Literature Review - Charlie Berger, 100384876 EDUC 5401G-001

Reviewing the Literature

Through the literature examined and the important discussions of concepts in this course, many different ideas and theories have been presented regarding the nature of adult education. From what has been studied, it is evident that the field of adult education is highly segmented and there is no single theory that can properly encompass the complexities of adult learning (Merriam, 2001, p.95). Examining in-depth research in this field, what emerges is a prism of theories, ideas, and frameworks that allow us to see the same phenomenon from different angles (Merriam, 2001, p.95).

In order to properly consolidate and reflect on what has been learned in this course, it is necessary to first examine these differing ideas and frameworks through an analysis of the literature. A crosssection of research articles representing three distinct theories of adult education (self-directed, informal/incidental and transformative learning) have been selected and will be examined in an effort to probe recurrent themes and discuss aspects of the unique theoretical frameworks surveyed in current literature of adult education theory.

Empowering the learner

Examination into the field of adult education has brought to light several common threads that exist between seemingly disparate educational theories, the most prevalent being the notion that the adult learner is empowered to shape his/her own learning in some way.

In self-directed learning, learner empowerment is based on the nature of adult responsibility and the maturity that being a fully developed adult brings. Merriam (2001) proposes that learners become increasingly self-directed as they mature (p.5), relating the drive and desire of adult learners to shape their own learning to the culturally-developed autonomy adults achieve in our society. Similarly, Mezirow (1981) proposed that adult learners assume increasing responsibility for defining their learning objectives, planning their own learning program and evaluating their progress (p.21). Both Merriam and Mezirow relate the empowerment of the adult learner to the nature of the fully-developed adult brain and experience as the adult learner has access to alternative perspectives for understanding his or her situation and for giving meaning and direction to his or her life (1981), which leads to the power of the individual to shape the direction of learning (Merriam, 2001).

Literature Review - Charlie Berger, 100384876 EDUC 5401G-001

Through the lens of informal and incidental learning, empowerment of the adult learner manifests itself through the anywhere-anytime nature of this type of learning. This theory postulates that there is no need for a formal learning environment (Marsick & Watkins, 2001, p.26) and as a result, informal and incidental learning can take place wherever people have the need, motivation, and opportunity for learning (p.28). Because of this, Marsick and Watkins suggest that a key component in learning of this type is the desire of the individual learner (2001, p.26), affording the learner the power to decide if and when learning will occur in any given informal setting (2001, p.26).

Transformative learning theory suggests that adult learning is largely based on the shifting frame of reference of the learner (Mezirow, 1997, p.5). This frame of reference shift is shown to act as an agent that provokes the learner to take charge of his/her own learning (Merizow, 1997). According to Baumgartner (2001), the act of transforming a frame of reference allows the adult learner to see the world and their place in it differently and as a result the learner is empowered in their new perspective, [and] could act to transform their world (p.18). The research goes further to suggest that without some form of learner empowerment, transformative learning could not happen. For example, Baumgartner states that it would be very difficult for the transformative learner to achieve this type of learning if the instructor is regarded as an inflexible authority figure (2001, p.21). A transformative learner is a learner who requires the opportunity for self-direction through critical reflection (Mezirow, 1997, p.5) in order to feel a sense of empowerment in regards to his/her own learning. (Baumgartner, 2001, p.21).

Outside the Classroom Walls

A second recurring theme emerging in the literature involves the nature of the learning environment. Theorists in all areas suggest that their respective theory of adult education allows for the learner to take his/her learning outside of the traditional classroom and into other areas of personal and professional adult life. As previously mentioned, Merriam (2001) has found that the self-directed learner is one who is autonomous, free, and growth-oriented (p.7), implying that this type of learning can occur anywhere as the learner is at liberty to direct when and where learning takes place. The learning needs of the selfdirected learner are closely linked to changing social roles as the learner matures (Merriam, 2001, p.5). Merriam suggests that as humans develop into adults and enter into new life-phases, their new roles in society, professional or otherwise, take learning outside the confines of the mandatory learning of a traditional classroom environment (Merriam, 2001, p.21). This emancipation frees the adult learner to

Literature Review - Charlie Berger, 100384876 EDUC 5401G-001

explore and direct him/herself into new areas of self-interest (Merriam, 2001, p.5) which are not necessarily learned in a typical classroom environment (Mezirow, 2001, p.21). As learning becomes increasingly self-directed, the dependency of the learner on the traditional classroom structure is greatly decreased (Mezirow, 1981, p.21).

According to Marsick and Watkins (2001), informal and incidental learning is less about the emancipation of the learner and is more of a learner-centered focus [into] the lessons that can be learned from life experience (p.25). The authors suggest that these types of experiences can occur anywhere as they are relevant to practice in many cultures and contexts(Marsick & Watkins, 2001, p.26) including religions, families, and communities(Marsick & Watkins, 2001, p.26). Incidental learning occurs whether we are aware of it or not (Marskick & Watkins, 2001, p. 27) permitting any setting to become a possible environment for learning.

Transformative learning theory postulates that knowledge is created from interpretations and reinterpretations in light of new experiences and similar to informal and incidental learning, these experiences can occur anywhere at any time (Merizow, 1996, p.158) and are not necessarily limited to a classroom learning environment (Mezirow, 1996, p.158). According to Baumgartner (2001), social interaction is important in the learning relationship of the transformative learner (p.17), and these types of interactions may occur in the real world in complex institutional, interpersonal, and historical settings (Mezirow, 2000, p.24).

A Work in Progress
The authors probe significantly into the timelines and evolutions of their theoretical frameworks, acknowledging that the development of adult education theories is ongoing. There is a general consensus across all perspectives that theoretical development is far from complete, is in a constant state of evolution with every new article published and researchers are hopeful for future development in their respective theories of adult learning. In her study of self-directed learning, Merriam (2001) acknowledges that self-directed learning appears to be at a juncture in terms of which direction research and theory building should take in order to advance our understanding of this important dimension of adult learning(Merriam, 2001, p.11). Similarly, Mezirow (1981) concludes his research of self-directed learning stating that the formulation of such a theory...is perhaps our single greatest challenge in this period of unprecedented expansion of adult

Literature Review - Charlie Berger, 100384876 EDUC 5401G-001

education programs and activities (p.22). Although theorists in this field acknowledge that there are many different thoughts on what a concise theory of self-directed learning really is or should be, Merriam is confident that the continued debate of the nature of self-directed learning and the theoretical framework it represents will only further enrich our understanding of adult learning as a whole (Merriam, 2001, p.11).

Informal and incidental learning is at a similar juncture in its continued development. Marsick and Watkins (2001) refer to the progress scholars have made in deepening our understanding of the nature of informal and incidental learning in the past ten years (p.31), but concede that much still needs to be explored in this theory (Marsick and Watkins, 2001, p.31). Similar to other research examined, they look positively to the future of their field and go a step further to suggest possible new areas of exploration, such as the influence of new and emerging technologies on informal and incidental learning (Marsick & Watkins, 2001, p.31).

Baumgartner (2001) also sees her field of research as one that is incomplete and continually evolving, referring to transformative learning theory and its continued development (p.22). Much like Merriam and her thoughts on self-directed learning, she concedes that the need for further development and refinement of the theory of transformative learning is not necessarily a hurdle as critical reflection on the theory in combination with thoughtful discussion is leading to a broader, more inclusive understanding of transformational learning (Baumgartner, 2001, p.22).

Literature Review Conclusion

As seen through the literature, there are several general themes that can tie these three distinct theories of adult education theory together, despite being very distinct in terms of their individual visions and approaches to understanding the nature of how adults learn. These similarities demonstrate that no approach to adult education need stand alone as one theory can invariably influence another through overlapping ideals and perspectives. Although the experts assert that there may never be a single overarching theory of adult education (Merriam, 2001, p.95), perhaps some of the commonalities identified and examined can bring about increased theoretical cohesion, allowing all researchers to better understand how adults learn as these individual theories are further developed in the future.

Literature Review - Charlie Berger, 100384876 EDUC 5401G-001

References
Baumgartner, L. (2001). An update on transformational learning. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 89(Spring), 15-24. Marsick, V. & Watkins, K. (2001). Informal and incidental learning. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 89 (Spring), 25-34. Merriam, S. (2001). Something old, something new: adult learning theory for the twenty-first century. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education. 89 (Spring), 93-96. Merriam, S. (2001). Andragogy and self-directed learning: pillars of adult learning theory. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 89 (Spring) 3-13. Mezirow, J. (1981) A critical theory of adult learning and education. Adult Education, 32(1) (Fall) 3-24. Mezirow, J. Contemporary Paradigms of Learning. Adult Education Quarterly, 1996, 46(3), 158172. Mezirow, J. Learning to Think Like an Adult: Transformation Theory: Core Concepts. In J. Mezirow and Associates (eds.) Learning as Transformation: Critical Perspectives on a Theory in Progress. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2000.