drop from a considerable height .
Concret e should be placed direct ly in the posit ion in which it is t o remain and must not be
allowed t o flow or be worked along the formwork. Vibrators should not be used t o spread a
heap of concret e over a large area.
Aggregat es used should be well graded.
Good concrete for transport should be well graded well mixed, well put on t ransport ing equipment s
and not at a dist ance. Various met hods are available for transport ing concret e but the most common
ones include:
Wheel barrows, head pans
Pumpers
Lorries
Conveyor belt
Concret e pumps with t ubes
Chut es
Evaporat ion of wat er from concret e in hot dry regions during transport can be quit e serious and t he
only alt ernat ive is to provide some cover t o the t ransport ing medium.
6.1.1 Sampling concrete for test purposes
This refers to procedures for obtaining a representat ive of a freshly mixed concret e on which t est s are
performed t o det ermine conformance wit h quality requirement s. Samples should preferably be
random and at least 0.03 m
3
. However, smaller samples may be permitt ed for rout ine t est s such as
slump t est but the sample size is dict at ed by maximum aggregat e size. Below are the sampling rules:
Sampling should be performed as concret e is delivered from the mixer.
Sample by collect ing t wo or more port ions t aken at regularly spaced int ervals during
discharge of the middle of the bat ch. No sample should be t aken before 10% or aft er 90% of
t he bat ch has been discharged. Due to the difficulty of determining the act ual quant it y of

concret e discharged, the int ent is t o provide samples t hat are represent at ive of widely
separat ed port ions, but not the beginning and end of the load.
As rout ine t est s such as sl ump t est s are not readily adapt able t o sampling the concrete at t wo
or more regularly spaced int ervals during discharge of t he middle port ion of t he bat ch, t he
sample may be t aken aft er at least one-quart er cubic met er of concret e has been discharged.
Combine the port ions int o one sample for t est ing purposes. Do not obt ain port ions of t he
composit e sample from the very first or last part of t he bat ch discharge Take care not to
rest rict the flow of concret e from t he mixer, cont ainer or t ransport at ion unit so as this would
t o cause segregat ion.
Immediat ely t ransport t he sample t o the place where test specimens are t o be molded or where
t he t est is to be made, and remix as needed to insure uniformit y and compliance. The sample
shall be prot ect ed at all t imes from sunlight and wind.
The elapsed t ime bet ween obt aining t he first and final port ions of t he composit e samples
shall be as short as possible, but in no inst ance shall it exceed 15 minut es. Test for slump
should be st art ed wit hin 5 minut es while molding of specimens for st rength t est s shall be
wit hin 15 minut es aft er t he sampling.
Concret e used in one t est may not be reused for any ot her t est . It may be ret urned t o the forms
if the maximum t ime from bat ching has not been exceeded or adverse condit ions have not
caused it s excessive drying.
Make the sample as represent at ive as possible and guard against segregat ion during sampling
6.2 Placing concrete
Aft er mixing, concret e should be placed before setting t ime t ends e.g. for Ordinary Port land Cement
t he concret e sett ing t ime is bet ween 30 minut es t o 1 hour. Concret e is quickly t ransport ed t o the place
of laying and the mode of t ransport depends upon t he magnit ude of t he work. It is very essent ial to
essent ial that neit her during transport nor placing, there is any segregat ion of aggregat es.
Factors t o consider during placing
i. Concret e should be placed as soon as possible
ii. Concret e should be deposit ed in thin horizont al layers and compact ed t horoughly
iii. Concret e should be cont inuously poured to avoid joint s and improper bonding.
iv. Concret e should be thoroughly worked into posit ion i.e. all corners of t he formwork and no
space should remain.
v. Concret e should never be dropped from a height as this would cause segregat ion of
aggregat es.
vi. Prot ect fresh concret e from temperat ure ext remes during and aft er placement
vii. Coordinat e the placing and compact ion rat es so t hat concret e is not deposit ed fast er than it
can be compact ed properly
viii. When placing concrete on slopes, always deposit t he concrete at the bottom of the slope first
and then proceed up the slope.
ix. When placing slabs, place concret e at t he far end first and then subsequent batches against t he
previous one. Avoid placing in separat e/isolated heaps.

x. When const ruct ing walls and/or beams, place t he first bat ch of each layer at t he ends of t he
sect ion and t hen proceed t owards t he cent re to prevent wat er from collect ing at the formwork
ends and corners.
In case concret e has more water or it has been laid in thick layers, then on compact ion wat er, fine
part icles of aggregates and t iny part icle of cement come to t he t op forming a layer of weak subst ance
(scum) called laitance. This weak subst ance should be broken down and removed and the surface
coat ed wit h a richer mix before fresh concrete is placed on it.
6.3 Compaction of concrete
This process consist s essent ially of the eliminat ion of ent rapped air. The reasons for compact ing
concret e include;
- To remove voids / air holes
- To increase st rength
- Improving on t he t ext ure. Compact ion brings fine mat erial t o t he surface and against t he
formwork to produce t he desired finish
- To make concret e air-t ight
When compact ing, it is import ant t hat t he reinforcement bars are properly embedded and should not
be dist urbed since t he st rength of a concrete member depends on proper reinforcement locat ion.
Formwork should also not be damaged or displaced. Compact ion can be done manually (by hand) or
mechanically (use of vibrators). The t wo met hods require mixes of different workabilit ies. A mix t hat
is t oo dry cannot be sufficient ly worked by hand and conversely a very wet mix should not be
vibrat ed to avoid t he risk of segregat ion.
6.3.1 Manual (hand) compaction
This method requires spades, st icks or t ampers. To consolidat e concrete wit h a spade or st ick, insert
t he spade or st ick along the surface of the formwork, t hrough t he fresh concret e (layer just placed) and
into t he concret e layer underneat h. The ext ension of the spade/st ick up to t he concret e layer
underneat h is to avoid a plane of weakness bet ween t he t wo layers t here by forming a monolit hic
concret e element . Cont inue spading/st icking unt il the coarse aggregat es disappear int o the concret e.
Advant ages of manual compact ion
- Fair on small jobs
- Convenient on mixes wit h a high workability
Disadvantages of manual compact ion
In concret e mixes with a low workabilit y, compact ion is hard to att ain
Slow
It is economically expensive on large project s
6.3.2 Machine compaction
This is done by use of vibrat ors and is t he best met hod because;
- It is more economical on large project s
- Fast er
- Most of t he desirable concret e propert ies can be att ained
- It makes it possible t o use less workable mixes result ing in increased strengt h.
There are different t ypes of vibrators namely;
Int ernal / immersion / pocket / poke vibrat ors
Ext ernal / framework vibrat ors

Vi brat ing t ables
Surface vibrators
Vi brat ing rollers
Care should be t aken not to make excessive use of vibrators otherwise t he concret e becomes non-
homogeneous.
Int ernal vibrators
They are t he most common and consist of a rod (poker) which when insert ed in concret e gives
vibrat ions t o it result ing in the consolidat ion of concret e. Care should be t aken not t o let it t ouch t he
reinforcement which is likely to get displaced. Internal vibratos have a higher efficiency t han ot her
t ypes of vibrators since all the energy is t ransmitt ed direct ly t o the concret e.
During operat ion, lower the vibrator int o the fresh concret e vert ically (at point s not more than 450 mm
apart ) and allow it to descend by gravit y. The vibrat or should not only pass t hrough the layer just
placed but also penetrat e into the underneat h concret e layer (if st ill plast ic or can be brought again t o a
plast ic st at e) to ensure good bond bet ween t he t wo layers. One is able to know t hat he has compact ed
properly when a thin film of mort ar appears along the formwork near t he vibrator, t he coarse
aggregat es disappears into the concret e and/or t he past e begins t o appear near t he vibrator head. The
t ime required for vibrat ion depends on t he consistence of t he mix and may be up to 2 minut es. Then,
gradually wit hdraw t he vibrator at approximat ely the same gravity rat e t hat it descended so that t he
hole left by the vibrator closes fully without any air being t rapped.
Note: To avoid t he possibilit y of segregat ion, neither vibrat e a mix that you can consolidate manually
nor t hat with a high workabilit y and do not use vibrators to move concret e in the form.
Ext ernal vibrators
These are usually rigidly att ached t o t he formwork by means of a clamp and they cause a vibratory
mot ion of the formwork which dist ribut es t he vibrating forces into the concret e. In other words, both
formwork and concret e vibrate. When t hese ext ernal forces are used, you should ensure that t he
formwork is st rong/rigid and wat er t ight t o avoid dist ort ion and leakage of grout . These vibrat ors are
usually adopt ed when it is impossible t o insert a manual or int ernal vibrator for example int o heavily
reinforced or small and narrow sect ions. They are not as efficient as int ernal vibrat ors since a
considerable amount of energy is absorbed by t he formwork.
Vi brat ing t ables
These are commonly used in t he laboratory and involve clamping the formwork wit h concret e on to
t he vibrat ing t able. The t able is then made to vibrat e. They have an advant age of offering uniform
t reatment (compact ion) throughout the ent ire specimen.
Surface (pan) vibrators
These are in t he form of plat es which are used for t he consolidat ion of mass concret e especially in
road construct ion and floor slabs. It applies vibrat ion t hrough a flat plate direct ly t o the t op surface of
t he concrete.
Vi brat ing rollers
They are common in road construct ion works for compact ing thin slabs.
6.4 Concreting in hot weather
Hot weat her causes high t emperat ures of concrete and an increased rat e of evaporat ion from the fresh
mix. A higher t emperat ure of fresh concret e leads to a more rapid hydrat ion and hence an accelerat ed
sett ing leading t o a lower st rengt h of hardened concret e. Also rapid evaporat ion may also cause

plast ic shrinkage and crazing and subsequent cooling of t he concret e would result in t ensile st resses.
Curing methods such as t he wett ing of heat ed concret e element s exposed to prolonged and direct
radiat ion, which induce t emperat ure gradient s wit hin the concret e mass are strongly prohibit ed. For
large pours, ext ra precaut ions should be t aken to reduce concret e t emperat ure gradient s and t o prevent
t he loss of surface moist ure. Such pract ical measures include but are not limit ed t o:
i. Reducing t he cement cont ent preferably by the use of admixt ures (but not below t hat required
for the durabilit y) so t hat the heat of hydrat ion does not unduly aggravat e the effect s of a high
ambient t emperat ures.
ii. Using a cement wit h a lower heat of hydrat ion
iii. Cooling of mixing wat er and/or replacing part or whole of the added wat er wit h ice. It is
however essent ial t hat the ice melt s complet ely before t he mixing has been complet ed.
iv. Cooling t he aggregates by spraying wit h water or liquid nit rogen. However, this is more
difficult and less effect ive.
v. Providing shade to t he fresh concret e surface to prevent heat gain from direct radiat ion. If not
prot ected from t he sun, the night cooling t hat follows is likely t o cause cracking due t o
t emperat ure differences.
vi. Keeping all mix const it uent s under shade where possible t o reduce their t emperat ures in t he
st ockpile
vii. Inject ing liquid nit rogen aft er mixing of concret e in order to cool the concret e
viii. Rest ring t he t ime bet ween mixing and placing of the concret e. A given concret e batch should
be placed as soon as the mixing is complete
ix. Init iat ing curing immediat ely after final t amping and cont inue unt il an appropriat e surface
insulat ion syst em is fully in place
x. Providing approved surface insulat ion cont inuously over all exposed surfaces t o prevent
drought s and to maint ain uniform t emperat ure through the concret e mass
xi. If t he surface exhibit s crack aft er compact ion, it should be re-t amped t o close the cracks while
t he concrete is st ill in plast ic st age.
xii. Using high-insulat ion formwork or surface insulat ion to reduce heat ingress when t emperat ure
gradient s are crit ical.
6.5 Col d weather concreting
The t emperat ure of concret e should never fall below 5 before and during placing or below 4 unt il
it has hardened. When the atmospheric t emperat ure falls below about 4, one should t ake all
necessary st eps t o prevent freezing. When wat er freezes, it expands and can crack hardened concret e.
The following measures are recommended:
i. Increase heat evolved by cement by:
Use of rapid-hardening Port land cement or ultra-high early st rengt h Port land cement .
Adding an accelerat or which must not cont ain calcium chloride for reinforced or
prest ressed concret e or concret e cont aining an embedded met al
ii. Heating the ingredients: Mat erials t o be used should be warm. Wat er t emperat ure should not
exceed 82 and frozen aggregat es should never be used. Aggregat es can be heat ed by use of
st eam via st eam pipes. To avoid flash set of the cement , aggregat es and mixing wat er should
be mixed before the cement is added so t hat their temperat ure is unlikely t o exceed about
30.
iii. Conserve heat: Surfaces of concret e can be covered wit h good insulat ing mat erials (such as
t hick t imber formwork). Any cold winds should be kept off.
iv. Heating the building: This can be achieved by use of hot air blowers but great care must be
t aken to avoid drying the fresh concret e.

v. Heating the formwork: Concret e must never be placed in frost covered formwork or frozen
ground. Formwork can be heat ed by a low pressure wet st eam or hot air wit h a fine wat er
spray.
vi. In cold climat es wit h frequent freeze/t haw condit ions, the concret e may need an air-ent raining
admixt ure for long t erm durabilit y.
vii. Try to keep concret e as much above 10 (preferably at room t emperat ure) as possible for the
first few days.

6.6 Research
6.6.1 Research (maintenance of vibrators)
Research and make your own not es about t he general care and maintenance of vibrators
6.6.2 Research (formwork)
Read and compile your own not es about the following in relat ion t o formwork:
Design, erect ion and removal of formwork.
Qualit ies of good formwork.
Common mat erials used as formwork in Uganda.
Effect s of poor formwork on concrete
Funct ions of formwork
6.6.3 Research (steel reinforcements)
Read and compile your own not es about the following in relat ion t o st eel reinforcement s:
Funct ions and quality of reinforcement s
Posit ioning of reinforcement s
Corrosion of reinforcement s
Concret e cover and fire resist ance

CHAPTER 7: HARDENED CONCRETE
Generally, hardened concret e should be durable, with sufficient strengt h and impermeable. Aft er
concret e has been worked, it is t hen properly cured t o achieve these desirable propert ies.
7.1 Concrete curi ng
This is t he name given t o t he procedures t aken for promot ing t he hydrat ion cement and it consist s of
t he control of t emperat ure and moist ure movement t o and from t he concret e. The major object ive of
curing is t o keep concret e sat urat ed due t o t he fact t hat hydrat ion of cement takes place in wat er filled
capillaries. The period of curing should be a minimum of 7 days for Ordinary Port land Cement. With
slower-hardening cement s, a longer period is desirable.
Concrete curing can therefore be achieved by addit ion of moist ure or prevent ion of moist ure loss or
bot h. In pract ice, t he following met hods may be used:
Oiling (inside surface) and wett ing of formwork before cast ing
The forms may also be wett ed during hardening
Keeping concrete in cont act wit h a source of wat er e.g. by spraying, flooding, et c. A
cont inuous wat er supply is more efficient
Aft er stripping off formwork, concrete may be sprayed and wrapped wit h polyt hene sheet s or
other suit able covering.
Large surfaces of concret e such as road slabs need t o be prot ect ed even prior t o sett ing. Since
t he concrete is mechanically weak before sett ing, a suspended cover in case of dry weat her or
during rains
Covering the concret e with wet sand or eart h, sawdust or straw
An impermeable membrane or water proof paper may also be used. Provided the membrane is
not punct ured or damaged, it will effect ively prevent evaporat ion of wat er from t he concrete
but will not allow ingress of wat er t o replenish t hat lost by self-desiccat ion. The membrane is
formed by sealing compounds applied after free wat er has disappeared from t he concrete
surface. However, t his met hod is expensive and reduces t he rat e of hydrat ion
Improper curing can impart adverse effect s on hardened concrete t hrough:
Reduced durabilit y and strengt h
Scaling
Poor abrasion resist ance
Cracking et c.
Increasing permeability
7.2 Durability of concrete
This is t he resist ance to deteriorat ion processes that may occur as a result of interact ion with it s
environment (ext ernal) or bet ween the const it uent mat erials or their react ion with t he cont aminant s
present (int ernal). This propert y is cont rolled by t he st rength of concret e.
7.3 Strength of hardened concrete
This is t he maximum load or st ress the hardened concret e can carry. St rengt h can be compressive or
t ensile. Compressive strength is commonly used in concrete t echnology since most of the st ruct ural
element s in civil engineering works are designed t o wit hst and compressive forces. Factors that affect
concret e st rength include:

- -- - Const it uent mat erials
Wat er-cement rat io: t he higher the wat er-cement ratio, the lower t he compressive
st rength
Cement characterist ics: both fineness and chemical composit ion affect st rength
especially at early st ages
Richness/leanness of the mix
Aggregat e grading, surface t ext ure (t o facilit at e bonding), shape and strengt h
Maximum size of aggregat es
Cement -aggregat e (fine and coarse) rat io
Presence of admixt ures
- -- - Method of preparat ion and placing in order to achieve a proper and fully compact ed mix
- -- - Curing condit ions
Presence of moist ure during curing
Temperat ure
Length of curing period
- -- - Test condit ions:
The higher the moist ure cont ent at t ime of t est , the lower the st rengt h.
Specimen size and shape
Method of loading
- -- - Age
It should be not ed t hat t he direct tensile st rength of concret e varies bet ween
1
8
and
1
14
of it s
compressive st rength but the t ensile strengt h measured in bending is usually about 50% great er.
7.3.1 Test for compressive strength
Preparat ion of t est specimen
Assemble a mould of int ernal dimensions 150 by 150 by 150 mm and apply a thin layer of oil
on inside surface. Oil prevent s bonding bet ween t he mould and concret e.
Fill t he mould wit h concret e in t hree layers, each layer being tamped at least 35 t imes by a
st eel rod. Finish t he top of t he concret e by means of a trowel.
The cube is then st ored undist urbed for about 24 hours at about 18 22
0
C. The mould is
t hen stripped off and t he cube cured in wat er at 19 21
0
C up to the t ime of test ing. In order
t o determine the quality of t he concret e in t he actual st ruct ure, the cubes are cured under
condit ions similar to t hose exist ing in t he act ual struct ure.
Procedure of t est ing
Weigh each specimen and measure it s dimensions
Immerse t he specimens in wat er for a minimum of 5 minut es to ensure t hat t hey are wet
during t est ing.
Ensure t hat all t est ing-machine bearing surfaces are clean and any loose mat erial is removed
from t he surfaces of the t est cube
Carefully cent re t he cube on t he lower plat en of t he t est ing machine and ensure that the load
will be applied t o t wo opposit e cast faces of the cube
Apply and increase t he load cont inuously at a nominal rat e of 0.2 - 0.4 N/(mm
2
s) unt il no
great er load can be sust ained. On manually cont rolled machines, as failure is approached t he
loading rat e is decreased.
Record the maximum load applied to t he cube and the type of failure.

Result s
Calculat e t he compressive strengt h (in N/mm
2
) of each cube from t he formula:

Note:
a) Unsat isfact ory failures are usually caused by insufficient att ent ion t o t he procedures above. For
example, it may be due t o badly made cubes, use of moulds t hat do not comply with
specificat ions, wrong placement of cubes in the t est ing machine and also machine fault .
b) Test s of six cubes are required
c) The st rength of concret e in t he act ual struct ure is usually less than t hat of t he t est specimen
d) The result s can be tabulat ed in a form similar to the one in Appendix A1 (Form A101).
7.4 Other properties of hardened concrete
i. Appearance: Variat ions in t he appearance of concret e surfaces may result from:
Mat erials e.g. coloured cement s, aggregates (colour, shape, t ext ure and grading)
Formwork
Works done on t he surface aft er cast ing
Exposure t o atmosphere
Abrasion
ii. Permeability: Use of a low wat er:cement rat io and ensuring thorough compact ion produces
concret e with a very high resist ance to wat er penetrat ion. Some admixt ures can also
cont ribut e t o impermeabilit y.
iii. Chemical resistance: This generally increases wit h increase in t he crushing (compressive)
st rength.
iv. Frost resistance: Wat er (ice) in pores or cracks may expand due to freezing and damage
concret e. Air ent rainment admixt ures are able t o form discont inuous pores which improve
resist ance t o frost.
v. Abrasion: Resist ance t o abrasion depends on the hardness of aggregat es and abilit y of t he
mort ar t o ret ain t hem.
vi. Fire resistance: Up t o about 120
0
C, t he st rength of ordinary concret e increases, but t here is a
serious loss of st rengt h at higher t emperat ures. Generally, the survival of reinforced concrete
depends upon t he prot ect ion afforded t o steel reinforcement s by concrete cover. Once t he
cover spalls off, st eel conduct s heat readily and failure is rapid. Above 900
0
C, over 85% of
t he strengt h will have been lost , depending on t he composit ion of t he concret e.
vii. Moisture movement: Concret e shrinks when it dries and expands when wett ed, the great er part
of t he init ial drying shrinkage being irreversible. Excessive moist ure movement s may cause
dist ort ions and cracks. Moist ure movement s increases wit h richness of mix, wat er:cement
rat io, permeability and when aggregat es which are not rigid are used. Proper reinforcement
det ailing reduces moist ure movement s in reinforced concret e.
7.5 Concrete defects
Some defect s are obvious only t o a trained eye while ot hers may be are obvious t o anyone. Below are
some of the defect s t hat may occur in concret e:
Cracking
Colour variat ion
Crazing
Dust ing
Rain damage
Spalling

Efflorescence
Honeycombing
Blist ering
1. Cracking
These are of different t ypes and can great ly reduce concret e st rength. Repair depends on the type and
ext ent of the cracks. Various causes of cracking include:
Use of weak formwork
Part ial compact ion of concrete
Wrong curing procedures
Ground movement or sett lement (poor foundat ion)
Overloading of the st ruct ure
when st eel reinforcement s are not fixed properly as
2. Colour variation
These are differences in colour across t he surface of concret e and appear as pat ches of light and dark.
This may be caused by use of uneven concret e mix, variable curing condit ions across t he surface,
applying different mat erials t o t he surface as a 'driers'. To hide (repair) t hese variat ions, a surface
coat ing can be applied.
3. Crazing
This appears as a net work of fine cracks across t he surface of concret e. Crazing is caused by minor
surface shrinkage in rapidly drying condit ions (low humidity and hot t emperat ures, or alternate
wet t ing and drying.) Prevent ion is by proper finishing and curing procedures. Repair may not be
necessary because crazing will not weaken concret e. However, if the crazing looks t oo bad t hen a
surface coat ing of paint or other overlay sealer can be applied to cover and/or minimize t he effect of
t he cracks.
4. Dusting
It appears as a fine powder on the concret e surface which comes off on your fingers and is caused by
finishing before t he bleed wat er has dried, finishing during rains., not curing properly, exposure of
concret e to severe abrasion or using concrete of a very low grade. In repair, where surface dust ing is
minimal t he applicat ion of a surface hardener can be beneficial. If t he surface is showing significant
wear dist ress it is essent ial to remove all loose mat erial and then apply a suit able t opping.
5. Rain damage
In t his case, the surface has bit s washed away or many small dent s or exposed aggregat es and can be
caused by heavy rain hitt ing exposed fresh concrete while it is sett ing or rainwat er being allowed to
run across the concret e surface.
Repair
If concret e has not hardened and damage is minimal t he surface can be refinished taking care
not to allow excess wat er into the concret e.
If the concret e has hardened it may be possible t o grind or scrape the minimal amount of t he
surface layer and apply a t opping layer of new concret e. This should only be done wit h great
care.
6. Spalling
In this case t he slab edges and joint s chip or break leaving an elongat ed cavit y.
Causes
Edges of joint s break because of heavy loads or impact wit h hard object s.
As concret e expands and cont ract s the weak edges may crack and break.
Ent ry of hard object s into joint s.
Poor compact ion of concret e at joint s.
Prevent ion
Design the joint s carefully.

Keep joint s free from rubbish.
Keep heavy loads away from t he joint s and edges until they have properly hardened.
Ensure proper compact ion.
Repair
Scrape, chip or grind away the weak areas unt il you reach sound concret e, making sure you brush t he
old concret e clean of any loose mat erial. Then refill the area wit h new concret e or repair mortar and
compact , finish and cure the new patch carefully.
7. Efflorescence
This is a whit e cryst alline deposit somet imes found on the surface of concret e soon aft er it is finished.
This can be prevent ed by using clean, salt -free water and washed sands avoiding excessive bleeding.
Remove efflorescence by dry brushing (wit hout using a wire brush) and washing wit h clean wat er or a
dilut e solut ion of hydrochloric acid.
8. Honeycombing
In t his defect , t oo much coarse aggregat e appears on the surface. It is caused by poor compact ion,
segregat ion during placing, past e leakage from formwork and use of a poor concret e mix (e.g. with
limit ed fine aggregat es causing a rocky mix). If it has occurred, it can be repaired by rendering
(covering the surface wit h a layer of mort ar). However, if honeycombing happens t hroughout t he
concret e sect ion, the concret e may need t o be removed and replaced.
9. Blistering
Blist ers are hollow bumps on t he concret e surface filled wit h eit her air or bleed wat er. They occur
when the fresh concrete surface is finished while trapped air or bleed wat er under the surface. They
usually appear in t hick slabs or on hot days when the surface is prone t o drying out . In order t o avoid
blist ers, aft er placing and init ial finishing, leave t he concret e as long as possible before final finishing
and cure properly. Repair can be done by grinding off the weakened layer t o an even finish.

YEAR TWO
CHAPTER 8: MATERIAL AND CONCRETE TESTS
- PRACTICE
8.1 Review
So far, t he procedures and equipment for the following t est s has already been covered in the previous
t opics.
- Taking samples of aggregat e and quant it ies required for laborat ory t est s
- Grading t est s for aggregate
- Test ing aggregat es for suspect ed organic impurit ies
- Test ing sand for bulking
- Set t ing t ime of a cement past e
- Sampling of concret e for t est purposes
- Sl ump test for workabilit y
- Compact ing fact or t est for workability
- Making t est cubes
- Compressive strengt hs t est s for cubes
8.2 Practi cal tests
Pract ical t est s shall be done in t he laboratory by each individual st udent . The st udent s are therefore
expect ed t o underst and the procedures and inquire where necessary t o avoid wrong result s. The
Lect urer shall assess t he performance of t he st udent and this shall be incorporat ed in t he st udents
cont inuous assessment .

CHAPTER 9: WORKING WITH CONCRETE - 2
9.1 Concrete joints
In order to prevent concret e struct ures from damage caused by plast ic shrinkage, thermal shrinkage,
sett lement , movement et c, concrete joint s are required. There are 3 common types of concret e joint s:
Construct ion joint s
Cont ract ion (cont rol) joint s
Expansion joint s
These joint s need to be sealed so that t hey are not left empt y.
9.1.1 Construction joints
Construct ion joint s are formed where concret e placement operat ions end for t he day or where one
st ruct ural element is cast against a previously cast concrete. Generally, t hey are made before and after
interrupt ions in the placement of concret e or t hrough t he posit ioning of precast unit s. Locat ions are
usually predet ermined so as t o limit the work that can be done at one t ime to a convenient size, wit h
least impairment of the finished st ruct ure, though they may also be necessit at ed by unforeseen
interrupt ions in concret ing operat ions. Depending on t he st ruct ural design, they may be required to
funct ion lat er as expansion or contract ion joint s, or t hey may be required t o be soundly bonded t o t he
first so as to maint ain complete st ruct ural int egrit y. Construct ion joint s may run horizontally or
vert ically depending on t he placing sequence prescribed by the design and ext ends ent irely t hrough
t he concrete element .
The following should be preferably observed during placement of construct ion joint s:
Joint s should be st raight eit her vert ical or horizont al
In columns, they should be made as near as possible to the beam haunching.
In beams and slabs, it should be wit hin the middle t hird of the span.
Vert ical joint s should be formed against t emporary but rigid st op-boards which must be
designed t o allow reinforcement s pass through while simult aneously avoiding mort ar leakage.
Laitance (scum of cement and very fine mat erial) must not be allowed t o form on horizontal
joint surfaces, preferably by use of a drier mix. If present , the scum can be removed by
brushing or hacking (in case of hardened concret e).
The cleaned surface may be wet t ed to reduce absorption of wat er from the fresh concret e by
hardened concret e. Alternat ively, a t hin grout of cement can be brushed over t he surface. The
new concret e must t hen be placed wit hin 30 minut es.
Ensure t horough compact ion and no segregat ion of new concret e along the joint plane.
9.1.2 Contraction (control) joints
Cont ract ion joint s are purposely inst alled joint s designed t o regulat e cracking t hat might ot herwise
occur due to t he unavoidable, oft en unpredictable, cont ract ion of concret e. These joint s are oft en
called cont rol joint s because they are int ended to cont rol crack locat ions. The necessary plane of
weakness may be formed by reducing t he concrete cross-sect ion by t ooling or saw cut t ing a joint
wit hin 24 hours of placing. Cont ract ion joint movement is supposed t o be small.

9.1.3 Expansion joints
Expansion joint s are designed to prevent t he crushing and dist ort ion of the abutt ing concret e st ruct ural
unit s t hat might ot herwise occur due t o t he transmission of compressive forces t hat may be developed
by expansion, applied loads, or different ial movement s arising from t he configurat ion of t he st ruct ure
or it s sett lement . Expansion joint s are made by providing a space over the ent ire cross sect ion bet ween
abut t ing st ruct ural unit s. Expansion joint movement may be high (up to 30 % of joint widt h).
Qn: What is the signifi cance of i sol ati on (contracti on and expansion) joints?
Isolat ion joint s isolat e slabs or concret e st ruct ure from other part s of st ruct ure. The presence of
isolat ion joint s allows independent vert ical or horizont al movement bet ween adjoining part s of t he
st ruct ure. Ot herwise, t he st ruct ure may experience cracking owing t o t he rest rained movement caused
by direct ional connect ion bet ween adjoining concrete struct ures.
9.1.4 Guidelines in placement of isolation (contraction and expansion) joints
Always follow t he guidelines for maximum spacing. If in doubt use closer spacing than
recommended. This is part icularly import ant on decorat ive concret e surfaces.
For slabs wi der t han footpat hs the longest side of any sect ion should be no longer than 1.5
t imes the widt h of the short er side.
Always put a joint at any change of direct ion.
Pay part icular att ent ion t o re-ent rant corners.
Never place a joint at an acut e angle to the concret e edge. Always make a t urn wit h the joint
t o arrive at right angles t o t he edge. That is don't leave sect ions with pointed ends, they
always crack. The trick is to set a line square off the sloping edge. This averages the angle.
9.2 Fi nishi ng concrete
The finishing process is aimed at providing t he final concret e surface.
9.2.1 Floating
This has the following purposes:
To embed aggregat e part icles just below the surface
Remove slight imperfect ions (high or low spot s)
Compact the concret e at t he surface in preparat ion t o ot her finishing operat ions.
If a smoot her surface is required, the surface should be worked sparingly with wood or aluminium
float s. An aluminium float gives t he finished concret e a much smoother surface than a wood float .
In order to achieve the desired result s, t he following should be not ed during float ing:
+ To avoid cracking and dust ing of the finished concrete, begin aluminium float ing when t he
wat er sheen disappears from t he freshly placed concrete surface.
+ Do not use cement or wat er as an aid in finishing the surface.
+ Begin float ing immediat ely aft er screeding while t he concret e is st ill plast ic and workable.
However, do no overwork t he concret e when it is st ill plast ic because you may bring an
excess of wat er and past e to t he surface which forms a thin, weak layer that will quickly wear
off during use.
+ To remove a coarse t ext ure in the final finish, you usually have to float the surface a second
t ime aft er it part ially hardens.

9.2.2 Trowelling
If a dense smoot h finish is desired, st eel t rowelling must follow float ing. Trowelling should
begin aft er t he moist ure film or sheen disappears from t he float ed surface and when concrete
has hardened enough to prevent fine mat erial and wat er from being worked on the surface.
This st ep should be delayed as long as possible since t rowelling too early t ends t o reduce
durabilit y. However, a longer delay for trowelling result s in a surface becoming too hard to
finish properly.
Trowelling should leave the surface smoot h and free from marks and ripples.
Spreading dry cement on a wet surface t o t ake up excess wat er is not a good pract ice where a
wear-resist ant and durable surface is required.
Wet sport s must be avoided if possible and if they do occur, finishing operat ions should not
be resumed unt il t he wat er has been absorbed or evaporated or has been mopped up.
A fine t ext ured, un-slipperly surface can be obt ained by t rowelling light ly over t he surface
wit h a circular mot ion immediat ely after the first regular t rowelling. In t his process, t he t rowel
is kept flat on the surface of the concret e.
Where a hard st eel-trowelled finish is required, follow the first regular t rowelling by a second
one. The second trowelling should begin aft er the concret e has become hard enough so t hat no
mort ar adheres to the t rowel, and a ringing sound is produced as the t rowel passes over t he
surface. During t his final t rowelling, t he t rowel should be t ilt ed slight ly and heavy pressure
exert ed t o t horoughly compact the surface.
9.3 Yiel d of a concrete mix
This is the volume of a freshly mixed, unhardened concrete made from a known quant ity of
ingredient s. It is sold on a volume basi s (m
3
). If ready mix concret e has been bat ched by mass, it is
necessary to convert the plant scale readings t o volume for sale. The volume of freshly mixed and
unhardened concret e in a given bat ch can be det ermined from the tot al mass of the bat ch divided by
t he densit y of the concret e. Concret e yield problems (short ages) may occur due to
Miscalculat ing form volumes or slab t hicknesses. A fract ional error may result in more
concret e being used t han was previously ordered.
Form deflect ion or dist ort ion under the weight of the fresh concret e
Irregular sub-grades which require extra concret e, or sub-grade set t lement under pressure
from t he fresh concret e
Waste, spillage, loss of some ent rained air, set t lement of wet mixes and use of excess concrete
in incident al mud sills or foot ings
An over yield can be an indicat ion of a problem if t he excess concret e has been caused by
excess air or aggregates or if the forms have not been properly filled.
Differences bet ween the bat ched weight s of ingredient s being out side permitted ranges
These short ages can be prevent ed by:
Generally avoiding all t he above causes
Proper and accurat e measurement s
Construct ing formwork t o wit hst and t he pressure of fresh concret e wit hout deflect ion or
dist ort ion
For slabs on grade, t he sub-grade should be level and well compact ed
Include an allowance of 4 10% to account for concret e wast e, spillage, over-excavat ion and
other factors. Some jobs may require a larger allowance for cont ingencies t han others.
Always check the concret e yield by measuring t he concret e unit weight . Repeat these t est s if
problems arises.


9.3.1 Determination of yield of a concrete mix
In the equat ions below, density is t he unit weight of concret e in kg/m
3
.

Somet imes, t he yield of a concret e mix may also be quoted in t erms of t he quant ity of concret e
produced by a unit of cement say one bag of cement.

Considering a st andard bag of cement of 50 kg,

50

CHAPTER 10: INTRODUCTION TO PRESTRESSED
CONCRETE
10.1 Introducti on
Prestressing concrete is a method for overcoming concret e's nat ural weakness in tension. It is a
combinat ion of high st rength concret e and st eel st rands t o make a very st rong st ruct ural mat erial t hat
is used in const ruct ion of roof slabs, bridges and railroad t ies. St ruct ural element s produced have a
longer span than is pract ical wit h ordinary reinforced concrete. Prest ressing tendons (generally of
high t ensile st eel cable or rods) are used t o provide a clamping load which produces a compressive
st ress t hat offset s t he t ensile st ress t hat the concret e compression member would otherwise experience
due t o a bending load.
10.2 Methods of prestressing concrete
Prest ressed concrete can be creat ed using t wo different methods; pre-t ension and post-t ension
Pre-tensioning method involves stret ching high t ensile steel strands between abut ment s locat ed at
bot h ends of t he concret e cast ing bed/mould. Aft er t he st rands are t aught , concret e is poured into
t he mould where it surrounds and adheres t o the strands. Once t he concrete is dry it will have
bonded t o the st eel. Aft er the concret e has reached the desired st rength t he strands are released,
result ing in the concret e to develop a slight arch t hat makes it more resist ant t o heavy loads. Pre-
t ensioned beams can resist very high stress wit hout cracking while columns don't buckle under t he
weight of heavy loads. Thin concret e pads are prestressed to keep t hem from bowing under
normal weight .
Post-tensioning method involves applying compression aft er t he concret e has been poured and
hardened t o the required init ial strengt h. The concret e is poured around a curved duct that has had
st eel st rands ran t hrough it . Upon curing, t ension is applied to the st rands using hydraulic jacks.
The strands are then wedged int o place so the t ension remains aft er t he hydraulic jacks have been
removed. Post-t ension concret e is used as monolit hic slabs for st ruct ures in areas wit h expansive
soils such as clay and is also highly efficient for const ruct ing buildings wit h more elaborate
design work.
10.3 Comparison of prestressed and reinforced concrete beams
Generally, a prest ressed concret e beam of a given span and sect ion can carry a very great load
compared t o a reinforced concret e beam of t he same span and cross sect ion. As already seen,
prest ressed concret e beams produced have a longer span than is pract ical wit h ordinary reinforced
concret e.
Consider prestressed beams spaced at 4 m cent er t o centre, spanning 12 m and designed t o support a
load of 4 kPa. Below are the sect ions for ordinary reinforced and prest ressed beams designed for this
given span and loading.


Figure 10-1: Comparison of prestressed and reinforced concrete beams
Table 10-1: Comparison of prestressed and reinforced concrete beams using Figure 10-1
Material Reinforced
concrete design
Prestressed concrete
design
Material savings from reinforced
concrete design to prestressed
concrete design
Concrete 0.288 m
3
/m 0.18 m
3
/m 37.5 %
Reinforcing steel 42 kg/m 6.20 kg/m 66 %
Prestressing steel
-----------
8.47 kg/m 66 %
10.4 Appli cati ons of prestressed concrete
Prest ressed concret e is the predominat ing mat erial for floors in high-rise buildings and t he
ent ire cont ainment vessels of nuclear react ors.
Un-bonded post -t ensioning t endons are commonly used in parking garages as barrier cable.
Also, due t o it s abilit y to be st ressed and t hen de-stressed, it can be used t o temporarily repair
a damaged buil ding by holding up a damaged wall or floor unt il permanent repairs can be
made.
Prest ressed concrete has the advant age of crack cont rol
Lower construct ion cost s especially for high rise buildings.
Thinner slabs are import ant in high rise buildings in which floor t hickness savings can
t ranslat e into addit ional floors for the same (or lower) cost
Fewer joint s since post -t ensioned st ruct ural element s usually have a larger span
Prest ressing can also be accomplished on circular concret e pipes used for wat er t ransmission.
High t ensile st rength st eel wire is helically-wrapped around t he out side of the pipe under
cont rolled t ension and spacing which induces a circumferent ial compressive st ress in t he core
concret e. This enables t he pipe to handle high internal pressures and t he effect s of ext ernal
eart h and t raffic loads.

CHAPTER 11: CONCRETE MIX DESIGN
11.1 Definiti on
Mix design can be defined as the process of select ing suit able ingredient s of concrete and det ermining
t heir relat ive quant it ies with an aim of producing as economically as possible concret e of cert ain
minimum propert ies. Therefore, a concret e mix should be designed such that it has the minimum
possible product ion cost and meet s t he required specificat ions. The topic of concret e mix design is
beyond t he level of Ordinary Diploma st udent s but has been included just to provide a highlight of t he
procedure.
11.2 Types of Mi xes
Nominal Mixes
Their proport ions are fixed to just ensure adequat e strengt h and are published in t he relevant Codes.
They offer simplicity and usually have a margin of st rength above that specified. However, due to
variability of mat erials the nominal concret e for a given workability varies widely in st rength.
Standard mixes
In t hese mixes, proport ions of ingredient s are also published in Codes. They give accept able
proport ions.
Designed Mixes
In these mixes, performance (e.g. st rength and any ot her propert ies necessary for durabilit y) of
concret e is specified by t he designer but the mix proport ions are det ermined by the producer of
concret e, except t hat the minimum cement cont ent can be laid down. This is most rat ional approach to
t he select ion of mix proport ions wit h specific mat erials in mind possessing more or less unique
charact erist ics. The approach result s in the product ion of concret e wit h the appropriat e propert ies
most economically. For the concret e with undemanding performance, nominal or st andard mixes may
be used.
11.3 Tri al mixes
A mix design result s int o a bet ter approximat ion of the t arget mix proport ions and t his approximat ion
is t he trial mix. Adjust ment s can be made on t he original (init ial) t rial mix in order t o suit t he design
requirement s. There are three courses of act ion on t rial mixes:
To use t he trial mix proport ions in the product ion mixes
To modify the trial mix proport ions slight ly in the product ion mixes
To prepare further t rial mixes incorporat ing major changes to the mix proport ions
The following t est s are carried out on the t rial mixes:
Sl ump test or V-B consistomet er t est
Det erminat ion of t he weight per cubic met er of fresh concret e
Making and curing test cubes for compression t est ing
11.4 Consi derati ons in mix proportioni ng
The following factors are considered in choice of mix proport ions:

- Compressive strength: The mean compressive strengt h required at a specific age (28 days)
det ermines t he nominal wat er-cement rat io of t he mix and t he degree of compact ion.
- Quality control: This refers t o t he control of the variat ions in the propert ies of the mix
ingredient s and also the cont rol of t he accuracy of all those operat ions which affect t he
st rength and consist ence of concret e. The cont rol of these variat ions need be est ablished
during mix design.
- Durability: This requirement det ermines the wat er cement rat io to be used.
- Workability: This has to be est ablished depending on t he size of sect ions t o be concret ed,
spacing and amount of reinforcement s and met hod of compact ion.
- Maximum size of aggregates: This is governed by size of sect ions and spacing of
reinforcement s. Compressive st rength t ends to increase with a decrease in size of aggregat e
- Type and grading of aggregates: These influence the workabilit y of t he mix, wat er-cement
rat io and aggregat e-cement rat io.
11.5 Mi x desi gn procedure
The mix design process is divided int o five st ages:
i. Select ion of t arget wat er/cement rat io
ii. Select ion of free wat er content
iii. Det erminat ion of t he cement cont ent
iv. Det erminat ion of t ot al aggregat e cont ent
v. Select ion of fine and coarse aggregat e cont ent s
Stage 1: Selection of target water/cement ratio
If the previous informat ion concerning t he variability of st rength t est s comprises less t han 40 results,
t he st andard deviat ion to be adopt ed can be obt ained from 301. If the previous informat ion
is available consist ing of 40 or more result s, the st andard deviat ion of such result s may be used
provided that t his value is not less t han t he appropriat e value obtained from
301_Figure_A301; _Relationship. The margin M can t hen be comput ed from:

Where:
M = t he margin
k = a value appropriat e t o the percent age defect ives permit ted below the characterist ic
st rength. A value of k=1.64 is recommended.
s = st andard deviat ion
The t arget -mean st rengt h can t hen be determined from:

Where:
= the t arget mean strengt h
= the specified charact erist ic strengt h

M = the margin
A value is then obt ained from 201 for the st rength of a mix made with a free wat er/cement
rat io of 0.5 according to the specified age, t he type of cement and t he aggregat e t o be used. This
st rength value is then plott ed on 306 and a curve is drawn from this point and parallel to
t he print ed curves unt il it int ercept s a horizont al line passing t hrough the ordinat e represent ing t he
t arget mean st rength. The corresponding value for the free wat er/cement rat io can t hen be read from
t he x-axis. This should be compared wit h any maximum free water/cement rat io t hat may be specified
and the lower of the t wo values used.

Stage 2: Selection of free water content
The free wat er cont ent can be det ermined from 202 depending upon the t ype of and
maximum size of t he aggregat es t o give a concret e of the specified slump or V-B t ime.
Stage 3: Determination of cement content
Cement cont ent can be det ermined from the relat ionship:

The result ing value should be checked against any maximum or minimum values specified and an
appropriat e choice made. If the calculat ed cement cont ent is below t he specified minimum, this
minimum value must be adopt ed. As a result , eit her t he free-wat er/cement rat io of t he mix may be less
t han that determined in st age 1 or the free wat er cont ent may be great er than that det ermine in stage 2.
This will result in a concret e t hat has a mean strengt h somehow great er than the t arget mean strengt h,
or workabilit y somehow higher than the init ially chosen, depending on the choice made. On the ot her
hand, if the design indicat es a cement cont ent that is higher than a specified maximum, t hen it is
probable t hat the specificat ion cannot be met simult aneously on st rength and workability requirement s
wit h t he select ed mat erials. Considerat ion should then be given t o changing the type of cement , type
and maximum size of aggregat es or the level of workability of t he concrete.
Stage 4: Determination of total aggregate content
This requires an est imat e of t he densit y of fully compact ed concret e and this is obt ained
from 302. If no informat ion is available regarding the relat ive densit y, approximat e values
of 2.6 and 2.7 can be used for uncrushed and crushed aggregat es respect ively. The t otal aggregat e
cont ent can t hen be obt ained from:

Where:
D = the wet density of concret e
W
= the cement cont ent

W
= the free wat er content

Stage 5: Selection of fine and coarse aggregate contents
Wit h a known fine aggregat e grading (obt ained from the grading curve of the act ual fine aggregat es to
be used in conjunct ion with 203), appropriat e zone can be located any of
303, 304, 305 depending on the maximum coarse aggregate size. Since the free
wat er/cement rat io is known, t he percent age (proport ion) of fine aggregat es can also be est ablished
from the appropriat e zone on Figure A305. The fine and coarse aggregat e cont ent s can t hen be
comput ed from:

The best proport ions will depend on the aggregat e shape and concret e usage. It should be not ed t hat
t he above designed mix will be a sat isfact ory trial mix but need to be t est ed and adjust ed in order t o
achieve the desired result s. Samples from the deigned mix can be t est ed and the result s checked wit h
t he desired ones.

CHAPTER 12: PRECAST PRODUCTS IN UGANDA

12.1 Research
Research and compile your own notes about the various precast concrete products that are made in
Uganda and those that are import ed int o t he count ry

APPENDIX
A1: Forms
Form A101: Cube crushing strength result sheet
Client:.......Job:.Site:......
Ref.
No.
Date
received
Date
tested
Age
(days)
Dimensions
(LxBxH mm)
Weight
(kg)
Density
(kg/m
3
)
Load
(kN)
Crushing strength
(N/mm
2
)
Remarks

Tested by: .... Date:...... Checked by:

Form A102: Concrete mix design form
Concrete mix design form
Job title: ...
St age It em Reference or
calculat ion
Values
1 1.1 Charact erist ic st rengt h Specified
___________N/mm
2
at _______________days
Proportion defective ___________________%
1.2 St andard deviation From graph
_____________N/mm
2
or no dat a ___________N/mm
2
1.3 Margin Calculat ed
( k=_________ )
_______
__________ = __________N/mm
2
Specified
________________________N/mm
2
1.4 Target mean strengt h Calculat ed
_____________+________________=_________N/mm
2
1.5 Cement t ype Specified OPC/SRPC/RHPC
1.6 Aggregate t ype: Coarse Cushed / Uncrushed
Aggregate t ype: Fine Cushed / Uncrushed
1.7 Free water / cement rat io From Table
and graph
___________
_____________________
1.8
Maximum Free water /
cement ratio
Specified ______________________
2 2.1 Slump or Vebe t ime Specified Slump _______________mm or Vebe time _____________s
2.2 Maximum aggregat e size Specified __________________mm
2.3 Free water cont ent From Table __________________________________________
kg/m
3
3 3.1 Cement cont ent Calculat ed
_______________ /_____________=______________kg/m
3
3.2
Maximum Cement content Specified
_________________kg/m
3
3.3
Minimum Cement content Specified
__________________kg/m
3
use 3.1 if 3.2 and 3.3
use 3.3 if 3.1
kg/m
3
3.4 Modified free wat er cement rat io ________________________________________
4 4.1 Relat ive density of
aggregat es (SSD)
___________________________known / assumed
4.2 Concret e densit y From gragh
________________________kg/m
3
4.3 Total aggregat e cont ent Calculat ed
__________________________________________=____________kg/m
3
5 5.1 Grading of fine aggregat es Percent age passing
600m
sieve __________________________%
5.2 Proport ion of fine aggregat From grapgh __________________________%
5.3 Fine aggregate content _________________ __________________ =
kg/m
3
5.4 Coarse aggregate content ____________________________________ =
kg/m
3
Cement Wat er
Fine aggreg
kg (kg or l) (kg)
10 mm 20 mm 40 mm
Per m
3
(t o the nearest 5kg)
_____________________________ __________ _________ __________ __________
Per t rial mix of ________m
3
______________________________ __________ __________ __________ __________
Use t he lower value
(kg)
Quantities
Coarse aggregat e

A2: Tabl es
Table A201: Approximate compressive strength (N/mm
2
) of concrete mixes made with a free-
water/cement ratio of 0.5
Type of cement Type of coarse aggregate
Compressive strength ( N/mm
2
)
Age (days)
3 7 28 91
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
or
Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement (SRPC)
Uncrushed
18 27 40 48
Crushed
23 33 47 55
Rapid Hardening Portland Cement (RHPC)
Uncrushed
25 34 46 53
Crushed
30 40 53 60
Note: 1 N/mm
2
= 1 MN/m
2
= 1 MPa

Table A202: Approximate free water contents (kg/m
3
) required to give various levels of workability
Slump (mm) 0-10 10-30 30-60 60-180
Vebe time ( seconds) > 12 6-12 3-6 0-3
Maximum size of aggregate (mm) Type of aggregate
10
Uncrushed 150 180 205 225
Crushed 180 205 230 250
20
Uncrushed 135 160 180 195
Crushed 170 190 210 225
40
Uncrushed 115 140 160 175
Crushed 155 175 190 205
Note: when coarse and fine aggregates of different types are used, the free water content is estimated by the formula:

2
3

1
3

where
and
are the free water contents appropriate to the type of fine

and coarse aggregates respectively.

Table A203: BS 882:1973 Grading requirements for fine aggregates
BS Sieve size
Percentage by weight passing sieves
Grading zone 1 Grading zone 2 Grading zone 3 Grading zone 4
9.5 mm
100 100 100 100
4.75 mm
90-100 90-100 90-100 95-100
2.36 mm
60-95 75-100 85-100 95-100
1.18 mm
30-70 55-90 75-100 90-100
600 m
15-34 35-59 60-79 80-100
300 m
5-20 8-30 12-40 15-50
150 m
0-10* 0-10* 0-10* 0-15*
*For crushed stone sands, the permissible limit is increased to 20%

A3: Fi gures
Figure A301: Relationship between standard deviation and characteristic compressive strength

Figure A302: Graph of estimated wet density of fully compacted concrete (specific gravity is given for
saturated, surface dry aggregates)

Figure A303: Relationship between proportion of fines (percentage of fine aggregates of the total
aggregates) and free water/cement ratio for various workabilities (maximum coarse aggregate
size 10 mm)

size 20 mm)

size 40 mm)

Figure A306: Relationship between compressive strength and free water/cement ratio

Figure A307: Cement manufacture (dry and wet processes)

Raw meal
pre-heater
R
otary kiln
Pulverised
coal
Clinker
cooler
Diagramatic illustration of the dry process for manufacture of cement
Blending
silo
Ball mill
Crusher
Limestone
Shale
Gypsum
Ball mill
Cement
silo
Packing plant,
Bulk transport,
etc.
Cold air
Clay
Water
Wash
mill
Clay
slurry
Wash
mill
Chalk
Water
Blending
Diagramatic illustration of the wet process for manufacture of cement
Slurry
tank
R
otary kiln
Pulverised coal
Cold air
Clinker
cooler
Gypsum
Ball
mill
Cement
silo
Packing plant,
Bulk transport,
etc.

Concrete Technology Lecture Notes Ordinary Diploma in Civil Engineering

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Concrete Technology Lecture Notes Ordinary Diploma in Civil Engineering

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Julius Ngabirano 0

are added to t he cement clinker during cement manufact ure.

cont ent. Low rat e of st rength development and

cont ent . A very low

content increases resist ance

= the t arget mean strengt h

= the specified charact erist ic strengt h

= the cement cont ent

= the free wat er content

are the free water contents appropriate to the type of fine

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