IP Address - What Is IP Address?: Computer

Created by Heta J Desai
NT-2013
IP Address - What is IP Address? In order to provide computer to computer communication via Internet, we need a global addressing scheme. Such an addressing is provided by Internet Protocol (IP at the networ! layer. It is a "#$bit address %his is called an IP address or logical address. &hich is made up o' the networ! ID, plus a uni(ue host ID. %his address is typically represented with the decimal value o' each octet separated by a period ('or e)ample, *+#.*,-...#. . /very Host and router on the internet has an IP 0ddress. %his IP address is uni(ue and no two devices on the Internet can have the same address at the same time. %hese numbers are assigned by ISP (Internet Service Provider , and IP address can be used to identi'y the country or region 'rom which a computer is connecting to the &/1. %he IP address can either be Static or dynamic. In static address is to be given manually. 1ut in dynamic a DHCP server is to be con'igured to give ip address to the connected hosts automatically. %his address is used to uni(uely identi'y each 2etwor! host over the networ!. p address is divided into 3 category usually called classes. %his allocation has come to be called class 'ull addressing. 4ollowing are the classes o' ip5$ CLASSES Class 0 Class 1 Class C Class D Class / Range *.6.6.6 to *#..#33.#33.#33
*#-.6.6.6 to *+*.#33.#33.#33 *+#.6.6.6 to ##".#33.#33.#33 ##7.6.6.6 to #"+.#33.#33.#33 #76.6.6.6 to #33.#33.#33.#33
0 8outer has more than one IP address because router connects two or more di''erent networ!s. 1ut 0 computer or host can only have one and a uni(ue ip address. 0 routers 'unction is to inspect incoming pac!et and determine whether it belongs to local networ! or to a 8emote 2etwor!, i' a local pac!et is determined then there is no need o' routing and i' a 8emote pac!et is determined then it will route that
NT-2013
pac!et according to the routing table other wise the pac!et will be discarded. In the virtual hosting environment, a single machine can act li!e multiple machines (with multiple domain names and IP addresses. IP address format 9 %he "#$bit IP address is grouped eight bits at a time, separated by dots and represented in decimal 'ormat. %his is !nown as dotted decimal notation as shown in 'ig. 9 /ach bit in the octet has a binary weight (*#-,,7,"#, *,,-,7,#, * . 9 %he minimum value 'or an octet is 6, and the ma)imum value 'or an octet is #33.
IP Address Classes or Classful addressing 9 IP addressing supports 'ive di''erent address classes5 0, 1, C, D and /. :nly classes 0, 1and C are available 'or commercial use. &e can 'ind the class o' an address when given the address in binary notation or dotted decimal notation.
NT-2013
9 I' the address is given in binary notation, the 'irst 'ew bits can tell us the class o' the address. 9 I' the address is given in dotted decimal notation, the 'irst byte de'ines the class. Class A addresses *. Class 0 addresses are designed 'or large organi;ations with a large number o' hosts or routers. #. In this the 'irst octet o' the address identi'ies the networ! and the ne)t three octets are used to identi'y the host. ". %he 'irst bit o' 'irst octet is always 6 and the remaining . bits are used to identi'y the networ! address. 7. %he ne)t three octets i.e. #7 bits are used to identi'y the host. 3. %he class support addresses 'rom 6.6.6.6 to 6.#33.#33.#33 ,. %he 'irst bloc! o' networ! address starts with *.6.6.6 and the last bloc! o' networ! address starts with *#..6.6.6. .. 0s there are . bits in networ! address, #. < *#- bloc!s o' networ! address are possible. :ut o' these two networ! bloc!s are reserved. Hence total *#, address bloc!s are used. -. /ach networ! bloc!s can have ##7$$$ # hosts i.e. *,,...,#*7 host address. %wo addresses are less as one address is reserved 'or the broadcast address and one address is reserved 'or the networ!. +. 0 bloc! in class 0 is too large 'or almost any organi;ation. %his means most o' the addresses in class 0 are wasted and are not used. Class B address *. %he class 1 addresses are designed 'or medium si;ed organi;ations with tens o' thousands o' attached hosts or routers. #. In this, the 'irst two octets o' the address identi'y the networ! and the ne)t two octets identi'y the host within the networ!. ". %he 'irst two bits (high order bits o' 'irst octet are always *,6. %hus the remaining *7 bits identi'y the networ!
NT-2013
7. %he third and 'ourth octet i.e. , bits are used to identi'y the host. 3. %he 'irst networ! bloc! o' this class covers the addresses 'rom *#-.6.6.6 to *#-.6.#33.#33 (net id *#-.6 . %he last networ! bloc! o' this class covers addresses 'rom *+*.#33.#33.#33 (net id *+*.#33 ,. %he ma)imum number o' networ! bloc!s in class 1 is #*7 < *,"-7. . /ach networ! bloc! in class 1 can have #*,$$$ # < ,3,3"7 hosts. -. 0 bloc! in class 1 is also very large and most o' the address in class 1 is also wasted. Class C address *. %he class C addresses is designed 'or small organi;ations with a small number o' attached hosts or routers. #. In class C, the 'irst three octets o' address are used 'or networ! and the last octet is used to identi'y the host. ". %he 'irst three bits o' 'irst octet are always set to *, *, 6. 7. %he remaining #7 $ " < #* bits are used 'or networ! identi'ication and only - bits are used 'or host. 3. In class C, ##* < #,6+.,*3# networ! bloc!s are possible. ,. %hus, each bloc! in class C address can have #- $ # < #37 hosts. .. %he 'irst bloc! o' networ! covers addresses 'rom *+#.6.6.6 to *+#.6.6.#33. %he last bloc! o' networ! covers the addresses 'orm ##".#33.#33.6 to ##".#33.#33.#33 -. %he class C addresses are too less 'or many organi;ations as it supports only #37 hosts in a networ!. Class D address *. Class D addresses are used 'or multicast groups (multicasting #. %he concept o' division o' octets into networ! id and host id does not apply to class D.
NT-2013
". %he 'irst 'our bits o' 'irst octet in class D are always set to *,*,*,6. 7. %he address range is ##7.6.6.6 to #"+.#33.#33.#33 Class E address *. %he Class / address are reserved 'or 'uture use and are e)perimental. #. %he concept o' networ! id and hostid does not apply on class / also. ". %he 'irst 'our bits o' 'irst octet are always set to *,*,*,*. 7. %he address range 'or class / is #76.6.6.6 to #33.#33.#33.#33.
IP! Internet Protocol - What is Internet Protocol IP!?
NT-2013
9 Internet Protocol (IP o' networ! layer contains addressing in'ormation and some control in'ormation that enables the pac!ets to be routed. 9 IP has two primary responsibilities5 *. Providing connectionless, best e''ort delivery o' datagrams through a internetwor!. %he term best e''ort delivery means that IP does not provides any error control or 'low control. %he term connectionless means that each datagram is handled independently, and each datagram can 'ollow di''erent route to the destination. %his implies that datagrams sent by the same source to the same destination could arrive out o' order. #. Providing 'ragmentation and reassembly o' datagrams to support data lin!s with di''erent ma)imum transmission unit (=%> si;es. IP "ac#et format 9 Pac!ets in the networ! layer are called datagrams. 0 datagram is a variable length pac!et consisting o' two parts5 header and data. 9 %he header is #6 to ,6 bytes in length and contains in'ormation essential to routing and delivery. 9 %he various 'ields in IP header are5 *. $ersion5 It is a 7$bit 'ield that speci'ies the version o' IP currently being used. %wo di''erent versions o' protocols are IP?7 (Internet Protocol ?ersion 7 and IP?, (Internet Protocol ?ersion , . #. IP %eader Length I%L!& %his 7$bit 'ield indicates the datagram header length in "# bit word. %he header length i- not constant in IP. It may vary 'rom #6 to ,6 bytes. &hen there are no options, the header length is #6 bytes, and the value o' this 'ield is 3. &hen the option 'ield is at its ma)imum si;e, the value o' this 'ield is *3.
NT-2013
". Ser'ices5 %his - hit 'ield was previously called services type but is now called di''erentiated services. (he 'arious )its in ser'ice t*"e are& 9 0 "$bit precedence 'ield that de'ines the priority o' datagram in issues such as congestion. %his "$bit sub'ield ranges 'rom 6 (666 in binary to . (*** in binary .
NT-2013
9 0'ter "$bit precedence there are 'our 'lag bits. %hese bits can be either 6 or * and only one o' the bits can have value o' * in each datagram. %he various 'lag bits are5 D 5 =inimi;e delay % 5 =a)imi;e throughout 8 5 =a)imi;e reliability C 5 =inimi;e Cost
%he various bits in di''erentiated services are5 9 %he 'irst , bits de'ined a codepoint and last two bits are not used. I' the " rightmost bits are 6s, the " le'tmost bits are interpreted the same as the precedence bits in the service type interpretation.
NT-2013
7. (otal length5 %his *, bit 'ield speci'ies the total length o' entire IP datagram including data and header in bytes. 0s there are *, bits, the total length o' IP datagram is limited to ,3,3"3 (#*, $ * bytes. 3. Identification5 %his *, bit 'ield is used in 'ragmentation. 0 datagram when passing through di''erent networ!s may be divided into 'ragments to match the networ! 'rame si;e. %here'ore, this 'ield contains an integer that identi'ies the current datagram. %his 'ield is used to help piece together datagram 'ragments. ,. +lags5 Consists@ o' a " bit 'ield o' which the two low order bit D4, =4 control 'ragmentation. D4 stands 'or Don@t 4ragment. D4 speci'ies whether the pac!et can be 'ragmented =4 stands 'or more 'ragments. =4 speci'ies whether the pac!et is the last 'ragment in a series o' 'ragmented pac!ets. %he third or high order but is not used. .. +ragment ,ffset5 %his *" bit 'ield indicates the position o' the 'ragment@s data relative to the beginning o' the data in the original datagram, which allows the destination IP process to properly reconstruct the original datagram. -. (ime to Li'e5 It is - bit 'ield that maintain a counter that gradually decrements down to ;ero, at which point the datagram is discarded. %his !eeps the pac!et 'rom looping endlessly. +. Protocol5 %his - bit 'ield indicates which upper layer protocol receives incoming pac!ets a'ter IP processing is complete. *6. %eader Chec#sum5 %his *, bit 'ield contains a chec!sum that covers only the header and not the data. **. Source IP address5 %hese "#$bit 'ield contains the IP address o' source machine. *#. Destination IP address5 %his "#$bit 'ield contains the IP address o' destination machine. *". ,"tions5 %his 'ield allows IP to support various options such as security, routing, timing management and alignment. *7. Data5 It contains upper layer in'ormation. Su)-etting - What is Su)netting? %he process o' subnetting involves dividing a networ! up into smaller networ!s called subnets or sub networ!s. /ach o' these subnets has its
NT-2013
10
own speci'ic address. %o create these additional networ!s we use a subnet mas!. %he subnet mas! simply determines which portion o' the IP address belongs to the host. %he subnet address is created by dividing the host address into networ! address and host address. %he networ! address speci'ies the type o' subnetwor! in the networ! and the host address speci'ies the host o' that subnet. Subnets are under local administration. 0s such, the outside world sees an organi;ation as a single networ! and has no detailed !nowledge o' the organi;ation@s intema* structure. Subnetting provides the networ! administrator with several bene'its, including e)tra 'le)ibility, more e''icient use o' networ! address and the capability to contain broadcast tra''ic. 0 given .networ! address can be bro!en up into may subnetwor!s. 4or e)ample, *.#.*,.*.6, *.#.*,.#.6, *.#.*,.".6 and *.#.*,.7.6 are all subnets within networ! *.*.*,.6.6. 0 subnet address is created by. borrowing bits 'rom the host 'ield and designating them as subnet 'ield. %he number o' bits borrowed varies and is speci'ied by the subnet mas!. 4ig. shows how bits are borrowed 'rom the host address 'ield to create the subnet address 'ield.
%he subnet mas! does not alter the class o' the IP addressA it simply BborrowsB bits 'rom the host portion and uses these to create subnets. %his naturally reduces the ma)imum number o' hosts your networ! can have, because you are using some o' your host bits 'or your subnet bits. Su)net .as# - What is Su)net .as#? 9 Subnet mas! uses the same 'ormat and representation techni(ue as IP addresses. 9 Subnet mas! has binary is in all bits speci'ying the networ! and subnetwor! 'ields, and binary :s in all bits speci'ying the host 'ield.
NT-2013
11
9 0 subnet address is created by borrowing the bits 'rom host 'ield. 9 Subnet mas! bits should come 'rom the high$order (le't most bits o' the host 'ield. 9 ?arious types o' subnet mas! e)ist 'or class 1and C subnets. 9 %he de'ault subnet mas! 'or a class 1 address that has no subnetting is #33.#33.6.6, while the subnet mas! 'or a class 1 address *.*.*,.6.6 that speci'ies eight bits o' subnetting is #33.#33.#33.6. %he reason 'or this is that eight bits o' subnetting or #- $ # (* 'or the networ! address and * 'or the broadcast address < #37 subnets possible, with #- $ # < #37 hosts per subnet.
9 %he subnet mas! 'or a class C address *+#.*,-.#.6 that speci'ies 'ive bits o' subnetting is #33.#33.#33.#7- with 'ive bits available 'or subnetting, #3 $ # < "6 subnets possible, with #" $ # < , hosts per subnet.
NT-2013
12
%o/ su)net mas#s are used to determine the net/or# num)er 9 %he router per'orms a set process to determine the networ! (or more speci'ically, the subnetwor! address. 9 4irst, the router e)tracts the IP destination address 'rom the incoming pac!et and retrieves the internal subnet mas!. 9 It then per'orms a logical 02D operation to obtain the networ! number. In logical 02D operation, * B02DedB with * yields * and * B02DedB with 6 yields 6. 9 %his causes the host portion o' the IP destination address to be removed, while the destination networ! number remains. 9 %he router then loo!s up the destination networ! number and matches it with an outgoing inter'ace. 9 4inally, it 'orwards the 'rame to the destination IP address.
NT-2013
13
9 4igure shows that when a logical 02D o' the destination IP address and the subnet mas! is per'ormed, the sub$networ! number remains, which the router uses to 'orward the pac!et.
IP$0 's IP$1 Internet protocol $ersion 0 IP'0!& Internet protocol is glue that holds the internet together. It trans'ers the datagrams 'rom source to destination without considering that whether the machines are on the same networ! or not. IP is the main transport mechanism used by %CPCIP suit o' protocols. IP provides connectionless, unreliable services. %his means, it will try its best to trans'er the pac!ets but it provides no guarantee 'or this. %he pac!ets transmitted through IP can be lost due to a number o' reasons which includes noise that cause bit errors, congestion that cause loss o' pac!ets, router 'ailure or host 'ailures etc. 4or reliability, IP is paired with some reliable protocol li!e %CP. IP provides service similar to the conventional postal service in which each letter is mar!ed with 'ull source and destination address. %he mails are routed 'rom post o''ice o' the sender to that o' the receiver. 0lthough, the postal department does its best to deliver a mail but it may not be able to deliver the mail due to many reasons. %he postal system is not responsible 'or this and the communication is carried on the ris! o' sender. 4or reliability, the sender may attach an ac!nowledgement card with the letter. I' the receiver receives the letter, it detaches the ac!nowledgement and sends it bac! to the address o' the sender. %his way, the sender !nows that the letter has reached the receiver, i' the ac!nowledgement is received by him. %he same purpose is achieved by attaching a pac!et o' IP with some reliable protocol.
NT-2013
14
In internet protocol, the data pac!ets are called as datagrams. /ach o' these datagrams is routed by using datagram pac!et switching. %his way, every pac!et can ta!e di''erent route to the destination and each one is di''erent 'rom the other. %hese pac!ets may reach out o' order at the receiving end. %he upper layer protocols are given with the Dob o' reordering the pac!ets. INTERNET PROTOCOT VERSION 6 %he numbers o' users o' the internet are increasing day by day and the services o''ered to these users are also increasing. 0 huge number o' addresses are needed to accommodate such vast number o' hosts. %he internet not only transmits te)tual data. It also allows us to transmit audio and video data. In such data, the high speed data trans'er is desired. %he internet protocol version 7 is being used in the current internet. %he internet protocol version , has been designed 'or the 'uture needs o' the internet. IPv, has 'ollowing new 'eatures to ma!e the networ! ready 'or ne)t generation o' the internet. (i IPv, address is *#- bits long. %his is 'ar more than "# bit long addresses used by Ipv7. %his provides #+, more uni(ue addresses (ii Ipv, header has got separate options 'ield. %his speeds up the routing as most o' the times, options are not needed. (iii Several new options have been added to set o' options. (iv %o accommodate the real time tra''ic, the Ipv, uses 4low Eabel 'ield instead o' %ype o' Service 'ield o' Ipv7. &ith this 'ield, a user can re(uest 'or the type o' service to be given to the datagram. (v %he Ipv, contains options 'or encryption and decryption o' data. %his provides additional security to the in'ormation. In this protocol, the IP address is o' *#- bits long. %he address is divided into eight sections o' *, bits in length. /ach *, bit section is represented by 'our he)adecimal digits. 0 colon is used to separate every 'our he)adecimal digits. %his way, the address consists o' "# he)adecimal digits. .AC Address - What do *ou understand )* .AC address?
NT-2013
15
In a local area networ! (E02 or other networ!, the =0C (=edia 0ccess Control address is your computer@s uni(ue hardware number. (:n an /thernet E02, it@s the same as your /thernet address. 0 =edia 0ccess Control (=0C address is a ,7 or 7- bit addressing System lin!ed to the hardware o' networ! adapters.sometimes =0C address is also !nown as hardware address, or (1I0 burned$in address, or also called physical address. =0C addresses are e)pressed in he)adecimal 'orm li!e #0054454/"45#0*C, and in the case o' a 7-$bit address, or 6*$#"$73$,.$-+$01$CD$/4. &hen you are connected to the Internet 'rom your computer (or host as the Internet protocol thin!s o' it , a correspondence table relates your IP address to your computer@s physical (=0C address on the E02 is created. %he =0C address is used by the =edia 0ccess Control sub layer o' the Data$Ein! Eayer (DEC o' telecommunication protocols. %here is a di''erent =0C sub layer 'or each physical device type. %he other sub layer level in the DEC layer is the Eogical Ein! Control sub layer.
What is -et/or# Securit*? E2"lain Basic Re3uirements of -et/or# Securit*. 2etwor! security is a broad topic with multilayered approach. It can be addressed at the data lin! layer, networ! layer and application layer. %he issues concerned are5 pac!et intrusion and encryption, IP pac!ets and routing tables with their update version, and host$level bugs occurred at data lin! layer, networ! layer and application, respectively. %he %CPCIP protocols are being used globally irrespective o' the nature o' the organi;ation whether it belongs to general category o' organi;ations or security speci'ic sensitive organi;ations. %he news $5Bin'ormation about hac!ing o' some website or portal by some undesired people is very common nowadays. %his shows that %CPCIP protocols are susceptible to intercept. %his generated a need to ensure all round security 'or the networ! in an organi;ation. %he tas! o' networ! administrator had to widen to inc*ude the overall security o' the networ!. He has to ensure that all parts o' this networ! are ade(uately protected and ade(uate measures o' security have been implemented within a TCP/IP networ!. He should be aware o' an e''ective security policy. He should also be able to pinpoint the main areas o' ris! that the networ! may 'ace. 1asically, these main areas o'
NT-2013
16
ris! vary 'rom networ! to networ! depending upon the organi;ation 'unctioning. %here are, there'ore, various security$related aspects which have direct implications 'or networ! administrator along with the means to monitor the implemented measures o' security e''ectively arid to tac!le the problem o' breach o' security i' it happens. Basic Re3uirements of -et/or# Securit* %he main obDective o' the networ! is to share in'ormation among its users situated locally or remotely. %here'ore, it is possible that undesired user can hac! the networ! and can prove to be harm'ul 'or the health o' the networ! or user. %here are 'ew basic points which must be 'ollowed by networ! administrator to provide the networ! an ade(uate security other than networ!$speci'ic security as in case o' e$ commerce, etc. %hese are given below5 *. 2etwor!s are designed to share in'ormation. %here'ore, the networ! must be clearly con'igured to identi'y the shareable in'ormation and non$shareable in'ormation. #. %he networ! should also clear with whom the shareable in'ormation could be shared. ".&ith the increase o' system security, the price 'or its management will also increase accordingly, there'ore a compromising level between security and prices should be established as per the re(uirement o' the networ! security system policy. %his will largely depend upon the level o' security needed to apply in the networ!, overall security re(uirements and the e''ective implementation o' chosen level o' security. 7. Division o' the responsibilities concerning the networ! security must be clearly .de'ined between users and system administrator. 3. %he re(uirements 'or security must be detailed within a networ! security policy o' the organi;ation that indicates the valuable data and their associated cost to the business. 0'ter de'ining the detailed networ! security policy and identi'ying the clear cut responsibilities in the organi;ation, the system administrator should be made then responsible 'or ensuring that the security policy is e''ectively applied to the company environment, including the e)isting networ!ing in'rastructure, Cr*"togra"h* - What is Cr*"togra"h*? 4 Cryptography is a techni(ue to provide message con'identiality.
NT-2013
17
%he term cr*"togra"h* is a Free! word which means Bsecret writingB. 9 It is an art and science o' trans'orming messages so as to ma!e them secure and immune to attac!s. 9 Cryptography involves the process o' encryption and decryption. %his process is depicted.
9 %he terminology used in cryptography is given below5 *. Plainte2t. %he original message or data that is 'ed into the algorithm as input is called plainte)t. #. /ncryption algorithm. %he encryption algorithm is the algorithm that per'orms various substitutions and trans'ormations on the plainte)t. /ncryption is the process o' changing plainte)t into cipher te)t. ". Ci"herte2t. Cipherte)t is the encrypted 'orm the message. It is the scrambled message produced as output. It depends upon the plainte)t and the !ey. 7. Decr*"tion algorithm. %he process o' changing Cipherte)t into plain te)t is !nown as decryption. Decryption algorithm is essentially the encryption algorithm run in reverse. It ta!es the Cipherte)t and the !ey and produces the original plainte)t. 3. 5e*. It also acts as input to the encryption algorithm. %he e)act substitutions and trans'ormations per'ormed by the algorithm depend on the !ey. %hus a !ey is a number or a set o' number that the algorithm uses to per'orm encryption and decryption.
9 %here are two di''erent approaches to attac! an encryption scheme5 *. Cryptanalysis
Created by Heta J Desai #. 1rute$'orce attac! Cryptanalysis
NT-2013
18
9 %he process o' attempting to discover the plainte)t or !ey IS !nown as cryptanalysis. 9 %he strategy used by cryptanalyst depends on the nature o' the encryption scheme and the in'ormation available to the cryptanalyst. 9 Cryptanalyst can do any or all o' si) di''erent things5 *. 0ttempt to brea! a single message. #. 0ttempt to recogni;e patterns in encrypted messages, to be able to brea! subse(uent ones by applying a straight 'orward decryption algorithm. ". 0ttempt to in'er some meaning without even brea!ing the encryption, such as noticing an unusual$'re(uency o' communication or determining something by whether the communication was short or long. 7. 0ttempt to deduce the !ey, in order to brea! subse(uent messages easily. 3. 0ttempt to 'ind wea!nesses in the implementation or environment o' use encryption. ,. 0ttempt to 'ind general wea!nesses in an encryption algorithm without necessarily having intercepted any messages. Brute-force attack 9 %his method tries every possible !ey on a piece o' Cipherte)t until an intelligible translation into plainte)t is obtained. 9 :n an average, hal' o' all possible !eys must be tried to achieve the success. What is +ire/all? 0 'irewall is a device installed between the internet networ! o' an organi;ation and the rest o' Internet. &hen a computer is connected to Internet, it can create many problems 'or corporate companies. =ost companies put a large amount o' con'idential in'ormation online. Such
NT-2013
19
an in'ormation should not be disclosed to the unauthori;ed persons. Second problem is that the virus, worms and other digital pests can breach the security and can destroy the valuable data. %he main purpose o' a 'irewall is to separate a secure area 'rom a less secure area and to control communications between the two. 4irewall also controlling inbound and outbound communications on anything 'rom a single machine to an entire networ!. :n the :ther Hand So'tware 'irewalls, also sometimes called personal 'irewalls, are designed to run on a single computer. %hese are most commonly used on home or small o''ice computers that have broadband access, which tend to be le't on all the time. 0 so'tware 'irewall prevents unwanted access to the computer over a networ! connection by identi'ying and preventing communication over ris!y ports. Computers communicate over many di''erent recogni;ed ports, and the 'irewall will tend to permit these without prompting or alerting the user.
A fire/all can ser'e the follo/ing functions&
*$ Eimit Internet access to e$mail only, so that no other types o' in'ormation can pass between the intranet and the Internet #$ Control who can telnet into your intranet (a method o' logging in remotely
NT-2013
20
"$ Eimit what other !inds o' tra''ic can pass between your intranet and the Internet . 0 'irewall can be simple or comple), depending on how speci'ically you want to control your Internet tra''ic. 0 simple 'irewall might re(uire only that you con'igure the so'tware in the router that connects your intranet to your ISP. 0 more comple) 'irewall might be a computer running >2IG and speciali;ed so'tware. 4irewall systems 'all into two categories 9 networ!$level 9 application$level. Network-Level Firewalls It can be used as pac!et 'ilter. %hese 'irewalls e)amine only the headers o' each pac!et o' in'ormation passing to or 'rom the Internet. %he 'irewall accepts or reDects pac!ets based on the pac!etHs sender, receiver, and port. 4or e)ample, the 'irewall might allow e$mail and &eb pac!ets to and 'rom any computer on the intranet, but allow telnet (remote login pac!ets to and 'rom only selected computers. Pac!et 'ilter 'irewall maintains a 'iltering table that decides which pac!ets are to be 'orwarded or discarded. 0 pac!et 'ilter 'irewall 'ilters at the networ! or transport layer.
NT-2013
21
0s shown in 'ig. the pac!ets are 'iltered according to 'ollowing speci'ications 5 *. Incoming pac!ets 'rom networ! *#7.3,.6.# are bloc! (I means any . #. Incoming pac!ets destined 'or any internal %/E2/% server (port #" are bloc!ed. ". Incoming pac!ets 'or internal host *3,.#33...-.- are bloc!ed. 7. :utgoing pac!ets destined 'or an H%%P server (port -6 are bloc!ed i.e. employees o' organi;ation are not allowed to browse the internet and cannot send any H%%P re(uest. A""lication-Le'el +ire/alls %hese 'irewalls handle pac!ets 'or each Internet service separately, usually by running a program called a proxy server, which accepts e$ mail, &eb, chat, newsgroup, and other pac!ets 'rom computers on the intranet, strips o'' the in'ormation that identi'ies the source o' the pac!et, and passes it along to the Internet.
NT-2013
22
&hen the replies return, the pro)y server passes the replies bac! to the computer that sent the original message. 0 pro)y server can also log all the pac!ets that pass by, so that you have a record o' who has access to your intranet 'rom the Internet, and vice versa. Digital Signatures- What is Digital Signatures? 9 Signature is the proo' to the receiver that the document comes 'rom the correct entity. %he person who signs it ta!es the responsibility o' the content present in the document. 9 0 signature on a document, when veri'ied, is a sign o' authenticationA the document is authentic. 9 In the networ!ed world, there is a similar need 'or digital signatures. 9. 0uthenticating messages using digital signatures re(uires the 'ollowing conditions to be met5 *. %he receiver should be able to veri'y the claimed identity o' the sender. 4or e)ample, an imposter may advise a ban! to trans'er money 'rom the account o' another person. %he ban! should be able to veri'y the identity o' the user be'ore acting on the advice. #. %he sender should not be able to repudiate the contents o' the message it sent at a later date. 4or e)ample, a person having sent advice to trans'er money 'rom his account should not be able at later date to repudiate the content o' the message sent by him. %he ban! should be able to prove that he and only he sent the advice and that the contents o' message are unaltered. ". %he receiver should not be able to alter the message or concoct the message himsel' on behal' o' the sender. %his re(uirement is important to protect the interests o' the sender. 9 Some important 'eatures o' digital signatures are5 *. &hen a document is signed digitally, signature is sent as a separate document. %he receiver receives both documents i.e. the message and the signature and veri'ies that the signature belongs to the supposed sender. #. In order to veri'y the digital signature, the receiver applies the veri'ication techni(ue to the combination o' the message and the signature.
NT-2013
23
". In digital signature, there is one to one relationship between a signature and a message. /ach message has its own signature. %he signature o' one message cannot be used 'or another message. Keys in digital signature 9 %he sender signs the document using his private !ey by applying it to a signing algorithm. 9 %he veri'ier uses the public !ey o' the signer, applied to the veri'ying algorithm to veri'y the document. Digital signature using Private Key 9 Public and private !eys possess the property that allows mutual reversal o' their roles, i.e. d, the decryption !ey can be used 'or encryption and e, the encryption !ey can be used 'or decryption. %his property can be used 'or generating messages with digital signature. 9 Suppose 0 encrypts a message using its private !ey J0 and sends it to 1.
9 Since the message has been encrypted using 0@s private !ey it bears 0@s signature on it. 1 already !nows 0@s public !ey P0 and decrypts the message received 'rom 0. 9 %he received encrypted message is decrypted using 0@s public !ey. So the message is 'rom 0. 9 1 !eeps a copy o' the encrypted message so that 0 cannot re'use sending it. 9 1 cannot alter the encrypted message or on its own concoct the encrypted message without 0@s private !ey.
NT-2013
24
9 %he wea!ness o' this mechanism is that any intruder !nowing 0@s public !ey can intercept the message. 9 Con'identiality is maintained by second encryption using 1@s public !ey.
9 0 encrypts the message to 1 using its private !ey 'irst and then using 1@s public !ey. 9 1 encrypts the received message using its private !ey and then using 0@s public !ey. Digital Signature using Private Key and Message Digest 9 %his method applies private !ey digital signature to the digest o' the message rather than message itsel'. 9 %he basic mechanism used is5 *. %his message digest, which is much shorter in length than the message, is encrypted using private !ey o' the sender (0 . #. =essage digest and the message are sent to other end (1 . 1 computes message digest o' the received message part. %he encrypted message digest part is decrypted using 0@s public !ey. %he received message digest and the computed message digest are compared to ensure they are same.
". 0ll the re(uirements o' digital signature are met5 (i %he message digest bears 0@s signature. %here'ore, 0 cannot repudiate his signature and the contents o' the message digest.
NT-2013
25
(ii 1 cannot alter the content o' the message because it cannot generate the message digest bearing 0@s signature. Cr*"togra"h* - What is Cr*"togra"h*? 9 Cryptography is a techni(ue to provide message con'identiality. 9 %he term cr*"togra"h* is a Free! word which means Bsecret writingB. 9 It is an art and science o' trans'orming messages so as to ma!e them secure and immune to attac!s. 9 Cryptography involves the process o' encryption and decryption. %his process is depicted.
9 %he terminology used in cryptography is given below5 *. Plainte2t. %he original message or data that is 'ed into the algorithm as input is called plainte)t. #. /ncryption algorithm. %he encryption algorithm is the algorithm that per'orms various substitutions and trans'ormations on the plainte)t. /ncryption is the process o' changing plainte)t into cipher te)t. ". Ci"herte2t. Cipherte)t is the encrypted 'orm the message. It is the scrambled message produced as output. It depends upon the plainte)t and the !ey. 7. Decr*"tion algorithm. %he process o' changing Cipherte)t into plain te)t is !nown as decryption. Decryption algorithm is essentially the encryption algorithm run in reverse. It ta!es the Cipherte)t and the !ey and produces the original plainte)t. 3. 5e*. It also acts as input to the encryption algorithm. %he e)act substitutions and trans'ormations per'ormed by the algorithm depend
NT-2013
26
on the !ey. %hus a !ey is a number or a set o' number that the algorithm uses to per'orm encryption and decryption. 9 %here are two di''erent approaches to attac! an encryption scheme5 *. Cryptanalysis #. 1rute$'orce attac! Cryptanalysis 9 %he process o' attempting to discover the plainte)t or !ey IS !nown as cryptanalysis. 9 %he strategy used by cryptanalyst depends on the nature o' the encryption scheme and the in'ormation available to the cryptanalyst. 9 Cryptanalyst can do any or all o' si) di''erent things5 *. 0ttempt to brea! a single message. #. 0ttempt to recogni;e patterns in encrypted messages, to be able to brea! subse(uent ones by applying a straight 'orward decryption algorithm. ". 0ttempt to in'er some meaning without even brea!ing the encryption, such as noticing an unusual$'re(uency o' communication or determining something by whether the communication was short or long. 7. 0ttempt to deduce the !ey, in order to brea! subse(uent messages easily. 3. 0ttempt to 'ind wea!nesses in the implementation or environment o' use encryption. ,. 0ttempt to 'ind general wea!nesses in an encryption algorithm without necessarily having intercepted any messages. Brute-force attack 9 %his method tries every possible !ey on a piece o' Cipherte)t until an intelligible translation into plainte)t is obtained. 9 :n an average, hal' o' all possible !eys must be tried to achieve the success.
NT-2013
27
67BASE ( - What is 67BASE( (/isted Pair Ethernet! ? Pair o' wires twisted together 'orm a twisted pair. %hey have more noise immunity than the two$wire open lines. /ach wire is insulated and has thic!ness in the order o' 6.6*, inches to 6.6*3 inches. :ne wire in the pair carries the signal and the other carries the ground. %he electrical inter'erence is minimum in the twisted pair when compared with the two$wire open lines. I' multiple twisted pairs are enclosed in a same cable, then a great reduction in cross$tal! is achieved. 8ecently twisted pair has become very popular as a E02 medium. 0lthough its per'ormance characteristics are less appealing, its low cost and high availability certainly are attractive. >nshielded %wisted$ Pair (>%P per'orms nicely at low data rates using the same cable 'or E02s as is used 'or telephone terminals, hence the current tendency to deploy Category 3 >%P pairs to each Dac! so that voice and data terminals can share a common wiring system. 0dditionally, >%P has been proved to per'orm at very high data rates (*66 =bps over short distances.
Shielded twisted$pair (S%P sometimes is used in E02 applications. S%P might be used in anK environment in which >%P data transmission might be especially susceptible to /=IC84I, or might cause inter'erence on adDacent pairs.
Implementations o' di''erent E02s using >%P Cables are e)plained below.
NT-2013
28
!B"S#$ %$wisted Pair #t&ernet'
67Base( translates to *6=bps, 1aseband, %wisted pair. *61ase% actually is a wire hub that serves as a multiport repeater, as well as a central point o' interconnection. %he hardware con'iguration o' *61ase%. 0 star type topology is used. %he device shown at the center is !nown as hub. 0 connector !nown as 8J73 is connected at each end o' the cable. %he hub has multiple ports, each o' which is connected to node using 2IC via the >%P cable. /ach o' the 2IC 'or the *61ase% has a built$in transceiver as do those o' the *61ase#. %he ma)imum distance between the *61ase% hub and the attached device is *66metersCsegment.
What is %u)s8Re"eaters8Bridges8Router8S/itches8 (ranscei'ers8 9ate/a* HubsC8epeaters are used to connect together two or more networ! segments o' any media type. In larger design, signal (uality begins to deteriorate as segment e)ceeds their ma)imum length. 0 hub provides the signal ampli'ication re(uired to allow a segment to be e)tended a greater distance. Passive &u( simply 'orwards any data pac!ets they receive over one port 'rom one wor!station to all their remaining ports. "ctive &u(s, also sometimes re'erred to as Bmultiport repeatersB, regenerate the data bits in order to maintain a strong signal.
NT-2013
29
Bridges5 %he bridge 'unction is to connect separate homogeneous networ!s. 1ridges map the /thernet address o' the nodes residing on each networ! segment and allow only necessary tra''ic to pass through the bridge. &hen a pac!et is received by the bridge, the bridge determines the destination and source segments. I' the segments are di''erent, then the pac!et is B'orwardedB to the correct segment. 1ridges are also called Bstore$and$'orwardB device because they loo! at the whole /thernet pac!et be'ore ma!ing 'iltering or 'orwarding decisions. Router5 8outing achieved commercially popularity in the mid L *+-6s L at a time when large$scale Internetwor!ing began to replace the 'airly simple, homogeneous environments. 8outing is the act o' moving in'ormation across an Internetwor! 'rom a source to a destination. It is o'ten contrasted with bridging, which per'orm a similar 'unction. 8outers use in'ormation within each pac!et to route it 'rom one E02 to another, and communicate with each other and share in'ormation that allows them to determine the best route through a comple) networ! o' many E02s. S/itches5 E02 switches are an e)pansion o' the concept in E02 bridging, which controls data 'low, handles transmission errors, provides physical addressing, and manages access to the physical medium. Switches provide these 'unctions by using various lin!$layer protocols. E02 switches can lin! 'our, si), ten or more networ!s together. 0 store$and$'orward switch, on the other hand, accepts and analyses the entire pac!et be'ore 'orwarding it to its destination. (ranscei'ers& %ransceivers are used to connect nodes to the various /thernet media. =ost computers and networ! inter'ace cards contain a built$in *61ase% or *61ase# transceiver, allowing them to be connected directly to /thernet without re(uiring an e)ternal transceiver. =any /thernet devices provide an 0>I connector to allow the user to connect to any media type via an e)ternal transceiver. 9ate/a*5 0 computer that controls the tra''ic o' your E02 or your ISP receives is a Fateway. 0 server serves as a Fateway, the gateway also wor!s as a 'irewall and a pro)y server. 0 Fateway is a device such as a mini or microcomputer capable o' operating on a stand alone basis but which also provides connection 'or communication with the other computers and access to shared resources. 2ormally a gateway is associated with a router. 0 router is a device that lets you !now the ne)t networ! data should be sent to ne)t. 0
NT-2013
30
router can be connected to more than one networ! at a time. 0 gateway is associated with a router because a router which uses headers and 'orwarding tables to 'igure out where pac!ets or data is sent provides the path through which in'ormation is sent in and out a gateway. :ser Datagram Protocol :DP! In TCP communications, not only TCP but also UDP (Us ! Data"!am P!otocol# can m t t$ %unctional ! &ui! m nts ' %in ' in t$ t!ans(o!t lay !) Unli* TCP, UDP is a conn ctionl ss ty( protocol in +$ic$ t$ s n'in" t !minal 'o s not c$ c* +$ t$ ! 'ata $as b n ! c i, ' by ! c i,in" t !minal) In ot$ ! +o!'s, it is a l ss ! liabl (!otocol) -o+ , !, t$is (!otocol ma* s it (ossibl to omit a ,a!i ty o% (!oc ss s t$us ! 'ucin" t$ loa' on t$ CP>)
%he simplicity o' the >DP header stems 'rom the unsophisticated nature o' the services it provides.
NT-2013
31
4ollowing is a brie' description o' each 'ield5 Source Port %his is the port number o' the application that is originating the user data. Destination Port %his is the port number pertaining to the destination application. Length %his 'ield describes the total length o' the >DP datagram, including both data and header In'ormation. :DP Chec#sum Integrity chec!ing is optional under >DP. I' turned on, both ends o' the communications channel use this 'ield 'or data integrity chec!s. What is Difference )et/een :(P and S(P Ca)le? :nshielded (/isted Pair :(P! & >%P is the copper media, inherited 'rom telephony, which is being used 'or increasingly higher data rates, and is rapidly becoming the de 'acto standard 'or hori;ontal wiring, the connection between, and including, the outlet and the termination in the communication closet. 0 (/isted Pair is a pair o' copper wires, with diameters o' 6.7$6.mm, twisted together and wrapped with a plastic coating. %he twisting increases the electrical noise immunity, and reduces the bit error rate (1/8 o' the data transmission. 0 >%P cable contains 'rom # to 7#66 twisted pairs. >%P is a very 'le)ible, low cost media, and can be used 'or either voice or data communications. Its greatest disadvantage is the limited bandwidth, which restricts long distance transmission with low error rates. Shielded (/isted Pair S(P! & S%P is heavier and more di''icult to manu'acture, but it can greatly improve the signaling rate in a given transmission scheme %wisting provides cancellation o' magnetically induced 'ields and currents on a pair o' conductors. =agnetic 'ields arise around other heavy current$carrying conductors and around large electric motors. ?arious grades o' copper cables are available, with Frade 3 being the best and most e)pensive. Frade 3 copper, appropriate 'or use in *66$=bps applications, has more twists per inch than lower grades. =ore twists per inch means more linear 'eet o' copper wire used to ma!e up a cable run, and more copper means more money.
NT-2013
32
Shielding provides a means to re'lect or absorb electric 'ields that are present around cables. Shielding comes in a variety o' 'orms 'rom copperbraiding or copper meshes to alumini;ed. =ylar tape wrapped around each conductor and again around the twisted pair. ,"tical +i)ers& What is a ,"tical +i)ers? ,"tical fi)er consists o' thin glass fi)ers or plastic that can carry in'ormation at 're(uencies in the visible light spectrum and beyond. %he typical optical 'iber consists o' a very narro/ strand of glass called the core. 0round the core is a concentric layer o' glass called the cladding? 0n optical transmission system has three basic components (a Eight source (b %ransmission medium ('iber optics (c Detector Light source5 In such a system a pulse o' light indicates bit * and the absence o' light indicates bit 6. Eight source can be an E/D or a laser beam. (ransmission medium5 %ransmission medium is the ultra$thin 'iber o' glass. Detector5 0 detector generates an electrical pulse when the light 'alls on it,
NT-2013
33
0 typical core diameter is 1;.< microns .%ypically cladding has a diameter o' 6;< microns. 677 micro/atts "o/er (roughly a light emitting diode can couple into an optical 'iber. Coating the cladding is a protective coating consisting o' plastic, it is called the =ac#et. %he loss in signal power as light travels down the 'iber is called attenuation. 0n important characteristic o' 'iber optics is refraction. 8e'raction is the characteristic o' a material to either pass or re'lect light. &hen light passes through a medium, it M)endsN as it passes 'rom one medium to the other. 0n e)ample o' this is when we loo! into a pond o' water I' the angle o' incidence is small, the light rays are re'lected and do not pass into the water. I' the angle o' incident is great, light passes through the media but is bent or re'racted. :ptical 'ibers wor! on the principle that the core re'racts the light and the cladding re'lects the light. %he core re'racts the light and guides the light along its path. %he cladding re'lects any light bac! into the core and stops light 'rom escaping through it $ it bounds the mediumO +ast data transmission rate is an ad'antage to using fi)er o"tics data transmission. (*"es of ,"tical +i)ers
Single .ode +i)er %he various characteristics o' Single mode 'iber are5$ *. %he diameter o' glass core in single mode 'iber is very small ranging 'rom - to *6 microns. #. In this mode, light can propagate only in a straight line, without bouncing. ". 4iber glass has lower density (inde) o' re'raction that creates a critical angle close enough to +6P such that the beam propagates in a straight line.
NT-2013
34
7. In this case, propagation o' di''erent beams is almost identical and delays are negligible. %he beams arrive at destination together and can be recombined with little distortion to the signal. 3. Single mode 'ibers are more e)pensive and are widely used 'or long distance communication. ,. %hese types o' 'ibers can transmit data at 36 Fbps 'or *66 !ilometers without ampli'ication. .ultimode +i)er *. In multimode 'iber, multiple beams travel in the core in di''erent paths. #. In multimode 'iber, the diameter o' core is about 36 microns. ". =ultimode 'ibers are 'urther categori;ed into Step inde) 'ibers and Fraded inde) 'ibers.
a) Step Index Fiber

*. Density o' core remains constant 'rom the centre to the edges. #. 0 beam o' light moves in a straight line in this medium until it reaches the inter'ace o' core and the cladding. ". 0t this inter'ace, the angle o' ray is changed due to the change in density. 7. In this mode, some beams travel in a straight line through the core and reaches destination without re'lection or re'raction. 3. %he beams that stri!e the inter'ace o' core and cladding at and angle smaller than critical angle penetrate the cladding and are lost. ,. %he beams stri!ing at angle greater than critical angle are re'lected bac! in core and 'orm total internal re'lection. .. In this 'iber, a ray with smaller angle o' incidence re(uires more bounces thus will ta!e more time to reach the destination whereas the ray with high angle o' incidence will re(uire less number o' bounces and will reach the destination in lesser time.
NT-2013
35
b) Graded Index Fiber

*. 0 graded inde) 'iber has di''erent densities at the core and at the edges. Density is highest at the centre o' the core and decreases gradually to its lowest at the edge. #. 1ecause o' this di''erence in densities, di''erent beams re'ract at di''erent angles into a curve ". :nly the hori;ontal beams move in a straight line due to constant density at the centre.
Advantages of Optical Fiber

*. %hey are not a''ected by electrical and magnetic inter'erence as the data travel in 'orm o' light. #. :ptical 'iber o''ers higher bandwidth than twisted pair or coa)ial cable. ". :ptical 'ibers are thin, lighter in weight and small in si;e as compared to other wired =edias. It is easier to group several optical 'ibers in one bundle. 7. Flass is more resistant to corrosive materials as compared to copper. Hence can be laid in di''erent environments. 3. In optical 'ibers, attenuation (loss o' signal is very low. %here'ore these 'ibers can run several !ilometers without ampli'ication. ,. 4ibers do not lea! light and are (uite di''icult to tap. So they provide security against potential wiretappers. .. %here is no cross$tal! problem in optical 'ibers. -. %hey are highly suitable 'or environments where speed is needed with 'ull accuracy. +5 Photons in 'iber do not a''ect one another (as they have no charge and are not a''ected by stray photons outside the 'iber. 1ut when electrons move in a wire they a''ect each other and are themselves a''ected by electrons outside the wire. *6. %he si;e (diameter o' the optical 'ibers is very small (it is comparable to the diameter o' human hair . %here'ore a large number o' optical 'ibers can 'it into a cable o' small diameter.
NT-2013
36
**. %he material used 'or the manu'acturing o' optical 'ibers is Bsilica glassB. %his material is easily available. So the optical 'ibers cost lower than the cables with metallic conductors. *#. 0s the light rays have a very high 're(uency in the FH; range, the bandwidth o' the optical tiber is e)tremely large. %his allows transmission o' more number o' channels. %here'ore the in'ormation carrying capacity o' an optical 'iber is much higher than that o' a co$ a)ial cable. Disad'antages of ,"tical +i)er *. 4iber optics cables are 'ragile i.e. more easily bro!en than wires. #. 1eing 'ragile, optical 'ibers need to be put deep into the land. %his causes a lot o' installation cost. 0lso the inter'ace used 'or these 'ibers are e)pensive. ". :ptical 'ibers are unidirectional 'or two$way communication, two 'ibers are re(uired. 7. It is a newer technology and re(uires s!illed people to administer and maintain them. C aracteristics o! Optical "i#er Ca#les$
4iber optic cables have the 'ollowing characteristics5 *. 4iber optic cabling can provide e)tremely high bandwidths in the range 'rom *66 mbps to # gigabits because light has a much higher 're(uency than electricity. #. %he number o' nodes which a 'iber optic can support does not depend on its length but on the hub or hubs that connect cables together. ". 4iber optic cable has much lower attenuation and can carry signal to longer distances without using ampli'iers and repeaters in between. 7. 4iber optic cable is not atlected by /=I e''ects and can be used in areas where high voltages are passing by. 3. %he cost o' tiber optic cable is more compared to twisted pair and co$a)ial. ,. %he installation o' 'iber optic cables is di''icult and tedious. A""lications& *. :ptical 'iber transmission systems are widely used in thQ bac!bone
NT-2013
37
o' networ!s. Current optical 'iber systems provide transmission rates 'rom 73 =bCs to +., FbCs using the single wavelength transmission. #. %he installation cost o' optical 'ibers is higher than that 'or the co$ a)ial or twisted wire cables. ". :ptical 'ibers are now used in the telephone systems. 7. In the Eocal 0rea 2etwor!s (E02s . (he Internet Protocol Suite
0pplication %ransport 2etwor! Ein! Physical
H%%P %CP
%elnet >DP IP /thernet &i$4i
D2S
Co$a)
4iber
8adio
.ulti"le2er - What is .ulti"le2er? (*"e of .ulti"le2er. A communications de'ice that multi"le2es com)ines! se'eral signals for transmission o'er a single medium. 0 demultiple)er completes the process by separating multiple)ed signals 'rom a transmission line. 4re(uently a multiple)er and demultiple)er are combined into a single device capable o' processing both outgoing and incoming signals. A multi"le2er is sometimes called a mu2. (*"e of .ulti"le2er
NT-2013
38
(ime Di'ision .ulti"le2er Short 'or %ime Division =ultiple)ing, a type o' multiple)ing that combines data streams by assigning each stream a di''erent time slot in a set. %D= repeatedly transmits a 'i)ed se(uence o' time slots over a single transmission channel. &ithin %$Carrier systems, such as %$* and %$", %D= combines Pulse Code =odulated (PC= streams created 'or each conversation or data stream. Wa'elength Di'ision .ulti"le2ing Short 'or wavelength division multiple)ing, a type o' multiple)ing developed 'or use on o"tical fi)er. &D= modulates each o' several data streams onto a di''erent part o' the light spectrum. &D= is the optical e(uivalent o' 4D=. *. &D= is the analog multiple)ing techni(ue. &D= is conceptually similar to 4D=, in the sense that it combines di''erent signals o' di''erent 're(uencies into single composite signal and transmit it on a single lin!. #. In &D= the di''erent signals are optical or light signals that are transmitted through optical 'iber. &avelength o' a wave is reciprocal o' its 're(uency. %here'ore, i' wavelength goes up, the 're(uency goes down and ?ice$versa. ". %hus in &D=, various light waves 'rom di''erent sources are combined to 'orm a composite light signal that is transmitted across the channel to the receiver. 7. 0t the receiver side, this composite light signal is bro!en into di''erent light waves by demultiple)er. 3. %his combining and the splitting o' light waves is done by using a prism.
NT-2013
39
,. :ne prism is used at the sender side to per'orm multiple)ing and another prism is used at receiver side that per'orms demultiple)ing as shown in 'ig. .. %he basic principle behind the usage o' prisms is that, the prism bends a beam o' light based on the angle o' incidence and the 're(uency o' light wave.
"pplications of )DM &D= is used in S:2/% (Synchronous :ptical 2etwor! . It ma!es use o' multiple optical 'iber lines which are multiple)ed R demultiple)ed.
Dense Wa'elength Di'ision .ulti"le2er Dense &avelength Division =ultiple)ing, an optical technology used to increase bandwidth over e)isting 'iber optic bac!bones.
NT-2013
40
D&D= wor!s by combining and transmitting multiple signals simultaneously at di''erent wavelengths on the same 'iber. In e''ect, one 'iber is trans'ormed into multiple virtual 'ibers. So, i' you were to multiple) eight :C $7- signals into one 'iber, you would increase the carrying capacity o' that 'iber 'rom #.3 FbCs to #6 FbCs. Currently, because o' D&D=, single 'ibers have been able to transmit data at speeds up to 766FbCs.
0 !ey advantage to D&D= is that it@s protocol$ and bit$rate$ independent. D&D=$based networ!s can transmit data in IP, 0%=, S:2/% CSDH, and /thernet, and handle bit rates between *66 =bCs and #.3 FbCs. %here'ore, D&D=$based networ!s can carry di''erent types o' tra''ic at di''erent speeds over an optical channel. +re3uenc* Di'ision .ulti"le2ing 're(uency division multiple)ing, a multiple)ing techni(ue that uses di''erent 're(uencies to combine multiple streams o' data 'or transmission over a communications medium. 4D= assigns a discrete carrier 're(uency to each data stream and then combines many modulated carrier 're(uencies 'or transmission. 4or e)ample, television transmitters use 4D= to broadcast several channels at once. Statistical .ulti"le2er Statistical multiple)ers ma!e it possible 'or multiple 8S$#"# devices to share a single data line. %hey also per'orm error correction to insure error$'ree transmissions. %he term BstatisticalB re'ers to their ability to ta!e advantage o' the intermittent usage statics o' most 8S$#"# devices (and all PC and terminal users . 1ecause !eyboards are idle a large part o' each second with no one typing and no data being sent 'rom the computer, each PC or terminal o'ten averages less than 3S o' its potential data rate. Statistical multiple)ers allow the sum o' the PC and terminal rates to e)ceed the composite lin! speed between the multiple)ers. Statistical multiple)er need 1u''er. Difference Client Com"uter and /or#station and Dum) (erminals 0 computer in computer networ! that connects to the server and uses the networ! services to per'orm user@s tas!s is a client com"uter.
NT-2013
41
0 /or#station is a node in computer networ! that is more power'ul and can handle local in'ormation processing or graphics processing. 0 wor!station usually has an ine)pensive, small hard dis! to carry out local tas!s. Some wor!stations that have no dis! drive o' their own is !nown as dis#less-/or#station or dum) terminals. %hey terminals completely rely on E02 'or their access. 2etwor! operating system lets the node wor! as i' all the resources at the server belong to the node itsel'. %hose &or!stations that have no dis! drive o' their own and rely completely on E02 'or their access are called dum) terminals. %he networ! operating system lets these terminals wor! as i' all the resources at the server belong to the wor!station itsel'. What is Router Router& 8outers are devices (computers containing so'tware that help in determining the best path out o' the available paths, 'or a particular transmission. %hey consist o' a combination o' hardware and so'tware. %he hardware includes the physical inter'aces to the various networ!s in the internet wor!. %he two main pieces o' so'tware in a router are the operating system and the routing protocol. 8outers use logical and physical addressing to connect two or more logically separate networ!s. %hey accomplish this connection by organi;ing the large networ! into logical networ! segments or sub$ networ!s. /ach o' these sub networ!s is given a logical address. %his allows the networ!s to be separate but still access each other and e)change data when necessary. Data is grouped into pac!ets, or bloc!s o' data. /ach pac!et, in addition to having a physical device address, has a logical networ! address. 8outers are 're(uently used to interconnect identical networ!s as well as to interconnect networ!s with di''erent types o' hardware. Compared to one giant E02, a series o' smaller E02s connected through routers has some highly desirable bene'its. *. %he 'oremost o' these is sec%rity. E02s operate in a broadcast mode. In'ormation retrieved or transmitted goes on to the networ! and traverses the entire cable system. :nly the station speci'ically addressed actually reads the data, but the data is physically presented to each station. #. 0nother bene'it o' routers is@ relia#ility. I' one networ! goes down because the server has stopped 'unctioning or because o' a 'ault in the cable, other networ!s and departments served by routers
NT-2013
42
are not a''ected. %he internet ting routers isolate the a''ected networ!, hence the una''ected networ!s although connected, e)perience no wor! stoppage or data loss. ". 0nother bene'it o' using routers is per!or&ance en ance&ent within the individual networ!. Suppose that a networ! has *# wor!stations, each o' which generates appro)imately the same amount o' tra''ic. In a single$networ! environment, all the tra''ic 'or those *# wor!stations goes on the same cable. 1ut i' the networ! is split into # networ!s o' , wor!stations each, the tra''ic load is cut to hal'. /ach networ! has its own server and hard dis! and is largely sel'$containedA so 'ewer PCs ma!e demands on the networ! cabling system. 7. 0 'inal bene'it o' routers is greater net'or(ing range. In some networ!s, 'or instance, cable length cannot e)ceed *,666 meters. 0 router e''ectively nulli'ies this limitation by per'orming the 'unction o' a repeater and reconstituting the signal. Physical range can be whatever is re(uired by the particular installation, provided that a router is installed be'ore the ma)imum cable range is e)ceeded. What is -ICs -et/or# Ada"ter! 0 high$speed net'or( inter!ace card )NIC* 'or co**unication networks is %sed. 0 net/or# interface controller (also !nown as a net/or# interface card, net/or# ada"ter, LA- ada"ter is a computer hardware component that connects a computer to a computer networ!.2etwor! inter'ace cards, commonly re'erred to as 2ICs are used to connect a PC to a computer networ!. %he 2IC provides a physical connection between the computer networ!ing medium and the computers@ internal bus, and is responsible 'or 'acilitating an Baccess methodB to the networ!s. =ost 2ICs are designed 'or a particular type o' networ!, protocol and media, although some can serve multiple networ!s. &hereas networ! inter'ace controllers were commonly implemented on e)pansion cards that plug into a computer bus, the low cost and ubi(uity o' the /thernet standard means that most newer computers have a networ! inter'ace built into the motherboard. It allows users to connect to each other either by using cables or wirelessly i' the 2IC is a wireless 2IC (&i4iC&2IC . /very entity on a networ!, a PC, printer, router, etc., that needs to communicate with other devices must have a 2IC i' it is to communicate over the
NT-2013
43
networ!. :n older computers, the 2IC is probably an e)pansion card, usually PCI or PCI e)press. High per'ormance cards can cost less that T"6. 2IC 'unctionality is now o'ten integrated into the motherboard chipset or implemented with a dedicated /thernet chip on the motherboard. 0 similar situation is true 'or laptop computers. 0t one time, a PC=CI0 networ! card would be used in a laptop computer 'or the 2IC Dust as the PCI card was used in des!top computer, but now, 2IC 'unctionality is o'ten integrated with the motherboard. /thernet is the dominant standard 'or cable connections 'or wired computer networ!s. 0n /thernet connector loo!s similar to a telephone connector, only larger. %his connector is called B8J73B. /thernet cables are either a shielded or unshielded cable o' 'our twisted pairs o' #7 0&F connectors, speci'ied at *66 ohm impedance. =a)imum cable length 'or C0%G cables is *66 meters. /arly versions o' /thernet cables were C0%" or C0%7 (C0% being short 'or category . %hese versions were not long lived. C0%3 and C0%3e are currently the most commonly used cables (bandwidth o' *66 =H;, *66 =bps , with C0%, (bandwidth o' #36 =H;, * Fbps available and the con'iguration o' the near$'uture. 0 C0%. cable (bandwidth o' ,66 =H; speci'ication is in development, and should be available in a 'ew years. /ach /thernet 2IC has a uni(ue serial number called a Bmedia access codeB (=0C address that is used to identi'y the 2IC and associated computer on the networ!. 2o two 2IC will have the same address, because the 2IC manu'acturers must purchase bloc!s o' addresses 'rom the Institute o' /lectrical and /lectronics /ngineers (I/// . 2IC cards are capable o' di''erent speeds. Speeds o' up to one gigabit per second (Fbps are now available. %wo 2IC can communicate i' they di''er in speed ratings, but they will communicate at the rate o' the slower 2IC. :n a very simple networ!, 2IC can be used to lin! personal computers (PC . I' the computers are connected directly to one another, the networ! is a Bpeer$to$peerB (P#P, also called an Bad hocB networ!. I' computers are connected directly to one another, a Bcross$overB /thernet cable is needed (also called a B2ull$=odem cableB . %his cable is not Bstraight$throughB li!e standard /thernet, but crosses the send and receive connectors, so that send line 'rom computer 0 connects to the receive line o' computer 1.
NT-2013
44
4or networ!s o' a 'ew computers, a BhubB can be used, with all o' the computers connected to the hub. 0ny message sent 'rom any PC will be seen by all o' the computers, but only the computer with the correct =0C address will receive the message. P#P networ!s are use'ul 'or many purposes. 4ile and printer sharing are the most common applications. 2etwor!s with more than 'our active computers at a time will bene'it 'rom using a Mnetwor! switchN instead o' a hub. 0 networ! switch will direct the message to the appropriate destination, instead o' each message pac!et being broadcast across the networ!. Computer 0 can send a message to computer 1, while simultaneously, computer C sends a message to computer D. %his increases the e''iciency o' the networ!. %his is a simple 'orm o' a server networ!. 0n e)ample o' a client$server design is a computer server where the clients initiate a download or upload o' 'iles and the server reacts. %he server would also o'ten be responsible 'or interacting with printers and other servers on other networ!s, including satellite networ!s (S0%C:= or the Internet. BEatencyB is the delay caused by a networ! to communicate data. Eatency causes not only slow service, but can result in data loss as well. Eatency is usually tested by sending a message pac!et that is immediately returned to the sending computer. %he round$trip time is de'ined as the latency. 2etwor!ing per'ormance can be optimi;ed 'or either latency or throughput. 2etwor!s can use a techni(ue !nown as Binterrupt moderationB to increase throughput and lower CP> utili;ation by (ueuing message pac!ets and issuing 'ewer interrupts to the CP>. 0 networ! optimi;ed this way would 'avor large trans'ers, reducing trans'er overhead. CP> and networ! throughput bene'it, but networ! latency would increase. %he alternative is to 'ragment each message and pipeline the 'ragments through the networ!. =ultiple paths 'rom source to destination can allow overlapping. Eatency can also be addressed with techni(ues such as pre'etching (anticipating the need 'or data re(uests andCor using multiple e)ecution threads (multithreading . %here are two indicator E/Ds on a typical 2IC. 0 single lit green E/D indicates the computer is connected to the networ!. %his is called the Blin!B light. %he second E/D is amber in color. 0 'lashing amber E/D indicates message pac!et collisions are occurring. :ccasional
NT-2013
45
collisions are normal on a busy networ!, but a 're(uently lit amber E/D is an indication o' problems. 0 (uic!ly 'lashing lin! E/D (green is a networ! activity indicator, meaning that communication is occurring. I' the green lin! light is o'', and the amber E/D is blin!ing, then the 2IC is in Bpower saveB mode. 0 wireless networ! inter'ace controller (&2IC is a 2IC 'or connecting to a wireless networ! (&i4i . %he standard 'or &i4i is I/// -6#.**. 0 &2IC uses an antenna to communicate with an 8' signal, most o'ten at #.7 FH;. &ireless connectivity development in recent years has closely paralleled wired connectivity. Ei!e its wired cousin, a wireless card was once integrated with a PCI or PC=CI0 add$on card. 2ow, integrated &2IC@s are becoming common, especially 'or laptop computers. What is transmission media ? (*"es of transmission media. (ransmission media is a pathway that carries the in'ormation 'rom sender to receiver. &e use di''erent types o' cables or waves to transmit data. Data is transmitted normally through electrical or electromagnetic signals. 0n electrical signal is in the 'orm o' current. 0n electromagnetic signal is series o' electromagnetic energy pulses at various 're(uencies. %hese signals can be transmitted through copper wires, optical 'ibers, atmosphere, water and vacuum Di''erent =edias have di''erent properties li!e bandwidth, delay, cost and ease o' installation and maintenance. %ransmission media is also called Communication channel. (*"es of (ransmission .edia %ransmission media is broadly classi'ied into two groups. *. &ired or Fuided =edia or 1ound %ransmission =edia #. &ireless or >nguided =edia or >nbound %ransmission =edia Wired or 9uided .edia or Bound (ransmission .edia& 1ound transmission media are the cables that are tangible or have physical e)istence and are limited by the physical geography. Popular bound transmission media in use are twisted pair cable, co$a)ial cable and 'iber optical cable. /ach o' them has its own characteristics li!e transmission speed, e''ect o' noise, physical appearance, cost etc.
NT-2013
46
Wireless or :nguided .edia or :n)ound (ransmission .edia& >nbound transmission media are the ways o' transmitting data without using any cables. %hese media are not bounded by physical geography. %his type o' transmission is called &ireless communication. 2owadays wireless communication is becoming popular. &ireless E02s are being installed in o''ice and college campuses. %his transmission uses =icrowave, 8adio wave, In'ra red are some o' popular unbound transmission media.
%he data transmission capabilities o' various =edias vary di''erently depending upon the various 'actors. %hese 'actors are5 *. Band/idth. It re'ers to the data carrying capacity o' a channel or medium. Higher bandwidth communication channels support higher data rates. #. Radiation. It re'ers to the lea!age o' signal 'rom the medium due to undesirable electrical characteristics o' the medium. ". -oise A)sor"tion. It re'ers to the susceptibility o' the media to e)ternal electrical noise that can cause distortion o' data signal. 7. Attenuation. It re'ers to loss o' energy as signal propagates outwards. %he amount o' energy lost depends on 're(uency. 8adiations and physical characteristics o' media contribute to attenuation. ,SI Reference .odel ,"en S*stem Interconnection ,SI! model, an IS: standard 'or worldwide communication 2etwor!s that de'ines a networ!ing 'ramewor! 'or implementing protocols in seven layers. ,"en S*stems Interconnection ,SI! model is developed by IS: (International organi;ation 'or standardi;ation in 6>?0. IS: is the organi;ation dedicated to de'ining global communication and standards.
NT-2013
47
%his model is called :pen System Interconnection (:SI because this model allows any two di''erent systems to communicate regardless o' their underlying architecture. %here'ore :SI re'erence model allows open communication between di''erent systems without re(uiring changes@ to the logic o' the underlying hardware and so'tware. %he International standard organi;ation (IS: , in an e''ort to encourage open networ!s, developed an open systems interconnect re'erence model. %he model logically groups the 'unctions and sets rules, called protocols, necessary to establish and conduct communication between two or more parties. %he model consists o' seven 'unctions, o'ten re'erred to as layers. ,SI reference model is a logical 'ramewor! 'or standards 'or the networ! communication. :SI re'erence model is now considered as a primary standard 'or internetwor!ing and inter computing. %oday many networ! communication protocols are based on the standards o' :SI model. In the :SI model the networ!Cdata communication is de'ined into seven layers. %he seven layers can be grouped into three grou"s $ -et/or#, (rans"ort and A""lication. *. Eayer *, # and " i.e. physical, data lin!, and networ! are net/or# su""ort la*ers. #. Eayer 7, (rans"ort la*er provides end to end reliable data transmission. ". Eayer 3, , and . i.e. Session, Presentation, and 0pplication layer are user su""ort la*ers.
NT-2013
48
It is important to note that :SI model is Dust a model. It is not a protocol that can be installed or run on any system. %o remember the names o' seven layers in order one cornmon mnemonic used is $BAll Peo"le Seem to -eed Data Processing B.
NT-2013
49
E2"lain Data Lin# La*er in detail. Data lin! layer is the second layer in :SI re'erence model and lies above the physical layer. %he data lin! layer per'orms the 'ollowing 'unctions. *. Data lin! layer receives the data 'rom the networ! layer R divide it into manageable units called 'rames. #. It then provides the addressing in'ormation by adding header to each 'rame. Physical addresses o' source R destination machines are added to each 'rame.
NT-2013
50
". It provides 'low control mechanism to ensure that sender is not sending the data at the speed that the receiver cannot process. 7. It also provide error control mechanism to detect R retransmit damaged, duplicate, or lost 'rame, thus adding reliability to physical layer. 3. 0nother 'unction o' data lin! layer is access control. &hen two or more devices are attached to the same lin!, data lin! layer protocols determine which device has control over the lin! at any given time. In E02 data lin! layer is divided in the # layers5

Logical Lic# Control Su)-la*er .edium Access La*er
Logical Lin# Control Su)la*er& %he uppermost sublayer is Eogical Ein! Control (EEC . %his sublayer multiple)es protocols running atop the data lin! layer, and optionally provides 'low control, ac!nowledgment, and error recovery. %he EEC provides addressing and control o' the data lin!. It speci'ies which mechanisms are to be used 'or addressing stations over the transmission medium and 'or controlling the data e)changed between the originator and recipient machines.
NT-2013
51
.edia Access Control Su)la*er& %he sublayer below it is =edia 0ccess Control (=0C . Sometimes this re'ers to the sublayer that determines who is allowed to access the media at any one time. :ther times it re'ers to a 'rame structure with =0C addresses inside. %here are generally two 'orms o' media access control5 distributed and centrali;ed. 1oth o' these may be compared to communication between people5 %he =edia 0ccess Control sublayer also determines where one 'rame o' data ends and the ne)t one starts. %here are 'our means o' doing that5 a time based, character counting, byte stu''ing and bit stu''ing.
Ser'ices Pro'ided (o -et/or# La*er

9 2etwor! layer is the layer " o' :SI model and lies above the data lin! layer. Data lin! layer provides several services to the networ! layer. 9 %he one o' the maDor service provided is the trans'erring the data 'rom networ! layer on the source machine to the networ! layer on destination machine. 9 :n source machine data lin! layer receives the data 'rom networ! layer and on destination machine pass on this data to the networ! layer as shown in 4ig. 9 %he path shown in 'ig (a is the virtual path. 1ut the actual path is 2etwor! layer $U Data lin! layer $U Physical layer on source machine, then to physical media and therea'ter physical layer $U Data lin! layer $U 2etwor! layer on destination machine
%he three maDor types o' services o''ered by data lin! layer are5
NT-2013
52
*. >nac!nowledged connectionless service. #. 0c!nowledged connectionless service. ". 0c!nowledged connection oriented service. 6. :nac#no/ledged Connectionless Ser'ice (a In this type o' service source machine sends 'rames to destination machine but the destination machine does not send any ac!nowledgement o' these 'rames bac! to the source. Hence it is called unac!nowledged service. (b %here is no connection establishment between source and destination machine be'ore data trans'er or release a'ter data trans'er. %here'ore it is !nown as connectionless service. (c %here is no error control i.e. i' any 'rame is lost due to noise on the line, no attempt is made to recover it. (d %his type o' service is used when error rate is low. (e It is suitable 'or real time tra''ic such as speech. ;. Ac#no/ledged Connectionless Ser'ice (a In this service, neither the connection is established be'ore the data trans'er nor is it released a'ter the data trans'er between source and destination. (b &hen the sender sends the data 'rames to destination, destination machine sends bac! the ac!nowledgement o' these 'rames. (c %his type o' service provides additional reliability because source machine retransmit the 'rames i' it does not receive the ac!nowledgement o' these 'rames within the speci'ied time. (d %his service is use'ul over unreliable channels, such as wireless systems. @. Ac#no/ledged Connection - ,riented Ser'ice (a %his service is the most sophisticated service provided by data lin! layer to networ! layer.
NT-2013
53
(b It is connection$oriented. It means that connection is establishment between source R destination be'ore any data is trans'erred. (c In this service, data trans'er has three distinct phases5$ (i Connection establishment (ii 0ctual data trans'er (iii Connection release (d Here, each 'rame being transmitted 'rom source to destination is given a speci'ic number and is ac!nowledged by the destination machine. (e 0ll the 'rames are received by destination in the same order in which they are send by the source. (CP8IP Protocol %CP, an acronym 'or %ransmission Control Protocol, corresponds to the 'ourth layer o' :SI re'erence model. IP corresponds to the third layer o' the same model. /ach o' these protocols has the 'ollowing 'eatures5 (CP$It provides a connection type service. %hat is, a logical connection must be established prior to communication. 1ecause o' this, continuous transmission o' large amount o' data is possible. It ensures a highly reliable data transmission 'or upper layers using IP protocol. %his is possible because %CP uses positive ac!nowledgement to con'irm the sender about the proper reception o' data. %he sender !eeps on sending data at constant intervals until it receives a positive ac!nowledgment. 0 negative ac!nowledgment implies that the 'ailed data segment needs to be retransmitted. &hat happens when a pac!et is lost on the networ! and 'ails to reach its ultimate destinationV &hen host 0 sends data, it starts a countdown timer. I' the timer e)pires without receiving an ac!nowledgment, host 0 assumes that the data segment was lost conse(uently, host 0 retransmits a duplicate o' the 'ailing segment. %his has also other 'unctions li!e se(uence control, error recovery and control, 'low control and identi'ication o' port number.
NT-2013
54
%he %CP header includes both source and destination port 'ields 'or identi'ying the applications 'or which the connection is established. %he se(uence and ac!nowledgment 2umber 'ields underlie the positive ac!nowledgment and retransmission techni(ue. Integrity chec!s are accommodated using the chec!sum 'ield.
IP$In contrast to %CP, it is a connection less type service and operates at third layer o' :SI re'erence model. %hat is, prior to transmission o' data, no logical connection is needed. %his type o' protocol is suitable 'or the sporadic transmission o' data to a number o' destinations. %his
NT-2013
55
has no 'unctions li!e se(uence control, error recovery and control, 'low control but this identi'ies the connection with port number.
4rom the above it seems that TCP/IP may be considered as two separate protocols, i.e. %CP and IP. However, %CP actually re'ers to multiple protocols employed 'or communications using IP. %here'ore, TCP/IP is also re'erred to as the %CPCIP protocol suit.
Classless Addressing - What is Classless Addressing?

The fast growth of Internet led to the near depletion of the available addresses. We have run out of class A and B addresses, and a class C block is too small for most midsi e organi ations. To overcome the problem of address depletion and give more organi ations access to internet, classess addressing was designed and implemented. In this scheme, there are no classes, but the addresses are still granted in blocks. In classless addressing, when an entit!, small or large, needs to be connected to Internet, it is granted a block or range of addresses. The si e of the block "the number of addresses# varies based on the nature and si e of the entr!. $or e%ample, a household ma! be given onl! two addresses& a large organi ation ma! be given thousands of addresses. An I'(, ma! be given thousands or hundreds of thousands based on the number of customer it ma! serve.
NT-2013
56
To simplif! the handling of addresses, the Internet authorities impose three restrictions on classless address blocks)
*. The addresses in a block must be contiguous, one after the other. +. The number of addresses in a block must be a power of + "*, +, ,,-, .... #. .. The first address must be evenl! divisible b! the number of address. $or e%ample, a block of addresses "both in binar! and dotted decimal notation# granted to a small business that needs */ addresses. As shown in figure certain restrictions are applied to this block. The addresses are contiguous. The number of addresses is a power of + "*/0+ ,#, and the first address is divisible b! */. The first address, converted to decimal number, is .,,,1,.-2,./1, which whet divided b! */ results in +*3,1+,,+*1.

IP Address - What Is IP Address?: Computer

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

IP Address - What Is IP Address?: Computer

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Created by Heta J Desai

*#-.6.6.6 to *+*.#33.#33.#33 *+#.6.6.6 to ##".#33.#33.#33 ##7.6.6.6 to #"+.#33.#33.#33 #76.6.6.6 to #33.#33.#33.#33

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

IP! Internet Protocol - What is Internet Protocol IP!?

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

9 %here are two di''erent approaches to attac! an encryption scheme5 *. Cryptanalysis

Created by Heta J Desai #. 1rute$'orce attac! Cryptanalysis

Created by Heta J Desai

A fire/all can ser'e the follo/ing functions&

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

!B"S#$ %$wisted Pair #t&ernet'

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

a) Step Index Fiber

Created by Heta J Desai

b) Graded Index Fiber

Advantages of Optical Fiber

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

0pplication %ransport 2etwor! Ein! Physical

%elnet >DP IP /thernet &i$4i

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Created by Heta J Desai

Logical Lic# Control Su)-la*er .edium Access La*er

Created by Heta J Desai

Ser'ices Pro'ided (o -et/or# La*er

#-.6.6.6 to +.#33.#33.#33 +#.6.6.6 to ##".#33.#33.#33 ##7.6.6.6 to #"+.#33.#33.#33 #76.6.6.6 to #33.#33.#33.#33

Logical Lic# Control Su)-laer .edium Access Laer