Hydrology Groundwater Hydrology - David K. Todd (2005)

Groundwater Hydrology Thisd Edition David Keith Todd University of California, Berkeley and Todd Engincers Larry W. Mays Arizona State University ® WILEY John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Executive Editor Bill Zobrist Project Editor Jennifer Welter Senior Production Editor Valerie A. Vargas Marketing Manager Jennifer Powers Senior Designer Dawn L. Stanley New Media Editor Thomas Kulesa Cover Design David Levy Cover Image Photograph by Robert Morris, U.S. Geological Survey Production Management Services Argosy Publishing ‘This book was set in 10/12 Times by Argosy Publishing and printed and bound by Hamilton Printing. ‘The cover was printed by Phoenix Color Corporation. On the Cover: Comal Springs. The highly productive Edwards aquifer, the first aquifer to be desig- nated asa sole source aquifer under the Safe Drinking Water Act, isthe source of water for more than | million people in San Antonio, Texas, some military bases and small towns, and for south-central ‘Texas farmers and ranchers. The aquifer also supplies water to sustain threatened and endangered species habitat associated with natural springs in the region and supplies surface water to users downstream from the major springs. These various uses ae in direct competition with ground-water devel- ‘opment and have created challenging issues of ground-water management inthe region. Photo and description from the USGS website: hup/watecusgs.gov/pubs/ciclcire1 186.html/gw_effect html isk id ma i pp: ‘Copyright 20050 John Wiley & Sons, Ine. Al sights reserved. [No prt ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored ina reuieval system, or wansmited in any form or by any ‘means, elecwoni, mechanical, photocopying, recording, seaming or otherwise, excep as pemited under Sec- tions 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior writen pemmission ofthe Pub- lisher or authorization trough payment ofthe appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470, Requests tothe Publisher for pe mission shouldbe addressed tothe Permissions Department, John Wiley & Soas, In. 111 River Street, Hoboken, 1NJ 07030, (201)748-6011, fax (201)748-6008, E-mail: PERMREQ@ WILEY.COM. ‘To order books or for customer service plese cll 1(800}-CALL WILEY (225-5945) ISBN 0-471.05937-4 (lah) ISBN 0-471-45254-8 (WIE) Printed inthe United States of America 10987654321 In\ PREFACE to the 3rd Edition Water is essential for life on Barth, and the largest source of fresh water lies under the Earth's surface. Increased demands for water have stimulated efforts to further develop, and in many cases over develop, ‘our groundwater resources. In addition we have created pollution problems resulting from over develop- ‘ment of groundwater resources and the mismanagement of wastes. As a result investigations of the occurrence and movement of groundwater have advanced, drilling equipment has improved, new models have been developed, techniques for managing groundwater have advanced, and research has extended our understanding of the resource. Intended Audience and Introduction ‘This book is intended for a groundwater hydrology course in civil and environmental engineering, geology, or hydrogeology. It is appropriate for either a one or two term course atthe junior, senior, or gradu- ate level ‘The first edition of this book by David K. Todd was published in 1959 and the second edition was published in 1980, This third edition of Groundwater Hydrology has the same purpose as the previous ‘wo editions, to present the fundamentals of groundwater hydrology in a manner understandable to those ‘most concerned with such knowledge. Few people specialize in the subject, yet, because groundwater is ‘a major natural resource, the subject becomes important for students and professionals in many fields: water supply, the environment, agriculture, economics, mining, and the law, to name only the obvious ‘ones. Although itis impossible to presenta subject fitted to such a diversity of students the common need is an understanding of the fundamental principles, methods, and problems in the groundwater field. ‘Thus, this book endeavors to make available a unified presentation of groundwater hydrology. Since the earlier editions of this book, the groundwater resource field has made tremendous strides, Awareness of the environment, concems and competition for water supplies, contamination of ground- ‘water, and enhanced regulation of water resources have all focused attention on the subject. As a result cducational programs, research funding, and professionals actively involved in developing and managing groundwater have grown dramatically. The National Ground Water Association together with journals such as Ground Water and Water Resources Research has been instrumental in advancing groundwater knowledge. ‘New to this edition ‘We have attempted to develop this book, not only as a stand-alone work, but in partnership withthe Inter- net to serve as a portal to the vast resources on groundwater hydrology that now exist on the Internet. Hopefully this book will help guide the student, the professional, and the researcher to the general documents and other publications, program plans, field project details, software, and other information found on the Internet.vi Preface Internet References “Most of the web sites in the book are maintained by government agencies and nongovernmental organi zations so that they will tey continue in the future. Several end-of-chapter problems throughout the book are based upon Internet exercises. + Example Problems, Case Studies, Problem Sets The most significant change in ths edition has been the addition of example problems and case studies inthe text, and the addition of problem sets atthe end of each chapter. For educational purposes these problems enable a student to apply ‘material in the text to realistic everyday situations + Modeling with MODFLOW The second most noticeable change has been an entirely new chapter ‘on modeling (Chapter 9) featuring the U. S. Geological Survey MODFLOW model, which has become the standard modeling tool in the groundwater field. Chief among the new developments in the groundwater field is the role of computers, not only for organizing data and solving problems but also in managing groundwater resources on a basin-wide basis for known or anticipated inputs and outputs, ‘+ New Figures and Photos We have included over 300 new figures and photos. Many of the new figures and tables within the book have been taken from various Web pages, in particular the U. 8. Geological Survey. These items not only provide specific information but serve as samples of «graphics and tabulations available on the Internet making the style of this book mote variable than that of most textbooks. + References References have been updated and selected on the basis of significance and availability + Metric and US. Units Both metric and U. S. customary units have been used in the example problems. Metric units are used in keeping with their growing acceptance in the United States as well asin recognition of the wide use of this book throughout the World. U. S. customary units have also been used because ofthe continued use by many in the United States. ‘Student and Instructor Resources ‘The website for the book, located at www.wiley.com/college/todd, includes resources for both students, ‘and faculty: corrections tothe book, updates on changes in web addresses and new web pages used in the book, and other updates on material inthe book that are of value to students and faculty. These resources. are also included on the author's website at www.public.asu.edu/-lwmays/. Larry Mays can be contacted at mays@asuedu For instructors who have adopted the book for their course, a complete Solutions Manual for all homework problems in the text is available for download. Selected figures from the tex, in PowerPoint format, are also available for easy creation of lecture slides. Visit the Instructor Companion Site portion. of the book's website to register for a password for these assets available only to instructors, For instructors who have adopted the book for their course, a complete Solutions Manual forall ‘homework problems in the text is available for download. Selected figures from the text, in PowerPoint format, are also available for easy creation of lecture slides. Visit the Instructor Companion Site portion ‘of the book’s website to register for a password for these assets available only to instructors. Acknowledgements We are indebted to personnel of the U. S. Geological Survey for their numerous excellent publications on so many aspects of groundwater from which we have borrowed freely. We are deeply indebted to Sukru Ozger who prepared many of the problems and their solutions forthe solutions manual. Students at Arizona State University have been exposed to advanced drafts of this new edition and offered severalani- has Jem oly pler has sin bat ew :U, sof, han ail- Preface vil constructive comments. We want to thank the reviewers Scott Wolcott of Rochester Institute of Technol- ogy, Rameshwar Singh of San Jose State University, Rao S. Govindaraju of Purdue University, Albert J Valocchi ofthe University of Iinois at Urbana-Champaign, Jeffrey D. Caulfield ofthe University of Mis- sour at Rolla, and Mark Widdowson of Virginia Tech. for their helpful comments and suggestions David W. Abbott, Maureen Reilly, and Dan Rothman, PE. provided useful reviews of selected chapters. David Keith Todd Larry W. Mays Piedmont, California Scottsdale, ArizonaContents Introduction 1 LL Scope 1 1.2 Historical Background 2 121 Qanats 2 1.22 Groundwater Theories 2 1.23. Recent Centuries 4 1.3 Trends in Water Withdrawals and Use 5 14 Utilization of Groundwater 9 15 Groundwater in the Hydrologic Cycle 13 15.1 Hydrologic Cycle 13, 1.52 The Groundwater System in the Hydrologic Cycle. 15, 16 Hydrologic Budget 20 LT Publication Sources. 27 1.7.1 Intemet Resources. 27 1.72 US. Geological Survey Publications 27 173. Publications — 29 18 DataSources 29 18.1 NWISWeb Data forthe Nation 30 182 RealTime Data 31 Problems 32 References 33, Example Publications of Organizations and Government Agencies 34 2 Occurrence of Groundwater 35 21 Origin and Age of Groundwater 35 22 Rock Properties Affecting Groundwater 36 221 Aquifers 36 222 Porosity 37 223° SoilClassifiction 40 2.24 Porosity and Representative Elementary Volume 41 225. Specific Surface 42 23. Vertical Distribution of Groundwater 45 24 Zone of Aeration 46 24.1. Soil-Water Zone 46 24.2 Inermediate Vadose Zone 46 243. Capillary Zone 47 244 Measurement of Water Content 49 245 Available Water 50 25 Zone of Saturation 50 25.1 SpecificRetention 50 252 SpecificYield 50 2.6 Geologic Formations as Aquifers 52 26.1 Alluvial Deposits 52 262 Limestone 53 263 Volcanic Rock 55 264 Sandstone 55X Contents 265. Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks 55 266 Chay 55 2.7 ‘Types of Aquifers 56 27.1 Unconfined Aquifer 56 212 Confined Aquifers 56 273 Leaky Aquifer 57 274 Wdealized Aquifer 57 28 Storage Coefficient 58 2.9 Groundwater BasinsRegional Groundwater Flow Systems 59 29.1 High Plains Aquifer 59 29.2 Gulf Coastal Plain Aquifer System 61 210 Springs 67 210.1 What Are Springs? 67 2.10.2. Edwards Aquifer—Discharge of Springs 70 2.11 Hydrothermal Phenomena 73 211.1 Thermal Springs 73 2.11.2 Geothermal Energy Resources _ 75 2.12 Groundwater in Permafrost Regions 76 2.13 Groundwater inthe United States 77 Problems 83 References 84 3. Groundwater Movement 86 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 3.10 Darcy’sLaw 86 3.1.1 Experimental Verification 86 3.1.2 Darcy Velocity 89 3.13 Validity of Darcy's Law 90 Permeability 91 3.2.1 Intrinsic Permeability 91 3.2.2 Hydraulic Conductivity 91 3.2.3 Transmissivity 92 3.24 Hydraulic Conductivity of Geologic Materials 92 Determinat 94 33.1 Formulas 94 33.2 Laboratory Methods 95 33.3. TracerTests 98 334 AugerHole Tests 99 33.5 Pumping Tests of Wells 100 Anisotropic Aquifers 100 Groundwater Flow Rates 103 Groundwater Flow Directions 105 36.1 FlowNets 105 3.6.2 Flow in Relation to Groundwater Contours 106 3.63 Flow Across WaterTable 112 3.64 Flow Across a Hydraulic Conductivity Boundary 114 3.65 Regional Flow Patters 115 Dispersion 119 37.1 Concept 119 3.2. Dispersion and Groundwater Hydrology 121 Groundwater Tracers 122 General Flow Equations 122 Unsaturated Flow 125 3.10.1 Flow Through Unsaturated Soils 126 3.10.2 Unsaturated Hydraulic Conductivity 128 ail 3.12 Prot Rele a\s 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 4.10 Prob Refe 53 SA3.103 Vertical and Horizontal Fiows 133, 3.1 Kinematic Wave 133 3.12 Infiltration: The Green-Ampt Method 134 Problems 140 References 142, 4 Groundwater and Well Hydraulics 146 Contents xi 4.1 Steady Unidirectional Flow 146 4.1.1 Confined Aquifer 146 4.12 Unconfined Aquifer 147 4.13 Base Flow toa Stream 149 42 Steady Radial Flow toaWell 152 42.1 Confined Aquifer 152 42.2 Unconfined Aquifer 156 42.3 Unconfined Aquifer with Uniform Recharge 43° WellinaUniformFlow 161 44 Unsteady Radial Flow ina Confined Aquifer 163 44.1 Nonequilibrium Well Pumping Equation 163 44.2 Theis Method of Solution 168 4443 Cooper-Jacob Method of Solution 167 444 Chow Method of Solution 169 445 Recovery Test 170 45. Unsteady Radial Flow in an Unconfined Aquifer 172 4.6 Unsteady Radial Flow ina Leaky Aquifer 177 4.7 Well Flow Near Aquifer Boundaries 180 47.1 WellFlow Near a Stream 180 4.7.2 Well Flow Near an Impermeable Boundary 186 4.73. Well Flow Near Other Boundaries 189 4.74 Location of Aquifer Boundary 191 48 Multiple Well Systems 192 49. Partially Penetrating Wells 195, 4.10 Well Flow for Special Conditions 198 Problems 198 References 204 5 Water Wells 206 159 5.1 Test Holes and Well Logs 206 5.2. Methods for Constructing Shallow Wells 206 52.1 DugWells 208 522 Bored Wells 209 523 DrivenWells 211 5.24 Jetted Wells 212 5.3 Methods for Drilling Deep Wells 214 53.1 Cable Tool Method 218 53.2 RotaryMethod 20 533 AirRotary Method — 220 534 Rotary-Percussion Method 221 53.5 Reverse-Circulation Rotary Method 222 54 Well Completion 222 S41 WellCasings 222 542 Cementing 223 543 Screens 223 544 Gravel Packs 226Contents 55 Well Development 228 35.1 Pumping 228 552 Surging 228 55.3. Surging with Air 228 554 Backwashing with Air 228 555 Hydraulic Jeting 230 556 Chemicals 231 55.7 Hydraulic Fracturing 231 558 Explosives 231 56 Testing Wells for Yield 232 5.7 Pumping Equipment 232 57.1 Total Pumping Head 232 57.2. Pumps for Shallow Wells 232 54.3 Pumps for Deep Wells 232 58 Protection of Wells 234 58.1 Sanitary Protection 234 582. Frost Protection 236 583. Abandonment of Wells 237 59 Well Relabilitaion 237 5.10 Horizontal Wells 239, 5.10.1 Inflation Galleries 239 5.102 Horiontal Pipes 240 5.103 Collector Wells 240 SIL Characteristic Well Losses 242 S11 Well Losses 242 5.11.2 Evaluation of Well Loss 243 5.12. Specific Capacity and Well Eficiency 248 5.13. Slug Tests 250 5.13.1 Definition 250 5.13.2 Design Guidelines 250 5.133 Performance of Slug Tests 251 5.1344 Methods for Analyzing Slug Test Data 253 5.14 Slug Tests for Confined Formations 255 5.14.1 Cooper, Bredehoef, and Papadopulos Method 255 5.142 Hvorslev Method 259 5.15. Slug Tests for Unconfined Formations 261 5.15.1 Bouwerand Rice Method 262 5.15.2 Dagan Method 268 5.153 KGS Model 271 5.16 Slug Tests for High Conductivity Formations 272 5.17 Well'Skin Effect 273, Problems 273 References 716 6 Groundwater Levels and Environmental Influences 279 6. Time Variations of Levels. 279 6.1.1 Secular Variations 279 6.12 Seasonal Variations 280 6.1.3. Short-Term Variations 280 62. Stwamfiow and Groundwater Levels 284 621 Bank Storage 285 622 Base Flow 286 623. Base Flow Recession Curve 289 63 Fluctuations Due to Evapotrnspication 29163.1. Evaporation Effects 291 63.2 Transpiration Effects 291 63.3 Evapotranspiration Effects 292 64 Fluctuations Due to Meteorological Phenomena 295 64.1 Atmospheric Pressure 295 642 Rainfall 297 643 Wind 298 644 Frost 298 65 Fluctuations Due toTides 299 65.1 OceanTides 299 65.2 EathTides 302 66 Urbanization 303 67 Earthquakes 306 68 Extemal Loads 308 69 Land Subsidence and Groundwater 308 69.1 Lowering of Piezometric Surface 311 69.2 Hydrocompaction 315 69.3 Dewatering of Organic Soils 317 694 Sinkhole Formation 317 695. Crustal Uplift 319 69.6 Monitoring of Land Subsidence 319 (6.10. Effects of Global Climate Change on Groundwater 321, Problems 324 References 325 7 Quality of Groundwater 329 741 Natural Groundwater Quality 329 72 Sources of Salinity 330 73. Measures of Water Quality 335, 74 Chemical Analysis 337 74. Concentrations by Weight 337 742 Chemical Equivalence 338 743 Toa Dissolved Solids by Electrical Conductance 339 744 Hardness 339 15 Graphic Representations 340 76 Physical Analysis 345 7.7 Biological Analysis 345 78 Groundwater Samples 345 719 Water Quality Criteria 346 79. Drinking Water Standards 346 79.2 Industrial Water Criteria 346 79.3 ligation Water Criteria 347 7.10 Changesin Chemical Composition 348 TAL Dissolved Gases 349 712 Temperature 351 7.13. Saline Groundwater 354 Problems 356 References 357 8 Pollution of Groundwater 359 8.1 Pollution in Relation to Water Use 359 8.2 Municipal Sources and Causes 361, 82.1 SewerLeakage 361xiv 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 8.10 al Contents 8.2.2 Liquid Wastes 361 82.3 Solid Wastes 362 Industrial Sources and Causes 364 83.1 Liquid Wastes 364 83.2 Tankand Pipeline Leakage 364 833° Mining Activities 364 834 Oil-Field Brines 366 Agricultural Sources and Causes. 367 84.1 Irrigation Retum Flows 367 84.2 Animal Wastes 367 843 Fentlizersand Soil Amendments 367 844 Pesticides, Insecticides, and Herbicides 368 Miscellaneous Sources and Causes 368 85.1 Urbanization 368 85.2 Spills and Surface Discharges 370 853. Stockpiles 370 854 Septic Tanks and Cesspools 370 85.5 Roadway Deicing 370 85.6 Saline Water Intrusion 371 85.7 Interchange through Wells 372 85.8 Surface Water 372 Attenuation of Pollution 373 861 Filtration 373 86.2 Sorption 373, 863 Chemical Processes 374 864 Microbiological Decomposition 374 865 Dilution 374 Distribution of Pollution Underground 375 87.1 Hanford Site in Richland, Washington 377 ‘Mass Transport of Pollutants 378 8.8.1 Transport Processes 378 88.2 _Advection-Dispersion Equation for Solute Transport in Saturated Porous Media 382 883 Analytical Procedure 384 8.84 Transport of Reactive Pollutants 385 Monitoring Groundwater Quality 386 Remediation of Contaminated Groundwater 392 8.10.1 Remediation Goals 392 8.10.2 System Design 394 8.103 Hydraulic Containment of Groundwater 304 8.104 Groundwater Extraction Systems 396 8.105 Treatment of Contaminated Groundwater 396 Conventional Pump-and-Treatment Systems 401 8.11.1 Pump-and-Treat Remediation Suategies 401 8.11.2 Characterizing Sites for Pump and Treatment Design 403 8.11.3 Capture Zone Analysis 406 8.114 Extraction/Injection Scheme Design 407 Problems 407 References 409 9 Groundwater Flow Modeling Techniques 413 9 92 93 94 Why Develop Groundwater Models? 413 ‘Types of Groundwater Models 414 ‘Steps in the Development of « Groundwater Model 415. ‘Simulation of Two-Dimensional Groundwater Systems 415 9.4.1 Governing Equations 415 a 98 99. 9 94 Ret 0 102 102 104 10s 106 10796 91 98 99 9.10 9. 94.2. Finite Difference Equations 417 943 Solution 419 944 Case Study 419 ‘Three-Dimensional Groundwater Flow Model 420 95.1 Derivation of Finite Difference Equations 420 952 Simulation of Boundaries 427 953 Vertical Discretzation 427 954 Hydraulic Conductance Equations 429 MODFLOW-2000 Description 431 9.6.1 Model Introduction 431 9.62 Space and Time Discretization 432 9.63 External Sources and Stresses 433, 9.644 Hydraulic Conductance—Layer-Property Flow Package (LPF) 9.65 SolverPackages 440 9.66 Telescopic Mesh Refinement 440 Case Study: Using MODFLOW: Lake Five-O, Flora 444 9.1.1 Finite Difference Grid and Boundary Conditions 444 97.2 Model Calibration and Sensitivity Analysis 444 9.73 Model Results 448 Particle Tracking—MODPATH 449 98.1 Whats Particle Tracking? 449 9.8.2 Particle Tracking Analysis—An Application 449 Example Applications and Input of MODFLOW 450 Solute Transport Modeling—MOC3D 455 9.10.1 Solute Transport Equation 455 9.102 MOC3D Model 456 Groundwater Modeling Software Support 459 9.11.1 US. Geological Survey 459 9.112 U.S. EPA Center for Exposure Assessment Modeling (CEAM) 9.113 Intemational Groundwater Modeling Center (IGWMC) 459 9.114 Processors for MODFLOW 459 Problems 460) References 461 10 10.1 102 103 104 105 106 107 Management of Groundwater 464 Concepts of Basin Management 464 10.1.1 Managing Groundwater Resources 465 Groundwater Basin Investigations and Data Collection 466 102.1 Topographic Data 467 10.22 Geologic Data 468 102.3 Hydrologic Data 468 Yield 469 103.1 Alternative Basin Yields 469 10.3.2 Evaluation of Perennial Yield 471 CConjunctive Use and Watershed Management 473 Groundwater Management: Water Laws and Policies 477 105.1 Water Law and Policy 477 10.5.2 Arizona's Groundwater Management Code 477 1053 Texas GroundwaterLaw 478 ‘Case Study: Groundwater Management: Examples 479 106.1 Edwards Aquifer Management 479 10.62 High Plans Aquifer: Conjunctive Water Use on the High Plains Groundwater Management Using Models 481 10.7.1 What Are Groundwater Management Models? 481 436 459 480 Contentsxvi Contents 10.7.2 Optimization Methods 482 10.7.3. Types of Groundwater Management Models 482 108 Groundwater Management Modeling: Hydraulic Management Models 484 10.8.1 Steady-State One-Dimensional Problems for Confined Aquifers 484 10.8.2 Steady-State One-Dimensional Problems for Unconfined Aquifers 486 10.8.3 Steady-State Two-Dimensional Model for Confined Aquifers 487 10.84 Transient One-Dimensional Problem for Confined Aquifers 489 10.8.5 Steady-State Two-Dimensional Problem for Unconfined Aquifers 490 10.9 Policy Evaluation and Allocation Models: Response Matrix Approach 492 10.10 Optimal Control Groundwater Management Modeling 495, 10.11 Case Studies: Groundwater Management Modeling Applications 496 10.11.1 Optimal-Control Model for Barton Springs-Edwards Aquifer, Texas 496 10.11.2 Heuristic Optimization-Simulation Model for Groundwater Remediation Design: N-Springs Site, Hanford, Washington 497 10.11.3 Groundwater Management Model Using Response Matrix Approach: ‘Santa Clara-Calleguas Basin, Califomia 499 Problems S04 References 506 11__Surface Investigations of Groundwater 509 111 Geologic Methods 509 112 Remote Sensing $10 113 Geophysical Exploration 512 114 Electrical Resistivity Method 513. 115 Seismic Refraction Method $17 11.6 Gravity and Magnetic Methods 520 Problems 520 References S21 12 _ Subsurface Investigations of Groundwater 523, 121 Testing 523 12.1.1 Geologic Log 524 12.12 Driling-Time Log 525 122 WaterLevel Measurement 526 123 Geophysicel Logging 527 124 Resistivity Logging 529 125. Spontaneous Potential Logging 533, 12.6 Radiation Logging 533 126.1 Natural-Gamma Logging 533 12.62 Gamma-Gamma Logging 534 1263 Neutron Logging 535 127 Temperature Logging 535 128 Caliper Logging 536 129 Fluid-Conductivty Logging 537 12.10 Fluid-Velocity Logging 537 12.11 Miscellaneous Logging Techniques 538 1211.1 Television Logging 538 12112 Acoustic Logging 538 12.113 Casing Logging $39 12.12 Other Subsurface Methods 539 12.13 Case Study: Oasis Valley, Nevada 539 Problems S41 References 54513._ Artificial Recharge of Groundwater 547 IB.L Concept of Artificial Recharge $47 13.2. Recharge Methods $48 13.2.1 Methods 548 13.22 Recharge Rates 556 133 Wastewater Recharge for Reuse 559 13.4 Soil Aquifer Treatment (SAT) Systems 560 134.1 What Are SAT Systems? 560 1342 Operation of SAT Systems $63, 13.43 Modeling SAT Systems 565 135. Recharge Mounds 567 135.1 Perched Groundwater Mounds 567 1352 Steady-State Equations for Groundwater Mounds 135.3 Hantush Equation 570 1346 Stormwater Infiltration Basin Mound Development 576 136.1 Potential Flow Model fora Trench S76 13.62 Potential Flow Model for Circular Basin S78 13.63 Mound Growth 580 13.64 Mound Recession 582 137 Innovative Approaches $83, 1321 Wildwood, New Jersey 583 13.22 Orange County, California 584 13113 Long Island, New York 584 1374 Orlando, Florida 584 1375 Dayton, Ohio $84 138 Induced Recharge 584 Problems 585 References 986 14 Saline Water Intrusion in Aquifers 589 14.1 Occurrence of Saline Water Intrusion 589 14.2 Ghyben-Herzberg Relation Between Fresh and Saline Waters 143. Shape of the Fresh-Salt Wate Interface 592 144° Structure ofthe Fresh-Salt Water Interface 596 145 Effect of Wells on Seawater Intrusion 597 14.6 Upconing of Saline Water 600 147 Fresh-Salt Water Relations on Oceanic Islands 603 148 Seawater Intrusion in Karst Terains 605 149 Control of Saline Water Intrusion 606 14.10 Examples of Seawater Intrusion 608 14.10.1 Long Island, New York 608 14.102 Southern California 608 Problems 611 References 612 Appendix A 615 Appendix B 619 Appendix C 620 Index 625 Contents xvii 590Chapter 1 Introduction Groundwater hydrology may be defined as the science of the occurrence, distribution, and ‘movement of water below the surface of the earth. Geohydrology has an identical connotation, and hydrogeology differs only by its greater emphasis on geology. Utilization of groundwater dates from ancient times, although an understanding of the occurrence and movement of subsurface water as part of the hydrologic cycle is recent. ‘The US. National Research Council (1991) presented the following definition of hydrology: Hydrology is the science that eas the waters ofthe Earth, their occurence, circulation, and distribution, their chemical and physical propetes and their reaction withthe environment, including the relation o living things. The domain of hydrology embraces the ul life history of water on Barth Section 1.5 describes in further detail the concepts ofthe hydrologic cycle. ‘The importance of groundwater (hydrology) in the hydrologic cycle has been the subject of extensive technical research and publishing by many investigators over the past decades. Many ‘of these publications are introduced inthis book. Also, many books written on the subject ofthe fate of water have caught the attention of the general public, especially those interested in saving ‘our resources. These include books by Carson'® and de Villiers* among others. 1.1 SCOPE Groundwater (ceferred to without further specification) is commonly understood to mean water ‘occupying all the voids within a geologic stratum. This saturated zone is to be distinguished from an unsaturated, ot aeration, zone where voids are filled with water and air. Water contained in saturated zones is important for engineering works, geologic studies, and water supply developments; consequently, the occurrence of water in these zones will be emphasized here. Unsaturated zones are usually found above saturated zones and extend upward to the ‘ground surface; because water here includes soil moisture within the root zone, itis @ major cconcem of agriculture, botany, and sol scence. No rigid demarcation of waters between the two zones is possible, for they possess an interdependent boundary, and water can move from zone to zone in either direction. The interelationships are described more fully in Chapter 2. Groundwater plays an important part in petroleum engineering. Two-fluid systems, involving ol and water, and thee-fluid systems, involving gas, ol, and water, occur frequently in development of petroleum. Although the same hydrodynamic laws gover flows of these systems and groundwater, the distinctive nature of water in petroleum reservoirs ses it apart from other groundwater. Major differences exist in water quality, depth of occurrence, and methods of development and utilization, all of which contribute toa separation of interests and 12° Chapter | Introduction applications. Therefore, groundwater in petroleum reservoirs will not be treated specifically in this book. It should be noted, however, that groundwater hydrology has gained immeasurably from research conducted by the petroleum industry. 1.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 12.1 Qanats Groundwater development dates from ancient times.°*""The Old Testament contains numerous references to groundwater, springs, and wells. Other than dug wells, groundwater in ancient times was supplied from horizontal wells known as qanats.' These persist to the present day and can be found in a band across the arid regions of Southwestem Asia and North Africe extending from Afghanistan to Morocco. A cross section along a ganat is shown in Figure 1.2.1. Typically, a gently sloping tunnel dug through alluvial material leads water by gravity flow from beneath the water table a its upper end to a ground surface outlet and irrigation canal at its lower end.!° Vertical shafis dug at closely spaced intervals provide access to the tunnel. Qanats are labori- ‘ously hand constructed by skilled workers employing techniques that date back 3,000 years.* Tran possesses the greatest concentration of qanats; here some 22,000 qanats supply 75 percent ofall water used in the county. Lengths of qanats extend up to 30 km, but mast are Jess than 5 kan.'* The depth of the qanat mother well (see Figure 1.2.1) is normally ess than 50 m, bat instances of depths exceeding 250 m have been reported. Discharges of qanats vary seasonally with water table fluctuations and seldom exceed 100 m'fhr. Indicative of the density of qanats is the map in Figure 1.2.2. Based on aerial photographs of the Varamin Plain, Jocated 40 km southeast of Tehran, this identifies 266 qanats within an area of 1,300 km?, 1.2.2 Groundwater Theories Utilization of groundwater greatly preceded understanding of its origin, occurrence, and move- ‘meat, The writings of Greek and Roman philosophers to explain origins of springs and ground- Endof Irigate| qanat Surface isles anal Figure 1.2.1. Vertical cross section slong a qanat (after Beaumont"), * Supeseripc numbers efer to references atthe end of th chapter * Qanar comes from a Semitic word meaning “to dig” There are several variants of teams including hare fg- ara, nd fla depending on locaton in to, there are numerous dereces i pling. + nastrave of te tremendoas human effort expended to construct a gaat is 2 clalton by Beaumont.” The longest qarat ear Zaren, Ian, i 29 kong witha mther wel depth of 96m and with 96 has long its Feng he oa volume of materi excavate is estimated 75,400lyin ably ‘ous jent jing ally, zath a0 ori. 5 han ay ‘en- ain, ve nd 1.2. Historical Background 3 water contain theories ranging from fantasy to neatly correct accounts.® As late asthe sev- centeenth century it was generally assumed that water emerging from springs could not be derived from rainfall, for it was believed that the quantity was inadequate and the earth too impervious to permit penetration of rainwater far below the surface. Thus, eatly Greek philosophers such as Homer, Thales, and Plato hypothesized that springs were formed by seawater conducted through subterranean channels below the mountains, then purified and raised to the surface. Aristotle suggested that air enters cold dark caverns under the mountains where it condenses into water and contributes to springs. ‘The Roman philosophers, including Seneca and Pliny, followed the Greek ideas and contributed litte tothe subject. An important step forward, however, was made by the Roman architect Vitruvius. He explained the now-accepted infiltration theory thatthe mountains receive large amounts of rain that percolate through the rock strata and emerge at their base to form streams. Figure 1.2.2 Map of qanats on the Varamin Plain, Iran (after Beaumont),4 Chapter! Introduction ‘The Greek theories persisted through the Middle Ages with no advances until the end of the Renaissance. The French potter and philosopher Bemard Palissy (c. 1510-1589) reiterated the infiltration theory in 1580, but his teachings were generally ignored. ‘The German astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) was @ man of strong imagination who likened the arth to a huge animal that takes in water of the ocean, digests and assimilates it, and i charges the end products of these physiological processes as groundwater and springs. The seawater theory of the Greeks, supplemented by the ideas of vaporization and condensation processes within the earth, was restated by the French philosopher René Descartes (1596-1650). ‘A clear understanding of the hydrologic cycle was achieved by the latter part ofthe sev- centeenth century. For the first time, theories were based on observations and quantitative data. ‘Three Europeans made notable contributions, although others contributed to and supported these advances. Pierre Perrault’ (1611-1680) measured rainfall during three years and estimated runoff of the upper Seine River drainage basin, He reported in 1674 that precipitation ‘on the basin was about six times the river discharge, thereby demonstrating as false the early assumption of inadequate rainfall” The French physicist Edme Mariott (c. 1620-1684) made measurements of the Seine at Paris and confirmed Perraut’s work. His publications appeared in 1686, after his death, and contained factual data strongly supporting the infiltration theory. Meinzer™ once stated, “Mariotte . . . probably deserves more than any other man the distine- tion of being regarded as the founder of groundwater hydrology, perhaps I should say of the centite science of hydrology.” The third contribution came from the English astronomer ‘Edmund Halley (1656-1742), who reported in 1693 on measurements of evaporation, demon- trating that sea evaporation was sufficient to account for all springs and stream flow. 1.2.3 Recent Centuries During the eighteenth century, fundamentals in geology were established that provided a basis, for understanding the occurrence and movement of groundwater. During the first half of the nineteenth century many artesian wells were drilled in France, stimulating interest in ground water. The French hydraulic engineer Henry Darcy (1803-1858) studied the movement of ‘water through sand. His treatise of 1856 defined the relation, now known as Darcy's law, gov- ceming groundwater flow in most alluvial and sedimentary formations. Later European contributions of the nineteenth century emphasized the hydraulics of groundwater development. Significant contributions were made by J. Boussinesg, G. A. Daubrée, J. Dupuit, P. Forch- hheimer, and A. Thiem. In the twentieth century, increased activity in all phases of groundwater hydrology occurred. Many Europeans have participated with publications of either specialized or comprehensive works. There are too many people to mention them all, but R. Dachler, E. Ibeaux, K. Keilhack, W. Koehne, J. Kozeny, E, Prinz, H. Schoeller, and G, Thier are best known in the United States. + Pieme Perrault was a lawyer by profession and held administrative and financial poston inthe French gover- ‘ment ence hes ot wellknown in scientific circles. His interest in groundwater, leading to publication of De Origine des Fntanes in 1674, canbe taced to the stimulus of te Dutch mathematician, astronomer, and physicist, Christian Huygens, who was ten living in Paris and to whom te book is dedicated. Also, ere Perrault soften overshadowed by is fur dsinguished brothers: Jean c, 1610-1669), lawyer; Nicolas (1624-162), ote theologian; Claude (1613-1688, a physician, architect, nd scientist, who is regarded as one ofthe most eminent French scholars of his time; and Chares (1628-1703, author and cic, whois best known for bis Mother Goose ary ales.lof van the lis. che tes ev ver 13. Trends in Water Withdrawals and Use S American contributions to groundwater hydrology date from near the end of the nineteenth century. Inthe past 110 years, tremendous advances have been made. Important early theoretical contributions were made by A. Hazen, FH. King, and C.S. Slichter, while detailed field investigations were begun by men such as T. C. Chamberlin, N. H. Darton, W. T. Lee, and W. C. Mendenhall, O. E. Meinzer, through his consuming interest in groundwater and his dynamic leadership of groundwater activities ofthe U.S. Geological Survey, stimulated many individuals in the quest for groundwater knowledge. In recent decades the publications of M.S. Hantush, C. E. Jacob, G. B, Maxey, C. L. MeGuinness, and R. W. Stallman are nate- ‘worthy. Within the ast 40 years the surge in university research on groundwater problems, the establishment of professional consulting firms specializing in groundwater, the advent of the digital computer, and the extensive development of computer software have jointly produced competence for development and management of groundwater resources. 1.3. TRENDS IN WATER WITHDRAWALS AND USE ‘The U.S. Geological Survey® estimated the total fresh and saline withdrawals in the United States during 1995 to have been 402,000 million gallons per day (Mgal/d) for all off-tream water-use categories (public supply, domestic, commercial, irigation, livestock, industrial, ‘mining, thermoelectric power). This estimate is nearly two percent less than the withdrawal estimate for 1990. Table 1.3.1 and Figure 1.3.1 provide a comparison of total water withdrawals by water-resources region. This comparison indicates that the California, South Atlantic-Gulf, and Mid-Atlantic regions account for one-third of the total water withdrawn in the United States. ‘National water-use compilations began in 1950 and are conducted at five-year intervals. Estimates in Table 1.3.2 and Figure 1.3.2 summarize the water use—withdrawals, source of water, reclaimed wastewater, consumptive use, and in-tream use (hydroelectric power)—at five-year intervals. Figure 1.3.3 illustrates the trends in water withdrawals by water-use category and total withdrawals for 1960-1995. Table 1.3.2 also illustrates the percentage change in the 1990 and 1995 summary estimates. Estimates indicate thatthe general increase in water use from 1950 to 1980 and the decrease from 1980 to 1995 can be attributed in part tothe following major factors: ‘+ Most of the increases in water use from 1950 to 1980 were the result of expansion of intigation systems and increases in energy development. + The development of center-pivot irigation systems and the availability of plentiful and inexpensive groundwater resources supported the expansion of irigation systems. + Higher energy prices in the 1970s, and large drawdown in groundwater levels in some areas increased the cost of irigation water. Inthe 1980s, improved application techniques, increased competition for water, and a downturn in farm economy reduced demands for irigation water ‘+ The transition from water-supply management to water-demand management encouraged more efficient use of water. + New technologies in the industrial sector that require less water, improved plant effi- ciencies, increased water recycling, higher energy prices, and changes in laws and reg- Ulations to reduce the discharge of pollutants resulted in decreased water use and less water being retumed to natural systems after use. + ‘The enhanced awareness by the general public of water resources and the active conservation programs in many states have contributed to reduced water demands.6 Chapter | Introduction ep sod suoye8 = ps “ep sod suoyte® vor = pe3}y Buypunos wapuadepus jo asne00q E00 PPE OW Aes sam folios s2amos ‘0809 CONTTFE OOrOL ORT «BOO'LS. re oshz 8s, gst st sate vwes9at72 ze om ese art eae ut ue 0n9's§—wos'9e se oW0'ze 661 0809 vt 096" 1 ozs 9 9 61's oou'et vez oor'st sc 0009 ° est ° st sth ° ° oos'or 8's oo te ° cove oust te ° ° o's ast @ ° corse one u coves so core ost oF oou'ztoor'ze covet oov'sz ore ot ooe'0e 009'te one oo6'eE 06 oor's oe oos's Rez LSC aues gOS ema — oo BIERPUROD (oss0} sau Gantoa uone it sapnjout) (PSA) sTEMEAPTIAN 2 pr soon he S661 ‘Wor Ey SsamnOsI SIEM AQ OST TEM WESNSHO MAL PET AGEL5915661 “UoT#a1 ssosnosassoiem £4 SfeMeIpIAU JOreM TwIeL “ET aaa 1.3 Trends in Water Withdrawals and Use 78 Chapter 1 introduction ‘Table 1.3.2 Trends of Estimated Water Use in the United States, 1950-95 Percentage Year change loso! 1955! 1960" 1965 1970" 1975* 1980" 1985* 1990 1995" 1990-95 Population (illions) ‘150.7 1640 1793«1938 «2089-2164 «9G © A453 HT Offseeam use Total withdrawals 1802402701037 aag 99 wes Public supply a 17 mK G5 RS OD Rural domestic 36 «3636 4S AD 5H 779789889 and livestocle Irsigation 9 10 0m 30h Industrial Thermorlecric = 4072172002187 S DB pomeruse Other induswinluse 37-398 GSS BOSD Source of water ‘Ground Fresh co a7 50 ao 6B 2 83 B2 94 64 4 Saline Oo 6 4 $s 1 1 9 62 Im om 9 ‘Sustace Fre 40 180190210250 200 HHS] kD Saline re Rechimedvasewaer = 89-2 6 TS SSS LRH Consumptive use © © 8 7 BF 96 He? 923" 4? 0? as Taseam use Hydcoeecrc power 1,100 1500 2,000 2300-2800 3300-300 30503290 3,160 ' 48 States and District of Columbia * Revised ? 50 States and District of Columbia * Data not available. 3 50 States and District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico ” Freshwater only “© 50 States and District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and Virgin Isinnds Source: Solley® POPULATION (WILLIONS) WITHDRAWALS (THOUSANDS OF Matron GALLONS PER DAY) 49501985 a0 "1965" 70 "1995" vasa aos "3000 ras Figure 1.3.2, ‘Trends in fresh groundwater and surface-water withdrawals, and population, 1950-95.tage 95 36 14 Utilization of Groundwater 9 0 i =i ie wh £8 we 92 u fa i e* 35 e wo 5 vwea "1965. 979" 9075 90" has 1990 HS Figure 1.33, Trends in water withcrawals (fresh and saline) by water-use category and total (fresh and saline) withdrawals, 1960-95 °° 1.4 UTILIZATION OF GROUNDWATER Groundwater isan important source of water supply throughout the word. Its use in irrigation, industries, tounicipalites, and rural homes continues to increase. Fighre 1.4.1 strikingly illustrates the dependence of an Indian village on its only water source—groundwater from a single dug well. Cooling and airconditioning have made heavy demands on groundwater because of its characteristic uniformity in temperature. Shortages of groundwater in areas where excessive withdrawals have occurred emphasize the need for accurate estimates ofthe available subsurface resources and the importance of proper planning to ensure the continued availability of water supplies. There is a tendency to think of groundwater as being the primary water source in arid regions and of surface water in humid regions. But a study of groundwater use in the United States, for example, reveals that groundwater serves as an important resource in all climatic Figure 1.4.1. Villagers laboriously lifting and carrying water from deep dug well in northem India (photo by David K. Todd).10° Chapter 1 Introduction zones.* Reasons for this include its convenient availability near the point of use, its excellent quality (which typically requires lite treatment), and its relatively low cost of development. Furthermore, in humid locales such as Barbados, Jamaica, and Hawaii, groundwater predom- inates as the water source because the high infiltration capacity of the soils sharply reduces sur face ninofl, Figure | 42 illustrates the relative proportion of water source and disposition and the gen- ral distribution of water from source to disposition for 1995. Table 1.4.1 ists the total offstream water use by state for 1995—breaking down the withdrawals into groundwater and surface water and subdividing these into fresh and saline water. The total groundwater withdrawal was 77,500 Mgalid and the total surface-water withdrawal was 324,000 Mga. Table 1.4.2 lists the groundwater withdrawals by water-use category and water-resources region for 1995. The significant proportion of groundwater used for irrigation purposes is clearly indicated by the fact that 49,000 Mgal/¢ of the total 77,500 Mgalid is used for irrigation, SOURCE USE DISPOSITION Figure 142. Soarce, use, nd disposition of freshwater in the United States, 1995. For each ‘ater ase category, his diagram shows the relative proportion of voter source and dspesiton and the general distibution of water from source to disposition. The lines and arows indicate the dis bution of water from source to dis- postion foreach category; for example, surface water was 77.6 percent of toa feeshwater with draw, ad going from “Souree" to “Use columns, te ine fom the surface-wate block othe domestic and commercial block indicates thet 08 percent ofall surfce water withdrawn was the source for 48 percent of total water (sefsup- plied withrawals, public-suply elvis for domestic and commercial purposes. Inston, soing from the “Use” to “Disposition” columns, he line fom the domestic and commercial ‘block tothe consumplive use block indicates that 19.2 percent ofthe ‘water for domestic and commercial purposes was consumptive use; this represents 8.0 percnt of total consumptive use by all water use categories ‘Table 1.4.1 Total Offstream Water Use by State, 1995,14 Utilization of Groundwater 11 zs oman) FE “ 1 oma) new) sour pouinion sae Bsesa ‘one8) — Gpuernon) —Saeepma ——— iemyse4ywoneyndog spews ‘opeo}05) ‘eos seeny euozny exsey surgery wort12 Chapter 1 Irsoduction ssfoItos s90n0s sep sod suoqted = pte *hvp 20d soot won = pe urpunos wuopuodopul Jo asneo0g sei Ob PPE OU Kew Sum Gorse cz GOO _o0w 09 Ooowree —OOL'GS OUTeE GOEL ONT oOwSL oReT —— SBOE een ° ° we ot ot ‘ ros eet spon wig sta ors’ ose'z osez ssi 0 Sst ast SLE cong ousea owe 6 owe st ° see tate ow sa, 6 osteo ° a z's ssuooryn ° ws s ° ort ov a 2M, ° ome ae se ose't oct eoiduse, ° oss ose oos'z ss ase ag © 8 ° 0s os oun, opp AST en ost out 0 co oos'se one's ose'y one oes sere, s corar 0 ° sev ser soso ° wr 0 ° ast Lat wore m0 ° ors ° me we = 0$ o up siz six 2 Zz spot vr ows 0 ° 098 09s een ssuueg ° olse ° oso't os0'r 0519 ° owe 6s ° ot 656 swo¥e0 ° oosot 0 ° 06 06 onto ° orto ° zt zt era won or osr's 03st oss't ses ses eon ON, ° cows o0s'9 o0s'9 owt oor os 210K man ° ose 0 ° ooet oovt ono oonayy man, i ors ose ones os 0 Sate song oN moras a wo = Javea SOREN Tiemann ey oom TOT ai i a Rr ees (Goi sone nto won papa) (OMe TERED Pa S66 “ans Aa asf eM URANSO [HAL (PIRUAUOD) THT aqEL,15. Groundwater in the Hydrologic Cycle 13 ‘Table 1.4.2 Groundwater Withdrawals by Water-Use Category and Water-Resoutces Region, 1995 Public Commer Live Theme Region supply Domestic cial nigaton stock Industrial Mining cece Fresh Fresh Fresh Fresh Fresh Fresh Saline Fresh Saline. Fresh Fresh Saline New England 3B A 20S Mid-Atantic 120 4852178] South Adanic-Gulf 2760 71914228088 8TH Great Lakes re a bio so ww] THRO Tennessee ms 4 36 8S a7 0 Bo Upper Mississippi 1503119480 IG KR Lower Mississippi 74)—=s BS 69] MDG 31000 ®t Souris-Red-Rainy 3417 2 8 1 woo 4 o uso Missouri Basin 63 B79 80% 283K DD Arkansas-WhiteRed 378 105166660980 7B 87a Texas-Gulf os IS M4 SMH 505.9503 Rio Grande 36ST S88 Upper Colorado 3 oo sé B42 kta LowerColoado = 46 ## 2D HS 8000 Great Basin 30309 TID PacificNonhwest 917283374000 w#SIS 65 0S Ss California 2m 127 gsm SO 1615136 14600 BS Alaska wo 83 1 138 0 0% 42 BOS Haat m 24s 3% 8 5 0 6 3S 6 Caribbean 9 64 13 BS Kk 2 Tal 15100 3350 939490002260 409 151070101065. 764400 1,110 Figures may not add to ttals because of independent rounding Al values in milion gallons per day Source: Solley* 1.5 GROUNDWATER IN THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE 15.1 Hydrologic Cycle ‘The central focus of hydrology isthe hydrologic cycle consisting of the continuous processes shown in Figure 1.5.1. Water evaporates from the oceans and land surfaces to become water ‘vapor that is carried over the earth by atmospheric circulation. The water vapor condenses and precipitates on the land and oceans. The precipitated water may be intercepted by vegetation, become overland flow over the ground surface, infiltrate into the ground, flow through the soil as subsurface flow, ot discharge as surface runoff Evaporation from the land surface comprises evaporation directly from soil and vegetation surfaces, and transpiration through plant leaves. Collectively these processes are called evapotranspiration. infiltrated water may percolate deeper to recharge groundwater and later become springflow or seepage into streams to also become streamflow. ‘The largest single demand for groundwater is itigation, amounting to 67.3% percent of all groundwater used in 1995, More than 90 percent of this water is pumped in the western states, where arid and semiarid conditions have fostered extensive irigation development.14 Chapter 1 Introduction u 160 Ai 29 7) Moisture overland Preciptaton on land ] 285 ‘ Precipitation § ‘on ocean Evaporation ‘tom land Evaporation ang cevapatranspiation ‘et Evaporation ‘rom ocean, SS t Groundwater Figure 1.5.1. Hydrologic cycle with global annual average water balance given in units relative to a value af 100 for the rate of precipitation on land.” A hydrologic system is defined as a structure or volume in space, surrounded by a boundary, that accepts water and other inputs, operates on them internally, and produces them as out- puts2!?? The structure (for surface or subsurface flow) or volume in space (for atmospheric ‘moisture flow) isthe totality of the flow paths through which the water may pass as through- put from the point it enters the system tothe point it leaves. The boundary is a continuous surface defined in three dimensions enclosing the volume or structure. A working medium enters the system as input, interacts withthe structure and other media, and leaves as output. Physi- cal, chemical, and biological processes operate on the working media within the system; the most common working media involved in hydrologic analysis are water, air, and heat energy. The global hydrologic cycle can be represented as a system containing three subsystems: the atmospheric water system, the surface water system, and the subsurface water system as shown in Figure 1.5.2. Another example is the storm-rainfall-runoff process on a watershed, which can be represented as a hydrologic system, The input is rainfall distributed in time and space over the watershed and the output is streamflow at the watershed outlet. The boundary is defined by the watershed divide and extends vertically upward and downward to horizontal planes, Drainage basins, catchments, and watersheds are three synonymous terms that refer to the topographic area that collects and discharges surface streamflow through one outlet or mouth, Catchments are typically referred to as small drainage basins but no specific area limits have been established. The drainage basin divide, watershed divide, or catchment divide is the line dividing land whose drainage flows toward the given stream from land whose drainage flows away from that stream. Think of drainage basin sizes ranging from the Mississippi River drainage basin toa small urban drainage basin in your local community or some small valleynas tal uth, ave line ver ley ‘Atmespheric water ‘Subsurface water 15 Groundwater in the Hydrologic Cycle 15 $$$} evaporation Interception >| Transpiration unof to steams ‘and oovan 1 ' ‘ I Al o| Subsutace || 2 initration peuface 1 . I I | | I Groundwater | Groundwater || recharge tow ft ' Figure 1.82, Block-dagram representation ofthe global hydrologic system? 1.5.2. The Groundwater System in the Hydrologic Cycle Groundwater constitutes one portion of the earth’s water circulatory system known as the hydrologic cycle. Figure 1.5.1 illustrates some of the many facets involved inthis cycle, Water- bearing formations of the earth's crust act as conduits for transmission and as reservoirs for storage of water. Water enters these formations from the ground surface or from bodies of surface water, after which it travels slowly for varying distances until it returms to the surface by action of natural flow, plants, ot humans. The storage capacity of groundwater reservoirs com- ‘bined with small flow rates provide large, extensively distributed sources of water supply. Groundwater emerging into surface stream channels aids in sustaining streamflow when surface runoff is low or nonexistent. Similarly, water pumped from wells represents the sole water source in many regions during much of every year. Practically all groundwater originates as surface water. Principal sources of natural recharge include precipitation, streamflow, lakes, and reservoirs. Other contributions, known as artificial recharge, occur from excess irigation, seepage from canals, and water purposely applied to augment groundwater supplies. Even seawater can enter underground along coasts where hydraulic gradients slope downward in an inland direction. Water within the ground ‘moves downward through the unsaturated zone under the action of gravity, whereas inthe saturated zone it moves in a direction determined by the surrounding hydraulic situation, Discharge of groundwater occurs when water emerges from underground. Most natural discharge occurs as flow into surface water bodies, such as streams, lakes, and oceans; flow to16 Chapter 1 Introduction the surface appears as a spring. Groundwater near the surface may return directly to the atmosphere by evaporation from within the soil and by transpiration from vegetation, Pumpage from wells constitutes the major artificial discharge of groundwater. In this section we will discuss in general some ofthe aspects of the movement of ground ‘water in the hydrologic cycle. The groundwater flow system comprises the subsurface water, the geologic (porous) media containing the water, the low boundaries, the sources (outcrop areas, streams for recharge tothe aquifer), and the sinks (springs, interaquifer flow, and wells for flow from the aquifer). Water flows through and is stored within the groundwater system. Under natural conditions, the travel time of groundwater can range from less than a day to ‘more than a million years. The age of the water can range from recent precipitation to water trapped in sediments that were deposited in geologic time. Chapter 3, Groundwater Movement, discusses the mechanics of groundwater movement ‘The water that is withdrawn from a groundwater system initially comes from storage. The effects ofthe withdrawal from storage are propagated through the system, overtime, as water heads (the water table) decrease at greater distances from the point of withdrawal. Ulkimately, the effect of the withdrawal reaches a boundary such as a stream. At the stream, either increased recharge (water added) to the groundwater system occurs or increased discharge from the system occurs, Figure 1.5.3 shows the sources of water supplying pumpage from ten major regional aquifer systems in the United States. The figure illustrates the variability of aquifer response to long-term pumping and the extent to which changes in recharge and discharge can exceed changes in storage. Ii important to quantify recharge, despite the difficulty of that undertaking ‘Typically, most water from precipitation that infiltrates does not become recharge, but instead is stored in the soil zone and is eventually returned to the atmosphere by evaporation and plant transpiration? The percentage of precipitation that becomes diffuse recharge is highly variable and depends upon many factors, such as depths tothe water table, properties of surface soils, aquifer properties, and many other factors. Interactions of surface-water systems with groundwater systems depend upon many factors, including positions of the surface-water systems relative to the groundwater systems; characteristics of the surface-water systems and their underlying materials; and the climate set- ting.*®” Figure 1.5.4 illustrates the effect of transient recharge from precipitation on the configuration of a water table and the associated groundwater flow. The exchange of water across the interface between surface water and groundwater can result from downstream movement of water in and out of streambeds and banks, a illustrated in Figure 1.5.5. Other exchanges result from tides, wave action, filling or draining of reservoirs, and transpiration from vegetation atthe edges of wetlands and other surface water sources. Most studies of exchanges have focused on streams. Flows within groundwater systems can be on a local, intermediate, and regional basis, as illustrated in Figure 1.5.6. The recharge and discharge areas in a local system of groundwater flow are adjacent to each other. The recharge and discharge in an intermediate groundwater ‘low system ate separated by one or more topographic high and low. In regional groundwater ‘low systems, recharge areas are along groundwater divides and discharge areas are located at the bottom of major drainage divides. Not every aquifer has each of these types of flow systems." In an aquifer system, the largest amount of groundwater flow is commonly in the local flow systems which are mostly affected by seasonal variations in recharge. Recharge areas ofthese local systems make up the largest part ofthe surface ofa drainage basin, are relatively shallow, and have transient conditions. Regional groundwater flow systems are less transient than local and intermediate flow systems. ‘A conceptual model of an aguifer system, as illustrated in Figure 1.5.6 for the Midwest- em Basins and Arches aquifer system (see Figure 1.5.7 for location), i a simplified qualitative Fo ter So 9s (oe ret 8vot dis. ulty tion eis ties face ms; set- one cent ges sae sas iter er ter at ys the 15 Groundwater in the Hydrologic Cycle 17 Great Pine 23 Easton Snake Northern Midwest fine Pain Catlorna Conta! valoy “Coal” EswardeTenty ult Coastal Plain Coastal Plan Increased recharge Decreased dlacharge HI induced recharge Wi vttaien otivonson * Figure 1.53, Sources of water that supply withdrawals from major aquifer systems in the United States are highly variable, as shown by these rests from model simulations for various periods Jolston, 1997). Tae Floridan and Edwards—Trinity aquifer systems, which equilibrate rapidly after pumping, were simulated as steady-state with no long-term change in storage. In contrast, the ‘Souterm High Plains (with most natural discharge oecuting fer ftom pumping wells) and the deeply buried Great Plans aquifer system have had substantial changes in groundwater storage. The distinction between changes in recharge and changes in discharge is a function of how the system was defined (.e, again to one system may result ina loss from an adjining system). For exemple, sroundwater withdrawal from confined aquifers (Northem Atantic Cosstal Plain, Gulf Coastal Plan) can eause flow tobe diverted (techarged) into the deeper regional flow regime that would otherwise discharge to streams in the outcrop areas or cause vertical leakage across confining units. Groundwater recharge ina region canbe increased as2reslt of human modifications, such as retum flow of excess irigation water (California Central Valley). Noe that the areal extent of the Southeastern Coastal Plain aquifer system overlaps the areal extent ofthe Flocdan and Gulf Coastal Plain aquifer systems ”18 Chapter | Introduction description of the physical system.*? Conceptual models may include a description of the aquifers and confining units that make up the aquifer system, the boundary conditions, flow regimes, sources and sinks of water, and general directions of the groundwater flow Conon eae agen Sne gsr an aaa ee a ° wc - « “ Se} tnt ge ea cent Ware ma ae net rot tie U| SEEEEEESSCesE wy we -_ B ts of cage oe oll ne le isa oo 7 | cleat tegen ae en, oS ipl pone cee ie J N t aL sn -_ e Conditions aftereffects of recharge event Grutor ichags to sree water des a - + D Pests gna oe = ac a cil hin lees ‘goundeater foe eters " 2 aero! Figure 1.54, Diagrams showing the efect of transient recharge from precipitation on the configuration of a water table and assoc- Figur ated groundwater flow.”? with 1the 15 Groundwater in the Hydrologic Cycle 19 Direction of ee) ine Sa a Figure 15.5. Local goomorpic features such as streambed topogrephy, streambed roughness, mean ‘ering, and heterogeneities in sediment hydraulic conductivities can give nie to localized flow systems within sueambeds ad banks. The nea-steam subsurface envionment with active exchange ‘erweensuriace water and groundwater is commonly referred to a the hyporteic zone, although the ‘ransiton between grounduater and surface water represents a hydrologic continuum, preventing a soe | oe | | | | | dt | Noto scale [Bi ciecial deposts — Local groundwater fw path arbenateock aquler «+= Intamediate groundvater fow path Hi bse conning unit ~<— Ragionel groundvate flow path “= Incstes flow simulated by the regional groundwater “<= fiow model constructed for his investigation Figure 1.86. Diagrammatic conceptual model ofthe Midwestem Basins and Arches aquifer system showing flow paths associated with local, intermediate, and regional flow systems” and low systems simulated bythe regional groundwater flow model. ®20. Chapter | troduction Lake Michigan chicago i Stuy area = Boundary of modeled ares Figure 1.5.7, Midwestern Basin and Arches aquifer system in Paris of Indiana, Ohio, Michigan, and Iinos.?® 1.6 HYDROLOGIC BUDGET A hydrologic budget, water budget, ot water balance is a measurement of continuity of the flow of water, which holds true for any time interval and applies fo any size area ranging from local-scal areas to regional-scale areas or from any drainage area tothe earth asa whole. The hydrologists usually must consider an open system, for which the quantification ofthe hydro- aBSN cm SS “ ‘Stream inflow OH" eanonar ‘ome Guns on fthe from The idto- 16 Hyicologic Budget 21 Figure 16.1. Componeas of hydrologic cycle in au open system: the major inflows and outflows of water from a parcel of land Source: WM. Marsh and J, Dozer, Landscope: An Introduction to Physical Geography. Copyright © 1986 by Wiley. Groundwater Reprinted by permission of Joka Wiley & cation Sons In. logic cycle for that systean becomes a mass balance equation in which the change of storage cof water (dS/dt) with respect to time within that system is equal to the inputs (P to the systern minas the outputs (0) from the system. ‘Considering the open system in Figure 1.6.1, the water balance equation can be expressed for the surface water system and the groundwater system in units of volume per nit time sep- stately, or for a given time period and area, in depts. Surface Water System Hydrologic Budget P+0.,- Oo + Q,- where P is the precipitation, Oy isthe surface water flow into the system, Qay is the surface ‘water flow out of the system, Q, isthe groundwater flow into the stream, E, is the surface evaporation, 7; isthe transpiration, fs the infiltration, and AS, isthe change in water storage ofthe surface water system, 1, AS, (16.1) Groundwater System Hydrologic Budget 14 Gy Gog Op Ep T= Sy (1.62) where Gi isthe groundwater flow into the system, Gog is the groundwater flow out of the sys tem, and AS, is the change in groundwater storage. The evaporation, E,, and the transpiration, Ty can be significant ifthe water table is near the ground surface. ‘System Hydrologic Budget ‘The system hydrologic budget is developed by adding the above two budgets together: Pou ~ Og) — (E, + By) ~ (1, + Ty) ~ Gour~ Ga) = MS, + 5) (1.63) Using net mass exchanges, the above system hydrologic budget can be expressed as P-Q-G-E-T=aS (164)22 Chapter 1 Introduction EXAMPLE 1.6.1 SOLUTION EXAMPLE 1.6.2 SOLUTION @ oie wwe Figure 1.6.2 Diagrams ilusrating water >, eae cre budgets for a groundwater system for ey predevelopment and development cond tions. (a) Predevclopment water budget ciagram illustrating that inflow equals ution. (6) Water-badget diagram show: ing changes in flow fora groundwater system being pumped. The sources of 0 bere ‘water forthe pampage ere changes in recharge, discharge. and the araount of sr < Some water stored. The nial redevelopment values donot directly enter the bodget = Sows | Repiteat eat p calculation. Hydrologic budgets can be used for numerous studies related to groundwater including + Estimating groundwater exchange with lakes "+9 44.68.6872 + Estimating surface water and groundwater interaction 2 * Computing recharge from a well-hydrograph data." A diagram illustrating water budgets for a groundwater system for predevelopment and development conditions is presented in Figure 1.6.2. A groundwater budget for part of Nasse and Suffolk Counties, Long Island, New York, is shown in Figure 1.6.3. Both of these water budgets assume equilibrium conditions with litle or no change in storage During 1996, the water budget terms for Lake Annie in Florida"? included precipitation (P) of 43 ineh/yr, evaporation (E) of 53 inch/y, surface water inflow (Q,) of 1 inchly, surface outflow (Qgy) of 173 {nh/yr, and change in lake volume (AS) of -2ineh/yr. Determine the net groundwater flow (the ground: ‘water inflow minus the groundwater outflow). the water budget equation (1.64) to define the net groundwater flow forthe ake is G=AS-PHE-Oy + ou Assuming 43453-14173 = 180inchiyr . During Janvary 1996, the water budget terms for Lake Annie in Florida! included precipitation (P) of 1.9 inch, evaporation (E} of 1.5 inch, surface water inflow (Q,) of inch, surface outflow (Q,,) of 17.4 inch, and change in lake volume (AS) of O inch, Determine the net groundwater flow for Fanvary 1996 (the groundwater inflow minus the groundwater outflow) ‘The water budget equation to define the net groundwater flow for the lake is G=AS~P+E~Qq+ Ogg = 0-19 +15~0+ 17.4 = 17 inch for January 1996 . Fy Ish buwand assau water ely, 173 “ound. eis of 19 inch, S (he 16 Hydrologic Budget 23 OVERALL PREDEVEL OPMENT ‘GROUNO-WATER PREDEVELOPMENT WATER BUDGET ANALYOSS ‘WATER SUDGET ANALYSIS fretonro Lon a0 auc) [reiowrorowsismn | URE Montes avs Ears [Groowe ore ears pros} 2a 7 Gad 12 ‘uTFLoW Frou Lona AND UTRLOH row Loss once srs SmuNouareR Sara | 7 Beparmagnin oesoion 7 Gomi dae bans | 20 5 Genoa owe [etme acts been 7a [Santon acura [ie Eerrecnon pn wie) 25 5 tment ol ponds pes = Teal aaion Figure 1.63. Groundwater budget for part of Nassau and Suffolk Counties, Loag Island, New York.’ Block diagram of Long. Islend, New York, and tables listing the overall water budget and groundwater budget under predevelopment conditions. Both water ‘odgets assume equilibrium conditions with litle or no change in storage. ‘The components of hydrologic budgets are either measured, calculated, or estimated Evaporation, for example, may be obtained from measured pan evaporation data or calculated from the energy balance method, the aerodynamic method (such as the Thomthwaite-Holz- ‘man equation), ora combination ofthese methods (such as the Priestley~Taylor evaporation method), Detailed discussions of these methods are presented in References 22, 49, and 52 Precipitation data are measured or is obtained from recorded data, and in some cases are esti- tmated based upon recorded data for other time periods of interest. Depending upon the time period of the budget, average monthly values could also be used. Inthe case when the hydrologic budgets are of lakes, lake volume changes are needed and they can be computed using actual jake-stage measurements and relationships between lake stage and lake volume. Using estimates of lake volume changes, evaporation, and precipitation, estimates of net groundwater flow to a lake can be made. The individual components of net groundwater flow are the24 Chapter 1 Introduction groundwater inflow to the lake and the leakage from the lake, which can be determined through groundwater simulation models. Groundwater simulation models (Chapter 9), how: ever, need to be calibrated, which requires the monitoring of groundwater levels (hydraulic heads, Chapter 2), lithographic data (Chapter 12), results (hydraulic conductivities) from pump tests (Chapter 4), of slug tests (Chapter 5). With a calibrated groundwater flow model, the groundwater flow into a lake and the leakage from a lake can be determined using simulated ‘groundwater flow fields, CASE STUDY Lake Five-O, Florida Grubbs" deserbed the bydeologic budgetary analysis that was performed for Lake Five-O (a seepage Take), located in Bey County in norhwestem Focda (ee Figures 1.6.4 and | 6.5). This hydrologic badget (Table 1.6.1 and Figure 1.66) was determined using both collected data and mode simulation resus (see Chap ter) Lake Five is leate in an area characterized by coastal terace depesis that have been modified by extensive kerst devel- ‘opment Sos in the area ae deep, excessively étsined, and consist of very permeable, Lakeland series sands, Maximum lake depth range from 13.5 m to 15.4 m. Surface are ranged from 104 to 11.3 hectares, and the lke volume ranged fom 9.09 x 10° to LILx 10a The net groundvater Now (groundwater inflow minus leak: age) was determined by the water balance approach utilizing measurements of precipitation, lke evaporation was determined using the energy budget method, and lake volume changes were estimated from lake-stege measurements and a relationship ‘between lake stage and lake volume. The analysis was utilized to _make qualitative assessmens ofthe signiicence of lake-ground water exchanges during the study period. A groundwater simula ‘ion model was used to determine the groundwater inflows and seepage from the lake, The simulation model was developed using lithographic data to define the three geohydologic units, # net ‘work of monitoring wells to define the hydraulic heads over the time ofthe hydrologic budget, previously published data, and lia- ited slug tests to elp determine hydraulic conductivities. The analysis made it possible to develop quantitative estimates of mis imum groundwater inflow and leakage rates not only during the study period, but also for long-term average concitions ‘The hydrologic budget for Lake Five-O is expressed as As. B+, Ona The hytrologic budget by Grubbs?” showed thatthe ground. ‘water inflow tothe ake and leakage from the lake tothe groundwater system are the dominant components respectively, in total inflow (precipitation plus groundwater inflow) aod total outflow (evaporation plus leakage) budgets ofthe Take, The groundwater ‘movement, including the head distribution and groundwater flow ‘near Lake Five-O, is discussed in Section 3.6.6 LOCATION OF BAY COUNTY Figure 1.64. Location of Lake Five-O study area.” 0 | wxnomereRs:ow. lic amp the and sing et the The the and. and- total ater ow + STAFF CAGE ELEVATION REFERENCE Pont ok WELL AND OENTIRER. 4 camare sranion ‘conrmous ecornen 620 END OENTIFER ‘ wine —— obs mucwerens sw sey 1.6 Hydrologic Budget 25 Figure 1.6.5. Location of data- ‘collection sites in the Lake Five-O study area.” Table L641 Monty Net Groundwater Flow to Lake Five-O, 1989-90 Standard | deviation (percent ‘Average lake Change intake Net groond- Standard of net ground Month volume, volume Precipitation Evaporation water low deviation __water flow) 1989 Jan. 989,200 26,100 3.800 3.200 26.700 2.300 9 Reb, 94,000 21,900 6,900 4100 24.700 2,600 10 Mar. 943,300 -13,900 17;700 7900 23,700 3,300 Apr. 935,200 8,700 10600 11,000 8.300 2,800 4 May 922,500 14,700 8.900 13,800 -9,500 2,900 2 June 945,600 68,100 56,800 12,000 24,400 9300 38 July 1,024,800 66,700 26.300 13,300 53,100 5.400 10 ‘Aug. 1,068,400 26,200 20900 12,300 17,600 3,700 2 Sept. 109,800 22,300 21,500 16,800 17700 3,700 2 Oc. 1,103,400 3.100 15,100 13,000 1,000 2,700 20 Nov. 1,108,200 4,100 13,800 9.400 00 2,300 70 Dee. 1,102,700 1,000 13,500 7,900 4,500 2,300 50 (continues)26 Chapter 1 Introduction ‘Table 1.6.1 (continued) Monthly Net Groundwater Flow to Lake Five-O, 1989-90 Standard Aeviation (percent ‘Average lake Change in lake Net ground: Standard of net ground Month volume volume Precipitation Evaporation water flow eviation water flow) 1990 Jan, 1,107,000 3,100 3,800 3,300 -3,500 1,500 43 Feb, 1,108,000 4800 5,100 4800 5.800 1,300 2 Mar. 1,092,000, 9,600 8600 16,500 2,000 2 Ape 1,076,100 12,000 11,100 -18,700 2,400 B May 1,058,600 9,400 15100 16,300 2,400 15 June 1,041,300 23,700 14,300 -18,500, 4.200 B July 1,046,400 31,300 15,000 1,600 5,300 330 Aug, 1,055,600 16,000 15,600 -2800 3,600 130 Sept 1,033,300, 3,900 17900 21,600 2,900 B ct. 998,600 9500 15400 25,200 2,800 n Now. 963,200 800 11300 25,100 2,600 10 Dee. 932,000 7,000 7400 28,500 2,600 9 ‘All units are in cubic meters, unless oerwise ated. Standard deviation isthe eror component ofthe wet groundwater Now estite, Negative ‘values of net groundwater fw indicate that leakage exceeded groundwater inflow, pied ‘VOLUME (CUBE METERS) ‘VOLUME (cuBe METERS) i 5 5 ® 5 i ‘988 1990 Figure 1.6.6. Monthly hydrologic budget components for Lake Five-O, 1989-90.” uy 47.cont & 1.7.2 US. Geologi 1.7 Publication Sources 27 ‘The components of a hydrologic budget, whether they are measured or calculated, have associated errors. These errors are based on the degree of uncertainty of the measurements, limitations of methods, and the assumptions made to calculate the values. In many situations information on the rainfall, surface outflow, and withdrawal for supply may be the most reli able, Calculated values of lake evaporation and lake storage may be less reliable because off- site pan evaporation and estimated pan coefficients are used, Lake stage data may be less reliable because of the uncertainty in assessing the surface area of the lake, Groundwater flow is typically the least reliable. When the messured or calculated components are used in the budget calculations, imbalances between the inflow and outflow components, called residuals, occur. The residual term in a hydrologic budget is an accumulation of all the errors in the com ponents ofthe budget. The previous hydrologic budget equations do not reflect residual terms; however, the analysis by Grubbs* describes the residuals in detail. 1.7 PUBLICATION SOURCES 1.7.1 Internet Resources ‘The Internet has changed the availability of sources of information on groundwater hydrology. Now we can access many types of data and publications very rapidly through the use of a computer. Appendix A provides a list of U.S. government and nongovernmental organizations’ Web sites “Much of this book has been developed to serve asa portal to the vast resources on ground- \water hydrology that now exist on the Intemet, Hopefully this book will help guide the student, the professional, and the researcher to the general documents, program plans, field project details, software, and other information found on the Internet. Many of the new figures and tables in this edition have been taken from various Web sites in particular the U.S. Geologi- cal Survey site, These items not only provide specific information but also serve as samples of, ‘graphics and tabulations available onthe Internet, making the style ofthis book more variable than that of most textbooks. The majority of Web sites referenced inthis book are maintained by government agencies and established organizations, and therefore should be accessible for ‘many years to come. Several end-of-chapter problems throughout the book are based upon Intemet exercises. 1 Survey Publications In the United States, « majority of the field measurements and investigations of groundwater have been conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). Most work has been on a coop- erative basis with individual states, Results are published by the Survey as circulars, digital data series, fat sheets, hydrologic atlases, open-file reports, techniques of water-resources, ‘water data reports, water-resources investigation reports, professional papers, and water-suply papers. Table 1.7.1 describes the various types of U.S. Geological Survey reports, and Table 1.7.2 describes how to find and reference on-line USGS water resources reports. Since 1935 records of groundwater measurements in key observation wells have been published in ‘water-supply papers under the title Groundwater Levels in the United States. The U.S. Geo- logical Survey publishes at imegular intervals other papers on the geology and groundwater resources of local areas. Invariably, these intensive investigations concer areas containing ‘important groundwater problems and are carried out in cooperation with local agencies.28 Chapter 1 Introduction ‘able 1.7. Types of U.S. Geological Survey Reports Circulars—Purpose: To present to general or scientific audiences short summaries or articles of short-term, popular or local interest. Digital Data Series—The Digital Data Series encompasses a broad range of digital data including computer programs, interpreted results of investigations, comprehensive reviewed databases, spatial datasets, digital images and animation, and multimedia presen- {ations that are not intended for printed release. Scientific reports in this series cover a wide variety of subjects and facets of U.S. Geological Survey investigations and research that are of lasting scientific interest and value. Releases in the Digital Data Series offer access to scientific information that is availabe in digital form; the information is primarily for viewing, processing, and (0) analyzing by computer Fact Sheets—Purpose: To describe Water Resources Division (WRD) programs, projects, products, and watertesources topics to either a general or professional audience. Water Fact Sheets are concise and timely publications that increase the understanding and visibility of WRD activities and accomplishments. Hydrologic Atlases—Purpose: To present reports on hydrology or geohy ology in map format to a wide range of hydrologically oriented audiences. Open-File Reports—Purpose: To make available (1) data reports, (2) reports preliminary findings that would be of interest to few persons other than the cooperating agency, (3) reports and maps pending publication elsewhere but requiring immediate release, and (4) timely information describing programs, project, products, and water-resources topics Professional Papers—Purpose: To present comprekensive or topical reports on any field inthe earth sciences. This series is com- 1 ‘monly used for summaries of wide popular, scientific, or geographic interest, and for significant scientific contibutions—generally on fopies other than hydrology. Techniques of Water Resources—Purpose: To present fo technically oriented audiences reports on methods and techniques used in collecting, analyzing, and processing hydrologic data, Water Data Reports—A series of annual report thet document hydrologic data gathered from the U.S. Geological Survey's and ‘cooperating agencies" surface and groundwater data-collection networks in each state, Puerto Rico, and Trust Territories. These records of streamflow, groundwater levels, and water quality provide the hydrologic information needed by state, local, and federal agencies, and the private sector for developing and managing our Nation’ land and water resources. Water-Resources Imestigations Reports—Purpose: To (a) present to interdiscipinary audiences comprehensive or topical interpre tive reports and maps that are mainly of loal or shor-term interest; (b) provide a medium of release for repots and maps that would not be feasible in any other series or journal or that would be published quickly. Water-Supply Papers—Purpose: To present significant interpretive results of hydrologic investigations of broader than local interests. Water Errata Sheets—Changes made to reports after publication sat lene ‘Source: hapvatec uss gowpub hi ‘Table 1.7.2 How to Find and Reference Online USGS Water Resources Reports Many USGS reports on water resources topics are now being served online. You can access them by their series and number. For ‘example, to see Circular 1123, you should enter CIR 1123 in the search box at the following URL: hitp:/water.usgs.govipubs. Constructing a reference ‘Use one of these prefixes for the report series, followed by the report number. Dashes and underlines are permitted (and ignored), but blanks are not allowed. Case is insensitive. Report Series Preferred Prefix Altemate Prefix(es) Allowed Fact Sheet FAC FS FACT FS_ Open File Report FR OF Water Resources Investigation WRI WRWRIR Professional Paper PRO PROF PP Water-Data Report WOR WDDATA ua Circular cR circc ‘Water-Supply Paper ‘wsP ws Bulletin BUL BULL ‘Techniques of Water-Resouroes Investigations TWRI TWRI18 Data Sources 29 Table 1.72 continued) How to Find and Reference Online USGS Water Resources Repors ind wuld but Referencing pars of a document Using only the series and number will reference the home page (index.html) of the document. You also can reference a specific part cof adocument in html format even if i's not on the home page. For example, to find the section named HRD4 ina file of Circular 1123 called overview hom, use this URL: ttp:lipubs water usgs.govicirl 123/overview.html#HDRA, This technique will work for any sub-page or figure ofthe hum document ‘The “pubs water usgs.gov” reference is persistent! ‘The USGS is committed to supporting ths referencing system forthe indefinite future. This means you can safely incorporate a “pubs. water usgs gov” reference in your Web pages and even in your printed documents and it will tll work many years later. ‘When viewing @ document, your browser's location may show you another URL that corresponds tothe current physical location of the document. Do not use this physical location asa “persistent” reference! As our system grows, thse locations will change bu the “pubs. water usgs.gov” reference will no ‘Source: pater uses gow/ubstefrencing nl 1.73 Publications ‘The following journals provide articles on various topics of groundwater: Environmental Science and Technology, American Chemical Society Ground Water, National Ground Water Association Groundwater Management, Water Well Journal Publishing Co. Ground Water Monitoring and Remediation, Groundwater Publishing Company Hydrological Science and Technology, American Institute of Hydrology Journal of the American Water Resources Association, American Water Resources Association Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, Elsevier Scientific Publishers Journal of Hydraulics, American Society of Civil Engineers Journal of Hydrology, Bisevier Scientific Publishers Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, American Society of Civil Engineers ‘There have been many books published on the subject of groundwater Earlier books include References 4, 5,7, 17, 19, 23, 26, 2-31, 40,41, 43, 6, 8, 59, 61, 67, 70, 73, and 74 ‘Over the past three decades there are several previous books that have been published on groundwater including Applied Hydrogeology"; Aquifer Hydraulics", Contaminant Hydroge- ‘ology™; Groundwater; Ground Water Contamination: Transport and Remediation, Groundwater Engineering**; Groundwater Hydrology'®, Groundwater Hydrology; Ground- water Hydraulics and Pollutant Transpor™; Groundwater Mechanics; Groundwater Sci- ence**; Groundwater Systems Planning and Management"; The Handbook of Groundwater Engineering"; Hydraulics of Groundwater'®, Manual of Applied Field Hydrogeology"®; Mod- eling Groundwater Flow and Pollution''; Principles of Groundwater Engineering"®, and Quantitative Hydrogeology.*' 1.8 DATA SOURCES ‘Table 1.8.1 lists the principal types of data and data compilations that are required for the analysis of groundwater systems, The lists are for the physical framework, hydrologic budgets and stresses, and the chemical framework. One of the sources of data used frequently by groundwater hydrologists isthe U.S. Geological Survey NWIS system.30 Chapter 1 Inroduetion ‘Table 1.8.1 Principal Types of Data and Data Compilations Required for Analysis of Groundwater Systems Physical framework ‘Topographic maps showing the stream drainage network, surface-water bodies, landforms, cultural features, and locations of strue- tures and activities related to water Geologic maps of surficial deposits and bedrock Hydrogeologic maps showing extent and boundaries of aquifers and confining units Maps of tops and bottoms of aquifers and confining units ‘Saturated-thickness maps of unconfined (water-table) and confined aquifers ‘Average hydraulic conductivity maps for aquifers and confining units and transmissivity maps for aquifers ‘Maps showing variations in storage coefficient for aquifers [Estimates of age of groundwater at selected locations in aquifers Hydrologic budgets and stresses Precipitation data Evaporation data Streamflow data including measurements of gain and loss of streamflow between gaging stations “Maps ofthe stream drainage network showing extent of normally perennial flow, normally dry channels, and normally seasonal flow Estimates of total groundwater discharge to streams Measurements of spring discharge ‘Measurements of surface-water diversions and retum flows ‘Quantities and locations of intesbasin diversions History and spatial distribution of pumping rates in aquifers ‘Amount of groundwater consumed for each type of use and spatial distribution of return flows ‘Well ydrographs and historical head (water-level) maps for aquifers Location of recharge areas (areal recharge from precipitation, Iosing streams, irrigate areas, recharge basins and recharge wells), and estimates of recharge (Chemical framework Geochemical characteristics of earth materials and naturally occurring groundwater in aquifers and confining units Spatial distribution of water quality in aquifers, both areally and with depth ‘Temporal changes in water quality, particularly for contaminated or potentially vulnerable unconfined aquifers Sources and types of potential contaminants ‘Chemical characteristics of artificially introduced waters or waste liquids Maps of land cover/iand use at different scales depending on study needs Streamflow quality (water-quality sampling in space and time), particularly during periods of low flow Source: Alley eal? 1.8.1 NWISWeb Data for the Nation ‘The U.S. Geological Survey isthe principal federal water data agency in the United States. The USGS collects and disseminates about 70 percent of the water data currently being used by numerous state, local, private, and other federal agencies to develop and manage water resources. The National WATer Data STOrage and REtrieval System (WATSTORE) was established in 1972 to provide an effective and efficient means for the processing and maintenance ‘of water data collected through the USGS and to facilitate release ofthe data tothe public. In 1976, the USGS opened WATSTORE to the public for direct access. ‘The US.GS. National Water Information System (NWIS) has replaced WATSTORE and is referred to as NWISWeb (http://waterdata.usgs.govinwis). NWIS is a very large collection of data and information onthe water resources of the United States. This database contains current and historical water data from more than 1.5 million locations across the nation. The data cate 1.8218 DataSources 31 ‘gore are real-time data, ste information, surface water data, groundwater data, and water qual ity, Real-time data includes data transmitted from selected groundwater sites. Site information includes descriptive site infotmation, inchuding latitude, longitude, well depth, aquifer, and site use. The groundwater database includes groundwater site inventory, groundwater level data, and water-quality data, The groundwater site inventory consists of more than 850,000 records of ‘wells springs, test holes, tunnels, drain, and excavations inthe United States. The groundwater date can be obtained at hitp://waterdata.usgs govinwis/gw. 1.8.2 Real-Time Data Real-time groundwater data include data that are automatically collected, transmited, and made available tothe public atleast once a day according to the U.S.GS. Fact Sheet 090-01, Decem ber 2001). These data can be transmitted by land-lined telephone, celfular telephone, land- based radio frequency (RF) technology, satellite telemetry, or a combination of these technologies: Within the U.S.G.S., satellite telemetry isthe most common method for real-time data transmission. Water levels are the most common data transmiited in real time by the USGS. Figure 1.8.1 illustrates a real-time data collection and transmission system. With this method, water-level data are recorded by a data-collection playform (DCP) (see Figure | 8.2) and transmitted, often on a four-hour schedule, by satellite telemetry to a US.GS. ground station. The data are then displayed at hitp:/vater usgs.gov/nwisvgw. Real-time data have many inberent advantages over data collected and distributed by t2- ditional means, including timeliness, data quality, data availability, and cost. Additional information on real-time groundwater data can be obtained at hitp:/waterusgs.gov/nwislgw or from the following address: Office of Groundwater, U.S. Geological Survey, 411 National Center, 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive, Reston, Virginia 20192, 703-648-5001 GOES PP can U.S. Geological Retires Ltt Ground et eed ett) Sci) platform arse Cel Figure 1.8.1. Real-time data collection and ansmission system.32. Chapter 1 Introduction Figure 18.2. Multiple sensor data-collection platform (DCP) installation in Kansas * PROBLEMS 1.631 Using the data for Lake Five-O in Table 16.1, show tat the x groundwater flow for December 1989 is 4,00 cubic meters. 1.62 Using the data for Lake Five-O in Table 16.1, show that the net groundwater flow for December 1990 is 28,50 cue meters. 1.63 Determine curlatie net groundwater low for Lake Five- 0 during 1989. 1.64 Determine cumulative net groundwater flow for Lake Fve- 0 daring 1990. 1.7.1 Pesforma search of the U.S. Geological Survey online publications (including circulars, fact sheets, qpenfle reports, professional paps, water resources investigation reports, and water supply papers) to determine what studies, if any, have been performed onthe regional aquifer system closest where you live. 1.12 Develop an inventory of wells the county where you lve using the USGS datasources for your sate, Select a well that has 4.Gme history of water levels ar print the hydrograp 1.7.3 Pesform 2 search of U.S.G.S. publications for the topic “ydrologic budget and water budget." To perform the search, go tohitpsfusgs-georef.cos.com. How many publications are listed? 1.74 Perform a search of U.S.G.S. publications for the High Plains Aquifer. To perform the search, go to hitpi/usgs-geo tef.cos.com. How many publications are listed? 1.78 Perform a search of U.S.G.S. publications forthe Edwards ‘Aquifer To perform the search, goto hitp/usgs-geore.cos.com. How many publications ae listed? 1.76 Perform a search of U.S.G-S. publications for the topic of karst terrains. To perform the search go to hitp:/fusgs-geo ref.cos.com. How many publications ar listed? 1.7.7 Go wo the site hup:/fwatercusgs gov/software and obtain a list of the groundwater software thal the U.S.GS. has availble 1.78 Write a description of the U.S.G.S. Ground-Witer Resources Program. Use the ste hup/waterusgs govlogwiGWRPhim). LA 2A song 3A gov 4A Eng 5. Ar val 6B regu cal U 7. Ba usc 8 Be 9, Be You, 10.8 1B Rede 2B Geoes BB v6, 4B 1994 15.3 348 pr 16, B 1B 48075 18. wc Wiley 20.0 Presi 2.01 no 2. Newy mc 27-4, 3.0 us.6 26 Sons, 27.icof “#00 He, References 33 REFERENCES 1. Adams, FD, Origin of springs andivers-an historical review, Fema, 50, 0, 1, 16. 1928 2. Alley, W.M, R. W. Healy, J. W. LaBaugh, and: E. Reilly, Flow and "orage in groundwater systems, Science, v.206, lune 14, 2002 3, Alles, W.M, T-E. Reilly, and O.L Franke, Sutanabily of Ground ‘water Resources, US. Geological Survey cireulr 1186, hipwater usps. _govlpubsirlie 186, U.S. Geological Survey, Dever, CO, 1999 4. Ames. Soe. Civil Engrs. (ASCE), Ground Water Management, Mamal Bagg, Practice 40, New York, 216 pp, 1972 5. American Water Works Assoc. (AWWA), Ground Water, AWWA Man ‘tal M21, New York, 130 p, 1973 6, Baker, M. N., and R. E, Horton, Historical development of ideas regarding the origin of springs and ground-water, Trans. Amer. Geophys cal Union v.17, pp. 395-0, 1936, 1, Baldwin, G. V, and C. L, McGuinness, A Primer on Ground Water, US. Geological Survey, 26 p., 1963 8, Batu, V, Aquifer Hydraulics, Wiley Interscience, New York, 1998. 9. Bear, J, Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media, Ames. Elsevie, New York, 1972. 10, Beas J, Hydraulics of Groundwater, MeGraw-Hill, New York, 1999. 11 Bear, and A. Vera, Modeling Groundwater Fow and Polaion, ‘Reidel, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1987 12. Beaumont, P, Qanat onthe Vata Plain, Ian, Tans. Inst. British Geographers, Publ no 45, pp 169-199, 1968, 1. Beaumont, P, Quat systems in an Bull. Ini. Asso. Se. Hydrology, 1.16, pp. 39-80, 971 14, Bodient, PB, H.S. Rf, and C.J. Newell, Ground Water Contam ation: Transport and Remediation, Prentice Hall, Englewood Clif, NI, 194, 15. Biswas, A. K, History of Hydrology, Amer. Elsevier, New York, 348 pp. 1970, 16, Bouwer, H, Groundwater Hydrology, MCraw-Hil, New Yor, 1978 17, Bureau of Reclamation, Ground Water Manual, US. Dept. Interior, 480 pp, 1977 18, Carson, R, The Silent Spring, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1962 19, Cedergren, H.R, Seepage, Drainage, and Flow Net, 2nd ed, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 534 pp. 1977 20, Charbeneau,R1, Groundwater Hydraulics and Plltant Transport, Prentice Hal, Upper Sade River, NJ, 2000. 21. Chow, V.7 (ed), Handbook of Applied Hydrology, McGraw-Hill, [New York, 1453 pp, 1964 22. Chow, VT, D. R. Madent, and L. W. Mays, Applied Hydrology, ‘MeGraw-Hil, New York, 1988, 23. Collin, RE, Fow of Fluids through Porous Materials, Reinhold, ‘New York 270 pp. 1961 24, Cressey, G.B., Qanats, are and fogaras, Geog: Review, v.48, pp. 714, 1958. 28, Cunningham, WL, Real-Time Ground-Water Data for the Nation, US. Geologial Fat Sheet 090-01, Dee. 2001 26, Davi, §. N, and R. J. M. DoWiest, Hydrogeology, John Wiley & Sons, New Yk, 463 pp, 1966, 27, Daler). We, The Handbook of Groundwater Engineering, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1999. 28. De Villiers, M, Water: The Fate of Our Most Precious Resource, Mariner Books, Hooghion Mifi, Boston 2000. 29. DeWiest RJ. M, Geoldology, fbn Wiley & Sons, New York, 366 pp 1968 30. DeWiest RJ M.(e), Flow hough Porous Media, Academic, New York, $30 pp, 1969. 31, Domenico, P.A., Concepts and Model in Groundwater Hydrology, “MeGiaw-Hil, New York, 45 pp, 1972 32, Duwelius, RP, Hydrologic data and hydrologic budge fer Sumit Lake Reservoir, Henry County, east-cenal Indiana, water years 1989 sd 1990, 1993. 33. Bhers $. M, and L.L. George, Regional Groundwater Flow and Geochemistry in the Miieste Basins and Arches Aquifer System in Parts of Indiana, Ohio, Michigan, and Minos, US. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1423-C, 200. 34, Fer, C. W, Contaminant Hydrogeology, 2nd eto, Prentice Hal, Upper Sale River, NI, 1999, 35. Fetter, C. W, Applied Hydrogeology, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle Rive, NI 2001 36, Fits, C.R., Growsdwater Scene, Academic Press, San Diego, 2002 37, Freeze, RA, and JA. Chery, Groundwater, Pretice Hal, Engle ‘wood Cis, NI 604 pp, 1979. 238, Gronberg, JA. Mc, and K.R, Belz, Estimation ofa Water Budget for ‘the Central Far of he Westen San Joaquin Valley, Calfornia, US. Geo- logical Survey Water Resources Investigation, WRL91-4192, 1992 28. Grubbs J. W, Bialuation of Groundwater Flow and Hydrologic Bud- {for Late Five-O, A Seepage Late in Northwestem Florida, US. Geo- logical Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 94-4145, 1995, 40. Harr, ME, Groundwater and Seepage, McGraw-Hill, New York, 315 pp, 1962. 4, Heath, RC. and FW. Trainer, Intraducton to Groundwater Hydra ‘ogy, Fon Wiley & Sons, New York, 284 pp, 1968. 42, Hedman, E.R, and Jorgenson, Surface- and Ground-water Interac ‘ion and Hydrologic Budget of the Missouri River Valley Aquifer Berween Yankton, South Dakota and St. Lows, Missouri, US. Geological Survey Hydrologic investigations Atlas, HA-OT2, 1990, 43, Huisman, L,, Groundwater Recovery, Winchester Press, New Yotk, 336 pp, 1972, 4, Tohaston, RH, Hydrologic Budgets of Regional Aquifer Sytems of the United States—Predeelopment and Development Conditions, US. Geological Survey Profesional Paper No, 1425, 1997. 45, Kashef, A.A, Groundwater Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1986, 46, Lee, T.M, and A. Swancar, The Influence of Evaporation, Grown ‘water and Uncertainty nthe Hydrologic Budge of Lake Lucerne, Seep- ‘age Lake in Polk Coun; Florida, US. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 49,197. 47, Lightfoot, D.R, The origin and difasion of ganas in Arabi: New evidence from the nothem and soubem peninsula, Geogr Jou, v.16, pp. 215-226, 2000. 48. MacKichan,K A. Estimated use of water inthe United Sates, 1955, Jour Amer Water Works Asso. v.49, pp. 369-391, 1957 49, Maidment,D.R, ed, Handboot of Hydrology, MeGraw-Hil, New York, 1993,34° Chapter 1 Introduction 50, Mars, W. M, and J. Dozier, Landscape: An Introduction to Phys ‘al Geography John Wily & Sons, New Yor, 1986 51. Masily, de G., Quamtiarve Hydrogeology, Academic Press, New York, 1986. ‘52. Mays, LW. (ed), Water Resouces Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New ‘York, 1986 53. Mays, L. W, Water Resouces Engineering, Joho Wiley & Sons, [New York, 2001 54, Meinze, 0. The history and development of groundwater hydro gy, Jour Washington Acad. Sci ¥. 24, pp. 6-32, 1934 58. Muray,C.R. and EB. Reeves, Estimated Use of Water the United States in 1975, U.S. Geological Survey Civcalar 765,39 pp. 1977 56. Muskat, M, The Flow of Homogeneous Fluide through Porous Media, McGraw Hil, New York, 763 pp. 1987, 57. Perrault, P, On the Origin of Springs, tans. by A. LaRocque, Hater, New York, 209 pp, 1957 58. Polubarinova-Kochina, PY, Theory of Groundwater Movement, Princeton Univ. Pres, Princeton, NJ 613 pp, 1962. 59, Raudlivi,A.J,and R.A. Callander, Analysis of Groundwater Flow, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 214 pp, 1976 60, Sacks, LA.,A. Swancar, and T. M. Lee, Erimating Groundwater Exchange with Lakes Using Water Budget and Chemical Mass Balance ‘Approaches for Ten Lakes in Ridge Areas of Polk and Highlands Cour ties, Florida, US. Geological Survey Water Resources Investigations Report, WRI SE-A133, 1958, GL. Scheidegge, A.B, The Physics of Flow through Porous Media, 3rd 4, Univ of Toronto, Toros, 353 pp, 1974 62. Shade, P.1, Water Budget forth Lahaina District, Island of Maxi, Hewat, U.S. Geological Survey Water sestigations Report, WRIS6- 4238, 1996, (63. Skrobialowski, S.C. and M.J Pocazi, Hydrologic Characteristics ‘and Wer Budgets for Swift Creek Reser, Virginia, 1996, US. Geo- logical Survey Open Fie Report 97.0229, 1997. 64, Skrbialowski S.C, Hydrologic Characteristics and Water Budget {for Swift Creek Reservoir, Virginia, 1997, US. Geological Survey Water Resources vestigations, WRL98-8122, 1998, 65, Soley, W. B, Preliminary Estimates of Water Use in the United States, 195, US. Geological Survey Open-File Revor 97-0645, Reston, Va, 1997. (6, Suack, 0. DL, Growndwoter Mechanics, Premtice Hall, Engle woods Cliffs, NI, 1989. (61, Thomas, HB, The Conservation of Ground Water, McGraw-Hil Neve York, 327 pp. 1951 (68. Tuner A. Hydrogeologie, Springs, Vienna, 350 pp, 1967 (68, Todd, D.K., Groundwater Hydrology, 2nd ed, John Wiley & Sons, ‘New York, 1980. 70. Tolman, C.F, Ground Wier, MeGraw-Hil, New York, 593 pp, 1937, 71. Toth A theoretical analysis of groundwater in small drainage basins, Jour Geophys. Res, v.68, pp 4795-4812, 1963. 172. Tromme, J.T, M.J-DelCharco, and BR Leweling, ater Budget and Water Quality of Ward Late, Flow and Water- Quality Characteristics ofthe Braden River Estuary and the Esfectsof Ward Lake onthe Bde logie System, West-Cenral Florida, US. Geological Survey Water Resources Investigations Report 98-4251, 199, 173, Veriljt,A., Theory of Groundwater Flow, Gordon and Breach, New York, 190 pp, 1970. 74, Walton, W. C., Groundwater Resource Evaluation, McGraw-Hill, New York, 64 pp, 1970, 75, Walton, W.C, Principles of Groundwater Engineering, Lewis Pob Tishes, Chelsea, MI, 199, 16, Weight, W.D., and J. L. Sonderegger, Manual of Applied Feld ‘Hydrogeology, MeGraw-Hil, New York, 201 77, Willi, R, and W. W-G. Yeh, Groundwater Systems Planning and Moragemens, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cis, NS, 1987. 78. Winter. C, Uncerainces in etimatng the water balance of aks, Water Resources Bll, ¥. 17, p. 82-115, 1981, 79, Winter, T. C., The interactions of lakes with variably saturated porous media, Water Resources Research v.19, pp. 1203-1218, 1985. 80. Winter, .C, J.W. Harvey, 0. L. Franke, and W.M. Alley, Ground water and Surface Water: A Single Source, US. Geological Survey Cir cular 139, hp:vater uses golpubscitlciel139, Denver, CO, 1988. 81, Wulf, H.B, The ganas of Iran, Sei. Amer, v. 218, pp. 94-100, 105, 1968, EXAMPLE PUBLICATIONS OF ORGANIZATIONS AND GOVERNMENT AGENCIES American Water Works Assocation, AWWA Standard for Disinfection of War Wells, ANSUAWWA C554, Denver, CO. ‘American Water Works Association, AWWA Standard for Water Wells, ANSUAWWA A100, Denver, CO. American Water Works Association, Manual 21, Groundwater, Dever, C0, 1989 orc, M.A. S.A. Smith, and L.N, Noble, Evaluation and Restoration ‘of Water Supply Wels, American Wate Works Associaton and Amed- ‘can Water Works Association Research Foundation, Denver, CO, 1983. US. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Drinking Water, Local ‘Fnancing for Welltead Protection, Washington, D.C, 1989. US. Environmental Proetion Ageney, Office of Drinking Wate, Cit ‘21n's Guide 1 Ground- Water Proection, Washington, DC, 1990 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Drinking Water, Guide 10 Ground-Water Supply Contingency Planning for Local and State Governments, Washington, DC, 1991 US. Environmental Protection Agency, Otice of Drinking Water, Pro tecting Local Ground Water Supplies Through Wellhead Protection, Washington, DC, 1991, 1a 24il, Sons, 1937, inage sdget ro ‘wer. New Hil, Pub. Field cit. Side Sta Pro Chapter 2 Occurrence of Groundwater To describe the occurrence of groundwater necessitates a review of where and how groundwater exists; subsurface distribution, in both vertical and areal extents, needs to be considered ‘The geologic zones important to groundwater must be identified, as well as their structure in terms of water-holding and water-yilding capabilites. I hydrologic conditions furnish water to the underground zone, the subsurface strata gover its distribution and movement; bence the important role of geology in groundwater hydrology cannot be overemphasized. Springs, hydrothermal phenomena, and water in permanently frozen ground constitute special roundwater occurrences. 2.1 ORIGIN AND AGE OF GROUNDWATER ‘Almost all groundwater can be thought of asa part ofthe hydrologic cycle, including surface and atmospheric (meteoric) waters. Relatively minor amounts of groundwater may enter this cycle from other origins. ‘Water that has been out of contact with the atmosphere for atleast an appreciable part of a geologic period is termed connate water; essentially, it consists of fossil interstitial water that ‘has migrated from its original burial location.” This water may have been derived from ‘oceanic or freshwater sources and, typically, is highly mineralized.” Magmatic water is water derived from magma; where the separation is deep, the term plutonic water is applied, while volcanic water designates water from relatively shallow depths (perhaps 3 to 5 km)" New water of magmatic or cosmic origin that has not previously been a part ofthe hydrosphere is referred to as juvenile water And finally, metamorphic water is water that is or has been associated with rocks during their metamorphism. The diagram in Figure 2.1.1 illustrates te interrelations of these genetic types of groundwater ‘The residence time of water underground has always been a topic of considerable specu lation. But with the advent of radioisotopes, determinations of the age of groundwater have become possible. Hydrogen-3 (trum) and carbon-I4 are the two isotopes that have proved ‘most useful. Tritium with a half-life of 12.33 years is produced in the upper atmosphere by ‘cosmic radiation; caried to earth by rainfall and hence underground, this natural level of tr- tium begins to decay as a function of time, such that A=A,e™ QL.) ‘where A is the observed radioactivity, A, is the activity tthe time the water entered the aquifer, ‘Lis the decay constant, and tis the age of the water. Carbon-14 has a halflife of 5,730 years ands also produced at an established constant level in the atmosphere. This isotope is present in groundwater as dissolved bicarbonate originating from the biologically active layers of the 3836 Chapter 2 Occurrence of Groundwater vane water (Cnau” water Magmate water (octrom magma: Plutonic i deo: volar ehalon) cwancua Fo low Meuse wae cancer toreentyton fe _,(earastes ‘he atmosphere) certian Carns water (fossil water cerry et ones) Figure 2.1.1. Diagram illustrating relationships of genetic types of water (courtesy The Geological Society of America, 1957) soil where CO, is generated by root respiration and the decay of humus.® Tritium is applicable for estimating groundwater residence times of upto 50 years, while carbon-14 spans the age bracket ofa several hundred to about 50,000 years. Applications of the age-dating techniques have revealed groundwaters ranging in age from a few years or less to many thousand years.” Measurements of water samples taken from deep wels in deserts ofthe United Arab Republic and Saudi Arabia indicate ages of 20,000 to 30,000 years.** This period is compatible with the Wisconsin ice ag, when these desert areas last possessed a high rainfall capable of recharging the underlying major aquifers 2.2 ROCK PROPERTIES AFFECTING GROUNDWATER 22.1 Aquifers Groundwater occurs in many types of geologic formations; those known as aquifers are of ‘most importance. An aguifer may be defined as a formation that contains sufficient saturated permeable material to yield significant quantities of water to wells and springs." This implies an ability to store and to transmit water; unconsolidated sands and gravels are a typical example, Furthermore, it is generally understood that an aquifer includes the unsaturated portion of the permeable unit. Synonyms frequently employed include groundwater reservoir and water- bearing formation. Aquifers are generally areally extensive and may be overlain or underlain ‘The fallout of bomb ium and C-14in precipitation since the advent ofnclear weapon testing in 1952 has really complicated much ofthe dating of groundwater because recent evels realy exceed the prebomb level, 22val pli- age om 9t0 es 22.2 Porosity 22 Rock Properties Affecting Groundwater 37 by a confining bed, which may be defined as a relatively impermeable material stratigraphi- cally adjacent to one or more aquifers. Clearly, there are various types of confining beds; the following types are well established inthe literature: 1, Aquiclude—A saturated but relatively impermeable material that does not yield appreciable quantities of water to wells; clay is an example. 2. Aquifiege—A relatively impermeable formation neither containing nor transmitting water, solid granite belongs inthis category. 3. Aquitard—A saturated but poorly permeable stratum that impedes groundwater movernent and does not yield water freely to wells, that may transmit appreciable water to or from adjacent aquifers and, where sufficiently thick, may constitute an important groundwater ‘storage zone; sandy clay is an example." ‘Those portions of a rock or soil not occupied by solid mineral matter can be occupied by groundwater. These spaces are known as voids, interstices, pores, or pore space. Beceuse intr- stices serve as water conduits, they are of fundamental importance to the study of groundwater. ‘Typically, they are characterized by their size, shape, irregularity, and distribution. Original interstices were created by geologic processes governing the origin of the geologic formation and are found in sedimentary and igneous rocks. Secondary interstices developed after the rock ‘was formed; examples include joins, fractures, solution openings, and openings formed by plants and animals. With respect to size, interstices may be classed as capillary, supercapillary, and subcapillary. Capillary interstices are sufficiently small that surface tension forces will hold ‘water within them; supercapillary interstices are those larger than capillary ones; and subcapillary interstices are so small that water is held primarily by adhesive forces. Depending on the connection of interstices with others, they may be classed as communicating or isolated. ‘The porosity of a rock or sil is « measure of the contained interstices or voids expressed as the ratio of the volume of interstices to the total volume. If cis the porosity, then y_V-¥, (2.24) voy where V, isthe volume of interstices (voids), Vis the volume of solids, and V isthe total vol- ‘ume (bulk volume). Porosity may also be expressed by (2.2.2) Pm ‘where Pais the density of mineral particles (grain density)" and p, isthe bulk density ‘The term effective porosity refers to the amount of interconnected pore space available for fluid flow and is expressed as a ratio of interconnected interstices to total volume. For uncon solidated porous media and for many consolidated rocks, the two porosities are identical Porosity may also be expressed as a percentage by multiplying the right-hand side of Equa- tions 2.2.1 oF 2.2.2 by 100. The terms primary and secondary porosity ate associated with original and secondary interstices, respectively. “The word aquifer canbe traced ots Latin ergin. Agi is combining frm of agua wats”) and fer comes from fer ("to beat). Hence, an aguifer is a water bear The sufi clude of aquclude i derived from the Latin claudere to shut or close”). Silay, the sufi fue of aqufuge comes fom fugee ("to dive avay"), while he suffix tard of aqutard follows fom the Latin aru slow”) "The densi of oid ock vais with he tye of mineral For alluvium where quarts the predominant mineral, value of 2.65 pe’ is typical imestone and grant fal in the range 27-2. gfe’, and basal can agprosch 3.0 cm.38. Chapter 2 Occurrence of Groundwater @ sow o “e te EXAl © 0 Figure 2.21. Examples of tock interstices and the relation of rock texture to porosity a) Well-soried sedimentary deposit hing high porosity. (5) Poorly sorted sedimentary deposit having low porosity (6) Well sone sedimentary deposit consisting of pebbles that ae themselves porous, 50 thatthe deposit as a whole has a very high porosity. (2) Well-srted sedimentary deposit whose porosity has been diminished bythe deposition of mineral mati inthe interstices. (c) Rock rendered porous by solution. () Rock rendered porous by facturing Figure 2.2 shows several types of interstices and their relation to porosity, In tems of : groundwater supply, grenular sedimentary deposits are of major importance. Porosities in these deposits depend on the shape and acrangement of individual particles, distribution by size, and degree of cementation and compaction, In consolidated formations, removal of mineral matter by solution and degree of fracture are also important. Porosities range from near 2zer0 to moce than 50 percent, depending on te above factors and the type of material. Repre- sentative poraity values for various geologic materials are listed in Table 2.2.1. It should be recognized that porosities fora particular soil or rock can vary considerably from these values. In sedimentary rocks subject to compaction, measurements show that porosity decreases with depth of burial >” Thus, a typical relation has the form o,=0,6% (223) Table 2.2.1 Representative Values of Porosity (after Morris and Johnson’) Material Porosity, percent Material Porosity, percent Gravel, coarse 28 Loess ry Gravel, medium at Peat a Gravel, fine 3a Schist. 38 Sand, coarse 8 Siltstone 35 Sand, medium 6 CCaystone 8 Sand, fine 43 Shale 6 silt 46 Till, predominantly silt 4 chy 2 Till, predominantly sand 31 Sandstone, fine grained 3B Tuff 41 Sandstone, medium grained 37 Basalt a Limestone 0 Gabbro, weathered a Dolomite %6 Granite, weathered 45 Dune sand 45 These values ae for epacked samples all ater re unditrbed,red iy. sof sin nin- EXAMPLE 2.2.1 SOLUTION: 22 Rock Properties Affecting Groundwater 39 ‘where isthe porosity at depth zy, is the porosity atthe surface, a is a constant, and eis the base of Naperian logarithms. ‘An undisturbed sample of a medium sand weighs 484.68 g. The core ofthe undisturbed sample is 6 em in diameter and 10.61 cm high. The sample is oven-dried for 24 hrat 110°C to remove the water content ‘Atte end of the 24 hr, the core sample weighs 447.32 g. Determine the bulk density, void ratio, water content, porosity, and saturation percentage ofthe sample, ‘The dry weight of the sample is W, = 447.32 g and the total weight is W; = 484.68 g. The total volume ofthe undisturbed sample is V,= Rh = (3 cm)"(10.61 cm) = 300em* “The bulk density is defined as the density of solids and voids together, after drying. Thus, Wy _ 44732 Savant Siedem Pes Assuming quartz isthe predominant mineral in the sample, then py = 2.65 gfem? ‘Thus, the volume V, of the solid phase of the sample is W,_ 47328 Pn 2.65 fem: 1688.¢m? “Thus, the toma volome of voids in the sample is ‘With tis information, we can calculate the void ratio ¢ of the sample is ¥,_13120m* V,~ 168.8em' ™m ‘The volumetric water content of a sample isthe volume of the water divided by the volume of the sample (W-Wa)/Pence _ 484.68 p~ 447.329 vy 300m? Nig lem’ ‘where W, isthe total weight ofthe undisturbed sample before drying, ‘The gravimetric water content ofthe sample is We Wy 9p - 884.68 8447.32 09g 355) 47 100 ‘The porosity ofthe sample is 300.cm?—168.8cm? Sem" <100=43.73% 300em Finally, the saturation percentage of a sample is defined asthe percentage of the pore space thats filled by wate, %100= 28.47%40 Chapter2- Occurrence of Groundwater ‘EXAMPLE 2.2.2 SOLUTION SOLUTION ‘The void ratio ofan unconsolidated clay sample i 1.19, Determine the porosity of the sample. and substituting V, = V,~ Vy, ‘ 19 100 = 109-5434 OTe 14119 TSH ‘The porosity of a quartz sand sample is 38.41%, Determine the bulk density ofthe sample. ‘The bulk density and porosity of an undisturbed sample are defined as p, ae Srning ey wiht fa aml W, pn he bk deseo ee al epost For quart sand, p, =2.65 fem? the bulk density is A ».=09I- 2} 2.2.3 Soil Classification ‘Unconsolidated geologic materials are normally classified according to thei size and distribution, A commonly employed system based on particle, or grin, size is listed in Table 2.2.2 Evaluation of the distribution of sizes is accomplished by mechanical analysis. This involves sieving particles coarser than 0.05 mm and measuring rates of settlement for smaller particles in suspension. Results are ploted on a particle-size distribution graph such as that shown in Figure 2.2.2. The percentage finer scale on the ordinate shows the percentage of material smaller than that of a given size particle on a dry-weight bass. ‘The effective particle size isthe 10 percent finer than value (d,. The distribution of particles is characterized by the uniformity coefficient U, as U.= deldyy (2.2.4) where dg is the 60 percent finer than value, A uniform material has a low uniformity coefii- ‘cient (the dune sand in Figure 2.2.2), while a well-graded material has a high uniformity coefficient (the alluvium). 2.2.4x100, e have distri. 22.2. volves ticles wn in. aerial par 22. Rock Properties Affecting Groundwater 41 ‘Table 2.2.2 Soil Classification Based on Particle Size (after Mortis and Johnson*®) Material Particle size, mm chy <0.004 silt 0.004— 0.062, Very fine sand 0.062 0.125 Fine sand 0425-025 Medium sand 025-05 Coarse sand 05-10 Very coarse sand 10-20 Very fine gravel 20-40 Fine gravel 40-80 Medium gravel 80-160 Coarse gravel 160~32.0 Very coarse gravel 320-640 109) 20] ‘hvium 60) Percent finer 40} 20) ot pe, ot 002 005 010 020 060 .100 200 600 100 200 5.00 Partie size, mm Figure 2.2.2. Paricle-size dstibution graph for three geologic samples (data from U.S. Geological Suneey). ‘The texture ofa soil is defined by the relative proportions of sand, silt, and clay present in the particle-size analysis, This can be expressed by the soil-textural triangle in Figure 2.2.3 Note, for example, that a soil composed of 30 percent clay, 60 percent silt, and 10 percent sand constitutes a silty clay loam. 2.2.4 Porosity and Representative Elementary Volume ‘We can define porosity in a spatial field asa function, o(2), at any point x using spatial averaging over a representative elementary volume (REV). Consider a porous medium with diferent sizes of averaging volumes, V*, centered at point . The point value of potosity (volumetric Porosity) is associated with an averaging volume centered at that point, expressed as!* ie 24)2 Chapter 2 Occurrence of Groundwater igure 2.2.3, Triangle of sil textures for describing various combinations of sand sit, and clay (ater Soil Survey Saf, where X() is an indicator function for void space: X(f) = 0 if point is located in the solid space or X(f) = 1 if point x is located in the void space. V* is the averaging volume centered on the point, with the estimated porosity value as a function of averaging volume size. Ifthe volume is too smal, the average value is not well defined and the limit approaches either 0 or 1. There may be a range of volumes surrounding point for which the average is well defined, and if the averaging volume is too large, then soils with different textures may be included, resulting in a deviation from the average. 2.25 Specific Surface ‘The water retentive property ofa soil or rock is markedly influenced by its surface area. This area depends on particle size and shape and on the type of clay minerals present. The term specific surface refers tothe area per unit weight of the material, usually expressed as mig, Relative ‘methods for measuring specific surface are based on retention of a polar organic molecule such as ethylene glycol; these have been related to absolute values derived from statistical calculations of surface area.° Clay particles contribute the greatest amount of surface area in unconsolidated formations. Nonswelling clays such as kaolinite have only an extemal surface and exhibit specific surfaces inthe range of 10-30 mg; however, swelling clays such as montmorillonite and vermiculite have internal and external surfaces that yield specific surface values near 800 mg. ‘An illustration ofthe importance of particle size to specific surface is presented in Table 2.23. Here, considering only uniform spheres, it can be seen that when a given volume is transformed into 100 small spheres totaling the same volume, the specific surface increases by «factor of 100, Furthermore, itcan be shown that when the volume is deformed into rod, disk, or plate shapes, specific surface increases even more.* SOLty \isarea pecific elative such lations lidated it spe- ite and wig Table ame is ses by + disk, 2.2 Rock Properties Affecting Groundwater 43 ‘Table 2.2.3 Relation of Surface Area to Particle Size for Uniform Spheres Diameter of Soil Namberof Teal surface particle, mm classification particles per em? area, om? 0 Medium gravel 1 34 i Coarse snd bei? 34 01 Ver ie sand L108 aia am Sit 125x108 1570 0.002 Clay 1.25 x 10"! 15,700 ‘Nore: Rectangular packing i assumed ina cubic entane 1 em on a side o that the total volume, and weigh, of spheres remains constant at m6 cn’ EXAMPLE 224 Using the tabulated results ofa grain size distribution test on afield sample, perform the following tasks: (8) Prepare a grain size distribution curve fortis sample, (b) Is this a well-graded or poorly graded sample? (©) Classify the sample using Table 2.2.2. (@) What would be reasonable porosity values fr this sample? US. Standard Sieve Number Mas retained (g) 38 4995 4 26.70 8 25.29 16 5058 30 nst 40 25.50 109 33.60 200 133 Pan (passes through #200 sieve) 828 ‘Total sample weight 300.00 SOLUTION () The given data are analyzed as shown inthe table below. Note that the particle size (sieve opening) corresponding to each US. Standard Sieve number is given in the table. Te results yield the grain- size distribution curve shown in Figure 2.24 Sieve Grain size (mm) Mass retained (g) Percent finer by mass 38 95 49.95 83.35 4 475 26.10 7445 8 2.36 25.29 66.02 16 118 50.58 49.16 i 30 06 7257 97 | 40 0.425 25.0 1647 100 01s 33.60 S27 | 200 0075 133 216 | Pan <0.015 8.28 ‘Total sample weight, 30044° Chapier2. Occurence of Groundvater % T 0 7 rh 2 oo | Fal If ay Fo} + - ++ fx 10 | Figure 22.4 9 | Graisizedssibu- bor 7 10° tiomeurve for 20,00 Exunple 224 {b) From the grain-size dstibation curve: Jo 16mm — and dp =0.23 mm From Equation 2.2.4, the uniformity coeficient is dg 16mm _ 4 dy 023 mm Since U, > 6, the sample can be described as well graded (Le, Jow uniformity). (©) The percentage of clay and silt in the sample is approximately 2-3 percent, while about 60 percent ‘of the sample is sand, The remaining 37-38 percent is composed of very fine to coarse gravel (©) The porosity of the sample could be somewhere between 20 and 35 percent based on our classifica tion in part (), 7 ‘The following data ae obtained from ahydromter tit to determine the gradation ofa sample of fine sediments (@) Prepare a grain size distribution curve for this sample (©) Isthisa wel-graded or poorly graded sample? (©) Classify the sample using Table 2.2.2 (8) What would be reasonable porosity values for his sample? escent finer than 100.00 98.90 88.50 19.40 1030 090 0.125 000 0.088 oe 0.0625 0.00 (@) Using the given data, the grain size distribution curve is plotted for this sample in Figure 2.25stribu- >ercent L ssifica- . of fine 23. Vertical Distribution of Groundwater 45 ETT yt =/ela] [ss ea] alm a Figure 225, Gain 9.100 1,000 size distribution curve Peril size, mm for Example 2.2.5, Percent finer oSBBERSIBE M (b) From Figure 2.25, dj = 0.36 mm and dy tion 2.24 25 mm, the uniformity coefficient is given by Equa 036 mm 0.25 mm Lad Since U, <4, the sample can be classified as poorly graded (ie, highly uniform). () From the given data and the soil classifications of Table 2.2.2, the sample consists of 11.5 percent coarse sand, 78.2 percent medium sand, and 10:3 percent fine sand. Thus, the sample can be classi fied asa medium sand with some proportions of coarse and fine sand, (@) Based on the classification in part (c), the porosity of the sample would be inthe range of 35 to 45 percent. . 2.3 VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF GROUNDWATER ‘The subsurface occurrence of groundwater may be divided into zones of aeration and saturation. The zone of aeration consists of interstices occupied partially by water and partially by ait In the zone of saturation, all interstices are filled with water under hydrostatic pressure, On ‘most of the land masses of the cath, a single zone of aeration overlies a single zone of saturation and extends upward tothe ground surface, as shown in Figure 2.3.1 In the zone of aeration, vadose water’ occurs. This general zone may be further subdi- vided into the soil water zone, the intermediate vadose zone, and the capillary zone (Fig ure 23.1)" ‘The saturated zone extends from the upper surface of saturation down to underlying impermeable rock. Inthe absence of overlying impermeable strata, the water table, or phreatic surface, forms the upper surface of the zone of saturation. This is defined as the surface of atmospheric pressure and appears a the level at which water stands in well penetrating the aquifer. Actually, saturation extends slightly above the water table due to capillary attraction; however, water is held there a less than atmospheric pressure. Water occurring in the zone of saturation is commonly referred to simply as groundwater, but the term phreatic water is also employed. “Vadose is derived from the Latin vadosus shall"). "Phreatc is derived from the Grek phrar,-atas (a wel)46 Chapter2 Occurrence of Groundwater Ground sutace 3) semaine 3 3 vase g : = i ater toe waterue || g 2 3 as 3 aa 5 3! § | oS seme | Impemeabierock | i ' 2.4.3 Figure 2.3.1. Divisions of subsurface water 24 ZONE OF AERATION 24.1 Soil-Water Zone ‘Water in the soil-water zone exists at less than saturation except temporarily when excessive water reaches the ground surface as from rainfall or irrigation, The zone extends from the ground surface down through the major oot zone. Is thickness varies with soil type and vegetation. Because of the agricultural importance of soil water in supplying moisture to roots, agri- cultursts and soil scientists have studied soil moisture distribution and movement extensively. ‘The amount of water present in the soil-water zone depends primarily onthe recent exposure of the soil to moisture. Under hot, arid conditions, a water-vapor equilibrium tends to become established between the ambient air and the surfaces of fine-grained soil particles. As a result, only thin films of moisture—known as hygroscopic water—remain adsorbed on the surfaces. For coarse-grained materials and where additional moisture is available, water also forms liquid rings surrounding contacts between grains, as sketched in Figure 2.4.1, This ‘water is held by surface tension forces and is sometimes referred to as capillary water. Tem- porarily, the soil-water zone may contain water in excess of capillary water from rainfall or irrigation; this gravitational water drains through the soil under the influence of gravity. 2.4.2 Intermediate Vadose Zone ‘The intermediate vadose zone extends from the lower edge ofthe soil-water zone tothe upper limit ofthe capillary zone (Figure 2.3.1). The thickness may vary from zero, where the bound-cessive om the I vege- s,agri- sively. expo- nds to les. As on the. also This Tem- fall or upper ound- 24 Zone of Aeration 47 243. Capillary Zone Figure 241, Ilustation of vadose water held at contact points of particles in the unsaturated ing zones merge with a high water table approaching ground surface, to more than 100 m under deep water table conditions. The zone serves primarily asa region connecting the zone near ground surface with that near the water table through which water moving vertically downward must pass. Nonmoving vadose water is held in place by hygroscopic and capillary forces. Temporary excesses of water migrate downward as gravitational wate, ‘The capillary zone (or capillary fringe) extends from the water table up tothe limit of capillary rise of water. Ifa pore space could be idealized to represent a capillary tube, the capillary rise h, (Figure 24.2) can be derived from an equilibrium between surface tension of water and the weight of water raised. Thus, cosh eat) ‘wheres surface tension, ys the specific weight of water, isthe ube radius, and is the angle ‘of contact between the meniscus and the wall ofthe tube. For pure water in a clean glass, 2.= O, and at 20° C, t= 0.074 gicm and y= 1 g/cm’, so that for r in cm, the capillary rise (in cm) is ous 242) Itfollows from Equation 2.4.2 that the thickness of the capillary zone will vary inversely with the pore size of a sol or rock. Measurements of capillary rise in unconsolidated materials shown in Table 2.4.1 bear out this relationship. Furthermore, for a material containing innumerable pores of a wide range in size the upper boundary of the zone will form a jagged limit when studied microscopically. Taken macroscopically, however, a gradual decrease in ‘water content results with height, That is, just above the water table almost all pores contain capillary water; higher, only the smaller connected pores contain water; and stil higher, only the few smallest connected pores contain water lifted above the water table. Ths distribution of water above the water table is shown in Figure 2.4.3 from a drainage test on a sand, The visual capillary rise is invariably less than the actual capillary zone as defined in Figure 2.4.3.48 Chapter? Occureace of Groundwater SOLUTION 60) T TT I ° ' : Introd lrmedite | i ‘ates Eat| ‘om id a \ g i+ | Figure242. Riseof = 244 water in a capillary tube pilley ‘Figure 2.4.3. Distribution 010 2030 Percont moisture ‘content by volume 0 of water in a coarse sand above the water table after rainage (after Pri”) ‘able 241 Capillry Risen Samples of Uncosoated Mates (fer Lohman?) Material Grain size (mm) Capillary rise (erm) Fine gravel 52 25 Very coarse sand el 65 Coarse sand 1-05 BS ‘Medium sand 05-02 m6 Fine sand 02-01 28 silt 01-0005 105.5 Sil 095-002 200" ‘Note Capillary se measured afer 72 days; all samples Bave vitally the same porosity oF Al percent. stil rising after 72 days ‘Assuming uniform spherical grain of evbic packing, approximate the capillary rise ina sil sa function ofthe grain diameter. Using this relationship, estimate te capillary rise for each material io Table 2.4.1 ‘The accompanying figure shows atypical arrangement of cubical packing with spherical grains of equal ameter. It can be shown, using geometry, thatthe radius ofthe pore space between the grains is 0.2 times the grain diameter, Assuming that this poe space could be idealized to represent a capillary tbe, r = 0200 can be substuted into Equation 2.42 yieding h, = 245-045. 3action 241 equal i802 can be 244 24 Zone of Aeration 49 Material Grain size (mm) Estimated capillary Actual capillary rise (cm) rise (em) _ Fine gravel 52 15.3.5 25 Very coarse sand 2 315-15 65 ‘Coarse sand 1-05 75-15 IBS Medium sand 05-02 15375 246 Fine sand 02-01 315-15 428 silt 1-005 75-150 0s.s silt 0.05-0.02 150-375 200 . Measurement of Water Content Determination of the water content of soils can be accomplished by various direct methods based on removal of the water from a sample by evaporation, leaching, or chemical reaction, followed by measurement of the amount removed." Thus, the gravimetric method involves ‘weighing a wet soil sample, removing the water by oven-drying it and reweighing the sample. Indirect methods consist of measuring some soil property affected by soil-water content. Specifically, electrical and thermal conductivity and electrical capacitance of porous materials vary with water content, Another useful instrument for measuring soil moisture is the neutron probe. When low ered in a small-diameter tube in the ground, determination of soil moisture can be made as a function of depth. The instrument contains a radium-beryllium source of fast neutrons and a detector for slow neutrons. The fast neutrons are slowed by collisions with hydrogen, and because most ofthe hydrogen in soil is associated with water, the intensity of slow neutrons measured yields, after calibration, the local soil moisture content.° Within the vadose zone a negative-pressure head of water exists, often referred to as suction, oF tension ina positive sense. This tension can be measured by a tensiometer; Figure 2.4.4 shows a tensiometer installed in a soil column, The depression Ad in water level measures the local soil tension. Such instruments function in the range from atmospheric pressure (near 1,000 cm of water) to about 200 cm of water (800 cm water tension). Calibration data for soil suction and water content reveal that the relation between the two variables isnot single valued; instead, sol structure and compaction, as well as effects of wetting or drying, influence the results Suction head, tone Unsaturated porous medium Figure 2.44, Mlustation of a tensiometer for measuring water tension in unsaturated porous media,50 Chapter2. Occurrence of Groundwater 24.5. Available Water Soils absorb and retain water, which may be withdrawn by plants during periods between rainfall ot irigations. This water-holding capacity is defined by the available water, which is the range of plant-available water, the moist end being the field capacity and the dry end the wilting point, Field capacity can be defined as the amount of water held in a soil after wetting and after subsequent drainage has become negligibly small. The negligible drainage rate is often assumed after two days; however, different sols possess varying drainage rates so that quantitative values may not be comparable. The wilting point defines the water content of soils when plants growing in that soil are reduced to a permanent wilted condition. Because factors such as soil type, volume, plant type, and age influence wilting point, this moisture content can also be variable. 2.5 ZONE OF SATURATION In the zone of saturation, groundwater fills all ofthe interstices; hence, the (effective) porosity provides a direct measure ofthe water contained per unit volume. A portion of the water can bbe removed from subsurface strata by drainage or by pumping of a well; however, molecular ‘and surface tension forces hold the remainder of the water in plac. 25.1 Specific Retention 2.5.2. Specific Yield ‘The specific retention $, ofa soil or rock isthe ratio ofthe volume of water it will retain after saturation against the force of gravity to its own volume. Thus, (25.1) ‘here w, isthe volume occupied by retained water’ and V, is the bulk volume of the soil or rock, ‘The specific yield S, ofa soil or rock isthe ratio of the volume of water tha, after saturation, ‘can be drained by gravity to its own volume."” Therefore, (2.5.2) where w, is the volume of water drained. Values ofS, and S, can also be expressed as percent- ages. Because w, and w, constitute the total water volume in a saturated material, it is apparent that 253) or (254) where all pres are interconnecting. Values of specific yield depend on grain size, shape and distribution of pores, compaction of the stratum, and time of drainage.*” Representative specific yields for various geologic materials are listed in Table 2.5.1; individual values fora soil or rock can vary considerably from these values. It should be noted that fine-grained materials yield litle water, whereas ‘coarse-grained materials permit a substantial release of water and hence serve as aquifers. In should be noted that he terms field capacity and retained water refer to the same water content but ifr bythe ‘zone in which they ocr. SOLsnrain- vis the wilting dafter ‘sumed values Hype, iable. poros- ‘eran ecular 1 after 25.1) ation, 15.2) cent par- 53) 54) ation ogic ably s.In SOLUTION 25 Zone of Saturation SI ‘Table 25.1 Representative Values of Specific Vield (after Johnson?) Material Specific yield (percent) Gravel, coarse 23 Gravel, medium m4 Gravel, fine 25 Sand, coarse a Sand, medium 2% Sand, fine B silt 8 Chy 3 Sandstone, fine grained 2 Sandstone, medium grained 2 Limestone 4 Done sand 38 Loess 18 Peat “ Schist 6 Siltstone 2 ‘Til, predominantly silt 6 ‘Til, predominantly sand 16 ‘Tl, predominantly gravel 16 Tutt a ‘general, specific yields for thick unconsolidated formations tend to fallin the range of 7 to 15 percent, because of the mixture of grain sizes present in the various strata; furthermore, they ‘normally decrease with depth due to compaction. Specific yield can be measured by a variety of techniques involving laboratory, field, and estimating techniques. 7° Methods based on well-pumping tests, described in Chapter 4, generally give the most reliable results for field measurements. Estimate the average drawdown over an area where 25 million m? of water has been pumped through a ‘number of uniformly distributed wells. The area is 150 km? and the specific yield of the unconfined aquifer is 25 percent. ‘The volume of water drained is w, = 25 x 10m. Bq. 25:2 sued to determine the blk volume, V, of the aquifer to exact this volume of water: 25x10° m* an? 0252 Ey, urden, static ‘quifer dition, water- quite com ough a water ficient iteon- essure soefii- water d. chum 28.1) 2s Md, as 29° Groundwater Basin/Regional Groundwater Flow Systems $9 Unit cross-sectional area Unitdeatne of piezometic surface Piezometic surace Unit deine of Unit e0ss-setonal area water table | Water table — Impermeable| @ $14 Aquiter ‘Aquite Impermeable defining the storage coeicient of (a) o ‘confined and (b) unconfined aquifers. 2.9 GROUNDWATER BASINS/REGIONAL GROUNDWATER FLOW SYSTEMS A groundwater basin may be defined asa hydrogeologic unit containing one large aquifer or several connected and interrelated aquifers. Such a basin may or may not coincide with a physiographic unit. In a valley between mountain ranges, the groundwater basin may occupy only the central portion ofthe stream drainage basin. In limestone and sandhill areas, drainage and groundwater basins may have entirely different configurations. The concept ofa groundwater basin becomes important because ofthe hydraulic continuity that exists forthe contained ‘groundwater resource. In order to ensure continued availability of subsurface water, basin- ‘wide management of groundwater, which is described in Chapter 10, becomes essential. ‘A regional groundwater flow system can be comprised of subsystems at different scales and a complex hydrogeologic framework, illustrated in Figure 2.9.1. The Edwards Aquifer, ilustrated in Figure 2.6.2, i a regional groundwater flow system, Two regional groundwater flow systems, the High Plains Aquifer and the Gulf Coastal Plain Aquifer system, ae illustrated in Figure 2.9.2. 2.9.1 High Plains Aquifer An example ofa groundwater basin isthe High Plains Aquifer (Figures 2.9.2 and 2.9.3), which underlies an area of about 174,000 square miles extending through parts of Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Texas, and Wyoming. Approximately 20, percent ofthe irrigated agricultural land in the United States overlies the High Plains aquifer, “Inprastice the term groundwater basin is loosely defined; however, it implies an area containing groundwater ‘reservoir capable of furnishing substantial water supply60 Chapter2. Occurrence of Groundwater Unsaturated zone Surtace-water body Figun EBB Hoh hyarausc-concuetivty aquitor @® Local groundwater subsystem Low tyra conduetaty contning unt . ot (7Very low hydrautie-conductivity bedrock @ su rogoralgroundater subsystem = Diecton of goundate few @ agonal goundwatesubystom Figure 2.9.1. A regional groundwater flow system that comprises subsystems at different scales and a complex hydrogeologic framework (modified from Sun”), Significant featuces of this depiction of part of a regiousl groundwater flow system include (1) local groundwater subsystems in tho upper water-table aquifer that discharge to the nearest surface-water bodies (lakes or streams) and are separated by groundwater divides beneath topographically high areas; (2) a subregional groundwater subsystem in the water-table aquifer in which flow paths originating atthe water table do not discharge into the nearest surface-water body but into a moze distant one; and (3) a deep, regional groundwater flow subsystem that lies beneath the water-able subsysteras and is hydraulically connected to them. The hhydrogeologic framework of the flow system exhibits a complicated spatial arrangement of high hydraulic-conductivity aquifer units and low hy¢raulic-conduetivity confining units. The horizontal scale of the figure could range from tens to hundreds of miles, and about 30 percent of the groundwater used for icigationis withdrawn from the aquifer (U.S. Geological Survey", The aquifer boundary approximates the boundary of the Great Plains Physiographic Province, which is characterized by 2 fiat to gently rolling land surface and ‘moderate precipitation, The region is underlain by sedimentary rocks that dip gently tothe east and are uptumed with their contact withthe Rocky Mountains and other dome mountains, such asthe Black Hills. Figure 2.9.3 shows the regional subdivisions ofthe High Ptains Aquifer: the Northern High Plains, the Central High Plains, and the Southern High Plains. ‘The altitude and configuration of the water table in the High Plains Aquifer is affected mostly by the altitude and configuration of the underlying bedrock surface, the transmissivity of the aquifer, and the rate and distribution of recharge and discharge, Large areas of the aquifer are not continuously saturated or ae saturated only in isolated channels in the bedrock surface. The water table in other parts of the aquifer is continuous and slopes eastward at gra- 29229 Groundwater Basins/Regional Groundwater Flow Systems 61 Figure 2.9.2. Location ofthe High Plains Aquifer andthe Gulf Coastal Plain Aquifer system*® 10mss ‘Second 1-10 mss, Third Ol mis Fourth 10-1008 Fifta 110 Us Sixth Os Seventin 10-100 mils iehth Does no nla irigation discharge Bexar, Medina, and Uvalde Counts. “Does not include discharges for domestc supply, stock, ad miscelaeovs use » Does not inlae discharge rom Kinney Conny Source: Stary and Thomas 2.11 HYDROTHERMAL PHENOMENA 2411 Thermal Springs ‘Thermal springs discharge water having a temperature in excess of the norinal local groundwater. The relative terms warm springs and hot springs are common. Waters of thermal springs axe usually highly mineralized and consist for the most part of meteoric water that has been modified in quality by its passage underground. Hydrothermal phenomena involving the release of water and steam are nearly always associated with volcanic rocks and tend to be concentrated in regions where lage geothermal gradients occur. Also, by implication, aquifers must be present that permit water to percolate to great depths—oen 1,500 to 3,000 m. This water, heated from below, forms a large con- vective current that rises to supply hydrothermal areas (see Figure 2.11.1). ‘A geyser’ isa periodic thermal spring resulting from the expansive force of superheated steam within constricted subsurface channels (see Figure 2.11.2). Weter from surface sources “The word seers desved from be Leland word gear meaning egw o rage74 Chapter? Occursence of Groundwater Descending cool surface water — “\ Fj Wate begins to Mears bail near ground yound sulace sutaca because tS an amigingen eres eB faut or rece Surace (meteor) pressures 5 crater seo evas Be ee A Darna a8 much as—* > wn Pemeatie ore 3000 meters botow 1 ators at Figure 211.1. Schematic diagram of a hydrothermal system (after Keefer") (round. Heated far Above Its normal bois ing pol, it begins to risa toward the sur face 4 2 - ‘Figure 2.11.2. Eruptions of {he Midway Geysersin Yellowsione National Park, Wyoming (after Keefer) and/or shallow aquifers drains downward into a deep vertical tube where itis heated to above the boiling point. With increasing pressure the steam pushes upward this releases some water at the surface, which reduces the hydrostatic pressure and causes the deeper superheated water to accelerate upward and to flash into steam, The geyser then surges into full eruption for a short interval until the pressure is dissipated: thereafter, the filling begins again and the cycle is repeated ‘Another kind of hot spring, known as a mudpot, results when only 2 limited supply of water is available. Here water mixes with clay and undissolved particles brought tothe surface, forming a muddy suspension by the small amount of water and steam continuing to bubble to the surface, A farole”is an opening through which only steam and other gases such as car- “The word farce stems from the Latin fama, ening rok.‘am ofa fer". above water water fora cycle ply of face, sible to wscar- 2.11 Hydrothermal Phenomena 78 igure 2.11.3. Thermal springs in the United States (after Waring) bon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide discharge. These features are normally found on hillsides above the level of flowing thermal springs; water can often be heard boiling underground. ‘Thermal springs of various kinds are found throughout the world notable areas exist in Teeland, New Zealand, and the Kamchatka Peninsula of Russia, Figure 2.11.3 shows the regional distribution of thermal springs in the United States. Yellowstone National Park in ‘Wyoming, which contain literally thousands of hydrothermal features, possesses the greatest concentration of thermal springs in the world.” This area mark the site of an enormous volcanic eruption 600,000 years ago. Today, temperatures of 240°C exist only 300 m below ground surface. 2.11.2 Geothermal Energy Resources Heat within the earth flows outward at an average rate of 1.5 x 10° cal/em/s" and creates an average geothermal gradient of 1°C/50 m. But in areas of volcanic and tectonic activity, heat flows several orders of magnitude larger than normal have been found. These tremendous reservoirs of heat close to ground surface have been recognized as invaluable sources of energy." * But most important from a hydrologic standpoint is the fact that utilization of these geothermal resources invariably involves water as the mechanism for extracting heat. Four types of sources are generally recognized: 1. Dry Steam Field—Permeabilty isso low that groundwater reaching the heat source is limited and is fully vaporized Wet Steam Field—Sulffcient groundwater reaches the heat source so that a mixture of water and steam is produced. 3. Low-Temperature Fields—Temperatres in the range of 50-80°C are found at shallow depths, enabling the groundwater to be employed directly for heating purposes.76 Chapter 2 Occurence of Groundwater 4, Dry Rock-—In some areas at depths exceeding 3,000 m, temperatures are found in the range of 200-500°C without the presence of groundwater; by injecting water into fractured rock zones through one drill hole, steam can be produced from an adjacent hoe, Geothermal resources exist through the world, but they have been developed in only a few Tocalities” Most homes in Reykjavik, Iceland, are heated by naturally occurring hot water Notable power plants generating energy from geothermal resources are located in Italy, New Zealand, and the western United States. we 2.12 GROUNDWATER IN PERMAFROST REGIONS: Permafrost, or perennially frozen ground, is defined as unconsolidated deposits or bedrock that continuously have had a temperature below 0°C for two years to thousands of years." Fig. ‘ure 2.12.1 illustrates the upper and lower limits of permafrost in terms ofthe depths at which 20°C ground temperature oceurs. Regions of permafrost in the Northem Hemisphere are vse shown in Figure 2.12.2. In the continuous-permafrost zone, permafrost is present everywhere to depths of 150-400 m; while in the more southerly discontinuous-permaftost zone, per- tmaftost is perforated by unfrozen zones that depend on local conditions. Frozen ground creates an impermeable layer that restricts the movement of groundwater, acts a8 a confining layer, and limits the volume in which liquid water can be stored. In many areas of frozen ground, shallow aquifers are entsely eliminated, thereby requiring that wells be drilled deeper than in similar geologic environments without permafrost, Groundwater can ‘occur above, below, and locally within permafrost." In the continuous-permafrost zone, the [Mean annual ground-surtace temperature Ho 200 % Permafrost table Minimum annual Maximum annwal temperature temperature Level of 290 Depth below ‘annual ampittude ‘ground surtace Permafrost — 213 Figure 2.12.1, Location of per airs below ground surface in relaion to ground temperature (after Williams”), “Ichas bee eat thatthe total stored heat in he canto depth 3 km amounts t02 x 10" car het one preentor2% 10” ea, ofthis can be commercially recovered4 in the to frac vole, yatew water, New ck that Sig which ve are where 2, per- water, many wells ercan the 2.13 Groundwater inthe United States 77 Figure 2.12.2. Distribution of permafrost in Sautwn inte coninausprtiot Sout init of dzone perma. the Northern Hemisphere (after Wiliams"). best sources of water are in unfrozen alluvium beneath large lakes, in major valleys, and adja~ cent to riverbeds. Inthe discontinuous-permafrost zone, groundwater can be produced locally from shallow aquifers; however, because of potential pollution from ground surface, sources beneath the frozen layer are preferable. GROUNDWATER IN THE UNITED STATES Productive aquifers and withdrawals from the wells in the United States are shown in Figures 2.13.1 and 2.13.2. These maps show regions in which moderate to large supplies of water can be obtained from wells. Unconsolidated and consolidated aquifers are indicated in addition to primary geologic formations. Blank areas delineate generally those regions not known to produce yields of more than 3 Vs (48 gpm) toa well ‘Areal distribution of groundwater in the United States can best be described by dividing the conterminous United States into the groundwater regions shown in Figures 2.13.1 and 1 summary of the principal physical and hydrologic characteristics of the groundwater regions. Brief geologic and groundwater summaries for each ofthe 15 regions are provided on the following pages.78 Chapter? Occunence of Groundwater ATLANTIC OCEAN Figure 2.13.1. Groundwater regions in the United States, (The Alluvial Valleys region (region 12) is shown on Figure 2.13.2) 1. Western Mountain Ranges ‘This mountainous region serves as the principal source of water inthe western United States because the bulk of precipitation falls here and thereafter supplies streams and aquifers by its runoff, Rocks are mainly hard and dense; they shed water rather than absorbing it, although weathered surficial rock may locally yield limited groundwater. Some aquifers are tobe found in alluvium contained in small intermontane valleys. Because ofthe thinness and rapid draining of the mantle rock, itis not easy to obtain groundwater from wells. Small springs, wells in valleys, and small surface reservoirs meet most domestic water supply needs. 2, Alluvial Basins ‘The basins inthis region consist of vast depressed areas bounded by adjacent highlands. They ace partly filled by erosional debris in the form of alluvium and serve asthe storage volumes, for water flowing from nearby highlands, The alluvial fil functions as an ideal aquifer end ere- ates the opportunity for development of high-yielding wells. Because of the prevailing ard cli ‘mate, groundwater development for irigation is much in demand, Replenishment rates usually are far less than withdrawal rates, so groundwater levels dectine as storage is depleted. Locally, atifcial recharge (see Chapter 13) has helped to alleviate this problem of overproduction,213. Groundwater in the United States 79) | awe vate BERS Figure 2.13.2, Alluvial Valleys groundwater region of the United States”? 3. Columbia Lava Plateau ‘This area is formed principally by extrusive voleanic rocks, mainly lava flows, interbedded with or overlain by alluvium and lake sediments. Water originates chiefly from mountains on the perimeter of the region. The lava rocks tend to be highly permeable as a result of tubes and shrinkage crecks and thus form highly productive aquifers. The large volumes of groundwater discharge as major springs oras streams with sustained base flows. Because ofthe great thickness of the lava flows, groundwater is most readily available in valley bottoms; however, in the higher plateau areas, deep wells are required to extract groundwater for itigation 4. Colorado Plateau and Wyoming Basin ‘This region consists of sedimentary strata, chiefly interbedded sandstone and shale; these are _generally horizontal but in places are folded, tilted, or broken by faults. The plateaus are rather high, dry, and deeply dissected by streams, Prospects for large-scale groundwater development ‘are poor; nevertheless, small water supplies for domestic and livestock purposes are widely available. Most aquifers are sandstone beds, although limestone and alluvium yield water in & few places. $. High Plains Here allavium forms avast plain extending eastward from the Rocky Mountains. The bulk of itis classified as a single stratigraphic unit, the Oxallala Formation, which covers older rocks‘Table 2.13.1 Summary of the Principal Physical and Hydrologic Characteristics of the Groundwater Regions of the United States 3 cetmmen] [> => 1 z ee B | swwvenpeonios | [x 35 | [__ eseooreomnenmstaes| ><) [x] |x] =| [x| =] [=|] =] x] * h a ‘spaq 6uuyju0> yBnana abeqee7 * x) | x) x ue camnioen |x Pe] xe 8d | ~wemaomnen x eee bee ee] § (eae an on x ali 9 uenessame x x Y iy) | ease xx x x[x yale ‘cawwowzdeim] [==] T= xx px 3/28 ‘oie ele) fete se) F once wenn | z x xp 3|? |@ tooem| | x x x[x x ints es x x eo ec x[e z x a wens =| xT x[= aC | eames x] aE x nrejpesancea| x| |x| x x x ix| x % ~ | ean ue son x x E [eo remmmemnes una =UTz & ‘dep payepyosucoun ul saiog | x | x | x x x x) x | «| «| «| x yy emmemmaia | [xf | x * Es : ‘enue me x PET Sores seston on | xp EE repens x xp § _epb auorpan weno wu x £ |]g( sesamin) [x[x |= [= x x B58 verosaen| xx : ? Tats eon x iG a cinovwvomtnar| [P| xe 7 9 [eerie wine x [|x| * 8 rent empha | > x x 7 ‘aptramma] [= x x[e[e x H waren tan inommba can | |_| xfelel=| [x 5 ania toot x i a| lee} {a a j a ; 3/8 3 5 * 2) |S) ks Ela tle z 5 fal: hi ale (8 ]El8 [8/88] | |e Aah Pliana PiGa # ~ o| <«|olo elo) elt] seit) 2LL del de} | | Pel ‘sland ‘Sour: Haan | Rims, 2 nave 2.13 Groundwater in the United States 81 to thicknesses exceeding 150 m, The sand and the gravel of the formation consitute an aquifer yielding 10 Vs (151 gpm) to more than 60 Us (451 gpm)of water from individual wells. The region is generally semiarid so that groundwater recharge from precipitation is extremely small. The productiveness of wells has encouraged pumping of groundwater, especially for intigation in Texas. This water is derived from storage; a a result, water tables have declined substantially for many years 6. Nonglaciated Central Region ‘This is a large, complex area characterized by plains and plateaus underlain by consolidated sedimentary rocks, Alluvial deposits of substantial width and thickness form good aquifers but only along major streams, Aquifers in most of the region are dolomitic limestone and sandstone with low to moderate yields. The region includes some of the least productive aquifers in the United States because of low yield, saline water, or both. Wells in some of the karst areas penetrate caverns and exhibit highly variable yields 7. Glaciated Central Region Although hydrogeologically similar to the previous region, this area differs fundamentally by the presence of glacial drift deposited by the ice and meltwaters ofthe continental glaciers. The drift consists mostly of fine-grained rock debris together with beds of water-sorted sand and ‘gravel, In portions of the area, the drift is more than 300 m thick and forms an important aquifer. In this glaciated region, large-diameter wells will yield sufficient water to meet domestic needs ofa family. Excellent aquifers can be found along watercourses where rapidly flowing meltwaters removed fine materials and left behind permeable deposits of sand and gravel. 8, Piedmont and Blue Ridge ‘This mountainous area consists of varying parallel highlands with differing geologic struc- tures, including crystalline rocks, limestone, dolomite, sandstone, and shale. Groundwater productivity ranges from small to moderate or is erratic. Shallow wells can usually obtain small yields for domestic supplies from the weathered rock. Wells of highest average yield ‘occur in the valleys because rocks are more intensely fractured and because of groundwater 3.2.2.is appli- propor- nable to nd other alto vis- ence, by tibed by id 17 tic) vis- oxity is diame. tended; ly upto of val- sullence vturbu- smaller second appli such as stone!” ple has 120°C, which ater at 3.2 Permeability 91 1.005 10" kg/ns (998.2 kg/m? (0.00037 m) 0.00272 ms =235 miday ‘Then Darcy’s law wl be valid for Darcy velocities equal to or less than 235 mia for this sample. Thus, the answer we have found in Example 3..1 is valid since v= 7.67 mfday < 235 mid. . 3.2 PERMEABILITY 3.2.1 Intrinsic Permeability ‘The permeability of arock or soil defines its ability to transmit a fluid. This isa property only of the medium and is independent of fluid properties. To avoid confusion with hydraulic conductivity, which includes the properties of groundwater, an intrinsic permeability k may be expressed as Ki Ps 621) where K is hydraulic conductivity, is dynamic viscosity, p is fluid density, and g is acceler- ation of gravity. Inserting this in Equation 3.1.5 yields w k=-— 8.22) a(dblal) 22) Which has units of (ke/ms)(mis) 8.23) (ko'm')(aus?) (rum) ‘Thus, intrinsic permeability possesses units of area. Because values of kin Equation 3.2.3 are so small, the U.S. Geological Survey expresses k in square micrometers (yum)? = 10-'2m?. Inthe petroleum industry the value of kis measured by a unit termed the darcy, defined as (4 cenipoise)( em’) 1 darcy ae 24) By substitution of appropriate units it can be shown that 1 darcy = 0.987 (um)? G25) so the darcy corresponds closely to the intrinsic permeability unit adopted by the U.S. Geological Survey. 32.2 Hydraulic Conductivity For practical work in groundwater hydrology, where water isthe prevailing fluid, hydraulic conductivity K is employed. A medium has a unit hydraulic conductivity if twill transmit in unit time a unit volume of groundwater at the prevailing kinematic viscosity" through across ‘Kinematic viscosity equals dynamic viscosity divided by Mid density92 Chapler3 Groundwater Movement 3.2.3. Transmissivity EXAMPLE 3.2.1 SOLUTION section of unit area, measured at right angles to the direction of flow, wader a unit hydraulic gradient. The units are ia _ diddl whee miday 6.2.6) indicating that bydraulic conductivity has units of velocity. ‘The term transmissivity Tis widely employed in groundwater hydraulics. It may be defined as the rate at which water of prevailing kinematic viscosity is transmitted through @ unit width of aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient, I follows that T= Kb =(nlday)(m) = mday G27) ‘where b is the saturated thickness of the aquifer. ‘A leaky confined aquifer is overlain by an aqutard that i also overlain by an unconfined aquifer. The estimated recharge rate from the unconfined aquifer into the confined aquifer is 0.085 mn/year. Pizo- ‘metric head measurements inthe confined aquifer show thatthe average piezometric headin the confined aquifer 6.8 m below the water table of the unconfined aquifer. Ifthe average thickness ofthe aquitard is 4.30 m, find the vertical hydraulic conductivity, K,, ofthe aquitad, What type of material could this possibly be? Given » = 0.085 miyear = 2.329 x 10" muday, Equation 3.26 is used to compute the vertical bydravlic conductivity of the aguitard » 2.32910 miday 4 Y= SHOT ley 475,10" ml Gia (68 w/4.30 m) y From Table 3.2, the aquitard is composed of clay. . 3.24. Hydraulic Conductivity of Geologic Materials ‘The hydraulic conductivity of a sol or rock depends on a variety of physical factors, including porosity, particle size and distribution, shape of particles, arrangement of particles, and other factors.°*”” In general, for unconsolidated porous media, hydraulic conductivity varies with particle size; clayey materials exhibit ow values of hydraulic conductivity, whereas sands and gravels display high values. ‘An interesting illustration of the variation of hydraulic conductivity with particle sie is shown by data in Figure 3.2.1, Here conductivities were measured for two uniform sieved sands. These two sands were then mixed in varying proportions, and the corresponding hydraulic conductivities were again determined. Results show that any mixture of the two sands displays a conductivity less than a linearly interpolated value. The physical explanation lies in the fact thatthe smaller grains occupy a larger fraction ofthe space around larger grains than do uniform grains of either size ‘Table 3.2.1 contains representative hydraulic conductivities fora variety of geologic materials. It should be noted that these are averages of many measurements; clearly a range of val ues exists for each rock type depending on factors such as weatheting, fracturing, solution channels, and depth of burial32. Permeability 93 ‘draulic Porcentage of coarser sand anh 8 $0 25 o 626) 100% of sand retained on seve wih openings 2 of 100 mm $600 4 3 5 ¥ 100% of sand tare ined Zool cnsieve wih openings _| sidth of | o7tmm 2 ’ 627) 8 ' i | anda ot een er | haw i= 367 sy i Figure 321. Hydraulic fen The ! conductivity of various Piezo- A 1 1 1 proportions of two uniform confined ° 25 50 75 700 sands (courtesy Iinois aquitant Percentage offer sand State Water Survey) vu his ‘Table 321 Representative Values of Hydkaulic Conductivity (after Morris and Johnson) Yeraulc Material Hydraulic conductivity (widay) ‘Type of measurement Gravel, coarse 150 R Gravel, medium 20 R Gravel, fine 450 R . Sand, coarse 45 R Sand, medium 2 R Sand, fine as R silt 0.08 H Clay 0.0002 H includ- Sandstone, fine-grained 02 v sand Sandstone, medium-grained 31 v varies Limestone 094 v ssands Dolomite 0.001 v Dune sand 20 v size is Loess 0.08 v sieved Peat 37 v onding Sehist 02 v be two Sate 0.00008 v anation Til, predominantly sand 049 R grains “i, predominantly gravel 30 R Tutt 02 v mate. Basalt oot v of vak Gabbro, weathered 02 v siution Granite, weathered 14 v "His horizontal hydrauli conductivity, Ris a epacked sample, and V is vertical hydraulic conduct94 Chapter 3 Groundwater Movement Unconsolidated Frocks deposits k k K K K (darcy) (om?) (emis) (mls) (galldayit?) 10° 109 10? 1 6 ° [ vo! 10% 10° 10 10" | 10 10° 10-5 1 10? g 3 10 3 | EE bw 1or® 10 L109 tl go “10 ga: | 3 | wo bro? biz bro £2 335 zo 10 | abe 5 1 wo? bio? Lio § 223 ; 12 0 & ges Lo g@ to Fo? bo | 0-* 1 Be Bi 3 | 1 # 2 1? fr bo L107 il we ey Fs wo? bio bioe Lio 5 : J 88 102 € ° 4 yn12 7 -s | ge a 10 10 10 10° Bo G| w | a8) 5 10 wo bro 33 | 7 + Lag Pt 323 0 wo? bt 225 -s £ | 107 bro bro Lye 1? 53 + | we Lio Lio Liew tO 107 Figure 3.2.2. Range of values of hydraulic conductivity and permeability (Freeze, R.A. and Cherry, J. A., Groundwater, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1979.) ‘Magnitudes of hydraulic conductivity for various classes of unconsolidated and consolidated rocks are shown in Figure 3.2.2, 3.3. DETERMINATION OF HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY Hydraulic conductivity in saturated zones can be determined by a variety of techniques, including calculation from formulas, laboratory methods, tracer tests, auger hole tests, and pumping tests of wells. 3.3.1 Formulas ‘Numerous investigators have studied the relationship of permeability or hydraulic conductivity to the properties of porous media. Several formulas have resulted based on analytic or experimental work. Most permeability formulas have the general form kad 3.1)33. Determination of Hydrautic Conductivity 95 where ¢ is a dimensionless coefficient, or ka hfee G32) whee fis a grain (or pore) shape factor, fis @ porosity factor, and d is characteristic grain diameter. © * Few formulas give reliable estimates of results because of the difficulty of including al possible variables in porous media, For an ideal medium, such as an assemblage of spheres of uniform diameter, hydraulic conductivity can be evaluated accurately from known porosity and packing conditions. Because ofthe problems inherent in formulas, other techniques for determining hydraulic conductivity are preferable 33.2 Laboratory Methods In the laboratory, hydraulic conductivity can be determined by 8 permeameter, in which flow is maintained through a smell sample of material while measurements of flow rate and head loss are made.!”” The constant-head and falling-head types of permeameters are simple to ‘operate and widely employed ‘The constant-head permeameter shown in Figure 3.3.1a can measure hydraulic conduc- Livities of consolidated or unconsolidated formations under low heads. Water enters the ‘medium cylinder from the bottom and is collected as overflow after passing upward through the material. From Darcy's law i follows that the hydraulic conductivity can be obiained from VL th 3.3) ‘where V isthe flow volume in time t, and the other dimensions, A, L, and hare shown in Fig- ure 3.3.14, It is important thatthe medium be thoroughly saturated to remove entrapped air. Several different heads ina series of tests provide a reliable measurement. rentice =~ continous supply >onsoli- Overtow niques, sts, and orzonal area of sample, A Porous plato ductiv- Figure 3.31. Permeameters ylie or for measuring hydraulic conductivity of geologic samples. (q) Constant head 631) | CO (© Faling head9% Chapter Grounduster Movement EXAMPLE 3.3.1 SOLUTION A second procedure utilizes the falling-head permeameter illustrated in Figure 3.3.1b. Here water is added lo the tall tube; it flows upward through the cylindrical sample anc is col lected as overflow. ‘The test consists of measuring the rate of fall of the water level in the tube. ‘The hydraulic conductivity can be obtained by noting that the flow rate Q in the tube Q=mrjdhldt G34) SOLUTH rust equal that through the sample, which by Darcy's law is Qa m2 hiL G35) After equating and integrating, nf 636) fy where L, r, and r, are shown in Figure 3.3.1b, and ris the time interval for the water level in the tube to fall from hy 10 hy. Permeameter results may bear litile relation to actual field hydraulic conductivities, ‘Undisturbed samples of unconsolidated material are difficult vo obtain, while disturbed samples experience changes in porosity, packing, and grain orientation, which modify hydraulic conductivities. Then, too, one or even several samples from an aquifer may not represent the overall hydraulic conductivity of an aquifer. Variations of several orders of magnitude frequently occur for different depths and locations in an aquifer. Furthermore, directional properties of hydraulic conductivity may not be recognized. SOLUTIC A field sample of medium sand with a median grain size of 0.84 mn willbe tested to determine the hydraulic conductivity using a constant-head permeameter. The sample has a length of 30cm and a diam ler of Sem, Por pure water at 20°C, estimate the range of piezometric head differences io be used inthe test ‘The maximum allowable Darcy velocity (assuming Nj = 1) for d= 0.84 mm is : Vas 2 EOS H10" Fas 019 mvs = 103.6 may 9D [988.2 kp’ 0.00084 m) ‘Taus, the Darcy velocity inthe test mast be equal or less than 103.6 mv/day so that Darcy's law will be vali, so that (1036 m/dayY0.30m) ah v= KF 103.6 miday ~ fH] s a la Kk For the representative value of hydraulic conductivity for medium sand given in Table 3.2.1, (103.6 m/day(030 Tmlday 260em K=12mvéay, then [dis Ue shoud be noted thatthe K valve for clean sand ranges approximately from 0.1 miday to 4.320 sldny. See Figure 3.2 Therefore, the easy series of tests must be conducted with relatively low piezo rec head ciferences if posible. After analyzing the results of eal test data a better estimate ofthe maximum allowable piezometic head ference can be made using the above inequality. .33.1b. Lis col- cdraulic G34) B35) 336) level in ivities. dsam- dravlic ent ihe de fre- 1 prop- sine the diane inthe aw will (EXAMPLE 3.3.2 SOLUTION xAmrne 393 SOLUTION 33. Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity 97 Ifthe feld sample in Example 3.3.1 is tested witha head difference of Oem and 200 ml of water is col. Jected at the outlet in 15 min, determine the hydraulic conductivity of the sample. What should the max- Jum allowable piezometric head difference be fora series of tests? Equation 3.3.38 used to compute the hydraulic conductivity ina constat-head permeameter test (ene) sger9 eae 587 ley ae (22 [sn $\soen) 7 aa) Based upon this estimate and referring to Example 33.1, the maximum allowable piezometric head ifference for tests should be approximately ja (O86 mln (0.30 0 053m=53em 387 muday 8 . A 20cm long field sample of silty, fine sand with a diameter of 10 cm is tested using @ flling-head permeameter. Te falling-head tube has a diameter of 3.0 cm andthe intial head is 8.0 em. Over period (of the ead in the tube falls to 1,0 cm, Estimate the hydraulic conductivity ofthe sample. Equation 3.3.6 is used to compute the hydzauli conductivity ine fallin-head permeameter tes: (1.5.m)"(20 em) phon 5 Bhyyh les 288 ae" ek 0112 12 hy (5 em}(8x3600se) LOE . | sample owe force Ground surface Hole 8 Hoe A Water tdbie Figure 33.2. Cross section of an ‘unconfined aquifer iustrating & ‘racer test for determining hydraulic ———_ . ——_+ ‘conductivity. |98 Chapter 3 Groundwater Movement 3.3.3. Tracer Tests (EXAMPLES 34 SOLUTION Field determinations of hydraulic conductivity can be made by measuring the time interval for a water tracer to travel between two observation wells or test holes."82540.577.75.1 For the tracer, a dye, such as sodium fluorescein, or a salt, such as calcium chloride, s convenient, inexpensive, easy to detect, and safe. Figure 3.3.2 shows the cross section of a portion of an ‘unconfined aquifer with groundwater flowing from hole A toward hole B. The tracer is injected as.a slug in hole A after which samples of water are taken from hole B to determine the time ‘of passage of the tracer. Because the tracer flows through the aquifer withthe average interstitial velocity v,, then 3.3.7) aL G37) where K is hydraulic conductivity, cis porosity, and h and L are shown in Figure 3.3.2. But v, also is given by 33.8) where ris the travel time interval of the tracer between the holes. Equating these and solving for K yields ot ht K (339) Although this procedure is simple in principle, results are only approximations because of serious limitations in the field 1. The holes need to be close together; otherwise, the travel time interval can be excessively Jong, 2. Unless the flow direction is accurately known, the tracer may miss the downstream hole entirely. Multiple sampling holes can help, but these add to the cost and complexity of conducting the test. 3. Ifthe aquifer is stratified with layers with differing hydraulic conductivities, the first arrival ofthe tracer will result ina conductivity considerably larger than the average for the aquifer. ‘An alternative tracer technique, which has been successfully applied under field condi tions, isthe point dilution method. Here a tracer is introduced into an observation well and thoroughly mixed with the contained water. Thereafter, as water flows into and from the ‘well, epeated measurements of tracer concentration are made Analysis of the resulting ditution curve defines the groundwater velocity; this, together with the measured water table gradient and Darcy's law, yields a localized estimate of the hydraulic conductivity and also the direction of groundwater flow.*® Additonal references on tracer tests include Barth et al.” on heterogeneous porous media; Mull et al.”® on carbonate aquifer systems; and Novakowski” on divergent radial flow fields. A new Efficient Hydrologic Tracer-test Design (EHD) has been developed by the US. Environmental Protection Agency (BPA). A tracer testis conducted to determine the hydraulic conductivity of an unconfined aquifer. The water levels in the two observation wells 20 m apart are 18.4 m and 17.1 m, The tacer injected inthe first well arrives atthe Second observation well in 167 hours. Compute the hydraulic conductivity ofthe unconfined aquifer given thatthe porosity of the formation is 0.25. Given a= 0.25, L=20m,h= 184 m~17.1 m= 1.3 m,1= 167 hours = 6.96 days, Equation 3.3.9 used to compute the hydraulic conductivity ofthe aquifer: 334 A Table 3.3. 10 50 100 |al for "Por the venient, on of an injected the time ve inter- 3.7) Buty, 638) solving 639) ause of ssively mhole xily of anival quite. condi- on well om the erwith raulic ertests ‘stems; vertest oes isused 33. Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity 99 (0.2520 m)* he” (131m) 696 days) 1. miday 3.34 Auger Hole Tests ‘The auger hole method involves the measurement of the change in water level after the rapid removal of a volume of water from an unlined cylindrical hole. Ifthe sol is loose, a screen may ‘be necessary to maintain the hole. The method is relatively simple and is most adaptable to shallow water table conditions. The value of K obtained is essentially that for a horizontal K, G43) then forthe two-layer case from Equations 3.44 and 3.4.11 Kathe. ate aty 44% G44) KR, which reduces to >0 4.15) BxAL SOLU 35ait hori- 3.46) 3.4.7) 48) B49) 3.4.10) 34.11) 3.4.12) mally e deri- 54.13) idl4) AS) EXAMPLE 3.4.1 SOLUTION 35 Groundwater Flow Rates 103 Because the left side is always positive, it must be greater than zero, thereby confirming that p Ky ai 416) Ratios of K,/K, usually fallin the range of 2to 10 for alluvium,’ but values up to 100 or ‘more occur where clay layers are present. For consolidated geologic materials, anisotropic conditions are governed by the orientation of strata, fractures, solution openings, or other structural conditions, which do not necessarily possess a horizontal alignment. In applying Darcy's law to two-dimensional flow in anisotropic media, the appropriate value of K must be selected forthe direction of flow. For directions other than horizontal (K,) and vertical (K,), the K value can be obtained from 1 _ cos’B 417) ‘where Kis the hydraulic conductivity in the direction making an angle B withthe horizontal. An unconfined aquifer consists of three horizontal layers, each individually isotropic. The top layer has thickness of 10 m and a hydraulic conductivity of 11.6 miday. The middle layer has a thickness of 4.4 ‘mand a hydraulic conductivity of 4.5 miday. The bottom layer has a thickness of 6:2 m and a hydraulic conductivity of 2.2 m/day. Compute the equivalent horizontal and vertical hydraulic conductivities. Equation 3.45 is used to compute the equivalent horizontal hydraulic condactivity Katka t Kits ata ty _ (11.6 lay 10-m)+(45 mlday{ 4 m)+(22 mlday)\62 ~ (lom+44 m+62m) 7.25 mlday ‘The equivalent vertical hydraulic conductivity is computed using Equation 3.4.12: ataty 42 miday [Note that the equivalent hydraulic conductivities above are computed based on the assumption that cach layer is individually isotropic, that is, K, = K, in each layer. . 3.5 GROUNDWATER FLOW RATES From Darcy's law it follows that the rate of groundwater movement is governed by the hydraulic conductivity of an aquifer and the hydraulic gradient. To obtain an idea of the order ‘of magnitude of natural velocities, assume a productive alluvial aquifer with K'= 75 m/day and a hydraulic gradient dil = -10 m/1000 m = -0.01. Then from Equation 3.1.5, v2 KD = 19-001) =0.35 miday 5.)104 Chapter 3 Groundwater Movernent ‘Steam Ground surtace f tf wWatertao 1 Figure 35.1. Cross see- som ton of pica allvial fonda contsng sn pt unconfined aquer wits around ate fling pe ‘onl foliose Impemeable stata (wot seal This is approximately equivalent to 0.5 mun/min, which demonstrates the sluggish nature of natural groundwater movement. If the above flow occurs within and perpendicular to the large alluvial cross section ‘sketched in Figure 35.1, then the total flow rate is Q= Av= (50}(1000}(0.75) = 37,500 m day (3.52) Which, when converted to usual streamflow units, amounts to only 0.43 ms, Thus, ground- ‘water typically can be conceived of as a massive, slow-moving body of water Groundwater velocities vary widely depending on local hydrogeologic conditions; values from 2:m/year to 2 m/day are normal. Usually, velocities tend to decrease with depth as porosities and permeabilities also decrease. Velocities can range from negligible" to those of turbulent streams in underground openings within basalt and limestone. Mechanisms such as wells ‘and drains act to accelerate flows. Anillustration of one-dimensional vertical flow is shown in Figure 3.5.2. Here an aquitard sepacates an overlying unconfined aquifer from an underlying leaky aquifer. The water table 3 3—_, r$ Figure 352, Diagram illustrating spplica- tion of Darey’s law for vertically downward flow. “all groundwater wih he hydrologic yc shouldbe regarded asin continuous motion, akthongh, it must be rated some of i lows at entremely sal ates,sec. vial gan sith 3 per ion ture of section (35.2) round values porosi- turbu- swells quitard srtable oplica- ‘ward EXAMPLE 3.5.1 SOLUTION 3.6 Groundwater Flow Directions 105 stands above the piezometic surface so that water moves vertically downward from the unconfined aquifer, through the aquitard, and into the confined aquifer. Determine ig and the vertical velocity for the situation shown in Figure 3.5.2. ‘Assume steady-state conditions, Writing Darcy's law from point Ato B withthe dimensions indicated in Figure 35.2, we have a 2 53) and from point B to C, Solving these yields, fy = 26.8 mand v = 007 miday. . 3.6 GROUNDWATER FLOW DIRECTIONS, 3.6.1 Flow Nets For specified boundary conditions flow lines’ and equipotential lines can be mapped in two dimensions to form a flow net. The two sets of lines form an orthogonal pattern of small squares. In a few simplified cases, the differential equation governing flow can be solved to ‘obtain the flow net. Flow net analysis techniques have been applied in a number of ways for ‘groundwater studies. Hollett* and Fenemore’? used flow net analysis to provide initial transmissivities prior to trial-and-error numerical model calibration. Rice and Gorelick applied flow net analysis to three field problems and demonstrated the value of the method for the conceptualization of flow systems. Other applications include Scott and Thorpe™ and vanTonder.'% Consider the portion ofa flow net shown in Figure 3.6.1. The hydraulic gradient is given by G61) and the constant flow q between two adjacent flow lines by a= «a dm (362) for unit thickness. But forthe squares ofthe flow net, the approximation dm (3.6.3) can be made so that Equation 3.6.2 reduces to q=Kdh 64) Kt shouldbe noted hat the piezometer open atthe bottom ofthe unconfined agifer (8) displays a water evel below the wate table (A) because ofthe Red los associated with verial ow though the aquifer “A flow line is defined here as ine such that he macroscopic velocity vectors everywhere tangent to i106 Chapter 3 Groundwater Movernent ,/+—Equipotetil line Flow tne Figure 3.6.1. Porton of an orthogonal flow net formed by flow and equipotential lines Applying this to an entire flow net, where the total head loss h is divided into n squares between any two adjacent flow lines, then (3.65) If the flow is divided into m channels by flow lines, then the total flow _ kink O=mq 6.66) ‘Thus, the geometry of the flow net, together with the hydraulic conductivity and head loss, enables the total flow in the section to be computed directly In anisotropic media, flow lines and equipotential lines are not orthogonal except when the flow is parallel to one of the principal directions * In order to calculate flows for this situation, the boundaries of a flow section must be transformed so that an isotropic medium is obtained. For the typical alluvial case of K, > K,, all horizontal dimensions are reduced by the ratio /K, /K, . This creates a transformed section with anisotropic medium having an equivalent hydraulic conductivity K’= KK, 667) With this transformed section, the low net can be drawn and flow rate determined, ‘After te flow net has been defined, it can be converted back tothe true anisotropic section by multiplying all horizontal dimensions by JK, /K, . Figure 3.6.2 illustrates the procedure for an earth dam as well as demonstrates the distortion created by anisotropy in an ‘element of the flow net. The technique can also be extended to anisotropic two-layer systems. Figure 3.63 shows contrasting flow nets for channel seepage through layered anisotropic media ‘Computer-assisted flow net analysis techniques have been developed and evaluated by Scott. 3.6.2 Flow in Relation to Groundwater Contours ‘Because no flow crosses an impermeable boundary, flow lines must parallel it, Similarly, if no flow crosses the water table of an unconfined aquifer, it becomes a bounding flow surface. Thefan med al quares 365) 3.6.6) oss, when situ unis oy the -auiv- 36.7) ifno ‘The Flow net ‘lement forms a paralelogram Flow net ‘element forms a square bk. —1 b+ ] Ke fit | Rahat @) (0) J o 3.6 Groundwater Fiow Directions 107 Figure 3.62. Dluseation of fow net analysis for anisovopic hydravlic conductivity man ‘earth dam. (a) True anisotropic section with K, = 9K, (2) Transformed isotopic section wit K, = Figure 3.63, Flow nets for seepage from ‘one side ofa chanel tough two diferent anisotropic two layer systems. (a) Ky/Ky = SO (b) KK, = 50 The anisotropy ratio forall ayers is K/K, = 10 (fier Tod and Beat*),108 Chapter Groundwater Movement ‘energy head ig, of fluid potential, from Equation 3.1.2 at any point on the water table can be approximated by hepa Eee (3.68) my 0 that by letting the atmospheric pressure reference be zero, p =0, and he = % Therefore, under steady-state conditions, the elevation at any point on the water table equals the energy head and, as @ consequence, flow lines lie perpendicular to water table contours, Similarly, flow lines within a confined aquifer ae orthogonal to contours of the potentiometric surface. With only three groundwater elevations known from wells, estimates of local groundwater contours and flow directions can be determined as demonstrated by Figure 3.6.4, From field measurements of static water levels in wells within a basin, a water level contour map can be constructed. Flow lines, sketched perpendicular to contours, show directions of movement. An example appears in Figure 3.6.5. Contour maps of groundwater levels, together with flow lines, are useful data for locating, new wells, Convex contours indicate regions of groundwater recharge, while concave contours are associated with groundwater discharge. Furthermore, areas of favorable hydraulic conductivity can be ascertained from the spacing of contours. The procedure can be illustrated by treating two adjacent flow lines as impermeable boundaries because there can be n0 flow across a flow line. Ifthe aquifer is uniformly thick, the flow at sections 1 and 2 in Figure 3.6.5, equals 49> Wi = Wa 3.69) where v is velocity and W is the width of the flow section perpendicular to the flow. From Darcy's law WiKi = Wiki (3.6.10) which can be rewritten a a (3.6.11) where Kis hydraulic conductivity and jis hydraulic gradient, The ratios W/W, and if can be estimated from the water level contour map (see Figure 3.6.5), For the special case of nearly parallel low lines, Equation 3.6.11 reduces to Water table levation et2 Groundwater contours 618 igure 3.64. Estimate of grounds water contours and flow direction from water table eleva tions in three wellscan be 3.68) sefore, energy silarly, arface. indwa- mfield can be ent. An rating intours © con- ited by 0 flow 2365 (3.6.9) From 4.6.10) 56.11) ‘iy can ase of >und- from sells, 3.6 Groundwater Flow Directions 109 contours of groundwater surface ie 3.65. Contour map of a groundwater surface showing flow lines. 6.12) Which may be inteppreted as indicating that in an area of uniform groundwater flow, areas with wide contour spacings (flat gradients) possess higher hydraulic conductivities than those with narrow spacings (steep gradients). Therefore, in Figure 3.6.5, prospects for a productive well are better near section 2 than 1. ‘Where a contour map of groundwater levels contains closed contours around a group of wells of known total discharge Q, the transmissivity of the regional aquifer cen be calculated ‘Figure 3.66 illustrates such a situation resulting from heavy groundwater pumping in and near Savannah, Georgia in 1957. Ifa flow net can be constructed, Equation 3.6.6 in the form ng. mh 6.13) ccan be applied where h represents the difference in elevation between any two selected closed contour lines. The typical irregularity of groundwater contours often makes construction of an accurate flow net difficult. As a convenient alternative involving contours but no flow net, Lohman®® suggested the equation 20 (L.4£,)ahlar G64) where L, and L, are the lengths of any two concentric closed contours, Ais the contour interval, and Aris the average distance between the two closed contours, Natural permeable boundaries of aquifers include surface water bodies and the ground surface. In a surface water body, the energy head is constant everywhere within the water body and equals the elevation of the water surface; consequently, aquifer flow lines must intersect normal to such a bounding surface. For the ground surface, this does not apply, as only atmospheric pressure exists a the ground surface. Hence, in Equation 3.6.8, by letting p =0, hg= z, which is identical to the case fora water table boundary,110 Chapter 3 Groundwater Movernent 3°30" 3700" a4 Figure 3.6.6. Contour map ofthe piezometsic surface near Savannah, Georgia, 1957, showing <10° day a 00 ay TRA 1.112 Chapter3 Groundwater Movernest, Figure 36.8. Map of Baltimore industrial area Maryiand, showing poter- tiometrie surface in 1985 and generalized flow lines in the Patent Formation, From Bennett and Meyer? {as presented in Lohman”), 3.6.3. Flow Across a Water Table As long as no flow crosses a water table, it serves as a groundwater boundary; however, if flow, ‘such as percolating water, reaches the water table, flow lines no longer parallel the surface as ‘an impermeable boundary: To illustrate this refraction effect, let v, represent the unsaturated vertical velocity approaching the water table and v, the saturated velocity below the water table (Figure 3.6.9). The head loss dh for flow along the left flow line below the water table occurs. fee ‘ina distance of b, tan(S + €), as defined in Figure 3.6.9. Thus dh cere (3.6.15) 3, wn(6 +e) 6645) bat SOLUTI dh= bjtand 3.6.16) hence: btand =kK—_—_ (3.6.17) v= KT an(6+6) 6617) From continuity 3.6.18)area poten- 1945 vines ation, Meyer? ifflow, face as turated stable 3.6.15) 36.16) 3.6.17) 36.18) (EXAMPLES.63. SOLUTION 3.6 Groundwater Flow Directions 113 ‘Unsaturated flow Figure 3.69. Refraction of flow lines across a water % Me table (after Jacob) where b, and , are as shown in Figure 3.6.7 so that 6.19) which, when solved fore, gives 3.6.20) This states that for v,> 0, flow lines will form an angle of (90 degrees - 5c) below the water table. For the case of no percolating flow,» =0 and e = 90 degrees ~ 8, so that», parallels the water table Consider a case where 1,6 tyearof percolating water reaches the wate table of an unconfined aquifer Ifthe hydreuic conductivity andthe regional hydraulic gradient ofthe aquifer are 9.3 m/day and 0.01, respectively find the deflection angle of the flow lines as they cross the water table ofthe unconfined aquifer, Given #= 0.01, »,= 1.6 miyear = 4.38 x 10° miday, K=9.3 mfday, and tan The deflection angle, ¢, is computed using Equation 3.6.20: seas (Ens) 8 ‘The angle berween the groundwater flow direction and the refracted flow lines is 90° (6 +€) (O5T3 + 867)=27°, 01 908 = 0573", 9.3 nv/day 438x107 m/day sx(osr) 0s114 Chapter 3 Groundwater Movement 3.64 Flow Across a Hydraulic Conductivity Boundary Similac to the above analysis, where flow passes from 2 region of hydraulic conductivity K, to ‘one of K,, a change inflow direction results, The change of direction can be derived from continuity considerations and expressed in terms of the two K values, Visualizing a flow field as, shown in Figure 3,6.10, we see that the normal components of flow approaching and leaving the boundary must be equal; hence, the normal velocities v, must be such that (3.6.21) or dh, dy K, Feast, = K, cose, 2) Fp 0088 = Ka Gt 6.6.22) ‘where @, and 8, are angles with the normal shown in Figure 3.6.10. Also, the distance 6 along the boundary between two adjacent flow lines must be the same on each side of the boundary From Figure 3.6.10, the distance b can be given as 4-4 3.623) sind, sin8, which can be arranged dL sin @, = dL,sin 8, (3.6.24) Dividing this equation by Equation 3.6.22 and noting that dh = dy between two equipotential lines, gives K, tan) K, tan8, (3.6.25) ‘Thus, for saturated flow passing from @ medium of one hydraulic conductivity to that of another, a refrection in flow lines occurs such tha the ratio of the Ks equals the ratio ofthe tan- Rents of the angles the flow lines make with the normal tothe boundary, Consequences ofthe relation are illustrated in Figure 3.6.11 sour, % 4 3.65 Figure 36.10, Refraction of flow lines across a boundary between media of different hydraulic conductivities3.6 Groundwater Flow Directions 115 stivity K; to d from con. low field as, Figure 3.6.11, Refraction actoss layers of and leaving coarse and fine sand wih ahyéceliccon- ductivity ratio of 10 (after Hubbert™” copy- Fight ©1940 by the University of Cicago (3.621) Press). (3.6.22) nce b along Uneonfined e boundary. aquiter (36.23) gatas (3.6.24) Confined aqutee »equipoten igure 36.12. Example + 354 (3.6.25) EITM —_ esterase whee leaky contin agit with 45min intl del conztviy i oer y to that of Sain by an aguitard with 0.052 miday vertical hydraulic conductivity. Ifthe flow inthe aquitard isin the ofthe un- dowaWvard irestion and makes an angle of with he vertical (ee Figue 3612), detemise Oy ences of the SOLUTION Given K, = 0052 mda, K,=45 miday, and 8, = 5°, Bgution 3.6.25 is used to congute 8; tan(5° Ky an, _, 0052 dy _ LE) 6g K; tan@, 45miday andy ‘The flow lines become nearly horizontal as they enter into the confined aquifer. This is a typical case for regional flow systems, as the hydraulic conductivity of a confined aquifer is generslly a few orders of rarnitud larger than that ofthe confining layers . 3.6.5 Regional Flow Patterns Although most groundwater movement in shallow aquifers tends to be nearly horizontal, regional flow patterns can become quite complex. Reasrs for ths tem from the diversity of field parameters; areas and magnitudes of recharge and discharge, topography, stratigraphy, cow lines and anisotropy ® Analytic solutions for specified aquifer cross sections by Tout” cemon- Jia of differ strated thatthe variability of a water table could produce a variety of flow patterns. Subsequent ‘work by Freeze” extended this approach to other subsurface boundary conditions. From these116 Chapter3 Groundwater Movement Found dara 0h acs tha etal owen Dasrecae ton” a tees Rogonet memese penal peurieter ow 1} Regent anata \agenduate ne Figure 3.6.13 Vertical ctoss section showing ‘theoretical flow patter of groundwater though an aquifer with a sloping sinusoidal ‘ater table (after Toth?) contributions it is clear that accurate evaluation of groundwater flows is contingent on a detailed knowledge of hydrogeotogic conditions. Anillustration of a regional groundwater flow pattern is shown in Figure 3.6.13 fora vertical ‘ross section through an unconfined aquifer. low lines were obtained by computer assuming: L. A homogeneous and isotropic aquifer with impermeable boundaries along the sides and the bottom. 2, A rectangular flow region 6,100:m wide by 3,050 m deep. 3. A sinusoidal potential dist tion (equivalent to the water table) with an amplitude of 5 mand a mean slope of 2 percent on the surface ofthe theoretical flow region. Local, intermediate, and regional systems of flow are indicated in Figure 3.6.13, as well as flows counter to the mean water table gradient. Although the aquifer portrayed is highly idealized, a similar multiformity in flow pattem can be anticipated for actual aquifers where ivegularities of topography, stratigraphy, and anisotropy are introduced. [GASESTUDY Lake Five-0, Florida ‘The purpose ofthis case study is to examine the head disubaton and the gromdwater flow near Lake Five-O, which was itto- duced in Chapter 1. Lake Five-O is a softwater sepage lake in northwestem Florida, The Lake Five-O study azea (see Figures 1.64 and 16.5) has tree hydrogeologic units (suficiel egies, intermediate confining unit, and Upper Floridan aquifer) that Inflence te hydrology. Figure 3.6.14 iustates ese tve units for the hyérogeologic section A-A, location a shown in Figure 165. Grubs evaluated the temporal and spats disibutions of groundwater low into ad the leakage fom Lake Five-O using hydrologic data and simulation models of the shallow groundwater system adjacent fo he lke. As shown by the study (hyo logic budget by Grubbs") groundwater inflow to the lake and Jeakage from te Take tothe groundwater sytem are the dominat Components in the total inflow (precipitation plus groundwater inflow) andthe toal outflow (evaporation plas leakage) budgets ofthe lake, ‘As reported by Grubbs. head ftuctuations forthe two-year (1989-1990) stady period were generally consistent with typical seasonal pattems of precipitation, Seasonal precipitation in northwestern Florida causes wet conditions during the summer and dcyer conditions during the fall and spring, so that 3s shown in Figure 3.6.15, heads increased during the wet summer seasons of 1989 and decreased during the éyer spring months of 1989 and 1990 and the fall of 1990, Head data from a monitoring network indicated @ consistent patter of groundwater flow toward the lake, so that water table elevations (a) inereased with distance from the lake (Figures 3.6.16 and 3.6.17) and (b) were consis- tently higher than the sage of the lake,2 showing xer ausoidal ent on 2 vertical ming: itade of well as hy ide- s where indwater budgets wo-year ‘typical in north- mer and foown in asoas of 989 and network vard the aistance consis. SURPOAL AQUIFER ‘The head data shown in Figures 3.6.15-3.6.18 indicate a strong otential for downward leakage from Lake Five-O tothe Upper Floridan Aquifer. Figure 36.18 shows the differences between the stage ofthe ake end the headin the Upper Forgan aque, inci cating abrupt declines in head difference during the suraner of| 1989 and abrupt increases in head diflerences during the summer 3.6 Groundwater Flow Directions 117 Figure 3.6.14. Hydrogeologic section ‘A-A’ through Lake Five-O showing mid- poiats of screened intervals of observation wells used to construct the section. (Location of section is shown in figure 165.) Hydrogeologic section A-A’ revised from Andrews and others (as presented in Grubbs") Figure 3.6.15. Water levels of Lake Five- O and selected groundwater monitoring ‘wells, July 1988 to February 1991 Grabbs", ‘of 1990, Leakage from the lake decreased during the summer of 1989 and increased isthe sumumer of 1990, Grubbs notes that the changes in head difference (andthe consequent leakage from the lake) were probably due to regional variations in recharge to the ‘Upper Floridan Aquifer during the two-year ime peri. (continues)118 Chapter 3 Groundwater Movement A METERS SURFICIAL AQUIFER ATA UNE LEVEL ten ate 88 Ie “tsa8HYORALUC HEAD VALUE-n mfr save Sa lo Figure 36.16. ydrogeologic see. tion A=A’ through Lake Five-0, show ing vertical head cis tubation near the eke for April 13, 1989, {Location of section is shown in Figure 1.6.5.) (Grubbs) Figure 3.6.17. ydrogeologicsee- ‘ion A-A’ through Lake Five-O, showing verical head cis- tribution near the lake for January 17,1990 (Location of section ‘is shown in Figure 1.65) (Grubbs) ACTTTUDE, IN METERS ABOVE SEA LEVELe see. >ogh show. sad dis- the lake 989. cation gure sty ’ wel werncasnoe Nv } cong lf ren “ I [* ‘ARE FIVE. B!o-05.0, Ne. ALTITUDE, IN METERS ABOVE SEA LEVEL no rap orrepence serncen RSS 37 Dispersion 119 BE ee & a FIVE-O STAGE MINUS UPPER FLORIDAN HEAD. IN METERS 3 Figure 3.6.18 (Comparison of Lake Five- stage and headin the Upper Floridan Aquifer, December 1988 t0 1990 January 1991 (Grubbs) & LaKe ae CASESTUDY Late Five-O, Florida (continued) Had data indicate significant hydraulic conductivity differences within the intermediste confining unit and between the suc- ficial aquifer and imermediate confining unit. Confining properties of the intermediate confining unit ae probably not evenly dstib uted within the unit, A dease shelly clay layers located atthe base ofthe unit and isthe most effective confining unit inthe unit This is based upon Figures 3.6.16 and 3.6.17, which indicate te large head loss that occurs across the basal clay unit, which is much larger than the head differences between wells 1.3 and 1. (refer to Figure 36.14 fo locations). An abrupt decrease in hydraulic conductivity oeurs at contact ofthe surficial auiferfintermediate con: fining units. This is indicated in Figures 3.6.16-3.6.18 by the vertical head losses for the group of wells 1.1 through 1.5. The lower hydraulic conductivity ofthe imermediste confining unit in relation tothe hydraulic conductivity of the surficial aquifer unit limits the downward movement of water. 3.7 DISPERSION 3.7.1 Concept In saturated flow through porous media, velocities vary widely across any single pore, just as ina capillary tube where the velocity distibution in laminar low is parabolic. in addition, the pores possess different sizes, shapes, and orientations. As a result, when a labeled miscible iq- lid, referred to as a tracer, is introduced into a flow system, it spreads gradually to occupy an Jncreasing portion ofthe flow region. This phenomenon is known a dispersion and constitutes «nonsteady, ireversible mixing process by which the tracer disperses within the surrounding water 2 5 Ina column packed with sand as in Figure 3,7.1a and supplied continuously after a time ‘ig with water containing a tracer of concentration ¢p, dispersion inthe longitudinal direction of120 Chapter 3. Groundwater Movement ‘Continuous supply containing tracer concentration Cg after tm Seen Jovertow sand 4 Tree awe —! ‘column, ee without dispersion | ‘Tracer curve i Sos with dispersion Screen ge By Figure 371, Longin isperion ofa tet pss outer consnng "0 Tio after ivoduion of tacer—> arene ‘racer concentration (a) Sand column (a) (6) () Dispersion curve flow can be measured.“ ® From samples of water emerging from the column, a tracer ‘concentration c is found. In Figure 3.7.1b, the sold line shows a typical S-shaped dispersion ‘curve, Besides longitudinal dispersion, lateral dispersion also occurs because water is contin- ually dividing and reuniting as it follows tortuous flow paths around grains of a medium, as illustrated in Figure 3.7.2.6 ‘The equation for dispersion in homogeneous and isotropic media forthe two-dimensional case has the form ee ee ac ae rata (3.7.1) where cis the relative tracer concentration (0 < c < 1), D, and Dare longitudinal and transverse dispersion coefficients, vs fluid velocity, x isthe coordinate in the direction of flow, yis the coordinate normal to flow, and ris time. Dimensions of the dispersion coefficients are L?. Dispersion is essentially @ microscopic phenomenon caused by a combination of molecular diffusion and hydrodynamic mixing occurring with laminar flow through porous media, The net result produces a conic form downstream from a continuous point-source tracer (Fig- ure 3.7.39), and an expanding ellipsoid for a single tracer injection (Figure 3.7.3b)." Many theoretical and experimental studies have provided a better understanding of the phenomenon,’ %:38.3435.36 72.73,76.7" Most mathematical descriptions of dispersion are based on statistical concepts because of the difficulties in defining the microstructure of porous media as well as the relative roles of molecular diffusion and mechanical dispersion.” ° Experi- ‘mental studies have attempted to establish relations between factors such as velocity, media structural properties, and permeability with dispersion coefficients.°> 47-76% The pattern cof a point tracer as it moves downstream from its source tends to a normal (Gaussian) distri- bation both longitudinally and transversely a sketched in Figure 3.7.3b. Furthermore, the longitudinal component is larger than that of the transverse so that the major axis of mixing ‘occurs in the direction of flow. “one may vale hese wo forms, by analogy, 4s cotnvus plume anda single pul of smoke ing doa frm a skestac, espestvely, eventhough the lw in porous media is amie whereas tht inthe tse turbulent. 37.2a tracer spersion contin- lium, as sional 7.) dtrans- ow, yis eLil molec: media, x(Fig- Many snome- on sta sia as >attern disti- re lon- tixing 37 Dispersion 121 Tracer entrance Drection of low Figure 37.2. Lateral dispersion ofa tracer ovigi- nating ffom a point source ina porous medium, “Trace: boundary Flow diection Lateral racer sictrotion at ‘wo distances a) “Tracer boundaries Foe recion Lotta ce aisibaton at 0 Figure 373. Sketches of war distittion result ing from ispeson by flowin pros me (2) (o) ‘Continuous tracer (b) Single slug of tracer 3.7.2. Dispersion and Groundwater Hydrology In groundwater hydrology, dispersion may be encountered whenever two fluids with different characteristics come into contact, Prime examples of this include tracers for evaluating direc tions and velocities of groundwater flow, introduction of pollutants into the ground (Chapter 8), artificial recharge of water with one quality into an aquifer containing groundwater of another quality (Chapter 13), and intrusion of saline water into freshwater aquifers (Chapter 14). In general, the magnitude of dispersion for uniform sands can be measured in terms of only afew meters over a travel distance of 10° meters. In addition, the heterogeneity of most geologic materials introduces irregularities of flow with the consequent mixing of a tracer; these effects often far overshadow the effects of microscopic dispersion. The rapid nonsymmetric dispersal of two continuous dye streams in the lab oratory demonstration shown in Figure 3.7.4 amply illustrates the important role of122 Chapter 3 Groundwater Movernent Direction of tow Injtion Points Figure 3.74, Dispersion of two dye streams in a heterogeneous porous medium. Dotted areas indicate bands of much higher per- mneabilty (ater Skbiteke and Robinson. heterogeneity. In essence, a macroscopic dispersion is superimposed on the flow systenn. Pur thermore, the iregular geometries of groundwater techarge and discharge zones, together with the lack of specific data on aquifer characteristics, preclude quantitative evaluation of dispersion coefficien's for most natural groundwater flow situations, 3.8 GROUNDWATER TRACERS A variety of tracers have been employed for studying dispersion and also for evaluating directions and rates of groundwater flow under field conditions (see Section 3.3.3) An ideal tracer should (1) be susceptible to quantitative determination in minute concentrations, (2) be absent or nearly so from the natural water, (3) not react chemically with the natural water or be absorved by the porous media, (4) be safe in terms of human health, and (5) be inexpensive and readily available. No tracer completely meets all these requirements, but a reasonably satisfactory tracer can be selected to fit the needs of a particular situation. Possibilities include ‘water-soluble dyes (such as sodium fluorescein), which can be detected by colorimetty; soluble chloride and sulfate salts and sugars, which can be detected chemically; and strong elec- trolytes, which can be detected by electrical conductivity, Radioisotopes such as H° (tritium), Co®, Rb", 1°" have also served as tracers 415 58.99.9108 Naturally occurring radioisotopes, H? and C™, not only have enabled residence times of groundwater to be estimated (see Section 2.1) but also have provided a means for evaluating regional groundwater flow.* “78 "5 Refer to the work by Field. 3.9 GENERAL FLOW EQUATIONS The control volume (CV) for a saturated flow is shown in Figure 3.9.1, The sides, which define the control surface (CS), have lengths dx, dy, and dz in the coordinate directions. The total volume of the control volume is dadyez and the volume of water flowing into or out of the control volume is Odxdydz, where 8 isthe moisture content, The use ofthe control-volume approach is described in detail in Chow etal”! Crowe et al,” and Mays®, The general control volume equation for continuity is applicable: 4 pee [ov dA 9.13) wo 6 or fo-av G9.) o ‘which states that the rate of outflow of groundwater through the control surface (CS) is equal to the rate of change of groundwater stored inthe control volume (CV). The elemental volumeer per om. Fare her with Fdisper- ig diree- al tracer ce absent ot or be sive and ly satis. include solu. ag elec- 9,36,108 imes of aluating + which wns, The cout of volume ral con- (3.9.14) is equat volume 3.9 General Flow Equations 123 4 —__,Figore39.. Contot volame Darcy tox for development ofthe continu ity equation in porous medium (Grom Chow eta. is dv = ddyt, the velocity vector of flow is V, andthe volume of flowrate pasta given area A is, V- dA, whore A isthe area vector. Equation 3.9.1b also states that the net rate of outflow of mass (groundwater) from the control volume is equal tothe time rate of change of mass (Groundwater) stored within the control volume. The time rate of change of mass stored in the control volume is defined asthe time rate of change of fluid mass in storage, expressed as & foray =ps, 2 (aya) + (aye) 692) at ow or where 5, is the specific storage and W is the flow into or out of the control volume, W = Ol(dxdyéz). The term pS 2 (asa includes two parts; (1) the mass rate of water produced by an expansion of the water under change in density and (2) the mass rate of water produced by the compaction of the porous medium due to change in porosity. The inflow of water through the control surface atthe bottom of the contol volume is qdxdy and the outflow at the top is [q + (8q/Az)dz]dxdy so that the net out flow in the vertical direction zis x Jov-ds= o(4+ 34s eday s ae 3.9.3) yao eye Where ¢ (in the 2 direction) in & isa, i Considering all three directions, we have Jov- an =pareyde% + pardyde + pdrdyce 694) i ie Es % Substituting 3.9.2 and 3.9.4 into 3.9.1 results in 0 95, any « py) + pnd +p pada SE 9.5) a or ay oe Dividing through by p dxdyd gives 5, oy mo 6.9.6) a ar dy &124 Chapier3 Groundwater Movernent Using Darcy's law, the Darcy flux in each direction is 3.10 oh x 2h “er oh y ah *% ‘Subsitituting these definitions of g,, q,. and q, into 3.9.6 and rearranging results in Op dh), a(, ah 2 2) ok 2x, Sj+2]nS|45/ x, S]=5, S40 3.98) + x) + 3) oz\ * oe. a G88) ‘This is the equation for three-dimensional transient flow through a saturated anisotropic ‘porous medium, For a homogenous, isotropic medium (K, = K, = K,) then Equation 3.9.8 becomes a= (39.38) (3.9.7) =-K, 8.9.70) hath 2 Th Th Hh _ Sh OF Oy Oe KO Equation 3.9.9 becomes ah oh ah Ww ae WK Fora horizontal confined aquifer of thickness , S = 5,b and the transmissivity T= KB, so the two-dimensional form of 3.9.9 with W=0 becomes oh Fh Sah ae OF Te ‘The governing equation for radial flow can be derived using the control volume approack. Alternatively, Equation 3.9.11 can be converted into radial coordinates using the relation Ix’ +” . This is known as the diffusion equation, expressed as eh (399) Fora steady-state flow, # = i Ground 8.9.19) (3.9.11) 39.12) where r is the radial distance from a purnped well and ¢ is the time since the beginning of ‘purnping. For steady-state conditions, Oka =o fr |= 9.13) Elevation, h—»> Application to Aquifers. ‘The equations derived above will be applied subsequently to obtain ‘analytic solutions to particular groundwater flow problems. For solution of any problem, ide- alization ofthe aquifer and of the boundary conditions ofthe flow system is necessary. Results may only approximate field conditions; nevertheless, known deviations from assumptions frequently allow analytic solutions to be modified to obtain an answer that otherwise would not have been possible. A common assumption regarding the aquifer i that itis homogeneous and isotropic (See Chapter 2). Often aquifers can be assumed to be infinite in areal extent; if not, ‘boundaries are assumed to be (1) impermeeble, such as underlying or overlying rock or clay layers dikes, faults, or valley walls; or (2) permeable, including surface water bodies in contact withthe aquifer, ground surfaces where water emerges from underground, and wells39.74) 39.70) 39.70) 98) otropic 0398 3.99) 3.9.10) Kb,s0 39.11) oroach, elation 3.9.12) ling of 3.9.13) obtain an ide- Results ns fre~ ald not vas ard if not, or clay incon- Us, 3.10 Unsaturated Flow 125 3.10 UNSATURATED FLOW Ground surtace, In groundwater hydrology, unsaturated flow is important for downward vertical flow (natural ‘and artificial recharge), upward vertical flow (evaporation and transpiration), movement of pollutants from ground surface, and borizontal flow in the capillary zone above the water table. A large amount of literature exists on unsaturated flow, most of it contributed by soil scientists. Significant summaries of the subject are available in several references,°"-%: (0% In order to discuss infiltration, we must first consider the various subsurface flow processes shown in Figure 3.10.1 hese processes are infiltration of water to become soil moisture, subsurface flow (unsaturated flow) through te soil, and groundwater flow (unconfined saturated flow). Unsaturated flow refers to flow through porous medium when some of the voids aze ‘cccupied by ait. Saturated flow occurs when the voids are filled with water. The water sable is toe interface between the saturated and unsaturated flow where atmospheric pressure prevails. Saturated flow occurs below the water table and unsaturated flow occurs above the water table. ‘Atypical distribution of water content above a water table is sketched in Figure 3.10.2a, If the water table is lowered AA, then the capillary zone shifts downward. The shaded area serves as a measure ofthe volume of water drained from above the water table, This water is released by vertical percolation; consequently, specific yield becomes an asymptotic function of time (Figure 3.10.28). Figure 3.10.1. Subsurface water zones and processes (from Chow eta”) Inia water Una water able Final water table content Volume of water released / Specific yield, Sj —> Time ) ° 50 100 Figure 3.10.2. Movernent of water in the zone of aeration by lowering the Percent saturation ‘water table (a) Water content above the water table, (b) Specific yield as @ (a) function ofthe time of deainage.126 Chapter’3 Groundwater Movernent 3.10.1 Flow Through Unsaturated Soils Consider the control volume (element) in Figure (3.10.36) for an unsaturated soil which has sides of lengths dx, dy, and dz with a volume of dx dy dz. The volume of water contained in the control volume is 8 dx dy dz [where @ isthe moisture content]. Plow through the control volume is defined by the Darcy flux, q = Q/A, which is the volumettic flow rate per unit of soil area. Fortis derivation, the horizontal fluxes ere ignored and only the vertical (2) direction is considered, with z positive upward. Using the general control volume equation for continuity (3.9.16) (3.10.1) ‘The time rate of change of mass stored inthe element (control volume) is (90x aye) = poy de G.10.2) where the density is assumed constant. The net outflow of water isthe difference between the volumetric inflow at the bottom (g dx d) and the volumetric outflow at the top [q + (@aldeydeldx dy, so Bi seta parts Weter Alcfled voids Figure 3.103, (@) Cross-section through an unsaturated porous snedium (8) Contol volume for ‘evelopment of the continuity ‘equation in an unsaturated porous medium (rom Coow o ahlich has din the rol vol- of soil ction is 3.10.1) 3.10.2) etween plat ection ous for ity 3.10 Unsaturated Flow 127 : ai a fev anai(as Zt sas -padiy=aeayac 3.103) co ~ Dividing through by p dx dy dz and rearranging results in the following continuity equation for one-dimensional unsteady unsaturated flow in a porous medium in the z direction: 6.10.4) Darcy's law relates the Darcy flu, 4, tothe rate of headloss per unit length of medium. For flow in the vertical direction, the headloss per unit length is the change in total head ah over, distance, 2, that is, —2!, where the negative sign indicates that total head decreases (as a a result of friction) in the direction of flow. Darcy's law for unsaturated flow can be expressed as Ke aos) where K,(0) isthe Aydraulic conductivity, asa function of the moisture content, 8, This law applies to areas that are large compared with the crosssection of individual pores and grains of the medium. Darcy's law describes a steady uniform flow of constant velocity with a net force of zero in a fluid element. In unconfined saturated flow, the forces are gravity and friction. For unsaturated flow, the forces are gravity friction, and the suction force that binds water to soil particles through surface tension, Jn unsaturated flow the void spaces are only partially filled with water so that water is attracted tothe particle surfaces through electrostatic forces between the water molecule polar bonds and the particle surfaces. This in tum draws water up around the particle surfaces, leaving air in the center of the voids. The energy due tothe soil suction forces is referred to as the suction head (or matric potential) y in unsaturated flow, which varies with moisture content (see subsection 3.11.2). Total head is then the sum of the suction and gravity heads: hewee 6.10.6) [Note thatthe velocities are so small that there is no term for velocity head inthis expression for total head. Darey’s law can now be expressed as (@.10.7) Darcy's law was originally conceived for saturated flow and was extended by Richards® to “unsaturated flow with the provision thatthe hydraulic conductivity isa function of the suction head, that is, K = K(y). Also, the hydraulic conductivity can be related more easily to the of the LoL) wina 10.12) equa assoil, unction Somat sevalue is then vara unsat- ailable ss than ontand ‘ontent 10.13) 3.10 Unsaturated Flow 129) Threshold saturation Hydraulic conductivity ratio, K/K T Figure 3.1044, Ratio of unsaturated to st 02 04 06 08 1.0 ated hydraulic conductivity asa function Degree of saturation, S, of saturation (fer lay). where S, is the degree of saturation and S, is the threshold saturation—that part ofthe voids filled with nonmoving water held primarily by capillary forces. Equation 3.10.13 is plotted in Figure 3.10.4; note that K, ranges from zer0 at 5, =, to K, = Kat, For hydraulic conductivity and negative pressure, S-shaped relations as indicated in ure 3.10.5 are generally applicable." "3 These can be approximated by a step function or by K, a kK ae (3.10.14) ‘where a,b, and n are constants that vary with paticle sizes of unconsolidated material and ‘is the pressure head measured in centimeters. It can be seen that when h = 0, which occurs at atmospheric pressure, K, = K. Orders of magnitude ofthe constants in Equation 3.10.14 for different soils are as follows:!" 19 x 2 send 2 fost 3 e Loam 2 8 Figure 10.5, Median ‘Clay relationships between yale condvetity and soi-water pressure 150 =100 50 0 (tension) (after Pressure (cm of water) Bouwer'),130 Chapter3. Groundwater Movement Material a > . Medumsands SCS KI(ié‘i Fine sands, sandy loans sx 10 3 Loars and clays sx10 5x10) 2 Hydraulic conductivity is a measure of the ability of soils to transmit water and depends upon both soi properties (total porosity, pore-size distribution, and pore continuity) and fluid prop- eates (viscosity and density) Table 3.10.1 describes three mathematical relationships for soil water retention and hydraulic conductivity proposed by Brooks and Corey, Campbell,!® and Van Genuchten" ‘The relationships by Brooks and Corey and Campbell describe only a portion ofthe soil water- ‘Table 3.1041 Soil Water Retention and Hydraulic Conductivity Relationships ‘iydraulic sol characteristic Parameters Parameter correspondence ‘Brooks and Corey” Soil water retention 1. = pore-size index ‘ng = bubbling capillary pressure residval water content porosity ly saturated conductivity (8 = @) ini otal meet station 2 nosed Coppa Soil water retention = porosity. ay" ys elng pause with dension of leagth 2.() foceee Hydric conductivity n 234% XQ) (ey K, |e, Soil water retention o-0, | 8, [say Hydraulic conductivity (= wate content, y = capillary suction, cm; K(@) = hydraulic conductivity forgiven water content, eva Source: Raise aL*® Figure 33.10 Unsaturated Flow 131 retention curve for matric potentials les than the bubbling pressure (pressure at which air will enter the soil), whereas the Van Genuchien'™ relationship describes the total soil watercetention, curve. The water retention relationship for two contrasting soil textures is shown in Figure 3.10.6a. [tis interesting to note that the sandy loam sol retains less water than the clayey soil Figure 3.10.60 illustrates thatthe hydraulic conductivity is a nonlinear function of volumetric soil water content, and varies with soil texture, The points for saturated water content—bl (on ssupon é prop. the sandy loam topsoil curve) and 2 (on the clayey subsoil curve)—show that the hydraulic conductivity forthe sandy Toam i higher than forthe cla sol, even though the porosity is higher on and in the clay sol. As shown in the figute, the hydraulic conductivity of bath sols decreases rap- hen, idly as the soil water content decreases. Figure 3,10.6c illustrates thatthe hydraulic conductivity of the sandy loam decreases more rapidly with a decrease in the matric potential head than that ofthe clay subsoil. At lower values ofthe matric potential head, which refers to higher suc- tions, the hydraulic conductivity ofthe clay soil i higher. The rate of change of the matric potential headin the sandy soil also decreases much more rapidly than that of the clay sol. ‘The absorbing (wetting) and desorbing (draining) have differing relationships of the ‘matric potential head as a function of soil water content. This difference is called hysteresis and is illustrated in Figure 3.10.7. Hysteresis is caused by the entrapment of air in pockets connecting different size pores during wetting. Cycles of wetting and drying exhibit secondary hysteretic loops (see Figure 3.10.7), which causes considerable difficulty in modeling soil ‘water movement. The K(@ ) has a much smaller hysteresis effect than y(6) which is why the hydraulic conductivity K,(8) is used in the Darey equation as opposed to K,(¥) ~10,000 F 100, 8 i : ne : 5 | sexy gh am ee RS Eg < — 32-100 Bg Bo — a g og Sr) z a 8 OF a a boo ous oF 38s da 08 ts Voliot el wate sunt ale, ‘content, 6 (em? cm?) content, # (om? om) — (a) (o) 3 04 Hydraulic conductivity K, (w) (em J} 0-100 1000 Matic potential head, (rm) —_ © Figure 3.10.6, (2) The y(9), (6) K,(@), and (c) K,(y) relationships of sandy loam and clayey horizons (Rawls etal).132 Chapter3_ Groundwater Movement 1000 3.103 , ~#00 Main cesomton o é raning Sov 3-9 ain absorption or Z ating curve 3 +c g Secondary stron 2 oxo hysteresis loop Fignre 310.7. The eect of hysteresis 3 SS, tte MO econ fst lon ‘ops ding weting and dyin Sol wator content, (men) Gone mes 31 F Pressure hea (om of wate) -£0 0-90-20 10 0410 1 20 -10 -80 0 @ -100 & 120 140 he 1 ~180 160 ! sft 100 100 i @ © Figure 3.10.8. Profiles of water content and pressure head i a sand column following infiltration of water. Numbers onthe curves represent time in minutes ate st of inflaton (a) Water content (6) Pressure head Data are computer-based numerical results {after Watson in van Schilfgaade™ reproduced from Drainage for Agriculture, ASA Monograph No. 17, pp. 368-36, 1974 by permission ofthe American Society of Agronomy)3.41 Kinematic Wave 133 3.10.3. Vertical and Horizontal Flows Ilustrative ofthe vertical drainage of wate in unsaturated soils are the data shown in Figure 3.10.8. An initially saturated sand 180 cm in depth was allowed to drain for one hour and was, then subjected to infiltration for four min under a surface head of 3 cm. The resulting depth profiles of water content and pressure head are indicated for various time intervals aftr the end of the infittration interval. Note that atthe start of the subsurface redistribution of water (+=), saturation (water content = 0.29 cm°/em:) extends to a depth of about 30 cm and corresponds to a linear pressure gradient, For field conditions where stratifications in soil texture can be expected, the complexity of such downward water migration, as from rainfall or irigation, can be appreciable™® '" Lateral flow occurs above the water table in the capillary zone. The flow rate decreases with the degree of saturation, and hence the hydraulic conductivity (see Figure 3.10.4), The fraction of flow above the water table can be calculated from an equivalent saturated thick- ysteresi ness.” For aquifers of substantial depth, the flow component above the water table is negligi- loam ble, but it can be significant in shallow unconfined aquifers. 1g 3.4L KINEMATIC WAVE Figure 3.11.1 shows an individual soil water wave propagating downward through the soil under gravity drainage. The kinematic wave model isa redistribution model based upon grav- +10 ity drainage (Charbeneau'®-” and Morel-Seytoux”). Figure 3.11 la shows the wave immedi- 77 ately after the end of the period of infiltration, consisting of a rectangular portion added to the profil forthe antecedent water content. The horizontal line is the wetting front, indicating a drop in water content from the wave above tothe unwetted soil below. After a short period of, drainage, the wave is shown in Figure 3.L1.1b, consisting of three pats: (1) a draining part with increasing water content (curved portion of the wave) with depth, (2) a constant or vert ~40 cal plateau part, and (3) the wetting font. The draining part has not reached the wetting front and is separated from it by the vertical plateau. In Figure 3.11.1c, the drainage profile has caught up with the wetting front and the vertical plateau region no longer exists. eo “The basic assumption in the kinematic wave theory is that the pressure gradients are neg- ble, With negligible capillary pressure gradients and with w constant within the profile the “0 = soil water diffusivity is zero and Equation 3.10.11 simplifies to é 42K) GL) -100 8 0 that Dares law reduces to Equation 3.11.1 for the kinematic wave theory. Equation 3.10.12, then reduces to a a =120 29K @)=0 8.11.2) Ha he) G2) “40 . Wate content $5 ; 7 160 ! alt “ x : € € “ i i i carves ssults re RAL. Soil moisture profiles for ‘aby individual kinematic wave (a) 0) C) (Charbeneau"),134 Chapter3_ Groundwater Movement so that flow is downward under a unit gradient, Equation 3.11.2 can be expressed as 28 , dk(®) 08 28, dK(6) 08 _ 9 a a a G.1L3) ‘Charbeneau'®-° shows the analytical solution of the kinematic wave model, which can be used to model soil water redistribution and recharge. 3.12 INFILTRATION: THE GREEN-AMPT METHOD The process of water penetrating into the soil is infiltration. The rate of infiltration is influenced by the condition of the soil surface, vegetative cover, and soil properties including porosity, hydraulic conductivity, and moisture constant. Figure 3.12.1 illustrates the distribution of soil moisture within a soil profile during downward movement. These moisture zones are the saturated zone, the transmission zone, a wetting zone, and a wetting front. Ths profile changes as a function of time as shown in Figure 3.12.2. ‘The infiltration rate, fis the rte at which water enters the soil surface, expressed in in/hr or env. The potential infiltration rat isthe rate when water is ponded on the soil surface, so if no ponding occurs, the actual rate is less than the potential rate. Most infiltration equations describe a potential infiltration rate. Cumulative infiltration, F, is the accumulated depth of water infiltrated, defined mathematically as ro=[ sted G12) > ° Moisture content —> ‘Transition zone Transmission + depth Figure 3.12.1. Moisture zones during ‘Wetting front infiltration (from Chow et al), Saturation” o 4 100% ‘Ground surace Figure 3.12.2, Moisture profile a a function of ime for water added tothe soil surface (Chow et a.” <— DepthG13) abe used is influ. eluding distribu. ire zones is profile Ain inthe face, s0 uations depth of, G12) asa tothe 3.12 Inflation: The Green-Amipt Method 135 Rafal yetograph Figure 3123. Rainfall infilus in rate and cumalativ inf tration. The anal hyetogragh lusts the ainfl patem as 2 fonction of ime. The curaula- tive inflation atime ris, 0 PU) anda time + At i8 Fy oc Firs Te increase in cumulative initaton from time 101+ Ais FF, oF Flt 80) ~ Fes shown in be Sige Rina excess is rain fal hts meter retained on a tbe land surface nor infiltrated Tie int the soil (Chow et al. and the infiltration rate is the time derivative of the cumulative infiltration given as = aU) 7 (3.122) Figure 3.12.3 ilusurates a rainfall hyetograph with the infiltration cate and cumulative infiltration curves. Green and Ampt* (1911) proposed the simplified picture of infiltration shown in Figure 3.124. The wetting front is a sharp boundary dividing initial soil moisture content 6, below from saturated soil with moisture content 7] above. The wetting front has penetrated to a depth Lin time ¢ since infiltration began. Water is ponded to a small depth hy on the soil surface. Consider a vertical column of sol of unit horizontal cross-sectional area (Figure 3.12.5) and let the control volume be defined around the wet soil between the surface and depth L. If the soil was intially of moisture content 8, throughout its entire depth, the moisture content will increase from 6, t0 7 (the porosity) as the wetting front passes. The moisture content @ is the ratio ofthe volume of water to the total volume within the contro! surface, so the increase Wetted 2008 (oonactty YF Wiettng front Wiating front Figure 2.125. Infiltration into a column Figure 3.124, Variables in the Green-Amptinfil~ of soil of unit cross-sectional area forthe tration model The vertical axis isthe distance from _Green-Ampt ede from Chow et"). the sol surface, the hoizontal axis is the moisture ‘content ofthe soil (from Chow eta).136 Chapter3 Groundwater Movement in the water stored within the contol volume asa result of infiltration is Lin] 8) for @ unit ‘cross section. By definition this quantity is equal to F, the cumulative depth of water infiltrated into the soil. Hence F) = Lin 8) = a0 6.123) where A@ = (1) - 0), Darcy's law may be expressed as ah % In this case the Darcy flux q is constant throughout the depth and is equal to ~f, because q is positive upward while fis positive downward. If points 1 and 2 are located respectively at the ground surface and just on the dry side ofthe wetting front, Equation 3.12.4 can be approx- mated by = ‘The head hy at the surface is equal to the ponded depth hg. The head h, in the dry sol below the wetting front, equals ~y ~ L. Darcy's law for this system is written as q G.124) G.125) -(y-t) f ied) 1262) L and ifthe ponded depth hy is negligible compared to y and L, +L saa ¥4] 6.1266) ‘This assumption (fg = 0) is usually appropriate for surface water hydrology problems because it is assumed that ponded water becomes surface runoff. From Equation 3.12.3, the wetting front depth is L = FIA®, and assuming fg = 0, substitution into Equation 3.12.6 gives son Ce?) 627 Since f= did, Equation 3.12.7 can be expressed asa dferential equation in the one unknown Fas a fuse) dt F ‘To solve for F cross-multiply to obtain Fle Kar Fevos then divide the left-hand side into two parts [Eee- yao \dF = Kat F+yae F+ wae and integrate‘ora unit afiltrated 6.123) 6.124) ecause q atively at : approx G.125) vil below 3.12.6a) 3.12.66) because J, substi- G.12.7) ‘known, 3.12 Infiltration: The Green-Ampt Method 137 ) i [ie va [kav 20. to obtain F(t)— yA@{In{ F(t) + yA0) ~In(yA0) = Kr B.1288) or F)- voit By = 8.1286) Equation 3.12.8 is the Green-Ampt equation for cumulative infiltration. Once F is computed using Equation 3.128, the infiltration rate fcan be obtained from Equation 3.12.7 or A= {ue ry + @.129) ‘When the ponded depth i is not negligible, the value of y — hy is substituted for y in Equa- tions 3.12.8 and 3.12.9, Equation 3.12.8 is a nonlinear equation in F; which can be solved by the method of successive substitution by rearranging, F(t)= Key Ao af 2) @.12.10) Given K, t, y and A0, atrial value F is substituted on the right-hand side (a good tral value is F= Ki), and a new value of F calculated on the left-hand side, which is substituted as atrial value on the right-hand side, and so on until the calculated values of F converge to a constant. ‘The final value of cumulative infiltration F is substituted into Equation 3.12.9 to determine the corresponding infiltration rate f Equation 3.12.8 can also be solved by Newton's method, which is more complicated than the method of successive substitution but converges in fewer iterations. Referring to Equation 3.12.10, application of the Green-Ampt model requires estimates of the hydraulic conductivity K, the wetting front soil suction head wy (see Table 13.12.1), and A8, ‘The residual moisture content ofthe soil, denoted by 6, isthe moisture content aftr it has been thoroughly drained. The effective saturation isthe ratio of the available moisture (0 —0,) to the maximum possible available moisture content (n|- 8, given as, G.12.11) ‘where 7|~8, is called the effective porosity @,. The effective saturation has the range 0s, < 1.0, provided 8, < @< 1. For the initial condition, when @ = ,,cross-multiplying Equation 3.12.11 gives 0, 0, = 3,0,, and the change in the moisture content when the wetting front passes is 80= 11-8, = 1-68, + 895 A9= (1-590, .12.12) A logarithmic relationship between the effective saturation s, and the soil suction head ‘can be expressed by the Brooks-Corey equation (Brooks and Corey")138 Chapter3 Groundwater Movement 8.12.13) in which y, and 2 are constants obtained by draining a soil in tages, measuring the values of 5, and y at each stage, and fitting Equation 3.12.13 tothe resulting data. ‘Brakensick et al." presented a method for determining the Green-Ampt parameters using the Brooks-Corey equation, Ravis et al.* used this method to analyze approximately 5,000 soil horizons across the United States and determined average values of the Green-Ampt parameters 7, @,, y, and K for different soil classes, as listed in Table 3.12.1. As the soil becomes finer, moving from sand to clay, the wetting fron soil suction head increases while the hydraulic conductivity decreases. Table 3.12.1 also lists typical ranges forn, 8, and y. The ranges are not large for 7 and 8,, but y can vary over a wide range for a given soil. K varies along with, so the values given in Table 3.12.1 for both y and K should be considered typical values that may show a considerable degree of variability in application >?” Table 3.12.2 compares other infiltration methods. Refer to Chow et a." for detailed discussions of each of these methods. ‘Table 3.12.1 Green-Ampt Infiltration Parameters for Various Soll Classes* Cumulat Green-A ) Effective Weeing ont ——_‘Hydrailic Porosity porosity soil suction conductivity Soil class a 8 heady (em) K (cmt) Sand 0437 oat 495 1178 (0374-0500) (0354-0480) (097-256) Loamy sand 0437 0401 613 2.99 (0363-0506) (0329-0473) (135-2794) Sandy loam 0453 oan 1101 1.09 (0351-0555) (0283-041) (267-4547) Loam 0463 0434 889 034 (0375-0551) (0334-034) (133-5938) Sittioam oso 0486 1668 065 (0420-0582) (0394.078) (292-9539) Sandy clay 0398 0.330 2185 ols loam (0332-0464) (0235-04425) (42-1080) Clay loam ase 0.309 2088 0.10 (0409-0519) (0279-0501) (479-91.10) Silty clay 047 0432 2730 010 Joam (0418-0524) OMT-ASI) —_(5.67-131.50) Sandy lay 0430 0321 2390 006 (0370-0490) (0207-0435) (408-1402) Silty clay 0479 0.423 29.22 0s (0425-053) (0334-0512) (613-1384) Chay 047s 0.385 31.63 003 (0427-0523) (0269-0501) (639-1565) "The numbers in parentheses below each parameter ae one standard deviation around the parame value given Source: Rawls, Ahuj, Brakensick, and Shirmohammadi™ and Rawls, Brakersik, and Mille" SoLUTL3.12. Infiltration: The Green-Ampt Method 139 ‘Table 3.12.2 Infiltration Equations be ‘Camvlaive inteation (F,) Inflation cate (() Comments ) ‘Green-Ampt equation + Hydralic conductivity (K) ues of é) . vs) + Weting front sei suction head (W) Bowed aa + Change in moisture content (48) using A8=7~6, 5,000 + Porosity 9 Ampt + Ina moisture conten (@) ve soil — — ‘while oton’s equation + fo= initial infilteation rate The 1+ (fpf + Constant inflation rate) varies + Decay constant) Sypi- SCS method + Potential maximum retention (9) as seh) sy R148 (B-1,+5)) oO (B-h + Dimensionless curve sumer (CN) OSCNs 100 eh, + ital abstraction 1, 1,028 + Tal anf 0 time, , Philip's equation + Sorpivity (©) F=S8+e yasr' + K + Hydraulic conduetivity (&) alie ivity RIA — Ue Gren-Amprmetod trate te inion ats culation depth for a sy a) EME’ clay soil at 01-hour increments upto 6 hours from the beginning of inflation. Assume an initial z effecuve saturation of 20 percent and continuous ponding. » SOLUTION From Table 31211, foraslty clay sol, @, = 0.423, y= 2922 em, and K = 0.05 em: The initia fee tive saturation i 4,-0.2, s0 AB =(1-~s,) 8, = (1 ~0.20)0423 0.338, and y 48 = (29.22) (0.338) =9.89 » ‘em, Assuming continuous ponding the cumulative infusion Fis found by successive substitution in Equation 3.12.10: ul FeKt+ y a6 lal + F/(y A8)] =0.05 + 9.89 In + F989) For example, atime 1= 0.1 by, the cumulative infiltration converges toa ial value F=029 em. The 8 infiltration rat fis then computed using Bqution (3.12.9) 5 PK (1+ y ABIF) = 005 (1 + 9.8917) ‘Avan example, atime = 0.1 hr, (= 0.05(1 +9.89°0.29) = 1.78 cmv. The infiltration rate and the 0 ‘curultive infiltration are computed in the same manner between 0 and 6 hous at 0.1 hr oc 0.5 he intervals, as shown in Table 3.123 0 ‘Table 312.3 Inflation Computations Using the Green-Ampt Method % Time () oo Gl 0203S Inflation rate fer) = 178 12009708 07S S444 030 id Infiltration depth F (em) 0.00 029 043054 «063 O71 021.2681 8 Time () zs 39354045 DSS 8 — Inflation rate f(era/hn) 035 08 030 028 027 026-025 Ok gree Infiltration depth F (em) 165182197212 2.26 2.39 2SL_—_—2.64140 Chapter 3 Groundwater Movement Potential intitration rate — Rainfall rate Actual infitration vale Fate (ina or ervbr) ‘Cumulative (in or em) Time A //~ Curmeiativ rainfall / (Cumulative infitation b Time Figure 3.12.6. Ponding time. Ths figure illustrates the concept of ponding time fora constant intensity rainfall. Ponding time isthe clapsed time between the time rainfall begins andthe ime water begins o pond on te soil surface. Ponding time, 1, is the elapsed time between the time rainfall begins andthe time water begins to pond. EXAMPLE 3.12.2 nthe sil suite. Develop an equation for ponding ime under constant rainfl intensity, wing the GGreen-Ampt inflation equation fe to Figure 3.126 SOLUTION The infiltration rate f and the cumulative infiltration F are related in Equation 3.12.8. The cumulative initration at ponding ine is F, =i, in which isthe constant inflintensty (see Figure 3.12.6). Substituting F = and th infitaton rat f= into Equation 3.129, we bave i 12) i whose solutions Which isthe ponding time for a constant rainfall intensity . PROBLEMS: 3.1.1 confined aquifer witha porosity of 0.15 is 30 m thick, The potentiometric surface elevations at two observation wells 1,000 ‘mapart are $2.35 m and 56.90 m. If the horizontal hydraulic conductivity ofthe aquifer is 25 m/day determine the flow rate per ‘unit width of the aquifer, specific discharge, and average linear velocity of the flow assuming steady unidirectional flow. How Jong would it take for a tracer to travel the distance between the obervation wells? 3.L2A field sample ofan auiferis packed in atest ylinder (ee Figure 3.1.1). The cylinder has a length of 120 em and a diameter cof 12cm. The field sample wit a porosity of 0.24 is tested under 4 constant head difference of 160 cm with water at 10°C. Ifthe estimated hydraulic conductivity of the sample is 30 may, calculate (a) the expected total discharge, (b) the specific di charge, (c) the average flow velocity and (4) the hydraulic gradient along the cylinder. 3.13 A confined aquifer with a horizontal bed has a varying thick ness as shown inthe figure. Assuming the flow inthe aquifer is essentially horizontal, determin the flow rate ifthe piezometric heads at sections (1) and (2) are 23.7 m and 27.1 m, respectively. @ oD) 58m 20m $1200 m 3.1.4 What should be the range of water temperature in Problem 3.1.2 for Darcy's law to be applicable ifthe median diameter of the field sample is 2.2 mum? Is the water temperature given in the problem appropriate? 34s afield s amedis 36 IE conduct ure 3. able he median BTR ductivit 321 Tb asll2 the inst (0) Wha ural gror 322TH the hyd from 5° aaa 175 em? field san 320 seer hydrous the intr isused f ditions ( conduct 332i pled and 334,bo cm? 33342 ‘meamete tube is 1C let level ematter the samp 33416 the same lect 200 335 The tobe 068 the piezot material tivity of 34.1 The shown be hydraulic degree ofsme isthe stopond sing the smulative 126) ing thick aquifer is saometric >ectively. Problem ameter of ven inthe 441.5 Could the same apparatus in Problem 3.1.2 be use to test afield sample having «hydraulic conductivity of 864 m/day and ‘median grain ciametec of S mm? 31.6 Ifa 50-cm-long field sample with an estimated hydraulic conductivity of 8 nVday isto be tested in the laboratory (see Fig ure 3.1.1) using wate at 20°C, what would be maximum allow. able head difference across the column? The sample has s median grain diameter of 05 mm. 31.7 Rework Problem 3.1.6 with an estimated hydraulic con ductivity of 40 m/day and a median grin diameter of 1.5 mm, ‘3:21 The hydraulic conductivity ofa medium sand was measured a 112.mfay ina Taboratory test with water at 25°C. (a) Whats the intnsic permeability ofthe sample in square micrometers? (@) Whats the expected in-situ hydraulic conductivity ifthe nat ual groundwater temperature is 10°C? 42.2 The ntinsie permeability ofa sity san is 0 36 dary. Plt the hydraulic conductivity as a function of water temperature fiom C10 30°C. 33.1 A constant head permeameter has a cross-sectional avee of 195 ca and is used to measare the hydralic conductivity of @ field sample 40 om long ithe permeameter cischarges 100 in 5320 secdnds under a head difference of 60 crm: (a) what isthe hydraulic conductivity as measured in the laboratory? (b) whats the intrinsic permeability of the sample given that water at 20°C is used forthe test? (6) is Darcy aw valid under the given conditions (D = 0.5 mon)? and (@) what woud be the in-situ yale conductivity ifthe regional groundwater temperature is 12°C? 33.2 Ifthe medium sand in Examples 3.3.2 and 3.3.3 were sam- pled and tested exscly the same way as described in Example 53.4, how long would it take forthe head o drop from 8 cm 1 en? 33.3.A 30-cm-long field sample is tested ina falling head per rmeameter with a 10-cm diameter cylinder The diameter ofthe tube is 10 man, Th water level inthe tube is 35 cm above the outlet level after one hour of operation, while the level drops to 22 ‘m after 12 hours of operation, Find the hydraulic conductivity of the sample. 33.4 the silty, fine sand sample in Example 3.3.4 were tested the same way a in Example 33.3, how long would t take t ol- Lect 200m of water tthe outlet? 33.5 The average flow velocity at point in an aquifer was found tobe 0.68 may by means of a point dilution test. I the slope of the piezometrcsurfece atthe sme points @.018 and te squifer material bas a porosity of 0.23, determine the hydraulic conductivity ofthe aquifer a that pont. 34.1 The stratification ofthe same aquifer at three locations is showm below. Calculate the equivalent horizontal and vertical hydraulic conductivities fr each location. Wat happens to the degree of anisotropy? Problems 141 —— (a) ® @ 3.42 The stetification of « confined aquifer with « horizontal ‘ed varies as follows. Calculate the equivalent horizontal and vertical hydraulic conductivities in esch ease. What happens 10 the degree of anisotropy? Ke v4 002 = rat, bs rennmnscral / IT ! @ © @ Ko iy bo 3.4.3 confined aquifer has a constant thickness of 34 m and is strafed between two observation wells as shown in the follow ing figure. Given the piezometsic surface elevations in the figure, etermine the flow per unit width of the aquifer. Wht is the equivalent horizontal hydraulic conductivity of that section of the confined aquifer between the observation wells? feb te be ate ‘38.1 The groundwater eraperatures in the United States vary from bout 4°C inthe nocther part to approximately 20°C inthe soath- em part. Assuming a productive alluvial aquifer with an intinsic142 Chapter’3 Groundwater Movement permeability of 100 days and hydraulic gradient of O01 (See Figure 35.1), how much woul ihe production ofthe same aquifer change between anorthem stat and a southern tate? 38.2 confined equier is recharged fom an unconfined aquifer through an aqoitard as shown i the figure. Ifthe water levels 2 pieometers A,B, and Care 431 m, 447m and 6.64 m below the ground surface, respectively, determine the permeability of the squitar AB Cc Ground surtace T ERRRRERRT | yo Water table | f Piezometric surtace |] || Uneoninedt itor K=20m/day eng 36.1 The coordinates and the total heads of three observation wells in a regional aquifer are tabulated below. Determine the hydraulic gradient and direction of groundwater flow. Well x(a) y(n) Total head (m) 1 0 0 5139 2 200 340 ss. 3 190 -150 5280 3.6.2 Suppose thatthe average discharge due tothe local ground wwatec pumping near Savannat, Georgia (see Figure 3.6.6), in REFERENCES 1. Abmed, and D. K, Suna, Nonlinear flow in porous medi, Jour ‘Hydraudics Di, Amer. Soe. Cvil Engr, ¥. 95, no. HY6, pp. 1867-1857, 1969, 2. American Society of Agricul Baines, Advances in infiltration, roe. National Conf on Advances in Inflation, Chicago, IL, ASAE Pub lieaon 11-83, St Joseph, MI, L983 3. Amer, Soc. Tetng Malls (ASTM), Pecmeabiliy and capil of sis, ASTM Spl. Tech Publ no. 417, Philadelphia, 210 pp, 1967. 4, Andes, W. J, JP Oliveros, and. J. Calis, Preliminary Report on the Hydrogeology of Lake Five-O and Vicinity, Bay Coury Florida, US. Geological Surney Wer Resource Isesigaions Report 80-4148, 190, 5. Bachmat,¥, and J. Bear, The general equations of hydrodynamic dis petsion in homogeneous, iotropi porous mediums, Jour. Geophysical Research, v9, pp. 2961-2567, 1964 1957 was 30,000 m® per day. Estimate the transmissivity of the regional aquifer. 3.10.1 Determine the soil water diffusivity fora sol in which @= (0.1 and K=3 x 10" ras from a elationship of w(@) a1 8=0.1, 10” mun, and a8 = 0.35, 3.121 Determine the infiltration rate and cumulative inflation curves (fo Sh) at L-r increments for a clay loam soil. Assume an initial effective saturation of 40 percent and continuous ponding. 3.122 Rework Problem 3.12.1 using an initial effective setura- tion of 20 percent. 3.123 Rework Example 312.1 for sandy loam soi. 3.124 Compute the ponding time and cumulative infiltration at pnsdng fora sandy clay Ioam soil with 30 percent initial effec tive saturation, subject to a rainfall intensity of 2 om 3.12.5 Rework Problem 3.124 fora silty clay soil 3.126 Determine the cumulative inflation and the inflation rate on a sendy clay loam after one hour of rainfall at 2 env if ‘the inital effective saturation is 25 percent. Assume the ponding depth is negligible in the calculations. 3.12.7 Rework Problem 3.12.6, assuming that any ponded water remains staionary over the soil so thatthe ponded depth must be accounted for inthe calculations. 3.12. Uso the Green-Ampt method to compute the infiltration rate and cumulative infiltration fora silly clay soil (n= 0.479, y= 29.21 om, K = (05 emafhr) at 0.25 hour inerements up to hours from the beginning of inflation. Assume an initial effective saturatior of 30 percent and continuous ponding, 3.12.9 Compute the ponding time and cumulative infitation at ‘ponding for a santy clay loam soil of 25 percent intial effective ‘saturation fora rainill intensity of (2)2 cnvh (6)3 crv, and (¢) Sem. 3.12.10 Rework Problem 3.12.9 considering a sit loam sol. 6. Back, W, eta, Caron: 14 ages related occurence of alt water, Jour Hyraulics Di, Amer Soe. Civil Engr, 96,0. YI] pp. 1325-2336, 1970. 17. Bash, GR, TH Mlangasekare, M,C. Hill, and H. 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Weight and JL Sonderegger, eds, Ch 13, McGraw Hil, New York, 2001Chapter 4 Groundwater and Well Hydraulics Darcy's law and the fundamental equations governing groundwater movement can now be applied to particular situations. Solutions of groundwater flow to wells rank highest in importance, From pumping tests of wells, storage coefficients and transmissvities of aquifers can be determined; furthermore, with these aquifer characteristics known, future dectines in groundwater levels associated with pumpage can be calculated. Well flow equations have been devel- ‘oped for steady and unsteady flows, for various types of aquifers, and for several special ‘boundasy conditions. For practical application, most solutions have been reduced to convene ‘ent graphic or mathematical form, or computer programs. 4.1 STEADY UNIDIRECTIONAL FLOW Steady flow implies that no change occurs with time, Flow conditions differ for confined and ‘unconfined aquifers and hence need to be considered separately, beginning with flow in one direction. 4.1.1 Confined Aquifer 146 Let groundwater flow with a velocity v in the x-direction of a confined aquifer of uniform thickness, Then for one-dimensional, steady flow, Equation 3.9.10 reduces to 2) S ay Which has for its solution h= Cr+ (4.1.2) ‘where f isthe head above a given datum and C, and Cy are constants of integration. Assum- ing h = 0 when x= 0 and k/dx = —(w/K) from Darcy's lew, then we have net (4.1.3) K ‘This states that the head decreases linearly, as sketched in Figure 4.1.1, with flow in the x-direction, exam SOLUT) 412 1cs 1 special conver fined and ww in one ‘uniform (4d) (4.1.2) 1 Assum- 13) ow in the EXAMPLE 4.1.1 SOLUTION 4.1 Steady Unidirectional Flow 147 Figure 4.1.1, Steady unidirectional flow in a confined aquifer of uni- Impermeable form thickness. Referring to Figure 4.1.1 if the distance and the observed piezomeitic surface drop between (wo adje- cent wells ae 1,000 m and 3 m, respectively, find an estimate ofthe Gime i takes fora molecule of water to:move from one well tothe other. Assume steady unidirectional flow in a homogeneous silty sand confined aquifer witha hydraulic conductivity K'= 3.5 a/day and an effective porosity of 35, First compute the discharge velocity ‘The pore (seepage) velocity is computed using the velocity: in, = (0.0105 midy(0.35) = 0.03 mld would take 1000 (0.03 mv x 365) = 91.3 years . 4.1.2. Unconfined Aquifer For the similar flow situation in an unconfined aquifer, ditect analytic solution ofthe Laplace ‘equation is not possible, The difficulty arises from the fact that the water table in the two- «dimensional case represents a flow line. The shape ofthe water table determines the flow dis. ‘sibution, but atthe same time the flow distribution governs the water table shape, To obtain a solution, Dupuit? assumed (1) the velocity of the flow to be proportional tothe tangent of the hydraulic gradient instead of the sine as defined in Darcy's law and (2) the flow to be horizontal and uniform everywhere in vertical section. These assumptions, although permitting 4 Solution to be obtained, limit the application of the results. For unidirectional flow, as sketched in Figure 4.1.2, the discharge per unit width q at any vertical section can be given as dh Ka & G14) where K is hydraulic conductivity isthe beight of the water table above an impervious base, and xis the direction of flow. Integrating yields King q a c (415)148 Chapter 4 Groundwater and Well Hydraulics ang, if h= hy where x= 0, then the Dupuis equation 41.6) results, which indicates thatthe water table is parabolic in form. Sout For flow between two fixed bodies of water of constant heads g and Ay as in Figure 4.1.2, the water table slope atthe upstream boundary ofthe aquifer (neglecting the capillary zone) is dha a Khe 17) Bul the boundary h = hy is an equipotential fine because the ud potential in a water body is constant; consequently, the water table must be horizontal a this section, which is inconsistent with Equation 4.1.7. In the direction of the flow, the parabolic water table described by Equa- tion 4.1.6 increases in slope. By so doing, the two Dupuit assumptions, previously stated, ‘become increasingly poor approximations to the actual flow; therefore, the actual water table deviates mote and more from the computed position inthe direction of flow, as indicated in Fig- ure 4.1.2. The fact that the actual water table lies above the computed one can be explained by the fact that the Dupuit flows are all assumed horizontal, whereas the actual velocities of the same magnitude have a downward vertical component so that a greater saturated thickness is required for the same discharge. At the downstream boundary a discontinuity in flow forms because no consistent flow pattem can connect a water table directly to a downstream freewater surface. The water table actually approaches the boundary tangentially above the water body sutface and forms a seepage face ‘The above discrepancies indicate thatthe water table does not follow the parabolic form ‘of Equation 4.1.6; nevertheless for flat slopes, where the sine and tangent are nearly equal, it closely predicts the water table position except near the outflow. The equation, however, accurately determines q or K for given boundary heads.‘ 44.3 {A stratum of clean sand and gravel between two channels (see Figure 4.1.2) has a hydraulic conductivity K= 10" cmisec, andi supplied with water from a ditch (hy = 6.5 m deep) that penetrates to the bottora ofthe stratum, Ifthe water surface in the second chaarel is 4 m above the botiom of the stratum and its Ground surtace Figure 4.1.2. Steady flow in an unconfined aguifer between two water bodies with vertical Impormeatio boundaties.(4.1.6) wwe 4.1.2, * zone) is (417) body is onsistent by Equa- ly stated, ater table sdinFig- lained by ies of the chness is 2w forms freewater ater body olic form sequal, it ver, aceo- rnductivity the botom ‘um and its ned vertical SOLUTION 441 Steady Unidirectional Flow 149 istance tothe ditch is x = 150. (which is also the thickness of the stratum), estimate the unit flow rate into the gallery ‘The flow is computed using the Dupuit equation (4.1.6) for unit flow, where K = 10"! emisec = 864 miday 4.1.3 Base Flow to a Stream Estimates ofthe bese flow to streams (see Chapter 6) or average groundwater recharge can be computed by applying the above analysis of one-directional flow in an unconfined aquifer. For example, picture the idealized boundaries shown in Figure 4.1.3 of two loag parallel streams completely penetrating an unconfined aquifer with a continuous recharge rate W occurring uniformly over the aquifer. With the Dupuit assumptions, the flow per unit thickness is annkn (4.18) and by continuity = We ais) Combining these equations and integrating leads to the result Wane Zax) (4.1.10) where h, hy a, and x are as defined in Figure 4.1.3, and K isthe hydraulic conductivity, From symmetry and continuity Q,=20W a1) where Q, is the base flow entering each stream per unit length of stream channel. If his known at any point, Q, or W can be computed provided K is known. Extensions of this analysis have been applied to design the spacing of parallel drains on agricultural land for specified soil, crop, and inrigation conditions. Recharge rate W PEEVE LEE E ELA Grou Figure 4.13. Steady flow to two parallel streams from uniformly remenie 7 Soam chanel savite180 Chapter 4 Groundwater and Well Hydraulics reabis bee St — 'mparmeabla besiook === Figure 4.14. Unconfined aquifer between two rivers (r= 0, A= hy and x =, k=) = EXAL Consider the unconfined aquifer between two rivers as shown in Figure 4.1.4 with recharge rate of W. The flow is only in one direction so that the x-axis is aligned parallel tothe flow. The flow is then determined by (4.1.12) or SOLV: 4.113) Integration of Equation 4.1.13 yields fi 114) where ¢, and ¢, are constants of integration. Boundary conditions (i= hy at x=Qand h = h, at 21= D) are applied to obtain (hi? -at)s Pah? i L ‘The discharge q, per unit width at any distance from the origin (see Figure 4.1.4) can be computed using Equation 4.1.8 with divx computed by differentiating Equation 4.1.15: Kiem) ft am “Hf + u-ine (4.15) (4.1.16) where the units are fl/day or m*/day for q,, fday or m/day for K and W, and ft or m for x, iy, gs and L, Figure 4.1.4 shows the location where f= lg, (a crest in the water table), forthe case of infiltration, which is essentially a water divide where g, = 0. The distanced from the origin to the water divide is computed using Equation 4.1.16 with q, = 0 and x = d to obtain L_x (te -h?) 2 Ww OWL AUr=d,h= hs Which can then be substituted into Equation 4.1.15 to obtain the following expression fF Pau! 1.17) (ib -h?\d sw Ting =f? baa (4.1.18)atwo 14 with Jel to the 1.12) (4.113) (4.1.14) 1h= hyat 115) abe com (4.1.16) nfor x,y, the case of ve origin to ay » following (4.1.18) q H 4 4.1 Steady Unidirectional Flow 151 W= 1.6 miyear 460 m venereal Figure 4.15. x= Impomeatie Bxample 13 [BMAWPEBGLR} © An unconfined aquifer of clean sand and gravels located between two fully penetrating rivers (sce Fig. ute 4.1.5) and has a hydraulic conductivity of K = 10° envsee. The aquifer is subject to a uniform recharge of 16 myear. The water surface elevations in rivers A and B ae 85 and 10m, respectively, above the bottom. Estimate (a the maximum elevation ofthe water table andthe location of groundwater vide, (b) the travel times from groundwater divide to both ives (n,= 0.35), and (c) he daly discharge per kilometer rom the aquifer into bot ves SOLUTION (8) The maximum elevation of the water table occurs atthe location of the groundwater divide computed using Equation 4.1.17 with W= 1.6 m/year = 0.0044 miday and X= 10° crs = 8.64 mia 1_K(n2-te2) 460m _a6bavie_{t0*-a5*)m* 2 Ww 2 2 DOM eva —2(460m) 7m from river B ‘The maximum head a the divide is computed using Equation 41.18: (ihn? ld we, ina LK — hg? (1028520171) | 0.004 . = 10? - 460 gg (460-1717) = 10.7 (b) The average pore velocity is computed using Darcy's law with the Duput assumptions: {£ a) _(setomysar-t3) hae)” 03s” Ma60-17)m (L-d)a 0.190 meay ‘So the travel ime from the groundwater divide to river Ais 1524 days =4.18 years Silly the travel ine fom he groundwater divide to rver Bis computed 8 » -{(E)2)-(eeae yee en hae 0.35 im} by Tim va GOA miay (©) From Bustin 41.16, for x= 0: (teh?) _ £4) mM 0.101 mvday = 1692 days = 4.64 years a mfd){10°~8.52)m? 2460) (0.0044 mvs 2 } n=")152 Chapter 4 Groundwater and Well Hydravlies ‘The minus sign oceurs due to opposite How direction tothe x-axis (see Figure 4.1.5). So, (0.751 x 1000 m) = 751 m/day isthe daily discharge from the aquifer per kilometer into river B. Similan, for x= 460m: Kiam) aft ) oa _ (8.64 ma){to* -2.5%) ~ -2(460) 460 =1.27(0' ayn ‘The daily discharge from the aquifer per kilometer into river Ais (1.27 x 1000 m) = 1270 m?/day . 4.2 STEADY RADIAL FLOW TO A WELL ‘When a well is pumped, water is removed from the aquifer surrounding the well, and the water table or piezometric surface, depending on the type of aquifer, is lowered. The drawdown at a ‘given point is the distance the water level is lowered. A drawdown curve (or cone) shows the Variation of drawdown with distance from the well (see Figure 4.2.1) In three dimensions, the drawdown curve describes a conic shape known as the cone of depression, as shown in Figure 4.2.2, Also the outer limit of the cone of depression (zero drawdown) defines the area of influence of the well. 4.2.1 Confined Aquifer ‘To derive the radial flow equation (which relates the well discharge to drawdown) for a well completely penetrating a confined aquifer, referring to Figure 4.2.1 will prove helpful. The flow is assumed two-dimensional to a well centered on a circular island and penetrating a homogeneous and isotropic aquifer. Because the flow is everywhere horizontal, the Dupuit assumptions apply without erro. Using plane polar coordinates with the well a the origin, we obtain the well discharge Q at any distance r as, O=Av =o B 20) Ground surface Original piezometic uae Figure 421. Steady radial flow to a well ‘penetrating @ confined Impermeable 0 ‘aquifer on an island,0751 x "aay. ve water wm at a ‘ows the ‘ons, the 1 Figure ofinflu- wea well ful, The rating a » Dupait ‘gin, we 421) Steady a well ‘sland. 42. Steady Radial Flow toa Well 153 for steady radial flow to the well. Rearranging and integrating 4.2.1 for the boundary conditions atthe well, A= A, and r=, and atthe edge of the island, h = hg and r=ry, yield (422) =2nKp feat Q=2nKb ine) (4.2.3) ‘with the negative sign neglected In the more general case of a well penetrating an extensive confined aquifer as in Figure 4.2.2, there is no extemal limit for r From the above derivation at any given value of r, hohy Qn 2nko (4.24) Which shows that f increases indefinitely with increasing r Yet, the maximum fr i the initial uniform head hg. Thus, from a theoretical aspect, steady redial flow in an extensive aquifer does not exist because the cone of depression must expand indefinitely with time. However, from a practical standpoint, h approaches fy with distance from the well, and the drawdown varies with the logarithm of the distance from the well, ‘The flow net in Figure 4.2. illustrates the distribution of flow in a confined aquifer fora fully penetrating well and a 100 percent open hole. Figure 4.2.4 illustrates the flow distribution toa discharging well in a confined aquifer. The well i a fully penetrating, 100 percent open hole. Figure 4.2.5 illustrates the flow net fora well that penetrates 50 percent of the confined aquifer with an open hole, The flow net in Figure 4.2.6 illustrates the distribution of flow in a confined aquifer for a well that penetrates through the upper confining bed but not into the artesian aquifer Equetion 4.2.4, known as the equilibrium, or Thiem,® equation, enables the hydraulic conductivity or the transmissivity of a confined aquifer to be determined from a pumped well Ground surface COiginlpiszometric sutace Figure 4.2.2. Racial flow to a well penetrating an extensive confined aquifer154° Chopter4 Groundwater and Well Hydraulics Static piezometric surface Drawdown cone (curve) Upper confining bed Artesian ‘aquier Lower confining bed Artesian ‘aquifer Figure 4.2.3. Distribution of flow toa discharging wel in an artesian aquifer—a fully penetrating and 100 percent open hole (from the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation®), that fully penetrates the aquifer. Because any two points define the logarithmic drawdown curve, the method consists of measuring drawdowns in two observation wells at different distances from a well pumped at a constant rate. Theoretically, hat the pumped well can serve as one measurement point; however, well losses caused by flow through the well screen and inside the well introduce errors so that h, should be avoided. The transmissivity is given by Drawdown ee ‘cone: EL] Static piezometrc surtace os 2 | aye 425) b= Thickness of aquifer hg = Undisturbed artesian head ‘nya = Undsturbed artesian heads at fy respectively when well '5 discharging 54,89 = Drawdown alr, and re respective when well is discharging =0,=0, Acoerb T- &y=2erb Vi= uly ‘Atesian Vy= Oia; aqui ~~ Vo = Qz/ Ay Figure 4.2.4, Flow distribution toa lschargng well in an artesian auifer—a fully penetrating and 100 percent open hole (Grom the US. Bureau of Reclamation),charging sting and av of rawdown different teen and iven by 425) Static piezomet Lower confring Lower confining bed 42 Steady Radial Flow to a Well 155 tre surface Figure 4.2.5. Distribution of flow to a well in an artesian agquftr—a SO-perceat bed penetating and open =-+-- Flow ines hole (rom U.S. Bureau Equipotential ines of Reclamation®) where rand rp are the distances and hy and fy are the heads of the respective observation wells. From a practical standpoint, the drawdown 5 rather than the head /t is measured so that Equation 42.5 ean be censiten —2 yh aris 52) (426) wheres, and spare shown ia Figure 4.2.2, In order to apply Equation 4.26, pumping must con. tinue at a uniform rate fora sufficient time to approach a steady-state condition—that is, one in which the drawdown changes negligibly with time.” The observation wells should be located ‘lose enough to the pumping wel so that their drawdowns are appreciable and can be readily measured. The derivation assumes that the aquifer is homogeneous and isotropic, is of uniforin thickness, and is of infinite areal extent; that the well penetrates the entire aquifer; and that initially the piezometrc surface is nearly horizontal. Figure 4.26. Distibation of flow to a dscharging well—just penetrating to the top of an arte sian aquifer. strong vertical component of flow is established out to & distrce approxi mately equal to the thickness of the aquifer (from US. Bureau of Reclamation), “Inf, their domdowns (5-1) Deore exe constant while bth vale ae il increasing 9 ‘hac Baton 4.2.6 genealy ves good res ater only few dys of pumping186 Chapter Groundwater and Well Hydraulics EXAMPLE 4.2.1 SOLUTION EXAMPLE 4.2.2 SOLUTION A well fully penetzates a 25-m thick confined aquifer. After along period of pumping ata constant rate ‘0f 005 ms, the drawdowns at distances of 50 and 150 m from the well were observed t be 3 and 1.2m, respectively: Determine the hydraulic conductivity and the transmissivity. What type of unconsolidated deposit would you expect tis ta be? Jig his and 5) = hy hy, 80.5, 5 = hy hy =3=1 Q 4), 4320 metay (150) matt BOSmYLEm) | 0 - "68rieay ‘The transimissivity is T= Kb = (16.8 rv/day)(25 m) = 420 m*/day, Referring to Figure 3.2.2 and Table 3.21 with &'= 194 x 10s shows har this aquifer is probably a medium clean sand . A Loam diameter well penetrates vertically trough a confined aquifer 30 m thick, When the well is ‘pumped at 113 m/f, the drawdown in a well 15 m away is 1.8 m; in another well 0 m away, iis 0.5 m, ‘What isthe approximate headin the pumped wel for steady-state conditions and whats the approximate 0 and Q = Qy, so that Q=-7W+9, (4.2.15) Substituting this flow in the equation for flow to the well (Equation 42.7) gives ant =m’ W+9, (4216) Integrating, and noting that k= hy at r= rg yield the equation for the drawdown curve: Ww 2. ga = —(P — 2 )+ Sein ® * ae) ae 27) By comparing Equation 4.2.17 with Equation 4.2.8, the effect of the vertical recharge becomes apparent. Ic follows that when r= rq, Q=0, so that from Equation 4.2.15 0,=1gW (42.18) “Thus, the total flow of the well equals the recharge within the circle defined by the radius of influence; conversely, the radius of influence is a function of the well pumpage and the recharge rate only. This results ina steady-state drawdown; however, the analysis assumes an idealized circular outer boundary with a constant head and no flow-conditions that rarely ‘occur in the field, A pumping wel is to be used io maintain a Jonered water able sta constuction ste. The te square, SOrnon aside, the 25+ ‘The well discharge is expressed in terms ofthe radi of influence using Equation 42.17 as Q,= nrg W= (.06) x73. Suipstirte his eltionsip along with = 191m, h= 16 m, W’= 0.06 réay, K=0.864 miday, and r=1f25? +25" =35.35 m into Bqvation 4.2.17 to obtain 43water 2.13) 2.14) 2.15) 2.16) 2.17) somes 2.18) ius of| ad the nes an rarely square, figure. 0.864 round ground he con- dy-state mW sinks, 43° Wellin a Uniform Flow 164, 0.06 (0.06%) 1 19? -16? = —_(35.35? -, iy Zeoaal set hs] Solving the above equation using an erative procedure yields ry 70m. The minimum pumping rate is Q., = F110?) {0.06} = 924 m?/day or 0.01069 mms 4.3 WELL INA UNIFORM FLOW Drawdown curves for well flow presented heretofore have assumed an intially horizontal ‘groundwater surface, A practical situation is that of a well purnping from an aquifer having a uniform flow field, as indicated by a uniformly sloping piezometric surface or water table. Figure 43.1 shows sectional and plan views of a well penetrating a confined aquifer with a sloping piezometric surface. Itis apparent that the circular area of influence associated with « radial flow pattern becomes distorted; however, for most relatively flat natural slopes the ‘Dupuit redial flow equation can be applied without appreciable error. For wells pumping from an area with a sloping hydraulic gradient, the hydraulic conductivity can be determined from Equation 4.2.7 by inserting average heads and hydraulic gradients. The resulting expression has the form 20 fh, +a) ie) for an unconfined aquifer where Q isthe pumping rate, h, and hzare the saturated thicknesses, and i, and i, are the water table slopes at distance r upstream and downstream, respectively, from the well. For a confined aquifer, piezometric slopes replace water table slopes, and (hy + 1.) is replaced by 2b where b is the aquifer thickness. In Figure 4.3.1, the groundwater divide marking the boundary of the region producing inflow to the well is shown. For a well pumping for an infinite time, the boundary would «extend up to the limit of the aquifer. The expression forthe boundary of the region producing inflow can be derived by superposition of radial and one-dimensional flow fields to yield 43.) 2nKbi > w( 25) 43.2) ‘where the rectangular coordinates areas shown in Figure 43.1 with the origin at the well, bis the aquifer thickness, Qs the discharge rate, iis the natural piezometric slope, and Kis hydraulic conductivity, From Equation 4.32, the boundary asymptotically approaches the finite limits Q 2 4, Tei (433) Ye as x =, The boundary of the contributing area extends downstream to a stagnation point where Q Gi (434) It follows thatthe upstream inflow zone equals 2nxz, Equations 4.3.1 10 4.3.3 also apply to unconfined aquifers by replacing b by the uniform saturated aquifer thickness fh, providing the drawdown i smal in relation tothe aquifer thickness, An important practical application ofthese equations concerns determining whether an upstream pollution source will afect a nearby pumping well (see Chapter 8)162 Chapter4 Groundwater and Well Hyéraulics SENANPRE AB SOLUTION Q. Ground surace t Ong ae _—— Sk i Drawdown curve lmpermeable cn ae reemest fa) ” j Flow ols fies A ae ~ Ehipsoralines B/E‘ Ngure431. Fontos 25 well penetrating a confined Groundwater divide al aquifer having a sloping i dine eet suri ‘ (a) Vertical section. (b) ® Pan view A fully penetrating production well witha radius of 0.5 m pumps atthe rate of 15 Lis from a 35-m thick confined aquifer with a hydraulic conductivity of 20 nVay. If the distance and the observed piezometric head drop between two observation wells were 1000 m and 3 m, respectively, before the production Well ‘was installed, determine the longitudinal and transverse limits of groundwater entering the wel, First determine the slope ofthe pezometric surface under natural conditions (Le, before the production well was installed) bh 3m ax 1000m Itis assumed thatthe observation wells were aligned with the groundwater flow direction. Then, using Equations 4.33 and 4.3.4, compute the limits of groundwater entering the wel on alhorizontal plane (i.e plan view) for Q = 15 Lis = 1296 m'iday: Q 1296 m3/day 08m 2" Fxbi 220 may (35 m) 0.003 Q 1296 m?/day =-98.2m *L~TRKbI” Za{20 malday)(35 m)x 0.008 ‘A practical results that contaminant sourees farther than 98.2 m downstream of the well or 308 m in the transverse direction do ct impact te well . 44 44144 Unsteady Ratial Flow in a Confined Aquifer 163 44 UNSTEADY RADIAL FLOW INA CONFINED AQUIFER 44.1 Nonequilibrium Well Pumping Equation ‘When a well penetrating an extensive confined aquifer is pumped at a constant rat, the influence of the discharge extends outward with time. The rate of decline of head times the storage coefficient summed over the area of influence equals the discharge. Because the water must come from a reduction of storage within the aquifer, the head will continue to decline as long as the aguifer is effectively infinite; therefore, unsteady, or transient, flow exists. The rate of decline, however, decreases continuously asthe area of influence expands. ‘The applicable differenti! equation (see Equation 3.9.12) in plane polar coordinates is eh ar rer Ta 44.) where is head, r is radial distance from the pumped well, Sis the storage coefficient, Tis transmissivity, and is the time since beginning of pumping. Theis® obtained a solution for Equetion 4.4.1 based on the analogy between groundwater flow and heat conduction, By assuming thatthe well is replaced by a mathemtical sink of constant strength and imposing the boundary conditions h = hy for ¢= 0, and h—> hy as r > © fort 2, the solution 4n0 | PATH Gal (442) a is obtained, where sis drawdown, Q is the constant well discharge, and infined 2 ‘ing rs 4 (443) Equation 44.2 is known as the nonequilibrium, of Theis, equation. The integral isa function of the lower limit wand is known as an exponential integral It can be expanded as a conver gen series as shown in Equation 44.2 and is termed the well function, Wi). thick aie ‘Alternatively, using U.S. customary units (gallon-day-foot system) where sis in i, Q isin onvwelt gpm, Tis in gpl is in andi in days, we have 11469 “o ada Auction ; LAMPS ay (4840) 268375 sin minates) 2s Tr (4c) “The nonequilibrium equation permits determination ofthe formation constants and T'by rears of pumping tests of wells. The equation is widely applied in practice and is preferred over the equilibrium equation because (1) a value for $ can be determined, (2) only one observation wel is required, (3) a shorter period of pumping is generally necessary, and (4) no assumption of steady-sate flow conditions is required. ‘The assumptions inherent in Equation 44.2 shouldbe emphasized because they are often oe min overlooked in applying the nonequilibrium equation and tereby can ied to erroneous results : The assumptions include:164 Chapter 4 Grounwater and Well Hydraulics 1. The aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic, of uniform thickness, and of infinite areal extent. ‘Tabled. 2. Before pumping, the piezometse surface is horizontal a 3. The wel is pumped at a constant discharge rate. “ 4, The pumped well penetrates the entre aquifer, and flow is everywhere horizontal within x1! the aquifer tothe wel. x10? 5. The well diameter is infinitesimal so that storage within the well can be neglected. x wm 6, Water removed from storage is discharged instantaneously with decline of head. igs Seldom, if ever, are these assumptions strictly satisfied, but recognition of them can cre- x10% ate an awareness of the approximations involved for employing the nonequilibrium equation xo under field conditions. Average values of S and T’can be obtained in the vicinity of a pumped x0 well by measuring in one or more observation wells the change in drawdown with time under x" the influence of a constant pumping rate. Because of the mathematical difficulties encountered xion in applying Equation 4.4.2, or its equivalent, Equation 4.4.4, several investigators have devel. x10" coped simpler approximate solutions that can be readily applied for field purposes. Three meth- 0" ‘ods, by Theis,” Cooper and Jacob,’ and Chow.” are described in the following sections with the x10 necessary tables and/or graphs. An illustrative example accompanies each method. x e xo" 44.2. Theis Method of Solution EXAM Equation 4.4.2 may be simplified to ) mw (ar («) (445) where Wu), termed the well function, is a convenient symbolic form of the exponential integral, Rewriting Equation 4.4.3 as P (2) 2.{7\ 1 US (446) wwe can see that the relation between W(u) and u must be similar to that between s and Pit because the terms in parentheses in the two equations are constants. Given this similarity, Theis suggested an approximate solution for § and T based on a graphic method of superposition, A plot on logarithmic pager of W(u) versus u, known as a fype curve, is prepared. Table 4.4.1 gives values of W(u) for a wide range of u Values of drawwdowns ate plotted against valves of //on logarithmic paper ofthe same size and scale as for te type curve. The observed time- 0, so that B + e and r/B — 0, thereby reducing Equation 4.6.1 to the Theis equation Employing this analogy and the Theis method of solution, Walton™ prepared a family of type curves for W(u, r/B) as presented in Figure 4.6.2. Here values of Wu, 1/B) are plotted ‘agains I/u for various values of r/B. On another sheet of logarithmic paper ofthe same scale, 5 versus is plotted, Superimposing the two sheets while keeping the coordinate axes parallel, position is found where most of the data poins fall on one of the type curves. Selecting any convenient match point, values of Wu, /B), Vu, s, and ate noted. T is then found from178 Chopter 4 Groundwater and Well Hydraulics EXAN (adarre Depart Interior Figure 4.6.1, Well pumping from a leaky auier. [Equation 4.6.1 and S from Equation 4.6.2. Finally, from the value of 1/8 belonging to the type. ‘curve of best fit, it is possible to calculate K’/s’ from Equation 4.6.3; and if ” is known from SOLUTL field conditions, A’ can be evaluated. ca T T ¥ T T i T 10 tol Nonequiimn g £09) 4 1 § g = or | 01 oot L 1 1 1 1 1 1 oF 10 10 ira 108 10 108 10 ro 00 ts bi Figure 46.2. Type curves for analysis of pumping test data to evaluate storage coefficient and transmissivity of leaky aquifers (efter Walton), Figure 4.6:466 Unsteady Radial Flow in a Leaky Aquifer 179 BXAMPLEG6 A vell pumping 21600 1°/ain fully penewates a conned aquifer overain bya leaky confining layer af List thickness. Using te tabulated tine-drawdown data for an observation wall 40 ft away from the (adapted from U.S. pumping wel, estimate the transmissivity and storage coefficient of the confined aquifer, and the per Depsmgst of the ahi oft guar. Assume tate ering ye dos ot eee wate: om sage terion Time (min) Drawdown (t) Time (ain) Drawdown (ft) ° 0.00 80 20 2 5.65 90 1225 4 6.96 100 1233 6 am M10 1237 8 800 120 nat 10 ant 150 1269 15 947 180 1285 20 999 210 13.0 25 1035 40 1313 20 1070 270 132s 40 IL 300 1333 50 1.46 360 1337 . 60 1162 420 1341 70 1186 etype strom SOLUTION ‘The time-drawdown field data were saperimposed onthe family type curves for leaky aquifers Figure 4.63). Comparison shows that the best fit curs for 1/B = 0.03. The coordinates of the maich point selected are + 100.00 : 10 10——— 00. Time (minvtes) Wu, r18) oa Ww 00 4 i 70 705 1000 Too00 we Figure 4.63, Leaky type curve matching for Example 46.1,180 Chapter 4 Groundwater and Well Hydraulics £259 min, 193i [Next we mas perform the folloning unit conversions inorder to chain the transmissivity in units of fda and hydalic conductivity ofthe guitar in units of fUday for Q = 600 ft/min = 864000 fay and r= 59 min = 0.04 days. The wansousivty and storage coficen ofthe coined aquifer are computed using Equations 4.6.1 and 46:2 rearranged respectively as day =a r= 2 fu,riB) — BEM Hes 0) 35,606 day ans “4n(193) nu _ 4(35,624 ft? /day)(0.041 days)(0.001) stu _ 4 sO V0) sas r (aon) The you conductivity of the aqua is computed by earanging Egon 4.63 ia? _ (35.624 hay)4 (003) _ Tera (SOAR aN LAO 6 ayy oie r (408) . © 4.7 WELL FLOW NEAR AQUIFER BOUNDARIES ‘Where a well is pumped near an aquifer boundary, the assumption that the aquifer is of infinite areal extent no longer holds. Analysis of this situation involves the principle of superposition by ‘which the drawdown of two or more well is the sum of the drawdowns of each individual well By introducing imaginary (or image) wells, an aquifer of finite extent can be trensformed into ‘an infinite aquifer so thatthe solution methods previously described can be applied. 4.7.1 Well Flow Near a Stream ‘An example of the usefulness ofthe method of images is the situation ofa well near a peren- is desired to obtain the head at any point under the influence of pumping ata constant rate Q and to determine what fraction of the pumpage is derived from the steam. Sectional views are shown in Figure 4.7.1 ofthe real system and an equivalent imaginary system. Note in Figure 4.7.1b that an imaginary recharge well’ has been placed directly opposite and at the same distance from the stream as the real well. This image well operates simulta- neously and atthe same rate as the real well so thatthe buildup (increase of head around a recharge well) and drawdown of head along the line of the stream exactly cancel. This fur nishes a constant head along the stream, which is equivalent to the constant elevation of the stream forming the aquifer boundary. Thus, in the plan view of the resulting flow net, illustrated by Figure 4.72, a single equipotential line is coincident with the axis ofthe stream. The resultant asyrmetcical drawdown ofthe real wel s given at any point by the algebraic sum of, the drawdown of the real well and the buildup of the recharge well, as if these wells were located in an infinite aquifer. Examples of hydraulically equivalent aguifer systems bounded by streams with various configurations are shown in Figure 4.7.3, Note that combinations of both image recharge and pumping wells are required.” For the single stream in Figure 4.7.3a, the steady-state drawdown at any point (x,y) is given by ae \ “A recharge wells 8 well hough which water i ded to an aquifer; hence, its the reverse of a purging wela anit of, M@lday recom. infinite ‘tion by ral well. sed into a peren- >amping stream. vary sys opposite simulta- around a This fur mn of the et, illus vam, The esumot alls were: 1 various carge and ate draw- gvel 47 Well low Near Aquifer Boondaies 181 vicinal eran Seaman [ito Ground sutace LO | ~Impermeabie fa) 20 damon @ ‘oun | ecarang buisncongonet od IK image wal ‘of image well gine Th. Discharging ‘eal well of real wal Figure 474, Sesion view i Aateriiness ng shoulder eae orem sean) Cale ‘yes cmpered than 5 Ee tract n nae of inate meal (o) ‘extent (after Ferris et al.'*) Figure 4.7.2. Flow net for discharging real well and recharging image well after Feri, etal,182 Chapter4 Groundwate ana Wel Hydraulics yg ler me) +0- 9) ann ar eon o- nF where (ry, yj) att the coordinates of the pumped well. Similarly, forthe right-angle boundaries of Figure 47.3b, 0 [era sb) [feral 40-0) 4A [(x— a + y) [loa #04») ] ‘And forthe strip aquifer bounded by two straight parallel streams (see Figure 47.20), (47.2) (413) and the angles are expressed in radians. Actually, in Figure 4.7.3c, the image wells extend to infinity; however, in practice itis only necessary to include pairs of image wells closest to the teal well because others have a negligible influence on the drawdown, ‘The water level in the wells will draw dovin intially only under the influence of the pumped well. After a time the effects of the recharge boundary will cause the time rate of drawdown to decrease and eventually reach equilibrium conditions. This occurs when recharge equals the pumping rate, as illustrated in Figure 4.7.4. The total drawdown for equilibrium conditions can be expressed es 474) in which s,is the drawdown in an observation well near a recharge boundary, s, is the drawdown due tothe pumped wel, and sis the buildup due tothe image well (recharge boundary). ‘The drawdown equation can be written as (2) © + Real discharging well Image discharging wel * Image recharging well Figure 4.7.3. image wel systems for aquifers ‘bounded by streams of various geometries. (2) Unidirectional steam, oe ft te oe oe ooo — )Rectangular steam (6) Two parle streams 2 bone wo U-shaped sream ‘Theoreticelly, image wells in (c) and () extend left and right to © @ infinity. logs4.7, Well Flow Near Aquifer Boundaries 183, logs Drawdown ove 1 ard) pumped well \ . Buidup de to 5 Drawdown in obs 472) 5, | wolnearavecarge ® 5, > "boundary tg Rigure 474, Recharge bouary eects on 105% sime-drewdown curve (473) tine-dowdown Q 5, = 2 [wu,)- wu, tend to aan") (475) sto the \where Q isthe constant pumping rate (L°/T), T is the transmissivity (L2/T], Wu) and Wu) are dimensionless, u, and are eof the >rate of a= and ya l® ‘eoharge an, ‘an, ‘Vu in which r; an rare in (L] and ris time in (T] 478) The drawdown in U. S, customary units (the gallon-day-foot system) can be expressed as 4 ve draw EO (u,)-m)] 47 indary) 18I3S 18725 “ DS ogy, - bot whee My = and 4 = For large values of time, 1, the well functions can be expressed as Wu,)=-05772—I0 up rn and Wu) =-05772—In (478) This allows Equation 4.75 to be simplified to (479) and Equation 4.7.6 is sienplifed to age aquifers 42.10) ns of oe ¢ » s@ am Now using the gallon-day-foot system with time in minutes team a 2693735 weams oe 47M) vee i and a a ao ff = us (arin184 Chapter 4 Groundwater and Well Hydravlies SOLUTION Recharge line Figure 4.75. Definition of terms for Equation 4.7.15. ye 5 Bond 4 (4.7.14) Rorabaugh*® expressed this equation in terms of the distances between the pumped well and the line of recharges as 528Qlog,|(4a° +1} - dar, cos B, Vr, a (4715) $ (47.13) which simplifies where ais the distance from the pumped well tothe recharge boundary in ft, and B, isthe angle between a line connecting the pumped and image wells anda line connecting the pumped and observation wells. Refer to Figure 4.7.5 for an explanation of terms. ‘A 0.5.m diameter well (200m from rvs) is pumping ot an unkown rte from 8 confined aquifer (ee Figue 47.6, The aquifer propenies are T= 432 m'fday and $= 40 x 10". After eight hous of purnping, the drawdown inthe observation wel (60m from the river is 08 m, Compe the rate of pumping and the draxdown inthe pumped wel. What is the eect of the river on drawdown inthe observation ‘wel and inthe pumped well? ‘The foliowing infomation is given nthe above statement r,=0.25 m, 7=432 mPldy=5.0x 10" ms, $= 4x 105,¢=8 hr= 28,800 s, and s= 0.8 m. A cecharging image well is placed atthe same distance from the river as the pumped well as shown in Figure 4.7.6. Bguiton 47 Sis uscd to compute the discharge from te pumped wel owing the above information: e o aan eae) 25 140)'(4x10") att asx 10"*)(28800) =136x107 Puriped wall Figure 4,jon of. 1S. 47.13) 47.14) 2d well 47.18) ve angle ped and lifer (see >t pump- pumping servation OP mils, istance mation: 47. Well Flow Near Aquifer Boundaries 185 Fiver I 140m ——+|— 00m | neta = G40 2-60 200 =} a sewaton wel wal Image @ (e) figure 47.6, Example 471 system. (a) Well locations (6) Image well oceton soma = 004m The drawdown in the pumped wellis computed using equation 4.75 25 _ (025) (4x10) 47. 4(5x107)(28800) a4xi0 (400)3(4x10“) “5x10 i200) W(14,)=16.38 for u, = 4.39% 10 and W(u,) =1.75 for u, = 0.111 ‘Thos the drawdown is 0.04 oot aa(oni07) enon 38)- ‘The effect ofthe river onthe wells sto decrease the drawdown, so the reduced drawdown inthe obses- vation well is186 Chapter 4 Groundwater and Well Hyravlies 4.7.2. Well Flow Near an Impermeable Boundary In the case of an impermeable or barrier boundary, water cannot flow across the boundary; no water is being contributed to the pumped well from the impervious formation. The cone of depression that would exist fora pumped well in an aquifer of infinite areal extent is shown in Figure 4.7.7b. Because of a barrier boundary, the cone of depression shown is no longer valid since there can be no flow across the boundary, Placing an image well, discharging in nature across the barrier boundary, creates the effect of no flow actoss the boundary. The image well must be placed perpendicular to the barrier boundary and the same distance from the bound- ‘ary a8 the real well. The resulting real cone of depression isthe summation ofthe components of both the real and image well depression cones as shown in the Figure 4.7.7b. Water levels in wells will decline at an intial rate due only tothe influence of the pumped well. As pumping continves the barier boundary effects will begin as simulated by the image well affecting the real well. When the effects ofthe barrier boundary are realized, the time rate of drawdown will increase (Figure 4.7.8), When this occurs, the total rate of withdrawal from the aquifer is equal to that ofthe pumped well plus that ofthe discharging image well causing the cone of depression of the real well tobe deflected downward. ‘The total drawdown in the real well can be expressed as (4.7.16) owe @_ games 21S. average or aective postion of ine of zo Now ® Drawdown component of age wll." Drawsonn component oischaring : ofrealwall Q Discharging image wall voalwel + nonpunning) | ( watereve__t /aseve Impermeabie * @ -Anuitor thickness h should bo very large compared el! near an impermeable boundary (6) Figure 4.7.7. Sectional views. (a) Discharging to resultant drawdown near real well ‘Equivalent hydraulic system in an aquifer of infi- © nite areal extent (after Ferris eta.)ary; no of vown in at valid «nature ge well bound- sonenis levels pump: ffecting wdown tui is cone of 47:16) sarging ofinfi- 4.7 Well Flow Near Aquifer Boundaries 187 bogs Total drandown s Due to dscharging 8) image wel Bair boundary ‘fect begins Drawdown in obs. wall due to pumping ‘roduction wel Se" 545) Figure 47.8. Barrer boundary effects on Toot time-drawdowa curve in which s, isthe total drawdown, s, is the drawdown in an observation well due to pumping of the production well, and 5 is the drawdown due to the discharging image well (barrice ‘boundary). The total drawdown can be expressed as Q 2 8 ep My) ge Hd (47.17) where Q is the constant pumping rate (L°/T], is the transmissivity (L2/T], Wlu,) and Wu) are dimensionless, and u, and u, are in which r, and r, are in (L} and tis time in (T]. Drawdown Equation 4.7.16 can also be expressed in U.S. customary units (gal-day-foot) system where Sis in ft, Q isin gpm, Tis in gpd, ris inf, and tis in days: pp = 1482 ly 860 yy 67.18) Now suppose that we choose drawdowns a times f, and f, such that s, = 5, then Wu,) = Wu) and u, = 4, Then 2s which reduces to (4.7.19) Equation 4.7.19 defines the law of times which states that fora given aquifer, the times of cecurrence of equal drawdown vary directly as the squares of distances from an observation well o 2 production well and an image well of equal discharge. The law of times can be used to determine the distance from an image well to an observation wel, using188 Chapter 4 Groundwater and Well Hydravlies “ft (4720) in which r, is the distance from the image well o the observation wel inf, r, isthe distance from the pumped well to the observation well in ft, 1, is the time after pumping started and before the barrier boundary is effective, and isthe time (after pumping started and after the barrier boundary becomes effective) where 5, = 5; ‘A well is pumping neas a barrier boundary (see Figure 47.9) at arate of 003 m/s from a confined EXAMPLE 47.2 aquifer 20 m thick. The hydrant conductivity ofthe aquifers 27.65 mda anditsstocaivity is 3x 10°, Determine the drawdown inthe observation well after 10 hours of continuous pumping, What isthe fraction ofthe drawdown atributable to the barrier boundary? SOLUTION ‘The following information is given inthe above problem statement: Q=0.03 ms, b= 20 m, K=27.65 ay = 3.2% 10 mis, $= 3 10°, 1= 10 fxs = 36,000 s, An image wells placed aross the boondary atte same distance from the boundary asthe pumped wel (5 shown in Figure 4.7.9). The drawdown sn the observation wells due to the rel well and the imaginary wel (hich seeouns forthe baree boundary). Hence, using Equation 4.7.17 s LEM) 2 wu) rs (240)°(3x10°) at pax ¥e500) Next compute the distance from the observation well to the image well: r? = 600% + 240% ~ 600X300 cos 30" = 16885 a 07= 410m. Using compute 168185010") 5207825107 36,000) ‘The well functions are now computed or obtained from Table 44.1 as Wu) = 5.72 for uy = 1.88% 10° and Wu) = 468 for u = 547 x10". The drawdown atthe observation well is computed as 003 4n(20)(3.210) 541x107 5724464) =386m ‘The drawdown attibatable tothe barier boundary is computed as Bart Barior oe} posncy Boundary - fo y a wz ose 300m 0m \ (a) to) Figure 4.7.9, Example 472 system. a) Well locations (b) Image well location 4737.20) stance vd and ter the onfined xe ve frac. 22165 sundary vwdowa, Darter 280? = x10 47 Well Flow Near Aquifer Boundaries 189 and the fraction of drawdown atrbutable tothe impermesble boundary is 4 1B SIP gas wa ag 45 (45H) . 4.1.3, Well Flow Near Other Boundaries In addition to the previous two examples, the method of images can be applied to a large number of groundwater boundary problems. As before, actual boundaries ae replaced by an equivalent hydraulic system, which includes imaginary wells and permits solutions to be obtained from equations applicable only to extensive aquifers. Two boundary conditions to suggest the adaptability of the method are shown in Figure 4.7.10. Figure 4.7.10a shows a discharging well inan aquifer bounded on two sides by impermeable barriers. The image discharge wells and J, provide the required flow but, in addition, a third image well is necessary to balance éraw- 474mage a dis = Image pattern repeats t infinity —e by two angle ence on compu own in 4.7. Well Flow Near Aquifer Boundaries 191 Figure 4.7.13, Plans of image-vell systems © Signi discharging well © Signifes recharging wall fora rectangular aquifer (after Ferris etal.) ‘The above equations involve T for confined aquifers. To adapt them to unconfined aquifers, s should be replaced by s” =~ 2g where iis the initial saturated aquifer thickness. Storage coefficients cannot be calculated from steady-state boundary equations. Procedures for analyzing unsteady well flows near aquifer boundaries, involving graphic solutions, are available. 2 4.7.4 Location of Aquifer Boundary ‘stems el ons 14), Permeable aquifer boundaries such as streams would normally be visible near ¢ pumping well; however, impermeable subsurface boundaries such as faults or dikes may not be appar- cent, Where this situation is encountered, the location and orientation of such a barrier can be defined by careful analysis of pumping test data.'**' In the Cooper—Jacob method (see Equa tion 4.48) the slope ofthe straight line on semilogarithmic paper depends only on the pumping rate and the transmissivity. If an impermeable boundary is present, the rate of drawdown in an observation well will double under the influence of an image purnping well (see Figure 4.7.14a).” To determine the location of the image well, straight lines are fitted through the two. legs of the data. An arbitrary drawdown sq is selected anda time f, for this to occur under the influence of the real well is measured (see Figure 4.7.14a), Similarly, atime 1, for the sarme ‘drawdown to be produced by the image well i defined. Then, knowing the distance r, between ‘the real well andthe observation well the distance r tothe image well (see Figure 4.7.146) can ‘be found from the law of times (Equation 4.7.20). The distance r, defines only the radius of a circle on which the image well lies It requires measurements in two more observation wells inorder to define uniquely by intersection of three arcs the location of the image wel (see Fig ture 4.7.146). The boundary then lies at the midpoint of and perpendicular toa line connecting the real and image wells. “Ieevould be noed tha if the boundary i stream recharging te aquifer, an image recharge wel is inuoduced ‘This produces slope of equal but opposite sgn on he drewdowe curve etlng ina horizontal asynpote192 Chapter 4 Groundwater and Well Hydreulies Drawdown, 5, meters Time, min =a @) + Obs. well2 fom welt em Unknown impermesty © pumping Figure 4.7.14. Diagrams illustrating procedure to ‘uier boundary Neo Woll” locate an unknown impermeable aquifer boundary Obs. well ‘neat a pumping well, (a) Cooper-Jacob drawdown curve showing effect of an impermeable boundary (Field situation coquzed to locate an unknown ) impermeable aquifer boundary 48 MULTIPLE WELL SYSTEMS Where the cones of depression of two nearby pumping wells overlap, one well is said to SOLUTIC inerfere with another because of the increased drawdown and pumping lft created. For a group of wells forming a well fel, the drawdown can be determined at any point ifthe well discharges ae known, or vice versa, From the psinciple of superposition, the drawdown at any point inthe are of influence caused by the discharge of several wells is equal othe sum of the drawdowns caused ty each well individually. Thus, SpES HSH tS (481) ‘wheres; is the total drawdown ate given point and s,s 5... are the drawdowns atthe point caused by the discharge of wells 1, 2,3, .., m, respectively. The summation of drawdowns may be illustrated in a simple way by the well line of Figure 4.8.1; the individual and , ‘composite drawdown curves are given for Q, = Q, = 03. Clearly, the number of wells and the geometry ofthe well field are important in determining drawdowns. Solutions canbe based on the equilibrium or nonequilibrium equation. Equations of well discharge for particular well patterns have been developed.‘ In general, wells in a well field designed for water supply should be spaced as far apart as possible so their areas of influence will produce a minimum of interference with each other. Ondure to sundry aweown >andary known. said to i Fora the well natany sum of (48.1) sat the of draw- lual and and the vased on ilar well apart as ‘ther. Oo ‘Composite drawdown ‘ounve forall hee als pumping BXAMPLESBL, SOLUTION 48° Multiple Well Systems 193 a Grand sutece Drawdown curve for Q3 only Impemeable Confined aquifer Figure 48.1. Individual and composite drawdown curves for three wells in a line the other hand, economic factors such as cost of land or pipelines may lead to a least-cost well layout that includes some interference.” For drainage wells designed to control water table elevations, it may be desirable to space wells so that interference increases the drainage effect. ‘Three pumping wels located along a straight line are spaced at 200 m apart. What should be the steady. slate pumping rate from each well so thatthe nea steady-state drawdown in each well will ot exceed 2m? The transmissivity ofthe confined aquifer, which al the wells fully penetrate, is 2400 méday and all the wes are 40.cm in diameter. Toe thickness of the aquifer is 40 m and the cadius of influence of cach wells 800 m. fe) 9 9 200 m 200 m ‘The following information is given in the above problem statement: 5, < 2m, s 2m, ands; <2m,T- 2,400 mlday = 27.8 x 10° mls, r, = 0.2 m, b= 40-m, ry = 800 m, and r= 200 m, Let Q be the parnp- ing rate from each well and hy be the head before pumping started, For wel 1, = 54,454 + 5 where 45s the drawdown in well‘ due to pumping in wel j. Thus, forthe other wells, 5 = 5 + 0+ 5. and 5 = 8 + 5 +43. By symumety, 5, = 5. The dravedawns in well 1 due to pumping in wells 1,2, and 3 weet o4e)_o(t) Ser“ aferexio>) 8? on) 2430) ar ne) (0 anf] _on( 38) at Beli194 Chapter4 Groundwater and Well Hydralies EXAMPLES SOLUTION ‘The total drawdown in well 2 iss, = 7.940 + 47.480 + 7.949 = 63:360. The relationships for sy = 58.309 and 5, = 63.360 show tha forthe sme discharge from al the wells, more drawdown results at the midéle wel; therefore, the drawdown in tis well govems. So using 5 2 or 63.360 <2, then the steady-state pumping rte from each well shouldbe Q < 3.16 x 10"? m5 = 113 me . This required to dewatera consiruction site 80 m by 80m. The botom ofthe construction willbe 15 mbelow the intial water surface elevation of 90 m. Four pumps are to be used in 0.S-m diameter wells a the four co nets of the site. The transmissivity and the storage coefficient ofthe aquifer are 1,600 m'fday and 0.16, respectively. The site needs tobe eady ater one month of pumping. Determine the tequired pumping rate, ‘Tosolve this problem, the least drawdown atthe site shouldbe greater than 1.5m, Itcan be shown thatthe potential points of interest that may have the leat drawdown ate the center ofthe square (point a) and the midpoint on each side of the square (points b) Approximation is made using the Coopet-Facob method. 4 ° 3 ‘At point a (the center ofthe square), r= 40? +40? = $6.6m, and Pr (56.6 m) = 25, (5560). oyneg an af 1600 m’fday}(30 days) Since w < 0.01, we can use the approximate solution by Cooper-Jacob expressed by Equation 4.47 __o ‘a(t my) Eeosrn-in))= 0.5772 -In(0.00267)) = 0.00026610 Using the principle of superposition and by symmetry, the drawdown caused by the four wells is. x5, = 4 x 0,00026610 = 0.0010643Q and s, = 0.00{0683Q = 1.5 m+ Q= 1409 mid. ‘At any of the four points represented by b, rj = 40 m for two of the wells andr = 80" +40" += 89.44 m forthe remaining two wells Then 25,016) gogs {ft6o0 cay 30 day) __(89.44m)*(0.16) 4600 ma) 30 days) 49) Figure « rations49° Partially Penetrating Wells 195 Since u, <0.01 and w < 0.01, the Cooper-Jacob method of solution can be used again: aad 2 [asm i} {2 sm) =2 2 __(-a5772-10(0.0013333))|+ 1 ata ‘ ) o— 2 _ 9 5772-1n(0.006666)) Fa aay) ose ( sults at = 2.00039 +20.00022059 ten te = 1041x107 @=15 m+ Q=1441 méday ‘Thus the points represented by b are cetical anda discharge of 1,441 may fom each well is required. below . curcor 016, grat. 49 PARTIALLY PENETRATING WELLS ‘A.well whose Jength of water entry i less than the aquifer it penetrates is known asa partially thatthe penetrating well Figure 49.1 illustrates the situation of a partially penetrating well in a con andthe fined aquifer. The flow patter to such wels differs from the radial horizontal flow assumed sethod. to exist around fully penetrating wells. The average length of a flow line into a partially penetrating well exceeds thet into a fully penetrating wel so a greater resistance (o flow is thus encountered. For practical purposes this results in the following relationships between two similar wells, one partially and one fully penetrating the same aquifer: if 0, = Q, then s, > s; and ifs, =, then Q, < 0. Here Q is well discharge, s is drawdown at the Well, and the sub- script prefers tothe partially penetrating well. The effect of partial penetration is negligible on the flow pattern and the drawdown beyond a radial distance larger than 0.5 to 2 times the sat urated thickness b, depending on the amount of penetration Ground sutaco Drawdown cure with fl penetration 40 ~__ Oontnas —- { KS aquifer @ © Figure 49.1. Parally penetrating wells in a confined aquifer. (a) Effect of pally penetrating well on drawdown () Two config- ‘rations of partially penetrating wells196 Chapter Groundwater and Well Hydraulics SOLUTION ‘The drawdown s, at the well face ofa partially penetrating well in a confined aquifer (see Figure 4.9.12) can be expressed as (49.1) ‘where As refers to the additional drawdown resulting from the effect of partial penetration. It can be shown for steady-state conditions and the typical situation’ in Figure 4.9.10(1)% 49.2) where T is transmissivity, p is the penetration fraction (p = hb), and h, and 1, are shown in Figure 4.9.16(1). Equation 49.2 applies where p > 0.20. For the case of a well seen centered in the thickness of the aquifer [see Figure 4.9.10(2)], the value of As is given by Gp Ip), (l= Ph aT p "2, 493) Equation 4.9.2 can be modified for a well in an unconfined aquifer by defining. a (49.4) where f,, is the saturated thickness at the well with full penetration and the hydraulic conductivity K= 77h, Then 84 As 2h, (49.5) and similarly for Equation 4.93. Detailed methods for analyzing effects of partial penetration on well flow for steady and unsteady conditions in confined, unconfined, leaky, and anisotropic aquifers have been outlined by Hantush®”” and others.” *°7 Although evaluating the effects is complicated except for the simplest cases, common field situations often reduce the practical importance of partial peneteation.* One occurs where an observation well is lcated move than 1.5 to 2 times the saturated aquifer thickness from a pumping well inthis situation the effect of partial penetration can be neglected for homogeneous and isotropic aquifers. Another applies to many alluvial aquifers with pronounced anisotropy. Here the vertical flow components become small, thereby enabling @ pumping wel tobe approximated as a fully penetrating well in a confined or leaky aquifer with a saturated thickness equal tothe length ofthe well screen, ‘Compare the four cases that are depicted in Figure 4.9.2 where a I-m diameter well fullypartially pen- ‘trates vertically through # confined aquifer whose thickness is 28 m. Comment on their relative eff- ciencies by evaluating the specific capacity (Qs) for each case. Take the radius of influence forall cases as 150 m. The pumping rates andthe aquifer transmissivity are the same for all cases. (Case (a: The drasdown in this case where the pomping well fully penetrates is computed by reerrang: ing toe Tem equation 6.24) at BY) 2 fof!) FS) SeS)--m(2) “The drawdown ineremet is the same whether partial penetration starts fom the top or from the bttom af the suite. "Teshoud be note that any well with 85 percent or more open or scresned ole nthe saturated thickness may be considered as fly penetrating. (a) Wet Figure‘er (see 49.1) tion. It * 92) own ip 102)), (493) (49.4) onduc- 495) idy and en out- except of par- res the venetra ryallu- small, oafined aly pea ive eff allcases be maybe 49 Panally Penetrating Wells 197 A Js in fe —t {a) Well fuly penetrating (6) Wall penetrating the top (c} Wall penetrating 14_m (a) Well penetrating 14 m vetoes” Oamat se Ones ee woe stones oer es res 2 Figure 4.92, Example 49.1 cases Case (b): The additional drawdown is computed by rearranging Equation 4.9.2: 0 Pixos, os) ol el Fels ley] ~ 2 ~oann{2) Sotte tal amon bcos (978 +0420) «L328. Case (¢}: The aditional drawdown in the case of a wel screen centered in the thickness ofthe aquifer is given by Equation 4.93: 1-05], (-05)a4) feel as" 303) oes) el S| sof 2) tr “The total drewtown forts case becomes (9078+ 03087) (QM = 12175 (QT) Case (This case is equivalent toa screen length of 7m centered ina 14-m thick aquifer. Again using Equation 493, we ot S las T+ Ges" 01942) he ‘The total drawdown fr this case becomes sy (0.9078 + 0.1994) (QIN = 1.1072 (QIN. Calculate the specific capacity (Q/s) for each case: 1o16(7) 7531(0) 04,=082140) O,=0903207) Or taking cnse (2), lly penetrating well asthe maximum potetial specific capacity, cases (t),(c) and (@) yield 68 percent, 75 percent, and 82 percent of the maximam capacity, respectively. So among the three casez, case (A) isthe most effective one. Also, centering the well screen yields higher capacity ‘compared tothe case where the same partial penetration starts from the top or from the bottom of the aquifer. .198 Chapter4 Groundwater and Well Hydraulics 4.10 WELL FLOW FOR SPECIAL CONDITIONS A vatiety of solutions fo well flow problems have been derived for special aquifer, pumping, and well conditions * Inasmuch as these are of less general application than those outlined heretofore and involve more extensive mathematical treatment, they will be omitted here. Ibis ‘worth noting, however, that solutions have been obtained forthe Following special conditions: 1. Constant well drawdown? 2, Varying, cyclic, and intermittent well discharges® 39-92-55. 3. Sloping aquifers*! 4. Aquifers of variable thickness" 5, Two-layered aquifers™* # sial of « 6. Anisotropic aquifers! ™ #4 surface 7, Aquifer conditions varying with depth®:*! im, resp 8, Large-diameter wells! roriet 4196 9, Collector wells (see Chapter 5) 4 Ae 10. Wells with multiple-sectioned well screens” ‘the chat Band] tion Ais PROBLEMS tine 4.1.1 A confined aquifer is 18.5 m tick. The potentiometric sur- 41.3 Two observation wells are to be constructed to determine the fully per face elevations at two abservation wells 822 m apart are25.96and natural slope of the piezometrc surface in a confined aguifc shown i 24.62, Ifthe horizontal hyéraulc conductivity ofthe aquifer is Assuming a steady unidirectional lo ifthe accuracies of pezo- ductive 25 mda, determine the flow rate per unt width ofthe aquifer, metric head measurements and horizontal stance measurements tion of specific discharge, and average liner velocity ofthe flow assum: ae 43 em and 45 om, respectively, determine the percent erin mandi ing steady unidcetional Now. cetimating he slope of te peznmetric surface as function ofthe the iver 44.2 Two confined aqufes ae sepased by an aquitardas chown stance between te to wells, What woud be the accuracy of taminati telow. The piezometric head difference between the upper and HYaraulic gradient estimate if a piezomesic head drop of 3 m is the cana lower aquifer measured slong a vertical lines 6.5 m. Ifthe veri. observed between two wells 100 m apart? teavel i al hydraulic conductivity of confining unit is 0.046 may, deter- 4,14 Rework Problem 4.11 if «410° eror is also possible in = 08 mine the direction and magainue of leakage per km? between the estimating the groundwater flow diecton advectio. upper and lower confined aquifers through the confining unit. 4.1 Near steady-state conditions explain how the hyéraalc gr prevent ‘Also, estimate the travel time ofa water particle though the con- Gent changes inthe flow cretion in 4244 Shingle bawee he woe, Emer ae taesac “e (b) an unconfined aquifer. boring 4.1.6 Consider two strata of the same sil material that ie between oo mdt two channels. The fist stretum is confined and the second one is wy and unconfined, end the water surface elevations inthe channels are intone 24 and 16 m above the bottom ofthe unconfined aquifer, What iawde should be the thickness ofthe confined aquifer for which 1) the discharge through both strata are equal, 2) the discharge through the confined aquifer is half of that ‘through the unconfined aquifer? 4.1.7 An unconfined aquifer in a stratum of clean sand and gravel has a hydraulic conductivity of 10" cm/sec. From two observa- ‘ion wells 200 m apart, the observed water table elevations are 1 and’7 m messured from the bottom of the stratum. Determine the Aischarge per unit width of the aquifer. 4.1.8 An earthen dam i 200 m across (i, the distance from the upstream face to the downstream face) and underlain by imper- rmeable bedrock. The average hydraulic conductivity ofthe mate-‘ping, lined altis tions ine the sguifee piezo meets sof te wyofa 3 mis sible in lic era Lone is ves are What of that gravel serves sare LI sine the ‘om the imper- ema. Foumation 8 Problesns 199) rial of which the darn is composed is 0.065 im/day If the water surface elevations in the reservoir and the tailwaters are 25 and 4.S 1 respectively, estimate the magnitude of leakage from the reser voi to the talwaters per 100-m width ofthe dam. 41.9 Compute the velume of water that seeps from the channel into the river inthe figure above, The water surface elevation in the channel and river with respect tothe underiying bedrock are {3.and 10.5 m, respectively. The hydraulic conductivity of formation A is 56 miday and that of formation B is 12:3 miday. 4.4.10 A canal is constructed parale! toa river 460 m away both fully penetrating an unconfined aquifer of clean sand and gravel as sbown in the illustration below. The aquifer has a hyGraulc conductivity of K = 18.5 miday and is subject to an average iniltra- tion of 16 yeas. The water surface elevation in the canal is 8 5 mand in the river it is 10 mI the mound between the canal and the river gts contaminated and the rive isto remain ree of con tamination, (a determine the daily discharge of groundwater into the canal an into the river per kilometer ofboth; (b) estimate the travel times from the water divide to the canal and t0 the river (= 035}; () asst thatthe contaminant iravels mainly by axvection, propose any operational changes tothe given layout 19 prevent the river from being contaminated 42.1 A well tha pumps at constant rate of 0.5 mis fully pene= ‘ates confned aquifer of 34m thickness. tera long ptiod of ‘pumping, near steady-state conditions, the measured drawdown two observation wells 50 and 160 m ftom the pumping well are 0.9 and 0.4 m, respectively. (a) Calculate the hydraulic conductiv- ‘ty and ransmissivity of the aquifer, () estimate the rads of influence ofthe pumping well, and (c)caleulate the expected drawdown inthe pumping well if the rcs of the wellis 0.4m. W=16 miyear ii iit = imparmaiebatock == Sa Figure to accompany Problem 419 422 A confined aquifer of 10-m thickness and 16.43 may tydraule conductsty i fully penetrated by @ pumping well of (05 om radius operating st Q = 425 mlday, Determine the draw low unde steady-state conditions in the pumping well and SD m avy fom the well Take the radius of influence of the pumping 2s300m. 42.3 What percent increaseldecrese would oecor in the draw down ofthe pumping wel ite radius ofthe well is doubled and the pumping rat is kept the same in Problem 4.2.27 Assume the same radius of inence 4.24 What percent inceaseecrease would oecurin the wallow it the wel diameter is doubled and the drawdown inthe wells kept constatin Problem 42.27 Assume the same caus oF influ ence. 2.$ Te inital ptzometrc surface in confined aquifer of20-m thickness i 34 mabove he bottom. Afr long period of pumping, the pezometcsufcesailizes at 29.3 m above be boton, The hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer is 122 m/day. Ifthe radius of the well is 0.5m andthe radius of inuence ofthe pump: ing is $00 m, what i he steady-state well escharge? 4.2.6 The iil piezometric hes ina confined aque that has a thickness of [1.6 mis 85.7 m above sea level. A well with rads of 05 m pumps at constant ate of!.240 may. After the cone of depression has achieved equilibrium, the piezometric heads at two observation wells 40 and 95 m from the pumping well are measured as 78.9 and 83.4 m shove see lee, respectively. Also, the piezometric head in the pumping wll during equiibriom remains at 46.6 m, Determine (a) the aquifer tansmissivity, (2) the radius of influence ofthe pumping, and (c) the total well losses in and around the pumping wel, Figure to accompany Problem = 4.110200 Chap 4 Groundwater and Well Hyéralics 42.7 A pumping well 0 0.75-m radius fully peneretes an unconfined aquifer of 24-m thickness and produces ata rate of 10 Lf ‘Afler a long period of pumping, the drawdown in an observation well 30 m from the pumping wel is 1.6 m. The drawdown in another observation well 60 m fiom the pumping well i 11m. CCaleulste (a) the hyéraulic conductivity of the aquifer, (6) the ‘expected drawdown in the pumping well, and (c) the radius of influence of te pumping wel. 42.8 After a long period of pumping from an uncoafined aquifer ata constant rate of 850 m'lday, the cone of depression reaches equilibrium. The aquifer hasan intial satrated thickness of 20 and a hydraulic conductivity of 865 miday. During the equilid- ‘sum, the water levelsin an observation well SO m away and in the pumping well are measured as 18.4 and 9.9 m. Determine (a) the ‘dis of influence ofthe pumping (b) the radial distance where the steady state drawdown is Sem, (c) the expected drawdown in the pumping well (r, = 0.4 m), and () the total well head losses. 42.9 Water is pumped ata constant rate of 500 may from an unconfined aquifer whose thickness is 15 m and hydraulic con duetviy ig 5.5 miday. Given that the steady-state drawdown ‘0m from the pumping wells 2.5m, plot the water tabe profile under steady-state conditions forr > ISH, where His the initial sarurated thickness ofthe aguifec 42.10 Rework Problem 42.5 inthe absence of the recharge. (in: ‘You may have to gues the ads of in uence fr this problem.) 42.11 Rework Problem 4.25 wih the recharge rate doubled (ie, W = 0.12 miday). Approximately what percentage of the extracted water comes from the aquifer sel” 42.124 well with a radivs of 0.5 m pumps atthe rate of 15 Ls from an unconfined aquifer that is uniformly recharged at rate ‘of 06 m/day. Withoat pumping from the wel the wate table i nearly horizontal andthe aquifer thicknessis 30 m. The hydraulic conductivity ofthe aquifer is 20 nvéay, Determine the radius of influence ofthe well andthe approximate drawdown at the well location near steady-state conditions 43.1 A confined aquifer of 35-m thickness is contaminated as showmin the plan view below. The regional groundwater gradients = 0.003 andthe confined aquifer has a hydraulic gradient of 20 indy. capture well is proposed to clean up the contamination ‘The coordinates of the Limits of contamination with respect tothe capture wel are abulated below. Determine te minimasn required pumping rate for the cleanup and delineate the capture zone Assure tha he plume remains relatively stl before or during the ‘operation ofthe capture wel. Not thatthe capture wel is located t@m0m). (00) ym) -1s 35 29 95 20 288 5 26 38 -29 a +1 142 334 “15 35 441 A fully penetrating production well pumps from a confined quifer ats constant rts of 64 Us. I the coeficients of tans- rissivty and storage of the aquifer are 1,240 mfday and 4x 107 respectively estimate the drewdowns ata distance of 200m, from the pumping well fr pumping periods of hous, 30 days, and 6 months using the Theis equation. Also estimate the radius of influence ofthe pumping well after 1 hou of pomping 4.42 Rework Problem 44.1 using the Coopec-Jaoob method of solution. 443 Given that T= 125 miday, $= 10%, = 2,693 min, Q= 5,500 may, and r= 305 m for a confined aquifer comput the ddawdown, 4.44 Using the Cooper-lacob method of solution, plot draw down versus time for fou obsecration wells 5, $0, 10, and 500 m from a well purping ata constant rte of 300 day in Sandy confined aguifer with b= 12m, K= 25 miéay, and S = 10° Given that depths to water in wells and piezometrs can be ‘measured with an accuracy of about 0.5 em, how long does it tae to reach near steady conditions? Als, calulate the volume of water accumulated above grouod until the near-stealy cond ‘ions ae achieved at those distances, 09. $y r eo} eo} (Contaminant plume woe 20) (on) T ttt tt ttition othe zone, igthe cated fined trans. dax ‘00m days, adius od of twthe fraw- 4900 a= anbe es it stume ondi- 4445 Drawdown was measured during & pumping test in a con fined aquifer at frequent intervals in an observation well 200 from a wel that was pumped ata constant rate of $00 gpm. The ata fr this pump tests listed below. Determine Tand S for this gui Pump test data Time (min) Drawdown (f) 1 005 2 022 3 040 4 056 5 070 7 094 10 12 20 18 40 25 100 34 300 45 1,000 56 4,000 1 4.4.6 For the time-drawdown dats listed below for a confined aquifer, calculate T and using Jacob’s approximation. After computing Tand 5, check to see tet the basic assumption ofthis approximation is satisfied. For the values of T and $ that you computed, alter how many minutes of pumping would Jacob's approximation be valid? The discharge is Q = 1,500 gpm and the radius r= 300 ft Time after pumping stared (min) Drawdown (ft) L 04s 2 074 3 091 4 1.04 6 121 8 132 10 145 30 202 40 27 50 230 oo 234 80 250 00 261 200 2.96 400 3.5 600 341 800 3.50 1,900 3.60 1440 381 Problems 201 44.4.7 For the time-drawdown data recorded during the recovery ‘phase of a pamp test, determine the transmissivity and storativity ofthe confined aquifer. The pumping rate i 162:9 fV/min and the ‘pur is shutoff at 800 mi, Recovery oftest well Recovery af observation wel Time (min) S@)_——_Time (min) S(@) 800 1s 800 1.86 803 0 805 18 808 5 810 164 813 os ais 153 820 is 820 Las 880 i 825 Ls7 240 080 830 L32 995 0.69 840 12 1,055 059 850 Lis 11s 051 860 1.09 Ls oa9 870 1.03 123s 046 880 osT 1285 038 890 094 1360 om 900 0.90 116 033 910 087 1418 03 20 08s 1527 on 980 070 1.600 on 1,040 061 4,100 oss 1160 o49 1,220 0.46 1,280 040 1340 056 1400 036 1460 034 1,520 031 1.600 029 4.48 (The data given in this problem also refer to Problems 44.9 and 47,1 below) A fully penetrating pumping well ina confined aguifer is loceted between a suspected barrier boundary and a ‘known recharge boundary as shown in the figure on the next page, Drawdown data from the observation well in the figure during atypical pumping test ofthe well in question are given in the following table. Ifthe pumping is constant sta rate of 100 ‘gpm and the observation well is 200 ft away from the pumping ‘well, determine the transmissivity and the storage coefficient of the aquifer using the given aquifer test data Data from observation well ‘Time (min) Drawdown (ft) 2 025 3 004 (continues)202 Chapter 4 Groundwater and Well Hydraulics Data from observation well ‘Time (min) Drawdown (@) 4 0.06 5 0.97 6 1.085, 1 0.095 8 0.108 9 ous 10 042 15 0.16 20 018 30 022 0 025 50 027 ca 0.285 0 03 80 033 90 035 100 037 150 045 200 054 300 058 400 064 500 0.69 600 074 ‘Observation Suspected barter // 0 well boundary Pumpes wal Known recharge boundary 449 Determine the aquifer properties in Problem 4.4.8 using te Cooper—Jacob method of solution. 45.1 (This problem is adapted from U.S. Geological Survey Water Resources Investigations Report 89-8081 (1989).) The Galen-Plateville Aquifer Test was performed on June 8-15, 1987, with a 6-inch-diameter fully penetrating well pumping ‘under a constant rate (Q) of 19.8 gain fr 54 he. Eight partially penetrating observation wells in the Galena-Platieville Aquifer ‘were monitored during the pumping test. The time-dravdown data for observation well PZ-1, which is 108 f from the pumping well, is given inthe Following abe, The average thickness of the aquifer near tus observation wel is 84 ft. The test also reported that he Galena-Platieville Aquifer has a heterogeneous and anisotropic nature and consists of two media, fractures and ‘porous rock. The estimated hyraulis conductivity and specific Yield ofthe aquifer are respestivey 8 day and 0.049 from the PZ-1 observation well data. Using the given time-drawdown data and the Neuman Type A and Type Y curves for unconfined aquifers, make your ov estimate of the aquifer hydraulic conductivity and specific yield Time (min) Drawdown (ft) Time (min) Drawdown (ft) 0s 012 100 0.805 1 014 230 osa2 1s 0.032 320 86 2 0.082 410 os77 25 072 450 0.883, 3 0.093 530 0.991 35 out 630 0.903 4 03 810 0.96 45 oa 290 0.968 5 6s 980 0.98 6 0.198 1070 0.976 1 0254 1190 0.991 8 oan 1350 1.006 9 0299 1525 1031 10 0319 1720 1.068 20 0509 2130 1.085 30 0.687 2250 ii 40 0754 2400 1136 2 774 2500 1149 0 0.783 2600 1159 0 0.788 2810 175 80 0791 3140 1.204 90 08 46.1 (This problem is adapted from the Ground Water Man- val) The drawdown versus time data for an observation well 160 feet frora the pumping well ofthe same aquifer as in Exam- ple 4.6.1 is given below. Estate the transmissivity and storage ‘corfficient of the confined aquifer and the permeability ofthe aguitard, Compare the results with the answers to Example 46.1 ‘Time (min) Drawdown (#) 4 215 6 286 8 3.46 0 378 1s 458 2 508 (continues) ( cont of tft ftawe 47.2 Deane the pu typeo the of need ts the enesssofthe ‘ported ‘ous and ames and specific fom the wn data confined tic con own (ft) 805 2942 1.86 877 9.889 nasi 903 1946 969 198 1976 991 006 ol 065 085 hig 136 149 159 175 206 + Man >a well storage of the 2461 ‘inues) ‘Time (i) Drawdown (ft) 25 549 30 5.85 40 637 50 6.464 oo 68 1 6.96 80 716 90 136 100 144 Ho 792 120 156 150 164 180 1.88 210 7192 240 1.96 270 196 300 196 360 795 420 1.96 47. What would he drawdown the pumping wel bein Prob- lem 4.4.8 atthe end of pumping aa constant ete of 100 gpm for ‘continues period of 180 days? The pumping wel with a radius of Its located 500 f away frm the bariex boundary and 1,000 feaway fom the recharge boundary. 4.7.2 Chis problem s adapted from the Ground Water Maral) Deavowa versus time date for an observation well 100 for the pamping wel ina pump test are abuated below. deni the type of boundary and determine te radius ofthe icage wel! rom the observation well What additional information would you need to locate the boundary? (Hint: Use the method described st theend of Seton 47) Time(min) __Drawdown (fy 3 0.08 10 022 1 032 2» oat 25 049) 2 056 40 067 50 07 «© 08s 70 0.95 80 101 90 108 100 Lid 110 120 (continues) Problems 203, 120 12s 180 Ls 40 170 300 187 360 199 420 2.10 480 220 540 228 600 236 660 246 720 250 840 263 960 2m 4.13 A production well flly penetrating a noaleaky isotopic artesian aquifer delimited by two barier boundaries (perpenci cular to each other) was continuously pumped at @ constant rte ‘of 1,485 gpm fora period of four hours. The drawdowns inthe following table were observed ata distance of 300 fina flly| ‘penetrating observation well. Compu the coeficients of tans- rissivity and storage of the aquifer and the distances to each mage well from the observation well (in) sift) 2 080 3 092 4 1.06 5 47 6 123 1 132 8 137 9 13 10 148 20 88 30 21 40 234 50 252 60 270 0 283 80 3.00 90 3m 109 330 200 421 300 443 481 I is required to dewater a construction site 80 m by 80 m. ‘The bottom of the construction will be 1.5 m below the initial water gutface elevation of 90 m. Four pumps are to be used in (0.S-m diameter wells at the four comers of the site, Determine the required pamping rate, The aquifer bas T= 1600 m*lday and the wells each have a radius of inffuence of 600 m.204 Chapter 4 Groundwater and Well Hydraulics ‘48.2 Reposition the wes in Example 48.1 such that hey form an equilateral ingle (same spacings) Forte same resttions on the drawdown, will the discharg decrease or increase? Ifo, by what percent? not, what diflerence do you perceive between the two problems? 483 Rework Problem 481 aif the site is woe ready afer one ‘month of pumping. Assume the storage coefficient ofthe aquifer isS=0.16 REFERENCES 1. Barlow, BM. and A. F. Moench, WIAQ—A Computer Progra for Colcutting Dredowns and Esimaing Hydraulic Properes for Con- ‘fined ond Water Table Agufers, US. Geclogicl Survey Waer-Retources TestigationsRepor 98.4225, 1999 2 Benet, G.D. and E.P. Pain, Jr Constant Head Pumping Test of ‘2 Mulnaguifer Wel o Determine Characteristics of ndivdual Agar, US. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1536.G, pp. 181-203, 1962. 3, Bontll,R, Methods for Determining Pemeabiliy, Tronsmisebliy, cand Drawdown, US. Geological Survey Water Sapply Paper 15361, pp. 243-241, 1963. 4, Boulton, N. 8, The drawdown of the wstertable under non-steady conditions near a pumped well in an uncoefined formation, Proc. hs. Chil Engr. v3, I, p. 564-519, 1956 5. 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Halepaska, A numerical sud of confined con Fined aquifers including effects of delayed yield and leakage, Water Resources Besearch, v.12, pp. 1175-1183, 1976. 15, Penis, 5G. eta, Theory of aquifer tests, U.S Geological Survey Wiaer-Supply Paper 1536-5, pp. 69-174, 1962. 484 Two pumping wells 1,000 m away filly penetrate the same confined aquifer. One of the wells pamps a a rate of 1,240 ‘m'/day. The second well pumps at 850 m°/day. I the equifer has ‘a transmissivity of 2,000 m/day and a storage coefficient of 4 x 10, when woud the wels stat interfering with eachother? 16. Glover, RE and G. G. Balmer, River deletion resulting from Dumping a well near a river, Trans. Amer. Geophysical Union, v.35, p. 468-270, 1954 17, Halford, K. J and BL Kuniansiy, Spreadsheets forthe Analysis of Aquife-Test and Siug-Test Data, US. Geological Survey Open-File Report (2-197, ipstwater. usps gowlpubslofo02197, 208, 18, Hall, Band J Chen, Warr Welland Aquifer Test Analysis, Water Resources Publications, Liteon, €0, 1956 19, Hantush,M.S., Analysis of sta fom pumping tessin leaky agers, Trans. Amer Geophysical Union, ¥. 37, pp. 102-T14, 1956, 20, Haotash, M.S, Drawdown acand wel of varshle discharge, Jour Geophysical Research, 68, pp 4221-8235, 1964 21, Hannash,M.., Hydraulics of well, in Advances in Hydroscience, V T.chon, ef, v1, Academic Press, New York, pp. 281-432, 1964 22, Hantush, M.S., Wells near reams with semipervions beds, Jour Geophysical Restarch, 10, pp 2829-2838, 1963, 23, Hanus, M.S, Wellin homogeneous anisctopic aquifers, Warer Resources Research, ¥.2 pp. 27279, 1966 24, Hanns, M.S, Flow o wells in auifers separated by asemipervious layer, Jowe Geophysical Research, 72, pp. 1708-1720, 167 25, Hanus, M.S. nd C.. Jaco, Non-steady adil Now in an nite leaky aquifer, Trans Amer. Geophysical Union, .36, 9p. 95-112, 1955, 26. Hants, M.S. and I. 8, Papadopulos, Flow of ground water to collector well, Jour Hydraulics Dia, Ame. Soe. Civil Ens. ¥ 88.0 YS, pp. 221-244, 1962. 277, Hantash, M.S. and R.G. Thomas, A method for analyzing a drewdown test in aisouopic aquifers, Water Resources Research, v. 2, pp 281-285, 1966. 28, Huisman, L., Groundwater Recovery, Winchester, NY, 336 pp, 1972. 28, Jacob, C.B, Radial flow in leaky atesian aquifer, Tran, Amer (Geophysical Union, v.27, pp, 198-208, 1946 30, Henkin, C.T, Techniques for compatng rae and volume of steam, depletion by wel, Ground Water, 6, n0.2, pp 37-46, 1968 31, Kaseaow, M, Jnnoducin 0 Aquifer Anasis, Water Resouces Pub- liaions, Liteon, CO, 197 32, Kipp, K-L, Je, Unsteady flow to a patally penetrating fn radius well in an ancorfined aquifer, Water Resources Research, v. 9, pp. 48-462, 1973. 38, Kruseman, GP and N.A. de Ridder, Analysis and evaluation of pumping tet dala, nterrations Intute for Land Reclamation and Improvemeot, The Netherlands, 1994 M4 lai timed 35, Le: York. 1 36, Let ing, Joe 35-51 37, Lol Profs. 38 Mil Hydrou 1363, 39. Me pumgse 40. Mo anderge Resowe aL Mu Media.) 2, New elayed los}-1¢ 3 New fined ag Resear 44, New bydeal Resear 45, New Souh C Report | 46, Paps lrge dia 41. Pie condition 8, Pre Daca one South-C Ivesiga @. Re, Groundsame 1240 fechas of4x 3 from v3, ys of Fle Water wiles, » Jou nee,¥, Jou. Water finite 1955, ser to 8. ne. draw. 2p. 1972, Amer sPab- 5, po. lon of and 54. Lakehminarayaa, Vand SP. Bajagopalan, Type-curve analysis of| time-dawdown data for paraly pevetating wells in urconfivel anisoope aquifers, Ground Water 16, pp 328-383, 1978, 35. Leet, Well Testing, Society of Poucleum Engineers of AIME, New otk, 1982 54. Lennox, DH. and A Vaden Berg, Drawdowrs dv to cycle pump ing, Jour Hydraulics Din, Amer, So. Civil Engrs, v.93, 90. HY6, pp 35-51, 1967 31 Laiean, 8. W, Ground Warr Hydraulics, US. Geoiogcal Survey Professional Paper 708.70 pp. 1972 38. Milojevc, M, Rasa coletor wells adjacent othe river bank, Jour Hyroulis Div, Arse See, Gil Engrs, 89, 90: HY6, pp. 133-131, 1963, 29. Mococh, A. Ground-vater fluctuations in response te arbiter pumpage, Ground Water, .9,n0.2, pp. 4-8, 197 40, Moench, A. and TA. Prick, Radial ow ina five guile: ‘undergoing conversion fom artesian to water table conditions. Baer Resouces Research, v8 pp. 494-499, 1972 AL. Mustat, M, The Flow of Homogeneous Fluids thrush Porous Medio, MeGrav Hill, New Yor, 763 pp, 1937 42. Neuman, S.P, Thecry of flow in unconfined aquifers considering delayed response ofthe wate table, Wher Resources Resarch,¥ 8p. ‘g3t-1085, 1972. 43 Neuman, $.P, Analysis of pumping est data from anisotropic uncon: fined aguifers considering delayed gravity respoase, Water Resources Research 1, 9p. 29-382, 975, 444 Neuman, S. P and. A. Witherspooe,Felé deteminaton of the hyaralic proper f leaky mile aquifer systems, Water Resourcer Research, ¥ 8, 9. 1288-1298, 1972, 45, Newcome, R, Je. Pumping Tests ofthe Coastal Plain Aquifers ix South Carolina, State of South Carolina Water Resouces Comission Repon 174, 1983, 46, Papadopules 1. S. and H.-H. Coope, Jt, Drawdown ina wel of| large dsmeter, Water Rescues Research, ¥ 3, p, 241-246, 1957. 47, Prickey..,Typecarve soltion fo auifer ets under watertble condiions, Ground ate, v3, 10.3, pp. 14,1965 88, Pri, D.£, Estimates of Hydraulic Conductivity rom Aquifer Test Data and Specfe-Capacty Data. Gulf Coast Regional Agu Systems, SouthCentral United Starr, U.S. Geological Survey Water Resources Invenigations Report 90-412), 1991 49, Rao, D. B. et al, Drawdown ina well group along a sraight line, Ground Water, v9, 20.4, pp 12-18, 1971. References 205, 50, Rorabaugh, M. 1, Graphical and theoretical analysis of siep- rawdown test of artesian well, Proc. Amer Sac. Civil Engrs, 9-19, Se. 342.23 pp 1953, SI, Rushlon, KR. andY.K. Chan, Pumping ts analysis whee param. ers vry with dep, Ground We, v1, pp, 82-87, 1978 52, Sheahan, N.T, Determining eansmissbility from ey discharge, CGroand Water, «A 0.3, pp. 33-34, 1966 53, Suan, RW, Etfes of water table conditions on water level changes near pumping wells, Water Resources Research, v. 4, pp. 295-312, 1965, 54. Salman, RW. and IS. Papadopios, Measurement of Hydraulic Difusivry of Wedge Shaped Aquifers Dained by Streams, US. Geolog cal Survey Professional Paper 514,50 pp, 1966. 55. Stenberg, ¥. ML, Transmissibiitydeterinaion fom vacable ds charge pumping ests, Ground Water, $, 80.4, pp. 27-29, 1967, ‘56. Stenberg, ¥.M, Simplified elution or variable rate pumping et, owe. Hydraulics Di, Amer. Soc. Civil Bags, x. 94, no. HY, pp 177-180, 1998 57. Stemberg, ¥.M, Efeeney of partly penerating wells, Ground Water, 1, m0, pp. $-8, 1973 58, Sietsova TD. On the leakage assumption applied w equations of groundvatr flow, Jour Hydreogy,¥ 20, pp 237-254, 1973, 59, Theis CV, The relation been the lowering ofthe piezomet su face sad the rt and duration of discharge ofa well using ground-water -sorage, Trans. Amer Geophyseal Union, v.16, pp. 519-824, 198. @. Thiem, G. Hydroloptche Methoden, Gebard, Leipzia, 56 pp. 1906, 61. US. Bureau Reclamation, Ground Water Manual, US. Dep late ior, 480 pp. 1877 62. US. Bureau of Reclamation, Ground Water Moneal, U.S, Govern en Printing Ofiee, Denver, CO, 198% 63, Walton, W, aquifer Test Analysis with Windows™, CRC Press, Boot Raton, FL, 1996 64, Walton, W.C, Leaky Artesian Aquifer Coins in ino, lino State Water Survey Rept Invest. 39, Urbana. 27 gp. 1960 65. Wakon, W.C, Comprehensive analysis of watersable aquifer test die, Grownd Water, v.16. gp. 311-317, 1978, 66, Weeks EP, Deternining th ratio of horiaetal to veri perme abllcy by aquifectest analysis, Woter Resourees Resear, ¥. 5, PP 196-714, 1968. 67, Wigley, T: ML, Flow ino a finite well with rbiary discharge, owe Hydrolog, 8 6 99. 208-213, 1968Chapter 5 Water Wells A water well is a hole or shaft, usually vertical, excavated in the earth for bringing ground- ‘water to the surface. Occasionally wells serve other purposes, such as for subsurface exploration and observation, artificial recharge, and disposal of wastewaters. Many methods exist for constructing wells; selection of a particular method depends ox the purpose ofthe well, the quantity of water requted, depth to groundwater, geologic conditions, and economic factors, Shallow wells are dug, bored, driven, or jetted; deep wells are drilled by cable tool or rovary methods. Attention to proper design can ensure efficient and long-lived wells. After a ‘well has been drilled, it should te completed, developed for optimum yield, and tested. Wells should be sealed against entrance of surface pollution and given periodic maintenance. Wells of horizontal extent are constructed where warranted by special groundwater situations 5.1 TEST HOLES AND WELL LOGS Before drilling a well in @ new area, i is common practice to drill atest hole. The purpose of atest hole is to determine depths to groundwater, quality of water, and physical character and thickness of aquifers without the expense of a regular well, which might prove to be unsuc- ‘cessful. Diameters seldom exceed 20 cm. Test holes may be put down by any method for well construction; however, cable too, rotary, and jetting methods are commonly employed. Ifthe test hole appears suitable asa site fora finished well, it can be reamed with hydraulic rotary ‘equipment to convert it toa larger permanent wel. During drilling of atest hole or well, a careful record, or log, is kept of the various geo- Jogic formations and the depths at which they are encountered (see Chapter 11), A helpful ‘method is to collect samples of cuttings in containers, labeling each with the depth where obtained, Later these can be studied and analyzed for grain size distribution. Most states require licensed well drillers to submit logs—recording depth, color character, size of material, and structure of the strata penetrated—for wells they drill, Proper identification of strata in the hydraulic rotary method requires careful analysis because driling mud is mixed with cach sample. A drilling time log (again see Chapter 11) is sometimes helpful inthis respect. 5.2, METHODS FOR CONSTRUCTING SHALLOW WELLS 206 Shallow wells, generally less than 15 m in depth, are constructed by digging, boring, driving, or jeting.* 5° The methods are briefly described in the following paragraphs; Table 52.1 lists their applications. ‘Table 5.2.1. Water Well Construction Methods and Applications (after U.S. Soil Conservation Service”) Usual Usual Usual Materials Water table for which denth for which MethodSiam sByem daop 10} yRonwouosa 29 IMAL EE Ke, 5.2 Methods for Constructing Shallow Wells 207 fudinbo sraeay nb payaea! Sap 21 g uovempunoil yo Aunque pur KBojoa8 he Simard poowonu Besa, oor pawep Panowas sSumno (Bump se) -nosuo> prey spomow uorssnaied pur A110 redrorunuz adid vor 01 yor "n> 5 (up ey 430A, “reusnput auSnoue vein ssop faner8—uossnarad Pasn MON O00'ST-0os"2. “YoNEBAN, sorsosas-o¢ 009 sadap kay ‘pues ms Kae0 ‘yam adojonua ents 203 90022353 SSum|Up 20} so1em Jo ournfon OBE ‘samba ssodap povepriosuoa rediowunat odd wow Ase101 ‘Aqqenzed par parepnostooun “rexnsepat awieor ‘atgaoo ‘eats uonemans s9[04 s21sureHp-2Bse| 305 aaNPaHE OGN'OR-OOS'Z “YORETI 20PmS —OzI-OF 09 oe ‘puvs ss -Salanoy yoo pawep ‘iy sdojanua yanes8 203 240 -nosues prey “soy Butup Suump pannbas ‘did wont ‘1 yos 9 Z 201 Aiponsn Fungo 00s spe anygnois wey 989] oe sdoows [N05 pomnam aise OO'ST-ST_ S38 TY wopas — Sr8 05% ‘nop sry “pues as Amey “syuou pos uinpout 01 2uy powepyos -aooun Sums3p 30} padeyanapsig por prey pe ‘par Kojo Ue RODSPOYN SED did wont prey amepanr 097 0) Buyseo Sanna srnam pavepnosuos pre yoo 21g", wwonsio(dhe im 10} aanoays — GOO'ST=S1—_sasn TW Ras Ors 087 varlop uy porepyostosan) sam ponsacr fa zue Bu ajgenod anes8 afi] ou 2qge1 seu add nro sso] [onest Nar So panurT —Ost-st —“ouseulog prpuns ey st st ee poner sone 9008 287 aBeurer did diem ae pu 218% MOITEUS 01 ooe-st_—“onsamog, pups git st st see woe, aaeurrp ded uot up g wey ppuey 20) se aures ax}auaIno ‘women synoun 30 89) [one "a9 ¢ 19N0 faABI8 ka POMEL OSS] “SHSSWOG [aaIS'SIBIDUCD OSS sz ste “pues ans Kei yeBne somog eusweurj) panbor 218 £4 yp Butaowar pur feu s38ne per, oj aandayo SON —OST-SI_—_‘oHsswOG —eBTBONS OTS ou ot Buuoiny aera) 2 Teuswew (us) aBues (wi) wndap Cat) pans seq aus 59 pita Arwurorsng, a er ‘Wamu 203 rensp, eas, rns a1aen 310 stomEH pomayy (SIMS UORRAIBRUDD TOS “G-NLJ3UR) SUORROTAY pue SpOHSIA UONSANSUCD TALIA 12'S RL -—_i 202A ound: face thods of the romic ool or ier a Wells Wells sgesgge BeEgsse #a | g8e228 8284ai?g FS208 Chapter $_ Water Wells 5.2.1 Dug Wells Dating from Biblical times, dug wells have furnished countless water supplies throughout the world.” Depths range up to 20 m or more, depending on the position of the water table, while Giameters are usually 1 to {0 m. Dug wells can yield relatively large quantities of water from shallow sources and are most extensively employed for individual water supplies in areas containing unconsolidated glacial and alluvial deposits. Their large diameters permit storage of considerable quantities of water ifthe wells extend some distance below the water table. Tn the past, all dug wells were excavated by hand, and even today the same method is ‘widely employed. A typical dug wel in under-developed portions ofthe worl is often no more than an irregular hole in the ground that intersects the water table (See Fig. 5.2.1) A pick and shovel are the basic implements. Loose material s hauled tothe surface in a container by means of suitable pulleys and lines, Large dug wells can be constructed rapidly with portable excavating equipment such as clamshell and orange-peel buckets. For safety and to prevent caving, lining (or cribbing) of wood o* sheet piling should be placed in the hole to brace the walls ‘A modem dug well is permanently lined with a casing (often referred to as a curb) of ‘wood staves, brick, rock (Fig. 5.2.2), concrete, or metal. Curbs should be perforated or contain openings for entry of water and must be firmly seated at the botiom. Dug wells should be deep enough to extend a few meters below the water table. Gravel should be backfilled around the curb and at the bottom of the well 1o control sand entry and possible caving. A properly Figure $2.1. Women gathering ‘water from a crade dug well in the Shinyange Region of Tanzania, East Affica (courtesy DHV Consulking Engineers, Amersfoort, ‘The Netherlands). ‘See alo the dscion of ganas in Chapter. 5.2.2atthe while from scon- ageot rod is more and ‘neans cavat- aving, 16) of ontain 2deep ad the aperly 5.2.2. Bored Wells xing inthe si, ssfoor, 5.2 Methods for Constructing Shallow Wells 209 Ee pemiting 8 fe, water ey 524 pes Figure 5.2.2. A domestic 250 a7 250 34 200 30 160 a7 120 aa 100 21 80 18 © 15 49 12 20 09 <20 0s226 Chapter 5 Water Wells 5.44 Gravel Packs will be blocked by aquifer material), d, is the screen diameter, C, is the screen length, and P is the petoentage of open area in the screen (available from manufacturer's specifications). Thus, for a given aquifer material, aquifer thickness, well yield, and type of screen, the appropriate diameter and length of well sereen can be selected Screens are made of a variety of metals and metal alloys, plastics, concrete, asbestos- ‘cement, fiberglass-reinforced epoxy, coated base metals, and wood.” Because a well screen is particularly susceptible to corrosion and incrustation, nonferrous metals, alloys, and plastics are often selected to prolong well life and efficient operation, Table 5.4.3 lists the mote com- ron metallic screen materials in the order of increasing cost. A significant characteristic of a well sereen is its slot size, which should be determined from mechanical analyses of formation samples obtained during drilling of the well or a pitot hole." If the uniformity coefficient of an aquifer sample fora naturally developed well (with- ‘uta gravel pack) is 5o€ less, the selected slot size should retain 40 to 50 percent of the aquifer material. For @ uniformity coefficient greater than 5, the slot size should retain 30 to 50 percent of the aquifer material. In essence, the screen permits finer material to enter the well and to be removed by bailing during development of the well.®* *:*”.* But coarser material is retained outside, forming a permeable envelope around the well (Figure 5.4.2). An illustration ‘of how a well screen can form a natural gravel pack around a well is shown in Figure 5.4.3, ‘Here, with 40 percent of the aquifer material retained, the resulting gravel envelope has a per- ‘meabilty more than 30 times greeter than that ofthe aquifer. ‘Where a well screen isto be surrounded by an artificial gravel pack, the size of the screen ‘openings is governed by the size of the gravel (see next section). A gavel-packed well is one containing an artificially placed gravel screen or envelope surrounding the well sereen (see Figures 5.3.1(a-c)). A gravel pack (1) stabilizes the aquifer, (2) minimizes sand pumping, (3) permits use ofa large screen slot with a maximum open area, Table $4.3 Metallic Well Screen Materials and Their Resistance to Acid and Comosion (after US. Bureau of Reclamation”) ‘Corrosion resistance Materia? Acid resistance inaormal groundwater Low-carbon steel Poot Poot Toncan and Ameoiton Poot Fair® Admiralty ed brass Good Good" Silicon red brass Good Good® 304 stainless steel. Good ‘Very good Bverdure brome Very good Very good? Monel meta Very good Very god! Super nickel Very good Very good steals re stdin der of eressng cost Not reconumendd fo pemane istllaons whee incratatio i serous prebles. ‘Not resommende for permanent installations where sulfate-recing or sila bee- vere ae present or where water contains more than 60 mg/l SO, ‘Recommended only in weas wine comin is very agressive. * Screen manufonues wil en recommend the mos sisatry ht siz based one gin Sie analysis ofa rea aguitee & gs s 8 Percent passing 8 Unifoon wy54 Well Completion 227 wd Pis 100 ).Thus, ropriate Aquifer material, U,=43 k= 59 miday 80 abestos- creen is plastics recom: Percent retained Gravel envelope | adjacent to 1.86 mm screen sot size Ue i4 = 1900 miday T Percent passing mined ra pilot (with. aquifer °. too Figure 54.3, Development of a natural gravel 50 per. 0 1 2 3 4 yack around a well seeen fom a well-gaded ellend Siot size (mm) unconsolidated aquifer (after Mogg”) ateial is ‘stration ‘and (4) provides an annular zone of high permeability, which increases the effective radius and 25.43. yield of the well. Maximum grain size of a pack should be near | cm, while the thickness asa per should be in the range of 8 to 15 em. ‘Various formulas for relating gravel pack grain-size gradations to aquifer grain-size gradations have been developed.° 7" Criteria conforming to U.S. Bureau of Reclamation field experience are summarized in Table 5.4.4. The selected gravel should be washed and screened siliceous material that is rounded, abrasive-resistant, and dense. Gravel should be placed in such a manner ast ensure complete filling of the annular space and to minimize seg- regation. A common procedure is to extend two tremie pipes to the bottom of the well on opposite sides ofthe screen. Gravel is poured, washed, ot pumped into the tremie pipes; these are then withdrawn in stages a the pack is placed. In cable-tool holes, the inner casing and screen are set inside the blank outer casing, the annular space is filled with gravel, and thereafter the ‘outer casing is pulled out of the well. In sandy aquifers, where a gravel pack is most essential, deep wells should be constructed by the rotary or reverse-icculation rotary method. The drilling fluid should be circulated and diluted with water before the gravel is introduced. 2 escreen ope sur- aquifer, venarea, ‘Table $4.4 Criteria for Selection of Gravel Pack Material (efter U.S. Bureau of Reclamation™) Uniformity coefficient (Uo of equifer Gravel peck criteria Screen slot size <25 {@) U; between 1 and 2.5 with the 50% size not greater than '$ 10% passing sizeof the gravel pack six times the 50% size ofthe aquifer (©) If(@)is not available, U, between 2.5 and 5 with 50% size not greater than nine tite the 30% sie ofthe aquifer (GU; between | and 35 withthe 50% size nol greater than nin times the 50% sizeof the formation (©) If()is not available, U, between 25 and 5 with 0% size ‘ot greater than 12 times the 50% sizeof the aquifer >5 (@) Maltiply the 30% passing sizeof te auifer by 6nd 9 ands 10% passing sizeof the gravel pack locate the points onthe grain-size distribution graph on the same horizontal ine (6) Through these point draw two parallel lines representing materials with U,$ 25. (6) Selec gravel pack material thet als between the two lines. 10% passing size ofthe gravel pack sofa228 Chapter S Water Wells 5.5 WELL DEVELOPMENT $3.1 Pumping 55.2 Surging Following completion, anew wel is developed to increase is specific capacity, prevent sanding, and obtain maximum economic wel life. These results are accomplished by removing the finer ‘material from the natural formations surrounding the perforated sections ofthe casing. Where a ‘well has been gravel packed, much of the same purpose has been accomplished, although devel- ‘opment is still beneficial. The importance of developing wells cannot be underestimated; all 00 often development is not caried out adequately to produce full potential yields Development procedures are varied and include pumping, surging, use of compressed air, hydraulic jetting, addition of chemicals, hydraulic fracturing, and use of explosives.°** These are briefly described in subsequent paragraphs. ‘This procedure involves pumping a well in a series of steps from a low discharge to one exceeding the design capacity.” To be most effective, the intake area of the pump should extend to near the center of the screened section. Ateach step the well is pumped until the water clears, after Which the power is shut off and water inthe pump column surges back into the well The step isrepeated until only clear water appears. The discharge rate is then increased and the procedure repeated until the final rate is the maximum capacity of the pump or well. This irregular and rnoncontinuous pumping agitates the fine material surrounding the well so that itcan be carried into the well and pumped out, The coarser fraction entering the well is removed by a bailer or sand pump from the bottom. This development method by pumping is recommended as a fin- ishing procedure after any of the development techniques described subsequently Another method for developing a wells by the up-and-down motion of a surge block attached to the bottom of a drill stem. Such blocks are particularly applicable with a cable tool rig. Solid, vented, and spring-loaded surge blocks, often constructed by well-drilling contractors, are employed.’ The cylindrical block is 2to 5 em smaller than the well screen and fitted with bet- ing, rubber, of leather that will not damage the screen. As the block is moved up and down in the screen, a surging action is imparted tothe water. The downstroke causes backwash fo break up any bridging that may occur, while the upstroke plls dislodged sand grains into the wel. Initially, surging should begin with a slow stroke atthe bottom of the screen and progress to the top of the screen. This should then be repeated with increasingly faster strokes. The procedure is completed when material accumulating inthe bottom of the well becomes negligible. For wells in rock aquifers, surging can be accomplished in the casing above open holes. 55.3 Surging with Air ‘To develop wells with compressed ait, an air compressor is connected to an air pipe into the well. Around the air pipe a discharge pipe is fitted, as shown in Figure 5.5.1. (Both pipes should be capable of being shifted vertically by clamps. Initially, the pipes extend to near the bottom ofthe screened section; for efficent operation, the water depth in the discharge pipe “Inthe field this techniques sometimes refered to as "rawhiding”a well Ia high charge occurs ntl, “bidging (wedging sand grains around individual perforations formed by the sudden pul on the sand toward the well) can prevent fine material fom beng removed and reduce th effectiveness ofthe development process. "urging can also be accomplished wih a fap-vave baler, if a close fic exists within the wel sree 55.4 B55 WellDevelopment 229 A nang, © clamp — Pig vefine a Vere a Discharge <—' |e Tee devel Disnarge pine ce sallt00 fe am eT ~ sed air, 7 “These Will casing exceed: Packer Ito near ss, after “he step ovedure Wiel screen Jar and carried vier oF waht Discharge pipe Aicpne attached Fine sand brought % Solid, ina nel tors, are i Figure 5.5.1. Installation for well devel ‘opment with compressed sr. should exceed two-thirds the length of the pipe. To begin the development, the air pipe is Then. closed and the air pressure is allowed to build up to 0.7 to 1.0 x 10° Pa, whereupon it is sigble celeased suddenly into the well by means of aquick-opeaing valve. The inrush of sir creates & e powerful surge within the wel, first increasing then decreasing the pressure as water is forced up the discharge pipe. The process loosens the fine material surrounding the perforation; the ‘material may then be brought into the well by continuous air injection, creating an sift pump. The operation is repeated at intervals along the screened section until sand accretion into the becomes negligible. sth pipes near the ve pipe 55.4 Backwashing with Air In the backwashing method, the top of the wells ited with an airtight cover. Discharge and aic pipes are installed similar vo the previous method, together witha separate short air pipe and seats a three-way valve, as shown in Figure 55.2. Compressed aris released through the long at = pipe. forcing sir and water out of the well through the discharge pipe. After the water clears, the air supply is shut off and the water is allowed to retum to its static level. The three-way230 Chapter 5 Water Wells packing gland tL Discharge Air pipe Salis ange Figure $5.2, Installation for well development by backwashing witha. valve is then tured to admit air into the top of the well through the short air pipe. This ‘backwashes the water from the well through the discharge pipe and at the same time agitates $5.7 the sand grains surrounding the well. Airis forced into the well until it begins escaping from the discharge pipe, after which the three-way valve is tumed and the air supply is again directed down the long air pipe to pump the well. Backwashing is repeated until the well is fully developed. 5.55 Hydraulic Jetting Jetting witha high-velocity stream of water isan effective development technique in open rock 558 holes and in wells containing screens with large percentage openings (see Figure 5.5.3). The jet nozzle, mounted horizontally is atached toa string of pipe, which is connected through @ swivel and hose toa high-pressure, high-capacity pump. The jet head is siowly rotated to suc- cessively higher levels. Fine-grained material from unconsolidated aquifers is carried into the ‘well by the turbulent flow; in addition, the method is particularly effective in developing sgravel-packed wells.tion for ack pe. This agitates 1g from is again well is penrock 33). The hough a dito suc Hinto the veloping 55.6 Chemicals 55. Well Development 231 Figure 5.53. High-velocty hydraulic jetting through a continuous slot wire-wound well sereen for well development (after Johnson Div, UOP Inc.®), Open-hole wells in limestone or dolomite formations can be developed by adding hydrochloric acid to water inthe well. The solvent action removes fine particles and tends to widen fractures lading into the well bore. Normally this procedure would be followed by one of the previously described development methods. Hydrofluoric acid can be similarly employed for rocks containing silicates. For most development methods, adding one of the polyphosphates" to water in the well will aid the development process.” These compounds act as deflocculants and dispersants of clays and other fine-grained materials, thereby enabling the mud cake on the wall of ahhole and the clay fractions in an aquifer to be mote readily removed by the development. Blocks of solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) are sometimes added to a well after acidizing and surging with compressed air to complete well development. The accurnlation of gaseous carbon dioxide released by sublimation builds up a pressure within the well; upon release this causes a burst of muddy water from the wel. $5.7 Hydraulic Fracturing 55.8. Explosives Hydraulic fracturing, a technique borrowed from the petroleum industry, is occasionally ‘employed to enhance the yield of open-hole rock wells. Inflatable packers on a pipe extending to ground surface isolate a section of aquifer. After filling the pipe and isolated section with ‘ater, pump pressure is applied to fracture the rock. Sand is sometimes pumped into the section to force the grains into the rock fractures, to maintain the openings. ‘Detonation of explosives in rock wells often increases yields by enlarging the hole, increasing rock fractures, and removing fine-grained deposits on the face ofthe well bore. “Common Rouseold phoshai-based dtergens can serve as 2 subsite; excessive foaming when the welts pumped may result232 Chapter $ Water Wells 5.6 TESTING WELLS FOR YIELD Following development of a new well it should be tested to determine its yield and drawdown. This information provides a bass for determining the water supply available from the wel, for selecting the type of pump, and for estimating the cost of pumping. A testis accomplished by measuring the static water level, after which the well is pumped at a maximum rate until the water level in the well stabilizes. The depth to water is then noted (techniques for measuring ‘water well depths are described in Chapter 12). The difference in depths isthe drawdown, and the discherge-e sanISOE ES L-ST we we seu 99 012s af 9m moneys se owe, whee momreys se sues a Sz USe-L moog Oy usm dag. ue uy sued Baysow on 9m Butdwnd doss 1a auHf winya2 Jo wonons —_19X0 parfeisur ag 1 aney 10H Soop !uoRBIadO, sorpala mora 01209 lucite :soseasour yt se seonpar Autoede) uyajduns ‘spray more Msedeo yi = wsysz) wOPadN mOIaWI Oy om moneys 29 pues wou worseage > yodea so1em wo quawidinbs pafusingns (e3eisnqnu) eoqnsajo Jo Burpeas ‘Tam oxy Zayed — so10wr ov yeqs dared uoys ‘uoneersu: soard “oyour exam sssouy or Ase9 'ouTqama lam moqTeYS Se UES —WOZT~sT_—WOTI-SI_—puedumg = aqaysrouiqns. poBrawans ‘Surana fem MOTOS Se BUMS UE OST-OF wrog-st —— srereduy sur eons, 9m dooq Steud gas nEs30 (ajdt apis) sqseo Burd sspuyeu pus Suuyewuoo ssrem Surduand zop dK: aunqam sue adasxo ieBryusus> 1gteas se aus ou daoxe (enytnuos wBrens Se sues ww O90 ug = ewug ——aaneouasoy 2yq 2010198 poo8 pue ajqertos pads figensn ‘anbior Burumns mot S¥o0ys eHOIS 3035, (e8es a18un8) ue spe2y ufisap zapun Suneredo uo pu uaxe s1 uaisKs wo amssoud ‘its pu pus reSaytnus> spuedap Aoustouse tAqise2 awusd seso] — Suurmivoo satem sdumnd imoyy wane ‘mooms StF woe sew 9 awirens ism moqreus eBngen2> ayaa pasoy> ssure8e poresodo st s2puéo 1 pur Aysedes m0 aoge ue pues Sururewoo soiem sdumnd ‘speay —wogrardn — urogy onda, wes fom dag ‘S1qeUEA ISuIeae aBIRUDSIp ‘uoNDe aANISe| «ONO a L-9 eS 28 mOnTEYS ‘Sunesordi33y, ‘soBeiueapesia ‘seBemwapy ‘peau ‘ndep ut and yo 0K, amssaid — Surduind-yjom vos renee, ens eonong GAPING HVAT GRE “STL JSWP) SAA wH POKOIDU Apuonbaiy sBtng Jo SASURSBRED TLS O1MEL down, all, for red by iil the suring ‘nang charge wide ticular x) of the power quently Lift of nents: and (3) figure, 4, being 1ps, tur ion lifts monly rizontal electric rove the cipal, or “epwell vine and ty wells ng drive ce vanes;234 Chapter 5 Water Wells 1 Storage case ' Tou é Pump owns Ys. |) Pampa surace, (ES Staite table Water table igure 8.7.1. Diagram illustrating total pumping head for a well supplying a sto. S L___i___ age reservoir. Note the increase in head as Discharge | function of well discharge. several bowls connected in series for higher heads form a multiple-stage pump. The pump is usually driven by an electric motor at the ground surface and connected by a long vertical shaft positioned by bearings within the discharge pipe. Deep-well pumps, being submerged, require no priming and are capable of operating under a wide range of water levels without having to be reset ‘The submersible pump is simply a deep-well turbine pump close-coupled to a small- diameter submersible electric motor, as shown in Figure 5.7.26. The efficiency of the pump is increased by direct coupling, while effective cooling results from complete immersion. Pump sizes range from small units that fit inside an 8-om casing to large-capacity units involving numerous stages, An advantage of submersible pumps is that they can lift water from deep ‘wells where long shafts in crooked casings might prohibit installation of a deep-well turbine pump. Other advantages, which account for increasing installations of this type of pump, include ease of maintenance, freedom from noise, protection from weathering and flooding, and avoidance ofa large above ground installation. 58 PROTECTION OF WELLS 58.1 Sanitary Protection Wherever groundwater pumped from well is intended for human consumption, proper sanitary precautions must be taken to protect the water quality, Pollution sources may exist either above or below ground sucface (see Chapter 8). Precautions apply equally to springs; Figure 5.8.1 shows, for example, a typical method for protecting a spring water supply. Surface pollution can enter wells either through the annular space outside ofthe casing or through the top of the well itself. To close avenues of access for undesirable water outside of the casing the annular space should be filled with cement grout as shown for deep wells in Fig-total 2. stor head as ump is alshaft require ving to small. sump is - Purp volving n deep turbine amp, >oding, proper y exist rings; sing ot side of inFig- 58 Protection of Wells 235 Figure $7.2. Pumps for deep wells. a) Turbine (6) Submersible (after @ (e) ‘Anderson®) lure 5.3.1, Entry through the top ofthe well can be avoided by providing a watertight cover to seal the top of the casing. '? Some pumps are available with closed metal bases that provide the necessary closure. For pumps with an open-type base, or where the pump is not placed directly over the well, a seal is required forthe annular opening between the discharge pipe and casing.” Seals may be made of metal or lead packing; asphaltic and mastic compounds are also satisfactory. Covers around the well should be made of concrete, should be elevated above the adjacent land level, and should slope away from the well (see Figure 5.8.2) ‘Whenever anew well is completed or an old well repaired, contamination from equipment, ‘well materials, or surface water may be introduced into the well. Addition and agitation of a chlorine compound wilt disinfect the well. Following disinfection, the well should be pumped “Ics desnbleto provide asmall opening in or below the pump base to allow for periodlc water evel mezsuemens236 Chapter S Water Wells ‘Surlace water, 1 diversion 1 teh Pea Overiow To storage — [3m mie. 1 Vaan wave | |e | Pedorated c shoe 10 | / || Martine woe _ storage me Wiotor top drain a igure £81, Pan and elevation views of @ \ = developed spring showing atypical method eno crain foc proving saitary proteton (fer US. Etevation Public Health Service 5 59 Wi to waste until ll traces of chlorine are removed. Asa final check on the potebility of the water, a sample should be collected and sent to a laboratory for bacteriological examination, 5.8.2 Frost Protection In regions where winter frost occuts, itis innportant fo protect pamps and water Tines from freezing, A typical method for frosiproofing a domestic well is shown in Figure 5.8.3. The pitless adapter, attached to the well casing, provides access tothe well, while the discharge pipe runs about 2 m underground to the basement of the houseiews of Uimethod ifr US. we water, nes from ‘The pit- ange pipe Pup unit santay we sal outlet cote an Grout Sea! Prconstic surace ‘Water bearing sand 5.8.3 Abandonment of Wells Reinforced concrete ‘cover slab sloped ‘nay from pump 5.9 Well Rehabilitation 237 Figure 58.2. A ¢rilled well showing grout seal, conree sla, and well seal for sanitary protection (ater US. Public Health Service®. Whenever a well is abandoned, for whatever reason, it shouldbe sealed by filling it with lay, concrete, or earth, Not only is surface contamination then unable to enter the well, but sealing serves other useful purposes: prevents accidents, avoids possible movement of inferior water from one aquifer to another, and conserves water in flowing wells.° 5.9 WELL REHABILITATION Annew well, properly drilled, cased, and developed, will give years of satisfactory service with litle attention. Many wells fil, however, thats, they yield decreasing quantities of water with time.* Well rehabilitation refers to the treatment of a production well by mechanical, chemical, or other means to recover as much as possible of the lost production capacity." Table 5.9.1 lists well rehabilitation methods and their applications to various types of aquifers. “Frequently the peop rather thn the well is at el; hence i should be checked before beginning ny extensive well rea.238° Chapter 5 Water Wells oe _ Electrical sufiace: Met ett fanaa oem Mora | ‘Conduit for wiring Pitless: we ene onehare we tank [=e =i ) Pressure Pyne = i Drop pipe Dry ice soi sibrasie : ay a ad ono Caustic Sand and gravel ‘quiet Screen Figure $8.3. Diagram of a domestic well installation with a ptless adapter te protect the wel fom frost (after Gibb”. One cause of failure is depletion of the groundwater supply. Nota fault of the well, this trouble cao sometimes be remedied by decreasing pumping drafts, resetting the pump, or deepening the well. A second cause of well rouble results from faulty well construction. Such 5.10 items as poor casing connections, improper perforations or screens, incomplete placement of _ravel packs, and poorly seated wells are typical of difficulties encountered. Depending onthe particular situation as determined from a television or photographic survey of the well (see Chapter 12), it may be possible to repair the well, but sudden failures involving entrance of sand or collapse ofa casing often require replacement of the entre well The third and most prevalent cause of well failure results from corrosion or incrustation of well screens. 8! Corrosion may result from direct chemical action of the groundwater or from electrolytic action caused by the presence of two different metals in the well. The effects 5.10.1 of corrosion can be minimized by selecting nonmetallic well screens or ones of corrosion- resistant metal (such as nickel, copper, or slainless steel), and by providing cathodic protection." Ifthe damage i localized, it may be possible to insert 2 liner inside the screen to prevent excessive sand pumping Incrustation is caused by precipitation on or near well screens of materials caried in solution by groundwater.” The sudden pressure drop associated with water entering a well under heavy pumping can release carbon dioxide and cause precipitation of calcium carbonate. Another cause of incrustation stems from the presence of oxygen in a wel; this ean change soluble ferrous iron to insoluble ferric hydroxide, Screens can be cleaned by shooting a string “One method of providing cathodic protection fo well sto introduce 2 metal low onthe electrochemical scale that wil be coded instead ofthe well easing. Rods of eignesium suspended in the well water sere his purpose.al vet the a, this mp, or 1. Such rent of, om the AL (see ince of station ‘ater or 5.10 Horizontal Wells 239 ‘Table 59.1 Rehabilitation Methods and Their Applications to Vasious Types of Aquifers (afer Brckson™) Method ‘Unconsolidated squifers Consolidated sandstone Consolidated limestone Muriatic acid? Removes io, sulfur, and carbonate Not usually effective ‘Sometimes beneficial; best results followed by deposits obtained by pressure acidizing chlorine Polyphosphate Removes fine silt lay, colloid, Not usually effective Not usually effective followed by disseminated shale, and soft, chlorine iton deposits Dynamiting Not recommended Effective forall ypes of well: Effective when very large charges sereen deposits are used Compressed air Removes plugging deposits of stand Not used Not used Fine sand in areas adjacent to sreens Diyiee Same as compressed aie Used only rarely, to remove Not usually effective cuttings from the face of a ‘new production well Surging Same as compressed air Rarely used Racely used Chlorine™ Removes iron andslime-forming Removes iron and slime Removes iron and slime-forming bacteria forming bacteria bacteria Caustic soda Removes oil scum left by oil Removes ol scum left by oil- Removes oil scum lft by oil- lubecating pumps lubricating pumps Iubricating pumps "Notte be used with coneresoeens, Usually sed in a concertrton of $00 mg of vibratory explosives in the well or by adding hydrochloric acid (HCD or sulfamic acid (H,NSO;H) to the wel, fllowed by agitation and surging. Where slime-forming organisms block screens, particularly in cecharge wells, treatment with chlorine gas or hypochlorite solutions can remedy the problem. For improving yields of rock wells, aciizing or shooting with explosives is generally effective,“ 5.10 HORIZONTAL WELLS Subsurface conditions often preclude groundwater development by normal vertical wells. Such conditions may involve aquifers that ae thin, poorly permeable, or underlain by permafrost or saline water. n other citcumstances, where groundwater is to be derived primarily from infiltration of streamflow, a horizontal well system may be advantageous. Also, in developing areas of the world, a horizontal well may be far less costly than a vertical well, 5.10.1 Infiltration Galleries ‘An infiltration gallery is 2 horizontal conduit for intercepting and collecting groundwater by gravity flow.’ Qanats, described in Chapter 1, illustrate one type of gallery. Galleries, normally consiucted atthe water table elevation, discharge into a sump where a pump lifts the water to 10nd surface for use, In Europe and the United States, many infiltration galleries are laid parallel to riverbeds, where with induced infiltration an adequate perennial water supply can be obtained (see Chapter 13). Depending on the type of aquifer penetrated, galleries may be unlined or lined with vitifed clay, brick, concrete, or east iron.” "Deep initration gles exis the chalk aquifers of southeastern England. Hee the permeability of sl chalk is quite low, and unlined horizontal tunnels (rads), roughly 2 min diameter and extending for dstances upto 2 ke, inesact maximum umber of fissures fom which mest ofthe water is obtained.240 Chapter $ Water Wells In Alaska, galleries have been widely employed to obtain water supplies where underly ing permafrost (see Chapter 2) would not contribute groundwater.” On oceanic islands, galleries have the particular advantage of enabling fresh water to be collected with litle disturbance of underlying saline water (see Chapter 14). Such installations are well known in Hawaii (see Figure 5.10.1), for example, where they are unlined in basalt,"* "and in Barba~ dos, where they are unlined in coral limestone 5.10.2 Horizontal Pipes On sloping ground surfaces, small-diameter horizontal holes can be drilled by the rotary method.” Perforated pipes placed in these holes tap groundwater that would otherwise be discharged by seepage or from small springs. Two examples are shown in Figure 5.10.2. Such horizontal pipes provide sanitary and lowcost water, and, in addition, enable flow to be controlled by valves atthe discharge ends. The same technique has also been widely employed to drain side slopes, suchas in highway cuts, in order to reduce the possibilty of landslides. 5.10.3 Collector Wells For cities and industries located near rivers, the problem of obtaining high-quality, low- temperature water at reasonable cost has become increasingly difficult. In Europe and the United States, groundwater pumped from collector wells tapping permeable alluvial aquifers has often proved to be a successful solution." If located adjacent to a surface water source, acollector well lowers the water table and thereby induces infiltration of surface water through the bed ofthe wate body tothe wel (see Chapter 13). In this manner greater supplies of water < Ventilating pipe ‘Accass shaft Discharge — Pipe Pomp room SJ Pus Figure 5.10.1. Cross section of an infitra: a son gallery in Hawai These ee lslly : equler xo as Mai-ype wel because they oT ‘Sump: f ‘were first constructed onthe island of Maui A natn) tunel Water tale i ie] (0 provide water for irgation of sugar cane (after Watson"), Horizontal Figure 5.10.2. Examples of horizontal wells consisting of small-diameter pecf- ‘rated pipes drilled into hillsides. These Wels should have a downward slope into the aquifer to prevent formation ofa vacuum inside the pipes (afer Welchert and a Freeman!) (a) Contact spring formation (©) Dike spring formation5.10 Horizontal Wells 241 erly: can be obtained than would be available from groundwater alone. Analytie solutions of the gale flow io a collector well have been developed (see Chapter 4). litle Plan and elevation views of a collector well a shown in Figure 5.10.3. The central cylin- vnin der, consisting of a monolithic concrete caisson about 5 m in diameter, is sunk into the aquifer arba- by excavating the inside earth material. After the requisite depth is reached, a thick concrete plug is poured to seal the bottom. Perforated pipes, 15 to 20cm in diameter, ate jacked hycrauli cally into the water-bearing formation through precast portholes in the caisson to form a radial pattem of horizontal pipes. During construction, fine-grained material is washed into the cais- oxy se be Pumping tower. Such sek oo ved to = Conta ator low- the aifers we a, rough : veer 4 See 4 s atbttom | : = Water path: & VENT poe Se Gate valves ost a ally, . Sow Figure 8.10.3. A collector well located we et a Rainey Method Water Supplies, Inc.).22 Chapter S- Water Wells son 50 that natural gravel packs form around the perforations (again see Figure 5.10.3). The number, length, and radial patter ofthe collector pipes can be varied to obtain the maximum capacity; usually more pipes ate extended toward than away from the surface water source ‘The large area of exposed perforations in a collector well causes low inflow velocities, ‘which minimize incrustation, clogging, and sand transport, Polluted river water is filtered by its passage through the unconsolidated aquifer to the well. The initial cost of a collector well exceeds that ofa vertical well; however, advantages of large yields, reduced pumping heads, and low maintenance costs are factors to be considered. Yields vary with local conditions; the average fora large number of such wells approximated 27,000 m/day. Installations bordering streams with regulated stages may encounter decreases in yield with time because of sediment Aeposition on streambeds.”? Collector wells can also function in permeable aquifers removed from surface water. Sev- ‘ral such installations gave an average yield of about 15,000 m°/day. 5.11 CHARACTERISTIC WELL LOSSES 5.11.1 Well Losses ‘The drawdown at a well includes not only that of the logarithmic drawdown curve atthe well face, but also 9 well lass caused by flow through the well screen and flow inside of the we to the pump intake, Because the wel loss is associated with tucbalent flow, it may be indicated «as being proportional to an nth power of the discharge, as Q", wheren isa constant greater than ‘one. Jacob suggested that a value m = 2 might be reasonably assumed, but Rorabaugh? pointed out that n can deviate significantly from 2. An exact value for n cannot be stated because of differences of individual wells; detailed investigations of flows inside and outside ‘of wells show that considerable variations occur from assumed flow distributions. ‘Taking account of the well loss, the total drawdown s, at the well may be written forthe steady-state confined case: 2% son t+cg" Ty (1) where Cis a constant govemed by the radius, construction, and condition ofthe well. For simplicity let In(rofre) aT (3.11.2) so that 5,= 80+ CQ" 6.113) ‘Therefore, as shown in Figure 5.11.1, the total drawdown s, consists ofthe formation loss BQ and the well loss CQ" Consideration of Equation 5.11.3 provides a useful insight to the relation between well discharge and well radius. From Equations 4.2.3 and 4.2.7, it can be seen that Q varies inversely with In(rp/r,), if all other variables are held constant. This shows that discharge varies only a small amount with well radius. For example, doubling a well radius increases the discharge only 10 percent. When the comparison is extended to include well loss, however, the effec is significant, Doubling the well radius doubles the intake area, reduces entrance veloc ities to almost half, and (if = 2) cuts the frictional oss to ess than a third. For axial flow ‘within the well, the area increases four times, reducing this loss an even greater extent, Tis apparent that the well loss can be a substantial fraction of total drawdown when pumping rates are large, as illustrated by Figure S.11.2. With proper design and development S112vhen ent 5.1L Characteristic Well Losses 243 Grand sin Onna pezometne Figure 5.11.1. Relation of well loss CQ" to drawdown for 2 well penetating a confined aquifer 60 6 8 aa E 230 a) 9 Wal oss Figure 5.11.2, Variation of total draw a down s,, auifer loss BQ, and wal! loss 3 io 38 CQ" with wel cischarge (after Wall ischarge, 0, 100 mi/day Rorabeugh), of new weils, well losses can be minimized. Clogging or deterioration of well screens can increase well losses in old wells * Based on field experience, Walton’®' suggested criteria for the well loss coefficient C in Equation 5.11.3. These are presented in Table 5.11.1 to aid in evaluating the condition of a well. 5.11.2 Evaluation of Well Loss ‘To evaluate well loss, a step-drawdown pumping testis required. This consists of pumping a well initially ata low rate until the drawdown within the well essentially stabilizes.*! "The discharge is then increased through a suocessive series of steps as shown by the time- cain aoe” yee Figure $123. Factors rapaci- awa ~~ affecting estimates of trans- CRE ITI IIIT TITIVITITTVTT IITA IT ITT 77s bases on spesite ing Bed capocity (Heath)250. Chapter S- Water Wells 5.13 SLUG TESTS 5.13.1 Definition BQ sto aad ‘Another method for recognizing an inefficient wells to note is initial recovery rate when pumping is stopped. Where the well loss is large, this drawdown component recovers rapidly by drainage into the well from the surrounding aquifer. A rough rale of thumb for this purpose is if pump is shut off after one hour of puraping and 90 percent or more of the drawdown is recovered after five minutes, it can be concluded that the wel is unacceptably inefficient. Pump tests are typically expensive to conduct because of the installation costs of wells. Slug testing has been used for several years as a cost-effective and quick method of estimating the bhydraulic properties of aquifers, More recently (since the 1980s) it has gained even more pop- larity (a) in obtaining estimates of hydraulic properties of contaminated aquifers where trea ing the pumped water is not desicable or feasible and (b) in field investigations of low-permeability materials, particularly for studies of potential waste storage or disposal sites. ‘The materials at these sites may have a hydraulic conductivity that is too low for pump tests, Slug tests consist of measuring the recovery of head in a well after near instantaneous change inthe head at that wel. A sold object slug) i rapidly introduced into or removed from the well, causing a sudden change (increase or decrease) in the water level in the well. Tests can also be performed by introducing an equivalent volume of water into the well; or, an equivalent volume of water can be removed from the well, causing a sudden decrease in the water level. Following the sudden change in head, the water level returns to the static water level. While the water level is returning tothe static level, the head is measured as a function of time (referred to asthe response data). This response data is used to determine the hydraulic properties of the aquifer using one of several methods of analyses. Butler'’ presents a comprehensive summary of slug-test methodology and analysis, 5.13.2 Design Guidelines Butler!” presented the following guidelines for slug tests (also see Butler etal,” Dawson and Istok,”* Driscoll,” and Weight and Sonderegger'™ for further discussions): 1, Welling methods, such as the driving based cable-ool, pneumatic/hydraulic hammering, ‘orrotasonic methods thet minimize the generation of drilling debris should be employed. 2, Well development efforts should focus on developing discrete intervals along the well screen, Specie care should be given to prevent the vertical flow within the filter pack from weakening the effectiveness of development activites. Among the measures for doing so are developing before the filter pack is installed, using the filter packs that minimize the vertical flow, or using natural filter packs in unstable formations, Further development activities may be needed in some cases. The identification ofa low ‘permeability skin is the clearest indication of such a need. A preliminary analysis ofthe response data using a theoretical model and a resulting implausible specific storage estimate isthe strongest evidence of a low-K skin, 4, The nominal screen length should be used as the effective screen length inthe analyses.24) ‘hen idly ose mis Slug tbe pop: reat sof sites, is cous from Tests ran athe vater stion slic com- 543. Slug Tests 251 5. The effective soreen radius should be taken as the radius of the filter pack in wells with arti- Ficial filter packs, On the other hand, the nominal screen radius may be more appropriate 10 use in the analyses for wells with natural filter packs where development has been limited. 6. The effective radius of the well casing should be taken as the nominal radius of the well casing. However, a comparison ofthe theoretical and actual rise/drop of water level inthe ‘well following the injection of the slug will indicate the reasonableness of this replacement 7. A minimum number of thee slug tests with inital displacement values varying by atleast a factor of two should be performed at each well. Both the rising head and falling head tests should be employed to reveal a possible skin-elated directional dependence. The possible existence ofa dynamic skin can be identified ifthe frst and last tests ofthe series at the same well employ the same inital displacement, AI these variations and combinations should rate the effectiveness of well-development efforts and the validity of conventional slug test theories 8. A series of tests consisting of « combination of rising and falling head tests should be planned and employed. 5.13.3 Performance of Slug Tests ‘The equipment (Figure 5.13.1) used in slug tests include devices for initiating the test, devices for measuring changes in head during the test, and devices for storing the head measurements, ‘The most common method for initiating the testis to use a solid object (or slug) and introduce (or remove) it into (from) the well. A conventional slug would be apiece of stainless stee! or PVC pipe filled with sand or similar material and capped at both ends, Both conventional and streamlined solid slugs have been used. The anajority of slug tests are pesformed with sensors (pressure transducers) that measure the pressure exerted by the overlying column of water. The pressure transducer most commonly used is the semiconductor strain-gauge transducer, Electric tapes are also commonly used to measure water levels in slug tests of moderate to low bydraulic conductivity Slug tests may also be performed pneumatically. Tis method involves pressurizing the air ‘column in a sealed well by injecting compressed air or nitrogen gas to depress the water level Rope Data logger Land surface Figure 5.134. Slug testing schematic (Weight end Wittman; used with permission of Groundwater Publishing Co.)252 Chapter 5 Water Wells Aicprassura transducer ( ata Release logger veve ~ cae air vel compressor Aight coining \, Static wator py Figure 5.132. Hypothetical oss section displaying a well at which the 8.13 Pressure pneumatic method is being used for transducer tes iiaton, Note that there must be an aright sal atthe point at which eT the cable foc te submerged transducer Will sereon passes through the top of the well ead ‘igure not to scale, after McLane et —t a a precertd in Ble) by driving water out of the well into the aquifer (see Figure 5.13.2). Water levels continue to Figues.is2 9 C R Lt 22 In | ine40 cali IS om) * 300 cavi1S om 273 [Note that the points ofthe response data do nt follow a straight line exactly in Figure 5157. Instead, an early quick response is followed by a relatively straight line segment. Finally, the data points start (0 Losing Steam That Is Disconnected the altitude of the water table in From The Water Table the vicinity ofthe seam mast, ow direction be hgher than the atitade of ‘he steam. water surface. Conversely, for surface water to seepto ground water, the ati- tude ofthe water tale in the 621 B Vicinity ofthe steam must be Tower than the altitude of the stream surface. Some losing streams (c) are separated from the saturated growdwater system by an unsaturated zone,may rela one ‘one, ‘ours ome: of as, 4, va: eto ible in mast sof ater to alti ibe the 18 from one 62. Sueamflow and Groundwater Levels 285 | Pan vis ha Figure 622, Wate table contours and ground- ‘water How directions in relation to stream, @ O) stages. (a) Losing stream (b) Gaining stream Streambed pint cp ~ Losing stream coger 7 ras a Impermeabie ~~ a) ising water Figure 6.2.3. Lustation of rising water in a stream channel from emerging groundwater flow. (a) Cross setion along steam chenne in an aluvial valley (6) Streamflow asa function w of distance along the sueam Stroamtiow —> Distance downstream —> non fora situation where a dry stream channel exists above and below the convergent section Figure 6.2.4 illustrates the dynamic interface between groundwater and streams. 6.2.1 Bank Storage During 2 flood period of a stream, groundwater levels are temporarily raised near the channe! by inflow from the stream, The volume of water stored and released after the flood is referred toas the bank storage. Field data are rarely adequate to evaluate bank storage and its rate of inflow and outfiow; therefore, analytic or model approaches are necessary to obtain quantitative estimates for specified boundary conditions.286 Chapier6 Groundvater Levels and Environmental Infivences 6.2.2 Base Flow Interface of groundwater- flow system, hyporheic zone, and stream. Figure 6.2.4. The dynamic interface between ‘groundwater and steams (modified from ‘Winter et al,® as presented in Alley etal.) Steeambeds are unique environments where ‘groundwater that drains much ofthe subsur face of landscapes interacts with surface ‘water that drains moch ofthe surface of landscapes, Mixing of surface water and pround- ‘ater takes place in the hypocheic zone where microbial activity and chemical transforma ‘ions commonly are enhanced, Figure 6.25 illustrates idealized groundwater conditions adjacent to a flooding steam. A flood hydrograph of sinusuidal form (Figure 6.2.5) was superimposed on an aquifer and stream situation sketched in Figure 6.2.5b. As a result ofthe flood, the bank storage increased and then decreased; te variation of the volume of water in storage is depicted in Figure 6.2.5. ‘The derivative ofthe volume curve yields the groundwater flow curve (Figure 62.5d), From this it can be seen that a stream fluctuation produces large variations in magnitude and direc tion of local groundwater flow. ‘Cooper aad Rorabangh'? derived solutions for changes in groundwater head near the stream, groundwater flow to the stream, and bank storage. Their comprehensive analysis also included @ family of asymmetic flood-wave stage hydrographs, which fecilitate study of the effects of a wide variety of flood shapes on groundwater. ‘Streamflow originating from groundwater discharge is referred to as groundwater runoff ot +base flow, During periods of precipitation, streamflow is derived primarily from surface runoff, Stage —+ Bank storage volume —e Discharge —= + — RechargemA vased 250. From athe salso ofthe off or off; stage —> Discharge —> Bank storage volume —> — Recharge 62. Steamflow and Groundwater Levels 287 Gost _- Gourd soe CC inital | jPod emottuse nd ' & 2 oa ie nteoapenes' | et ‘site | sa) impermeable a ; ' re % 1 2 3 : Ti ns pus ' 6 atelaning ar serane yp a 3 ‘eto gene @ wt ening tans Figure 625, Gruntatein ona ‘Water entering bankstorage ing stream. (a) Flood hydrograph (b) Vertical rs etn fel condos) Volare of bank rage a fnston ote ( Grondvatesflow and eta ak stage Reenter de ter Toad") whereas during extended dry periods, all streamflow may be contributed by base flow.2 ‘Typically, base low is not subject to wide fluctuations and is indicative of aquifer character: istics within a basin.957 ‘To estimate base flow, a rating curve of groundwater runoff can be prepared by plotting ‘mean groundwater stage (water table level) within the basin against streamflow dusing periods ‘when all flow is contributed by groundwater."* Figure 6.2.6a shows rating curves for a small drainage basin in Ilinois. Data were fitted by two curves: one for the Apri-October period when evapotranspiration from groundwater is significant, and the other for the November~ Match period when evapotranspirtion is minimal. With these rating curves and the mean groundwater stages for one year (see Figure 6.2.68), the separation of surface runoff and base flow hydrographs shown in Figure 6.2.6 could be achieved. Itcan be noted that frozen ground impeded groundwater recharge during Febreary and March and that base flows were largest doring the spring and surnmer months. Groundwater contributed 33 percent of total streamflow forthe year.288 Chapter 6 Groundwater Levels and Environmental Influences Moan groundwater stage (mbelow land surfacs) Streamflow at any instant contains groundwater contributed at previous times and different locations within the drainage area. During end after a storm period in a small drainage basin, the water table will rise, causing the base flow to increase also (Figure 6.2.6a). But superimposed on this will be the bank storage fluctuation (Figure 6.2.5d). The effects ofthese two variations are shown schematically in Figure 6.2.7. ‘An alternative approach to determining the separation of total streamflow into surface- runoff and groundwater components during flood periods can be accomplished from meas- ‘urements of chemical concentrations.** ** Total dissolved solids or ayy major ion will serve the purpose with the equation CreQrn = Cow2ew+ Coxon (6.2.1) — + Data for periods when ‘evapotranspiraton is very small == © Data for periods wien cevapotranspiraton is great {(m below land eurtace) L Mean groundwater stage, Drururiyiuy 2 4 6 8 dn Feb Mar Apr May Jin Jai Aug Sep Oct Nov Das Groundwater runot (nse) Months a) () B Estimated ie ep hee van Feb Mar Aor May Jun cs Aug Sep Months «) Oat Nov Dee Figure 6.2.6, Estimate of base flow for Pather Creek near Peo, Iinois (drainage aea: 246 ka). (a) Rating curves of mean ‘roundwater sage versus groundwater runoff (base flow) (b) Mean groundwater stage for 1951 (c) Steamflow hyrdograph for 1951, showing surface runoff and base flow components (after Schicht and Walton”) 6.25iffer- inage ». But these face. nieas- vethe 62.1) aL or 1951 6.2 Streamflow and Groundwater Levels 289 Toll hydioaraph Discharge Figure 62.7, Schematic diagram of the vanition of bse flow during a flood hydrogsaph with nd without effets of bank storage (ater Singh, ‘where Cis ionic concentration, Q is streamflow, TR is total runoff, GW is groundwater con tribution (base flow), and SR is surface runoff. Solving forthe base flow, Qaw= (Cre ~ Coad Cow ~ Cre) Ore (6.2.2) where Qra= Qe + Ose (62.3) ‘Values of Coy are measured during rainless periods, Cyg is measured in small tributary streams ducing storm events, and Crp is measured during the peak flow period i the main stream. ‘Measurements by this method for three small basins (6 to 13 kin?) showed that groundwater contributed from 32 to 42 percent ofthe total flow at peak discharge. 6.2.3 Base Flow Recession Curve A recession curve shows the variation of base flow with time during periods of litte or no rainfall over a drainage basin (see Chow et al). In essence, it isa measure of the drainage rate of groundwater storage from the basin”! ® If lage, highly permeable aquifers are contained within a drainage area, the base flow willbe sustained even through prolonged droughts; if the aquifers are small and of low permeability, the base flow will decrease relatively rapidly and may even cease." Analyses of streamflow hydrographs show that the recession curve can often be fitted by the equation 0= OK 24) where Q is streamflow at time tin days after a given discharge Qo, and K is a recession constant governed by the hydrogeologic characteristics of the basin.*'®*? The value of K can be empirically determined from the slope ofa straight line fitted to a series of consecutive discharges ploted on semilogarithmic paper, as shown in Figure 6.2.8. Typical values le i the range of 0.89 and 0.95. Thus, prior knowledge of the shape of the recession curve enables future estimates to be made of streamflow during rainless periods290 Chapter Groundwater Levels and Environmental Influences, Final water table =” ~~ ~~~ Uneontined Isotropic aquiter Ideal base fow fe Discharge (logerthmic scala) —> Figure 6.2.8. Base flow recession curves of streamflow for varying magnitudes of evapo: Time —> transpiration losses from groundwater im Milo ae vin @ (o) Figure 6.2.9, Water table and stream channel conditions affecting base flow. (a) Fully penetrating stream (b) Pally penetrating stream (after Singh”) ‘An analytic study of base flow by Singh’® demonstrated that base flow recession curves depend on the degree to which a stream channel is entrenched in an equifer. For fully pene- ‘rating stream (see Figure 6.2.92), recession curves do not plot as straight lines on serniloge- rithmic paper; instead, the recession rate continuously decreases with time, forming a concave ccurve. But for deep aquifers and partially penetrating streams (see Figure 6.2.9), the straight- line approximation is generally applicable. The value of K in Equation 6.2.4 varies directly withthe degree of stream entrenchment. ‘These approaches to base flow assume that groundwater drains only toward the steam channel. Groundwater also can flow downward to an underlying leaky aquifer and can be lost by evapotranspiration to the atmosphere.”> Where these diversions are significant, the recession curve will be deflected downward. In semiarid regions where streamflow is interattent, cevapotranspiration losses become significant; this causes the recession curve to steepen (see Figure 6.2.8) until streamfiow finally ceases. 631 6.3.1 6.3.2 °my 63. Fluctuations Due to Brapotranspitation 291 6.3 FLUCTUATIONS DUE TO EVAPOTRANSPIRATION ‘Unconfined aquifers with water tables near ground surface frequently exhibit diurnal fluctuations that canbe ascribed to evaporation and/or transpication. Both processes cause a discharge of groundwater into the atmosphere and have nearly the same diurnal variation because of their high correlation with temperature, 63.1 Evaporation Effects Evaporation from groundwater increases as the water table approaches ground surface. The rate also depends on the soil structure, which controls the capillary tension above the water table and hence its hydraulic conductivity (see Chapter 3). Computation of actual evaporation from bare soil is complicated by variations in external evaporative conditions at the soil surface.26*7 For isothermal conditions, upward movement is essentially all inthe liquid phase, buta soil may have a high surface temperature, causing it to dry out, establishing upward vapor sof ‘movement in response to & vapor pressure gradient.” Field measurements of groundwater evaporation from tanks filled with sol (Iysimeters) have been made. Water tables were maintained at prescribed depths below ground surface. Results, expressed as a percentage of pan evaporation at ground surface, are shown in Figure 6.3.1, For water tables within one meter of ground surface, evaporation i largely controlled by attnospherie conditions, but below this soil properties become limiting and the rate decreases markedly with depth 6.3.2 Transpiration Effects | | r Where ot eof gettin eis te set stm wpa of ary 8 | ‘equals (for practical purposes) the transpiration rate. Figure 6.3.2 shows water level variations i ‘measured ina well ina thicket of willows. Rapid foliage growth during August (Figure 6.3.2a) caused daily fluctuations averaging about 10cm with the water lable between LS and 1.8 m L below ground surface. Heavy frosts occurred in early October and most leaves had fallen ing TT mo sures 4 pene- z lloge- 3 4 cave, > raight- i 4 ircetly j J stream 4 be lost reees- 4 nee vo Figure 63.1, Groundwater evaporation, expressed as & 0 16 2930 a 80 &® _percentage of pan evaporation, asa function of depth Paeant of pan evaporator to water table (after White"),\ 292 Chapter6 Groundwater Levels and Environmental Influences by mid-October; thereafter, diurnal luctuations were negligible (Figuce 63.26), withthe veg etation dormant Magnitudes of transpiration fluctuations depend on the type of vegetation, season, anc | weather. Hot, windy days produce maximum drawdowns, whereas cool, cloudy days show only small variations. Fluctuations begin with the appearance of foliage and cease after killing | frosts. Cutting of plans eliminates or materially reduces amplitudes. Transpiration discharge a does not occur in nonvegetated areas, such as plowed fields, or in areas where the water table is far below ground surface. After rain on high water table vegetated land, the water table rises sharply as the increased soil moisture meets the transpiration demand and reduces the groundwater discharge; but on cleated land or when vegetation is dormant, litle or no cise is evident ‘The effect of transpiration on the interaction of groundwater with prairie pothole wetlands is illustrated in Figure 6.33. The wetland, near Jamestown, North Dakoia, receives groundwater discharge most of the time; however, transpiration of groundwater by plants around the perimeter of the wetland can cause water to seep from the wetland, creating cones of depression. Seepage from wellands commonly is assumed to be groundwater recharge, but in this case the water is actualy lost to transpiration. This process resulls in depressions ofthe water table. The transpiration-induced depressions in the water table commonly are filled by recharge during the following spring and then form again by late summer almost every year. 6.3.3 Evapotranspiration Effects From a practical standpoint it is often difficult to segregate evaporation and transpiration losses from groundwater; therefore, the combined loss, referred to as evapotranspiration Depth to water table, (m) 3 Bm ‘Days of August (a) a | £ 135- 4 g i fue 32. Eo he J melting i cn oenieariece BO Georhetotat aan Bao ‘Days of October In summer (b) After frost ) (after White)63. Fluctuations Due to Evapotranspiation 293 Figure 633, Transpiration directly ftom groundwater eauses cones of depression to form by late summer around the perimeter of praie potole Wetland PI in the Cotonwood Lake area in Nocth Dakota (modified from. C. Winter and D. 0. Rosenberry, 1955) ‘The interaction of ground water with rare pothole wetlands inthe Cotionwood Lake are, east-central North Dakota, 19791990: sation (Wend 15,3, p.193-211, presen in Winter ea) vation (ox consumptive use) is typically the quantity normally measured or calculated. The variation ‘of evapotranspiration with water table depth is sketched in Figure 6.3.4 for three groundcover conditions. Iti apparent that the deeper the roots, the greater the depth at which water losses ‘occur. Even with relatively deep water tables, evapotranspiration does not necessarily become zero because upward transport can still occur, albeit minimally in the vapor phase. ‘The pattern of diurnal fluctuation resulting from discharge of groundwater is nearly identical for evaporation and transpiration. The maximum water table leve! occurs in midmomning (ee Figure 63:5) and represents a temporary equilibrium between discharge and recharge from surrounding groundwater, From midmorning until early evening, losses exceed recharge and the level falls. Te steep slope near midday indicates maximum discharge associated with highest temperatures. The evening minimum again represents an equilibrium point, while the rise during the night hours is recharge in excess of discharge. ‘White™ suggested a method for computing the total quantity of groundwater withdrawn by cvapotranspiration during a day. Its assumed that evapotranspration i negligible from midnight to 4 aM. and, further, that the water table level during this interval approximates the ‘mean for the day, then the hourly recharge from midnight to 4 a.M. may be taken as the average rate forthe day. If we let h equal the hourly rate of rise of the water table from midnight to-4 A.M. as shown by the upper curve in Figure 6.3.5, and s the net fall or rise of the water tof table during the 24-hour period, then as a good approximation the diumal volume of ground- sage water discharge per unit area becomes “O Ver= S(24n + 5) 3.1) er frost where S, is the specific yield near the water table. Actually, as pointed out by Troxell,” the rate of groundwater recharge to the vegetated area varies inversely with the water table level. Thus,294 Chapter 6 Groundwater Levels and Environmental Influences Evapotranspiraion —> Shallow-rooted vegetation Deep-rooted vegetation + Depth to water table Figure 63.4. Generalized variation of evapotansi- ration from groundwater with watr table dep for tzee proundcover conditions (after Bouwer) 2h table love Elevation Recharge: 8 slope of water i wa!) Sleeve 3 porot Figure 6.3. Interrelations of water table level, Midnight "Noon Midnight’ recharge, and evepotransiration fluctuations eau oem (efter Troxel). the difference between the recharge rate and the slope ofthe groundwater level curve gives the ‘evapotranspiration rate. The lower portion of Figure 6.3.5 illustrates this; the area between the two curves is a measure of the daily volume of water released to the atmosphere. 64 F 6.4.1 139) Wott water level above datum (meters) areranspi- th for lelevel, gives the tween the 64 Fluctuations Due to Meteorological Phenomena 295 64 FLUCTUATIONS DUE TO METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA 64,1 Atmospheric Pressure 19) ‘Welt wator level above datum (meters) a & a & Changes in atmospheric pressure (barometric tides) produce sizable fluctuations in wells penetrating confined aquifers." The relationship is inverse; that is, increases in atmospheric pressure produce decreases in water levels, and conversely. When atmospheric pressure changes are expressed in txms of a coturan of water, the ratio of water level change (© pressure change expresses the barometric efficiency ofan aquifer. Thus, p= oy (641) where B is bacomettic efficiency, ys the specific weight of water, Ah is the change in piezo- ties level, atid Bp, isthe change in atmospheric pressure. Most observations yield values in the range of 20 to 70 percent. ‘The effect is apparent in data shown in Figure 64.1. The upper curve indicates observed water levels in a well in Iowa City, lowa, penetrating a confined aquifer. The lower curve shows atmospheric pressure inverted, expressed in meters of water, and multiplied by 0.75. A close correspondence of major Muctuaiions exists in the two curves; the equality of amplitudes indicates thatthe barometric efficiency of the aquifer is about 75 percent. ‘The phenomenon can be explained by recognizing that aquifers are elastic bodies.” If ‘Ap, isthe change in atmospheric pressure and Ap, is the resulling change in hydrostatic pressure atthe top of @ confined aquifer, then 4p, = Spy + AS, 642) ‘where As, is the increased compressive stress on the aquifer (Figure 6.4.2). At a well penetrating the confined aquifer, the relation pe=ee2 th 43) 0.75 x atmospheric pressure (m of water) Figure 6.4.1. Response of water level in a well penetrating a confined aquifer to atmospheric pres- 17 18 192024 22 252425 2627 2820900112645 67 8970 sure changes, showing a baro- March 1989 Api 1998 ‘metric efficiency of 75 percent Days of the month {after Robinson")296 Chapter Groundwater Levels and Environmental Influences AP 20, Figure 6.4.2. [dealized distribution of forces at the upper boundary of a confined aquifer resulting from a change in atmospheric pressure, Config lay £ be as sutace Pa * OP Upper boundary { of aquifer ‘Sand grains ‘Aquter . ae Aue Ha |-— > (a) CO) Figure 6.43. Etfect of an increase in atmospheric pressure on the water level ofa well penetrating 2 confined aquifer exists as shown in Figure 6.4.3a, where yis the specific weight of water. Let the atmospheric pressure increase by Ap, then Pat My = Pot Ap, + th (44) as shown in Figure 64.3, Substituting for p, from Equation 6.4.3 yields 8p, = 4p, + yh" -H) 43) But from Equation 6.4.2 itis apparent that Ap, < Ap, indicating that h’< A. Generally, therefore, the water level in a wel fells with an increase in atmospheric pressure. I follows that the ‘converse is also true.” Jacob“ developed expressions relating barometric efficiency of a confined aquifer to aguifer and water properties, including the storage coefficient. Gilliland” showed that changes in soil moisture from infiltrating precipitation can affect the magnitude of barometric efficiency. For an unconfined aquifer, atmospheric pressure changes are transmitted directly to the water table, both in the aquifer and in a well; hence, no pressure difference occurs. Ait cenirapped in pores below the water table is affected by pressure changes, however, causing fluctuations similar to but smaller than that observed in confined aquifers. © Temperature Actatons in the capillary zone wl also induce water table uctwations wes entrapped ai Atmospheric pressure fluctuations do affect water tables substantially on small, permeable ‘oceanic islands. The response of sea-level changes to atmospheric pressure is essentially isostatic; that is, sea level adjusts to a constant mass of the ocean-atmosphere column. This ‘causes the ocean to act as an inverted barometer with sea level rising about I era to compen- sate for a drop in atmospheric pressure of | mb. These fluctuations ammount to about 20 cm in the open ocean and are transmitted as long-term tides tothe water table (see the subsequent section on ocean tides). Data from Bermuda by Vacher"* shown in Figure 6.4.4 illustrate the luctuations. “Atmosphere pressure waves crested by miler explosions nthe Soviet Union have caused craton of he pievometri uae in limestone aquifers in Ergland* One facustion displayed an amplitude of 46 om in response (pressure wave of 900-1,000misrobrs. 6.4. ly average precipitation (om)64 Fluctuations Due to Meteorological Phenomena 297 eh fe | soem Lael gar i y roen{ Figure 644, Vainio in stmospherc Ee pressure and water abe elevation du 3 ing October 1973 at Devonshire Post Office, Bermuda, Not thatthe varia sions iaverse with ase in pressure ' 0 20 31 associated with decline in water evel Days of October (ater Vicker water 64.2 Rainfall {As described previously, rainfall is not an accurate indicator of groundwater recharge because of surface and subsurface losses as well as travel time for vertical percolation. The travel time ‘spheric may vary from a few minutes for shallow water tables in permeable formations to several months or years for deep water tables underlying sediments with low vertical permeabilities, 644) Furthermore, in arid and semiarid regions, recharge from rainfall may be essentially zero. Shallow water tables show definite responses to rainfall, as Figure 6.45 indicates. Wate levels shown are the average for 25 observation wells; greatest fluctuations occurred in the upper 43) portions of the basin and smallest near the basin outlet, y, there- that the Ta Tar a uifer to el ay] ay] Ava Sat [x Oa | FD Wa [Poa] 7 [a Set [0 Wor] a ab [er changes t ciency. 5 y 10 the : urs. Air = causing 5 perature 3 pped air mmeable 7 sentially & ow, This i compen = em in 2 sequent 8 trate the @ = afte vin ‘Figure 6.4.5. Variation in average water table level and weekly average precipitation, Beaverdam Creek Basin, Maryland (after ‘Rasmussen and Andreasen),298 Chapter Groundwater Levels and Environmental Influences 6.4.3 Wind 6.4.4 Frost \ Sind sutace = ia Sani srw ontg ‘rom inition aah 4 lol + zone ot 7” compressed a oh | Water adie Figure 64.6. Water able sse in an observation well resulting fom if teatng rainfall sealing the groond su face and compressing ais above the water able Groundwater levels may show seasonal variations due to rainfall, but often these include natural discharge and pumping effects as well. Droughts extending over a period of several years contribute to declining water levels. ‘Where the unsaturated zone above a water table hes a moisture content less than that of specific retention (see Chapter 2), the water table will not respond to recharge from rainfall nti tis deficiency has been satisfied. Thereafter, the rise Af will amount to Ah= P/S, 646, ‘where P;is that portion of precipitation that percotates to the water table and S, is specific yield An interesting phenomenon occasionally noted in observation wells isa nearly instantaneous response of shallow water tables to rainfall, This may be explained by the pressure increase of air trapped in the zone of aeration when rainfall seals surface pores and infiltrating ‘water compresses the underlying at. Ifthe zone containing interconnected air-filled pores (H in Figore 64.6) is compressed toa thickness Hm, then the pressure above the water table is increased by m/(H~m) of an atmosphere, causing the water level in an observation well torise m Q (19)m (642) H-m For shallow water tables the rise (which occurs only inthe well) can be an order of magnitude larger than the depth of infiltrating rainfall; however, escaping air soon dissipates the effect. Similarly, when water i applied uniformly tothe top ofa dry column of sand inthe laboratory, the airis compressed until released by a spontaneous upward eruption. Minor fluctuations of water levels are caused by wind blowing over the tops of wells. The effect lentical to the action of a vacuum pump. As 2 gust of wind blows across the top ofa casing, the air pressure within the well is suddenly lowered and, as a consequence, the water level ‘quickly rises. After the gust passes, the air pressure in the well rises and the water level falls ‘In regions of heavy frost, it has been observed that shallow water tables decline gradually during the winter and rise sharply in early spring before recharge from the ground surface could —veptn 65 FL 65.1nan infil nd sut- riclude several that of rainfall 648) yield. astanta- nressure iluating vores (Hf table is to rise (64 agnitude ecffect. oratory, heeffect casing, ster level el falls sally dur ace could —eptn 65 Fluctuations Due to Tides 299 Moan dally temperature <0® C Unseturated Zone of saturation Figure 6.47. Sketch illustrating the variation in “lanvary Febuary March Poi ‘depth to water tab in response to winter frost Months ‘conditions (after Schneider"), ‘occur (see Figure 6.4.7). This fluctuation can be attributed to the presence of a frost layer above the water table. During winter, water moves upward from the water table by capillary ‘movement and by vapor transfer to the frost layer, where it freezes. Vapor migration occurs in response tothe thermal gradient and tothe fact that vapor pressure over ice is les than that ‘over liquid water at O°C. In early spring, approximately when the mean air temperature reaches (°C, the frost layer begins thawing from the bottom; consequently, meltwater percolates downward to rejoin the water table, 65 FLUCTUATIONS DUE TO TIDES 65.1 Ocean Tides In coastal aquifers in contact with the ocean, sinusoidal fluctuations of groundwater levels ‘occur i response to tides If the sea level varies with a simple harmonic motioa, a tain of sinusoidal waves is propagated inland from the submarine outcrop ofthe aquifer, With distance, inland amplitudes of the waves decrease andthe time lag ofa given maximum increases. The problem has been solved by analogy to beat conduction i a semi-infinite solid subject o pei- oie temperature variations normal tthe infinite dimension > For simplicity, consider the one-directionl low ina confined aquifer as sbown in Figure 65a, From Equation 39.11, the applicable differential equation governing the flow is 2 Hh Sh 65.1) a Tar where isthe net rise or fll ofthe piezometric surface with reference tothe mean level, xis the distance iniand from the outrop, Sis the storage coefficient of the aquifer, Tis transmissivity, and is ime. If we lt the amplitude, or hal-range of the tide be hy (se Figure 65.12), the applicable boundary conditions include h = hy sin wy at x= O-and h=Oat.x= oo, The angu- lar velocity is for 8 tidal period tg, 2n * (65.2)300. Chapter 6 Groundwater Levels and Environmestal Influences Tidal range 2hy Water table Range fuctution 2 Uncontined aquifer Ocean (0) Ground surtace Prezometric surface range 2hyC Prozomatic sutace Flange fluctuation 2nC ean sea level Cont Ste: Figure 65.1, Groundwater level ucts tons produced by ocean ides. (a) o Confined aquifer (6) Unconfned aquifer (6) Loading of confined aquifer ‘The solution of Equation 6.5.1 with these boundary conditions is ba hye HOF gi (2. ari (653) a From this it follows that amplitude h, of groundwater fluctuations at a distance x from the shore equals fag = bye (654) ‘The time lag f, ofa given maximum or minimum after it occurs in the ocean can be obtained by solving the quantity within the parentheses of Equation 6.5.3 fort, so that exist 655) ‘The waves travel with a velocity (ant TeS (656)Actus aquifer 653) from the 654) obtained (655) (656) 65 Fluctuations Due t Tides 301 and the wavelength is given by vfo = f4mtgTIS: (6.5.7) Substituting the wavelength for x in Equation 6.54 shows that che amplitude decreases by a factor €*, or 1/535, for each wavelength. Water flows into the aquifer during half of each cycle and ‘out during the other half. By Darcy's law, the quantity of flow V per hal-amin- by the 2 United sidence. organic ving pet- «stopping Matter re Load appbed Ground aloes A aloes 69 Land Subsidence and Groundwater 309 - Load removed i Time— ——— pt H+ = + load applied and later removed from the aoe eS ground surface above a confined aquifer (after Jacob"), aafrost, More than 80 percent of the identified subsidence inthe United State is @ conse- ‘quence of our exploitation of groundwater. Figure 6.9.1 shows the locations in the United States where subsidence has been atvibuted to groundwater pumpage. The continuing and increasing development of land and water resources threatens to worsen existing Jand- subsidence problems and initiate new problems. Galloway eta.” reported on the land subsidence due to mining groundwater in several areas of the United States, including Santa Clara Valley, California; San Joaquin Valley, California, Houston-Galveston, Texas; Las Vegas, Nevada; and south-central Arizona, ‘The relation between changes in groundwater levels and compression of the aquifer system is based upon the principle of effective stress. When groundwater levels ae lowered, the suppost provided by the pore-fluid pressure is transferred tothe skeleton of the aquifer system, ‘which compresses 2s shown in Figure 69.2. When the pore-fluid pressure is increased, such as when groundwater recharges the aquifer system, support previously provided by the skeleton is transfered to the fluid and the skeleton expands. The skeleton altemately undergoes compression and expansion a the pore-luid pressure fluctuates with aguifersystem discherge and recharge. This fully recoverable deformation occurs in all aquifer systems, commonly resulting in seasonal, reversible displacements in land surface of up to one inch or more in response to seasonal changes in pumpage™. Preconsoldation sess the maximum level of past sessing of a skeletal element. When the load on an aquitard skeleton exceeds the preconsolidation stress, the aquitard skeleton can undergo ireversible compaction, resulting ina permanent reduction of pore volume asthe pore {ud is forced ou ofthe aquitards into the aquifers. Ths process is illustrated in Figure 6.9.3 In confined aquifer systems subject to large-scale overdraft, the volume of water resulting from310 Chapter 6 Groundwater Levels and Environmental Infuences ‘Saoramorto Valley Saline Vay Sntento Valley ‘Sanoemadio stan South Centra Sama Clare Valley Bua Yaley nd areca at San ver Val Voie Sey Nee ete a ‘Wott Valley Gia Bend area even Harquahala Pian mi Sener valey Serie ean ‘Wes Sat er Vatey Petey covetn Willeax Basin ote Savannah orea Wi Ngoc aval equter ayers in te oterminous Unted States igure 691. Aras inte United Stes whece subsidence has bee tbe groundwater pampage Calloway etl”) When water lees crop. ce meity to seasonal nceniesin groundwater When goundwater recharged Damping some support or the over- acd water levels ris, ome sup- jing rater sis om the presur port forthe verlyng materia ‘aed fi ing the pores toe gan- shits Fom the ari seton Ua skeleton ofthe aque stem. ‘othe pressured pore hud, pandingaguiter. skeleton Decreased fui presaze_ een fd presure ages the eetonto ogands the eto, feotrackreaing re Csing sre on lt trl absdence cfané ft are. Figure 6.9.2. Relation between changes in groundwater eve! and compression of aquifer sytem (Galloway et al") 69.1 Wen apie ‘ound andra onthe beyone precer: trroshe quia ard the ‘surace petman Figure69 Land Subsidence and Groundwater 311 irreversible aquitard compaction is essentially equal to the volume of subsidence. This volume typically can range from 10 to 30 percent of the total volume of water pumped, representing a one-time mining of the stored groundwater and resulting in a small permanent reduction i storage capacity”, The concepts of aquitard drainage and aquifer-syste compaction are further illustrated in Figure 6 9.4. Figure 6.9.5 illustrates the predeveloped conditions and postdeveloped conditions (with Jand subsidence) of the San Joaquin Valley in California, At least four distinct phenomena have been identified?” 6.9.1 Lowering of Piezometric Surface Land subsidence has been observed to accompany extensive lowering of the piezometric surface in regions of heavy pumping from confined aguifers. Figure 6 9.6 and 697, respectively, illustrate the trend in subsidence in the Houston area due to groundwater pumpage and the arrested subsidence by substituting imported water Figure 6.9.8 shows land subsidence in Poin south-central Arizona, illustrating another regional subsidence. 7] Rona land absience cased by reversible elastic deformation Permanent and subsidence caused by ‘runaatr oes fd ies sossos ‘cuits compact ‘nd the land ‘surface subeldos permaneaty. Compaction ofthe aquifer system Tine Granular aqutard Rearrange, sieleton detring id: | Lovg-term decne in water evel modulated by the seasonal gles filed pore spaces Sovppondvater of goundater purpage Figure 63, Inelastic compaction ireversibly altering aguifer system (Galloway tal”),312 Chapter 6 Groundwater Levels and Environmental Inuences Ths principle describes the relation between changes in water levels and deformation ofthe aquifer system. Lard sufice Foran binary plaebelow the . wrterible etoaleressepre— Unconfoed Agile tem ented bythe weight of theo aquifer FLSTRES |] ng rockand water ibalnced [Comes | Paced ets — Beeps || imexpanular oc eecve aes. (ately Pred arnt water) extensive) Gru °, = G Thick aquitrd fhe tea a ’ Confined Seenon) dich aauter sptem ors oa Srasosetare teenies Thin agar "he pel J Post Figure 64a, Aquitd rsinage and aqifer-system compaction; the principle of eectve sess (Galloway ot al, Groin Pie tothe tensive development of pump groundwater resources, water levels ae airing development of ground ‘After oand-water pampiag sons “Tele sable—thoughsubjectioven-.__waler resource vaterlerelsGecine or decentes, ater evel tablet tandlengertem climate. and land ibidence begins ited etaidence may contin Figure Under tie pe of ei se be canpcien ofa ick Sequre fitout ‘Sdagsin cn proces ony sri pre reses Fe connd dt te deiton rouge sauce an de te ale ten rere ona ecient re |) be etocne ee (6) ne deed presen easngsore amoresot ates Hot of ead ns nce occas rk ote FEE) poraretcarpasson tbe yet ich nay be died iether tow erage Figure 63.45, Aquiacd dsnage and auiersystem compaction; prolonged changes in groundwater eels induce sbsience (Galioway eta,69. Land Subsidence and Groundwater 313 Wier Nevada Predevelopment Groundwater lowed trom the mountains toward the Cceter ofthe valley where it discharged into streams 0° ‘trough evapotanspration, S25 Potentiometric surface nf ‘deep aquifer: en Z Postdevelopment ‘Groundwater tow generally downward and toward pumping cantar. Figure 69.5. Comparison of pre- and postdevelopment concepts for the San Joaquin Valley in California (Galloway etal.” ‘The explanation for ths subsidence is based on fundamentals of soil mectanics."** Con- sider the pressure diagram for a confined aquifer ovedain by an unconfined aquifer sbown in Figure 6.9.9. Initially, the total (geosttic) pressure p, at any depth (see Figure 6.9.90) is Pre Path (63.1) where pis the hydraulic pressure and pis the intergranular pressure. If pumping in the confined aquifer lowers the piezometric surface while the water table remains unchanged due to an impermeable clay layer separating the aquifers (Figure 6.9.98) then Equation 69.1 becomes PAPE +P! (69.2) Note that py’ < py and p/ > p for both the confined aquifer and the clay layer. Adjustments to these new pressure distributions will take place essentially instantaneously in the permeable, coarse-grained aquifer. But in the relatively impermeable, fine-grained clay, this adjustment ‘may take months to years, Because clayey materials are highly compressible, the increased314 Chapter Groundwater Levels and Environmental Influences, ‘Subsidence trends reflect patterns of resource development that shifted inland from coastal oil and gas extraction to groundwater extraction for muicipal and industrial supplies. 1974-1 zt Figure 6, Subsidenc water. Ar increasing 69.2 Hy Fipure 69.6. Subsidence trends in Houston, Texas area (Galloway oa”), intergranular pressure (p’ ~ p)) causes the clay layer to be compacted, This reduces its poros- 1 while water contained in the clay pores is squeezed downward into the confined aquifer. ‘The volume of water displaced from the clay equals the eduction in clay volume and also the volumetric land surface subsidence. Similarly, the reduction in thickness of the clay layer equals the vertical land subsidence. The amount of compaction is a function of the thickness and vertical permeability ofthe clay ofthe time and magnitude of piezometrc surface dectine, and of the microstructure of the clay.°° Because sand and gravel deposits are relatively inoom- pressible, the increased intergranular pressnre as a negligible effect on the auifer itself.etal), ' poros- quite. and also lay layer hickness decline, v incom self. 69 Land Subsidence and Groundwater 315 Change in groundwater levels in wells in the Evangeline auiter, 1977-1997 ‘Some arrested subsidence 1974-1997 Continuing subsidence 1974-1997 a9. Subsidence (eet) 12 Extensometer sites for measuring subsidence wie @ Addicks 2 (cies Fon Kararckad hers 1977) ———@) Lake Houston © Baytown eee © Cher Lake 197519851995 © Texas City Figure 6.9.7. Houston, Texas, area subsidence and antested subsidence (Galloway etal). The Hartis-Galveston Coastal Subsidence Distriet has arrested subsidence along the western margins of Galveston Bay by substituting imported water for groundwater. A new challenge is fo manage groundwater use north and west of Houston where water levels ae declining and subsidence is increasing, Land subsidence resulting from compaction of fine-grained sediments occurs at several locations in the United States and throughout the world. The problem has been extensively studied by Poland and others.** ®**®"* Compaction of clay is largely inelastic and permanent; consequently, the only effective control measure for this type of subsidence is Increasing piezometic levels by reducing pumping and by recharge of water through injection wells (see Chapter 13). Withdrawal of oil and gas produces the same problem of land subsidence; major areas affected exist in the United States, Italy, Japan, and Venezuela. 6.9.2. Hydrocompaction Collapse of the ground surface has been observed to occur when water is applied to certain types of soils. Particularly susceptible are (1) loose, moisture-deficient alluvial deposits, including mud flows; and (2) moisture-deficient loess deposits **7” An example of this type ‘of shallow subsidence is found onthe aid westside of the Sen Joaquin Valley, California Soils characteristically are desiccated witha high void content and low density (1.1 to 4 gem). Most of these soils have never been saturated since deposition, but when irigation water, for “The periodic Noocing of Piazea San Marco in Venice fom the Grand Canal provides dramatic evidence that subs- ence from groundwater pamagethrestens this bestfl city A dein of 20 em over the las 5O years hs bern repored, Recent estctons on pumpage inthe inéustal suburb of Porto Marghera are expeed to hal his subs dence rate316 Chapter § Groundwater Levels and Environmental Influences = Depth us ice Figure 698, Land subsidence in south-central Arizona (modified from Carpenter, as present- din Alley eta), Groundurater development for agricultare inthe basin-fill aquifers of south-central Arizona began i the late 18003, and by the 1940s many ofthe basins had under- {gone intensive ground-water development Groundwater depletion has been widespread ‘over these basins, and locally, water-level declines have exceeded 300 feet. These water level declines have resulted in regional subsi- ‘ence, exceeding 10 feet in some ares, A profile near Luke Air Force Base illustrates that subsidence is greater near the center of basins, ‘where the aggregate thickness ofthe fine ‘rained sediments is generally greater. In con- junction with widespread subsidence, numerous ce fissures have formed at and near the mar- ss of subsiding basins or near exposed or shallow buried bedrock, Ground surace ‘Water table and pezometic surface Wator tab Piezometic Uroonined ‘suace auiter Wigraton of al\ wa fo, compacting ay Cenfing ayy ‘went bad | aquifer Figure 699. Graph of hydraulic and intergranular pressures as function of depth for an unconfined aquifer cate overlying a coafined aquifer afer Pn i Planeta), () Initial condition Pr ‘with water table and piezometric sur- o o face at same elevation () Subsequent Pressure > Pressure —r condition with piezometic surface (a) (o) lowered ‘example, is applied, their intemal high void structure collapses, resulting in an erratic subsidence of the land surface. To define the magnitude of tis subsidence, atest pond 30 m by 30 m was constructed on flat land, and benchmarks anchored at various depths were installed, Water toa depth of 0. m. was admitted in early October 1956. Subsidence of the various benchmarks appears in Figure 69.10. As the wetting front moved downward, the bench marks progressively subsided, At Infitration (eniday) Lang subsigence (m) Figure San Joe (@) Sub 6.9.3 | 69.4ventral event ‘vent 800s, undes- 1 cad I ater ssi A pro: that sins, ve mar slic and vnction vifer ater sition te sure sequent face. lic subsi- ructed on r0f0. m in Figure sided. At 69 Land Subsidence and Groundwater 317 ss f= Ta 3 __|elieulone enrol] ORD FO Way Sp] Dl Woe EE oak Tesi plat 4 an en (a) ° ‘em benchmerk Land subsidence (m) ) Figure 6.9.10. Hydrocompaction and land subsidence resulting fom water application on atest plot containing low-density sol, San Joaquin Valley, California (after Lofgren"; courtesy The Geological Society of America, 1963). (a) Infiltration from test plot (6) Subsidence of benchmarks anchored at ground surface and at various depth intervals ground surface, the change in level amounted to more than 3 m, while atthe 45 m depth no effect was observed until after 16 months Shallow subsidence can influence irgation, drainage, sewerage, and transportation systems,’ Sprinkler irrigation and pipelines for water conveyance are best suited in these terrains. 69.3 Dewatering of Organic Soils In fet peat or muck land with a shallow water table, lowering of the water table, such as by drainage, produces land subsidence. Causes include (1) shrinkage due to desiccation, (2) consol- dation by loss ofthe buoyant force of groundwater, (3) compaction with tillage, (4) wind erosion, (5) buming, and (6) biochemical oxidation. Investigations have shown that the rate of subs dence is proportional tothe depth to the water table. To conserve the life of organic soils, the water table should be maintained as high as crop requirements and field conditions will pet Subsidence of onganic soils has been noted in the Netherlands, the Soviet Union, and at various locations in the United States. During the last 70 years extensive drainage for agricul tural purposes of islands in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, California, has lowered the Jand surface greater than 15 ft over much of the area, as shown in Figure 6.9.11. This has necessitated construction of a vast network of perimeter levees to prevent inundation of the depressed islands by floods or high tides. 6.9.4 Sinkhole Formation Catastrophic land subsidence leading to the formation of sinkholes can also be associated with declines in groundwater levels. Soluble rocks such as dolomite and limestone are slowly “wore than 100 km slong the Calfomie Aqueduct, conert- ined canal caring some 25x 108 may of water to Souther Califor, ross formations susceptible to shallow lnd subsidence. T avo the danger of subsidence fro canal kegs, ge-scale spending ponds were maintained along he alignment in ode to preconsolidt the suis before construction of th aged.BIB Chapter § Groundwater Levels and Environmental Influences Land subsidence (feat below sea leve) Gilo-10 -15 HM Greater than 15, Figure 6.9.11. Land subsidence inthe ‘Sacramento-San Joagum Delta, Californie (Galtoway et a1, dissolved locally by groundwater. Eventually the ground surface sinks to form a cup-shaped depression. Over large areas of this type, a karsic sinkhole plain is formed with most ofthe dainage occurring in the subsurface. ‘New sinkholes often develop in regions where wate tables have been lowered by pump: ing. For example, groundwater pumping from a dolomite aquifer for mine dewatering inthe Far West Rand, South AVrica, led tothe formation of eight sinkholes larger than 50 min diam ‘eter and deeper than 30 m within a period of 39 months.'* Similarly, the massive Alabama sinkhole shown in Figure 6.9.12 appeared suddenly ater a local decline of the water table. As 695+ 6.9.66.9.5 Crustal Uplift 69 Land Subsidence and Groundwater 319 Figure 6.9.12. Sinkhole formed suddenly in December 1973 witha diameter of 130 m and depth of 45 min Shelby County, ‘Nama, Tis is one of more thn 1,000 sinkholes that developed in Shelby County Within 15-year period. The concentration of sinkholes is attributed 1a local lowering of the water table (ouresy US. Geological Survey), ‘water table is lowered, removal of the buoyant support from the subsurface clay above the cavern together with increased velocities of infiltrating water are believed to be responsible for the caverins. ‘The opposite of land subsidence, crustal uplift, can occur over large areas subject to heavy groundwater pumping. The tectonic uplift of land, involving an elastic expansion ofthe lithosphere, is caused by the removal of lerge masses of groundwater. The phenomenon has been noied in paris of Arizona, California, end Texas, where groundwater pumped from aquifers was removed by evapotranspiration by crops. In the Santa Cruz River Basin, Arizona, a crustal uplift of 6 em was observed between 1948 and 1967, when 43.5 billion tons of groundwater was pumped from an 8,070-kru? area. This figure compares favorably with the 17-cm lan surface depression, previously measured, resulting from the filing of Lake Mead on the Colorado River. 6.9.6 Monitoring of Land Subsidence Several types of data are requiced in monitoring land subsidence, Wells are required to moni- ‘or water levels at multiple levels, and extensometer wells are required to measure sediment compaction. Borebole data, including inclinometer measurements, lithogrephic and geophysical data, and geotechnical data, are also collected. The water-level monitoring wells are constructed with multiple or nested piezometers at different depths, as illustrated in Figure 6.9.13, to monitor water levels in the multiple 2ones inthe partially confined aquifer asa function of time, Submersible pressure transducers are installed to measure water levels in each of the nested piczometers. ‘Compaction is the decrease in the thickness of the subsurface sediments, whereas subsidence is the lowering of the land-surface elevation over a long period of time. The various320, Chapter 6 Groundwater Levels and Environmental Influences Pt P2 P3 Pa 382 feet 4357 ost — 407 ten Te 6.10 #3 ot —H 58 fot 608 foot Figure 69.13. Construction of nested NOT TO SCALE piezometers PI through Pé (lkehar™) sediment-sample properties measured in consolidation and permeability tests are listed in Table 6.9.1. Figure 6.9.14 illustrates the construction of an extensometer well and Figure 6.9.15 illustrates the instrumentation for the extensometer. Figure 6.9.16 shows the curmulative ‘net sediment compaction superimposed on water levels for five water years (from Ikehara””), For this application in Yolo County, Califomia, five piezometers and an extensometer were constructed in three boreholes.6.10 Effects of Global Climate Change on Groundwater 321 ‘Table 69.1. Key to Propertios Measured in Consolidation and Permeability Tests on Sediment Samples, Time (m) {rom eal time on first day of test (hours) Sample thickness c)......(CVDT reading)(LVDT slope) + intercept from LVDT calibration Void ratio, e(@) (height of sample-eighr of slids)(seight of solids) ead difeence(m) ..... head drop acoss the sample Flowrae, Q(m) ‘oysrate used to conduct permeability tet Permeability (€) ‘(Qrhead citerence)(semple thicknessferss-sectona area) Vericalefective sess (a) ‘ressare on piston in contact with sample (Ibi?) o effective stess on sample (kPa) Real vertical effective stress on the sample is shout two times the measured effective sess because the ‘area of the piston in contact with the sample is approximately half the area of the bottom of the loading chamber. CCompressibilty (6)... (e,~e,Metfecive sess 1 — effective stress 2) {equivalent tothe slope ofthe “void ratio versus effective ses” curve] Specific storage (6). Compresibiliy spect gravity of wate +) [se vid rato) {© cael Pa Kopel TOG, pound pr sua neh LVDT, ear variable cient anor () ‘meas Source Tekan” 6.10 EFFECTS OF GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE ON GROUNDWATER ‘The earth's temperature is affected by numerous influences, including (a) the incoming solar radiation that is absorbed by the atmosphere and the earth's surface, (b) the characteristics (emissivity) ofthe mater that absorbs the radiation, an (c) the part ofthe long-wave radiation emitted by the sucface, absorbed by the almosphere, and then re-emitted as long-wave radiation either in the upwerd or downward direction. ‘The so-called greenhouse effet is caused by the net change ofthe internal radiation balance of the atmosphere due to the continued increased emission of greenhouse gases, resulling in both the atmosphere and the earth’s surface becoming warmer. The magnitude of the ‘greenhouse effect is dependent on the composition ofthe atmosphere—with the most important factors being the concentrations of water vapor and carbon dioxide—and less importantly ‘on certain trace gases, such as methane. There is mounting evidence that global warming is under way. In genera, the hydrologic effects are tikely to influence water storage pattems throughout the hydrologic cycle and influence the exchange among aquifers, streams, rivers, and lakes, Chalecki and Glieck* provide a bibliography of the impacts of climate change on water sted resources in the United States wa), ‘The Pacific Institute bas compiled a comprehensive online bibliography of peer-reviewed literature dealing with climate change and its effects on water resources and water systems. At last count, the bibliography included over 3,600 citations. This bibliography can be accessed at htip www: pacinstorg/tesources/index html. The International Panel on Climate Chenge listed in (PCC) has been active in compiling information concerning future climate change | Figure (PCC**), These reports can be obtained from http:lwww.ipec.ch, eT ‘The effects of climate change on groundwater sustainability include (Alley et al.') share + Changes in groundwater recharge resulting from changes in average precipitation and ter were n cha temperature or in seasonal distibution of precipitation,322 Chapter 6 Groundwater Levels and Environmental Influences Lites a) Tati oot tone cola, extensometer Felerence pont ‘welled ang — fu steel surece ‘ang baskot welded to easing See pjoin casing sitet } sip ont casing A ‘ oes coment ug cL 1908 et Figure 6.9.14, Construction of extensometer well NOTTOSCALE (hare ‘+ More severe and longer lasting droughts, with the effects of drought ilustrated in Figure 6.10.1, + Changes in evapotranspiration resulting from changes in vegetation, and + Possible increased demands of groundwater as @ backup source of water supply. Surficial aquifers are ixely to be par ofthe groundwater system that is most sensitive to climate, These aquifers supply much of the flow to streams, lakes, wetlands, and springs, Because groundwater systems tend to respond more slowly to short-term variability in climate Figwser well ain oy. sasitive to 4 springs. inclimate 6.10 fleets of Global Climate Change on Groundwater 323 me = ‘narra tate aie, i ‘siete, Cas ce cum 2 oe ; ZL a. Z { ve i canons parton cate ; y | emcee sto cin os crise i se Ba q Figure 6.915. Instrumentation of extensometer well (Ikehara”) NOT TO SCALE conditions than the response of surface water systems, the assessment of groundwater resourves and related model simulations are based on average conditions, such as annual recharge and/or average annual discharge to streams. The use of average conditions may underestimate the importance of droughts (Alley etal"), ‘The impacts of climate change on (a) specific groundwater basin, (b) the general ground: ‘water recharge characteristics, and (c) groundwater quality have received litle attention in the literature, Vaccaro® addressed the climate sensitivity of groundwater recharge, finding that a warmer climate (doubling CO,) resulted in a relatively small sensitivity to recharge, which depended on land use. Sandstrom’” studied a semiarid basin in Africa and concluded that a 15 percent reduction in rainfall could fead to a 45 percent reduction in groundwater324 Chapter 6 Groundwater Levels and Eoviconmental Influences Figure 6.9.16. Cumulative net sediment compaction superimposed on hyrograph of well IN/IE-24065 (P3), water years 1988-927 in Yolo County, California (Ukehara™). recharge. Sharma” and Green et al.™ reported similar sensitivities of the effects of climate change on groundwater in Australia, Panagoulia and Dimou studied the effect of climate ‘change on groundwater-streamflow interactions in a mountainous besin in central Greece. ‘They realized large impacts in the spring and summer months as a result of temperature- induced changes in snowfall and snowmelt pattems. Oberdorfr® looked a the impacts of cli- imate change on groundwater discharge to the ocean using a simple water-balance model to study the effect of changes in recharge rates and sea level on groundwater resources and flows ‘The impacts of sea-level rise on groundwater will include ° or « laos i = é 5 jw i 5 E i 3 5 5 oss lose re Tee wo a a exwuron — Daly Watertovel AL C600 Hours = Daly Sediment Compaction At 0600 Hote + nstartangous Sediment Compacton in a California coastal watershed, increased intrusion of saltwater into coastal aquifers PROBLEMS 6.141 Develop a summary onthe effects of groundwater develop- meat on groundwater low to and from surface-water bos. Refer to the Web ste for the U. $. Geological Survey Circular 1186, Sustainability of Ground: Water Resources, by Alley et al, htp-/vaterusgs gov/pubsleiclcee] 1 86/atm, 6.1.2 What has caused the reversal of declining groundwater levels in the Chicago area? Start with Avery U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 222-95, 6.9.1 Write a report on the effect of land subsidence in the San Joaquin Valley, California. What were the major causes and effects of the subsidence? Start your search for information ‘withthe U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1182, Land Subsidence in the United Stas, by Galloway et al.® and Carpenter’, Ipdfwatecusgs govlpubscircfcire| 182/hta, 6.9.2 Write a report on the effect of land subsidence in south-central Arizona. What were the major causes and effec of| the subsidence? Stat your search for information with the U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1180, Land Subsidence in the United States, by Galloway et al and Galloway and Riley", nip//oatecusgs gov/pubsliee/irc!182/hunl DEPTH TO WATER BELow LAND SunPAGE IN EPS Wines Ccompacrion Figur from ( fractic wate. deposi Joaqui water, Teast a decrea actor REF) 1 Alle Water pvipat 2 Ane Practice 3. Aver Chicage 4 Ban Amer G 5, Bouw by pes 1975 6. Brea dour Ge 7. Carp United sot ph imate imate ature- ofeli- aelto flows clude nation ‘idence center’, nce in fects of ie US. United Ailey, References 325 g vero waren seLoW Cano SURPACE. IN FEET gs T_ g vaso aes 7B 1990 Figure 6.10.1, Frees of drought on groundwater levels and associated subsidence inthe Sen Joaquin Valley, California (noted from Gettoway and Riley as presented in Alley etal). The San Joaquin Valley is major agicaltural ara that produces large fraction of the fut, nus, and vegetables in tbe United States. Groundwater withdrawals Curing the 1930s 0 early 1960s caused water-level declines of tens to hundreds of fet in much of the valley. The water-level dectines resulted in compaction of te alluvial deposits and extensive Land subsidence, Subsidence in excess of one foot hs affected more than 5,200 square miles inthe San Joaquin Valley, representing perhaps the largest anthropogenic change inland sueace elevation in tke world, Importation of surface water, beginning inthe 19606, ld o a decrease in groundwater withdrawals, which in tum led to ising groundwater levels end at least a temporary end to further subsidence. During severe doughs in 1976-77 and 1987-93, deliveces of imported water were decreased, More groundwater was puried to meet water demands, reuling ina decline inthe water able and a renewal of compaction and land subsidence, REFERENCES 1, Alley, WM, TE Reilly, and O.L, Panke, Sustanabiiy of Ground Water Resources, US. Geological Sarvey Circular 1186, bupswatecasgs ‘govipubstirtcirel 186, U.S. Geologieal Survey, Denver CO, 1999, 2, Amer. So. Civil Engrs, Grad waer management, Manus Engrg. 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Geological Survey Cueuar 182, linoss State Water Survey, Campaign, IL, 1997328 Chapler6 Groundwater Levels and Environmental ltluences 90, Works, R.C, Interpretation of hydrologic dat esulig fom earth quakes, Geologie Rundschau, 43, pp. 47-52, 1955, 91, Vorhis, R, C., Eanthquake-induced water-level Nuctations fom 2 ell in Dawson County, Georgia, Seismological Soe. Amar. Bul, v.58 pp. 1023-1133, 1964 92. Vorhis, R.C., Hydrologic Ffets ofthe Earthquake of March 27, 1954, Outside Alacta, US. Geological Survey Profesional Paper S.C, 54 pp 1967, 98. Werner, PW. and D. Noren, Progressive waves in non-artesian agai, Trans Amer. Geophysical Union, «32. pp. 38-244, 1951 94, Wemer, PW, and K. J. Suedquist, On the groundwater recession curve for lage watershed, Fn Assoc Sek, Hydrology Publ 33, 9p 202-212, 1951. 95, White, W.N..A Method of Brimating Ground Water Supplier Based ‘9 Discharge by Plats and Evcporation from Sol, US. Geolegcal Sur ve Water Supply Paper 659, p. 1-105, 1932 96, Winter, C. J. W Haney, 0, L, Franke, and W, M, Alley, Ground: ‘water and Surface Water: A Single Source, US. Geological Surey Gireuler 1139, bipvaterusgs.gov/pubsicirelcire1139, Denver, CO, 1958 c5s. Based Ser lurvey +00, Chapter 7 Quality of Groundwater This now recognized thatthe quality of groundwater is just as important es its quantity. All groundwater contains salts in solution that are derived fiom the location and past movement ‘of the water. The quality required of a groundwater supply depends on its purpose; thus, needs for drinking water, industial water, and irigation water vary widely. To establish quality cri teria, measures of chemical, physical, biological, and radiological constituents must be specified, as well as standard methods for reporting and comparing results of water analyses. Dissolved geses in groundwater can pose hazards if their presence goes unrecognized, The uniformity of groundwater temperature is advantageous For water supply and industrial purposes, and underlying saline groundwaters are important because they offer potential benefits. 7.1 NATURAL GROUNDWATER QUALITY ‘The groundwater in natural systems generally contains less than 1,000 mg/l dissolved solids, unless groundwater has (1) encountered a highly soluble mineral, such as gypsum, (2) been concentrated by evapotranspiration, or (3) been geothermally heated (Graham et al.'8). Natural groundwater generally acquires dissolved constituents by dissolution of aquifer gases, minerals, and salts. Consequently, soil zone and aquifer gases and the most soluble minerals and salts in an aquifer generally determine the chernical composition of groundwater in an aquifer. Table 7.1.1 gives examples of natural groundwater chemistry. Most groundwater is recharged through a soil zone containing partial pressures of carbon dioxide gas that are higher than the atmosphere. Recently recharged groundwater therefore generally contains high inorganic carbon concentrations. Minor and trace element compositions of natural groundwater depend on the availability of minor and trace elements in easly soluble phases or on ‘sorption sites, and the redox state of the water in the aquifer (Graham et al."*). Anthropogenic ‘sources can create significant levels of trace elements in the atmosphere. Recharge from precipitation introduces these trace elements into the groundwater. Knowledge of the natural groundwater quality can provide important insights into the nature of the resource. Evaluation of the natural chemical and isotopic compositions of ‘groundwater can provide inferences of the reactions that produce natural water chemistry and the recharge, movement, mixing, and discharge of groundwater. The chemistry of natural ‘groundwater flow systems can be used to determine (1) geochemical reactions that produce observed water chemistry and changes in observed water chemistry, (2) groundwater flow paths, (3) groundwater mixing, and (4) groundwater ages and flow rates. ‘Arsenic, a naturally occurring element in rocks, soils, and water in contact with them, is a ‘human health concem because it can contribute to skin, bladder, and other cancers (National Research Council). Figure 7.1. illustrates the levels of arsenic concentrations in groundwa- 39330 Chapter 7 Quality of Groundwater ‘Table 7.11 Examples of Natural Groundwater Chemistry” Site Temperature pH_—Ca_—sMg_—siNa_—sK_~—CHCO,-SQW_—CL_—=SIQ Carbonate rock aquifer Cold Creek Spring® 10 16 17 064 007 G0) 479-009-003. ‘Corn Creek Spring” a 17 Lid 1302708467 ONB 020028 Indian Springs* 26 7411S 0520180033971 0.9.20 Carbonate rock aquifer with evaporite mineral Lewiston Big Spring” 106 758 187 1S 0002331145 Hanover Flowing Well” 204 76 21011902003 3.42 770.04 Vanek Warm Spring? 196 740 325 165 016003353344 gT Landusky Spring? 204 724650408 179024 381 tN s4a Granite rock aquifer Ephemeral Springs’ — 62 008 003 013 003 033 Dol om 027 Perennial Springs! - 68 026-008-0250 090-003-003. OAL Shallow Well! 80 789 085 019 054 0k 2409010021 Rhyoitic oek aquifer [Lowe indian Spring* 21 79 01S OOH 248 00H 27880 Ceystal Springs? By 77 055 015-218 009238023. 038075 8. Brown Well 106 68 050 016 102001840 OM Brown Wel 147 75087 023209017 246 05407113 * Alaalyses wo in ilies pre (omeliand enperaue in + WinogadandFeason"™ egress Celsas Note that ml snes molecala weight equals mg. *Plummeret al.” Source: Gram e al!* * Garey and Mackensie™ 4 Nordstrom eal? whi! Thomas etal? ter of the United States (also refer to Welch et al.**), Generally, arsenic concentrations in sroundwater are the highest in the westem part ofthe United States, with parts of the midwest and northeast having some locations with arsenic concentrations that exceed 10 ug/L, which is the provisional World Health Organization limit’ for arsenic in drinking water. 7.2, SOURCES OF SALINITY All groundwater contains salts in sotation; eported salt contents range from less than 25 mg/l ina quartzite spring to more than 300,000 mg/l in brines™. The type and concentration of salts depend on the environment, movement, and source of the groundwater. Ordinarily, higher concentrations of dissolved constituents are found in groundwater than in surface water because ofthe greater exposure to soluble materials in geologic strata, Soluble salts in grovnd- water originate primarily from solution of rock materials. Bicarbonate, usually the primary anion in groundwater, is derived from carbon dioxide released by organic decomposition inthe soil. Salinity varies with specific surface area of aquifer materials, solubility of minerals, and contact time; values tend tobe highest where movernent of groundwater is least. Hence, salia- ity generally increases with depth, A common geochemical sequence in groundwater includes, bicarbonate waters near ground surface varying to chloride waters in the deepest portions of formations. Figur027 oan o21 0.80 075 093) fons in idwest hich is ‘S mpl of sats higher + water sround- wimary inthe als, and »,salin- ncludes tions of 72 Sources of Salinity 331 Figure 7.1.1, Arsenic concentrations in groundwater of the United States (Welch eta.) Precipitation reaching the earth contains only small amounts of dissolved mineral mater. ‘Once on earth, the water contacts and reacts with the mineral of the soil and rocks. The quantity and type of mineral matter dissolved depend on the chemical composition and physical structure ofthe rocks as well asthe hydrogen-ion concentration (pH) and the redox potential (Eh) ofthe water Carbon dioxide in solution, derived from the atmosphere and from organic processes in the sol, assists the solvent action of water as it moves underground.”! The ge- chemical cycle of surface water and groundwater shown in Fig. 7.2.1 illustrates the principal chemical changes involved in water as it travels through the hydrologic cycle from precipitation to groundwater. In areas recharging large volumes of water underground, such as alluvial steams, channels, orartficial recharge areas, the quality ofthe infiltrating surface water can have @ marked effect on that of the groundwater. Locally, absorbed gases of magmatic origin contribute dissolved mineral products to groundwater; mineralized thermal springs are an excellent exam ple, Coanate water is usually highly mineralized because it is derived from water originally ‘entrapped in sedimentary strata since the time of depositio “Itshoulé be recognized that most comate water has bezn altered chemically by vaious chemical and physical processes und therefore doesnot necessarily represent the oriitl wate of deposition,332. Chapter? Quality of Groundwater Condensation —§ > Atmosphere — /, Niegen onygen catben aide i assoked f \ a 5 | Temporary retention in mourtal ‘areas as soll water 1.00» dissolved in soll, Ca, Mg, Na carbonates added to waler 2, $0, clsolved in areas where oxidation of sutides Is occurring [— 3, Connate water or soluble com- Evaporation pounds of marine sedrnents Por added T | ranspkation Evaporation mineral mater n ined largely retained hres ar | wnt insal pay fats ¢ rust atanedn sol catego in im “ ‘unt orop plants: qnesium, calcium, and | L] t t potassium = Sal water ied vith LT oe SY 100g adie mire eatonc A SS 2, Reaction of soll minerals with carbons acid ofr sohile Dearbonates 2, Precptaton of cloidal en, shuminum, ad sia, of car $ bonates te sobbiy ies £ reached 3 | 4.Caten exchange q g jt t é SS en SS. hotenecorge — L/ Ouifow'occean vent 2 Sat eduction Canias mineral matter back ~seopage by anaorobebactera Ocean substituting bar <— Subsurtace outtow to ocean <—————_bonate forthe sulate igure 7.2.1. Geochemical cycle of surface water and groundwater (after USGS Water-Supply Paper 1469) Salts are added to groundwater passing through soils by soluble products of soil weathering and of erosion by rainfall and flowing water. Excess itrigation water percolating to the ‘water table may contribute substantial quantities of salt. Water passing through the root zone of cultivated areas usually contains salt concentrations several times that ofthe applied irigation water. Increases result primarily from the evapotranspiration process, which tends to con- centrate salts in deainage waters In addition, soluble soil material, fertilizers, and selective bsonption of salts by plants will modify salt concentrations of percolating waters. Factors gov- ceming the increase include soil permeability, drainage facilities, amount of water applied, ‘crops, and climate, Thus, high salinities may be found in soils and groundwater of arid Const Silica ( boon Manger“eather sto the ‘ot zone Jimiga tocon- elective ors gov" spplied, of arid 333 climates where leaching by cainwater is not effective in diluting the salt solutions. Similarly, poorly drained areas, particularly basins having interior drainage, often contain high salt concentrations. Also, some regions contain remnants of sedimentary deposition under saline waters; the designation badlands implies in part the lack of productivity resulling from excess salt contents of the soil and wate. Groundwater passing through igneous cocks dissolves oly very small quantities of mineral matter because of the relative insolubility of the rock composition, Percotating rainwater contains carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, which increases the solvent action of the water. ‘The silicate minerals of igneous rocks result in silica being added to the groundwater Sedimentary rocks are more soluble than igneous rocks.” Because oftheir high solubility, combined with their great abundance in the earth’s crus, they furnish a major portion of the soluble constituents of groundwater. Sodium and calcium are commonly added cations; bicarbonate and sulfate are corresponding anions. Chloride occurs to only a limited extent under normal conditions; important sources of chloride, however, are from sewage, connate water, and intruded seawater. Occasionally nitrate is an important natural constituent; high concentrations may indicate sources of pastor present pollution. In limestone terrains, calcium and bicarbonate ions are added to the groundwater by solution ‘A summary of the natural sources and concentrations of the principal chemical constituents found in groundwater is presented in Table 7.2.1 together with their effects on the usability ofthe water. A comprehensive discussion of the chemical constituents of groundwater can be found in Hem." ‘Table 7.21 Principal Chemical Constituents in Groundwater—Their Sources, Concentrations, and Effect on Usability (nodifed from C. N. Durer, and E, Baker, USGS Water-Supply Paper 1812, 1964) Constituent Malor natural sources ‘Concentration in natural wate Bsfect on usability of water Silica Si0;) Feldspars, femomagnesiam Ranges generally from LOt> Inthe presence ofcleum end ad clay minerals, amorphous 30:mgf although as muchas magnesium silica fms a scale in boilers slica, chert, opal 100mgfis fay common, as and on steam urbines tha retards heat, much 254,000 mgfis found inthe scales ifiult to remove. Silica bones. may beaded to soft water to inhibit comosion of ron pipes. iron (Fe) Taneous rocks: amphiboles, Generally less han 0.SO mg/lin Move than 0.1 mg/l precipitates afer ferromagnesian micas, ferrous fully aerated water. Groundwater exposure to air, causes turbidity, stains sulfide (FS), feric sulfide or having pHless than 80may plumbing fixtures, nunry, and cooking iron pyrite (FeS;), magnetite contain 10 mg rarely as much utensils impars objectionable ates FeO) 3550 mg/l may occur Acid water and coors o foods and rinks. More Sandstone rocks: oxides, from thermal springs, mine than 02 mglis objectionable for most carbonates, and sulfides or wastes, and ndustnal wastes may industrial uses. iron clay minerals contain more than 6,000 mgf Manganese (ia) Manganese in natural water Generally 020 mgfleriess. More than 0.2 mg/l precipitates upon probably comes mostoften Groundwater and acid mine water oxidation; causes undesirable tastes, from soils and sediments. Meta-_ may contain more than 10 mg/l. deposits on foods during cooking; stains morphic and sedimentary cocks plumbing fntures ard leundys and mica biotite and amphibole fosters growihs in reservoirs, filters, and hommblende minerals contain Aistbuton systems. Most industrial laege amounts of manganese. users object to water containing more than 02.mgi Contes “Trp nner sources in sedimentary rocks ae fldepar, ypsur, and frm of calium eaonet.334 Chapter 7 Quality of Groundwater ‘Table 7.2. (continued) Principal Chemical Consitvents ia Groundater—Their Sources, Concentrations and Effect on Usability ‘tb (modified from C.N. Durfr, and E. Baker, USGS Water-Supply Paper 1812, 1964) Constituent Major natural sources Concentration in natual water Elect on usability of water Cons Calcium (Ca) Amphiboles, feldspars, gypsum, Generally less than 100 mg/l; Caleium and magnesium combine with Fluor pyroxenes, aragonite, calcite, brines may contain as muchas bicarbonate, carbonate, sulfate, and slice dolomite, eley minerals 75,000 mel. to form a heat-retarding, pipe-logging scale in boilers and in other heat- Amiphiboles, olivine, pyroxenes, Generally less than SOrmgyl; exchange equipment. Calum and dolomite, magnesite, clay ‘ocean water contains more then magnesium combine with ions of fatty minerals 1,000/mg/, and brines may acid in soaps to form soapsuils; the more contain as mach as 57,000 mp/l. calcium and magnesium, the more soap require to form suds. A high concentration of magnesium has 2 laxative effect, especially on new users Nite of the supply. Sodium (Na) Feldspars(lbit) clay minerals; Generally less than 200ml, More than 50 mg/l sodium and potassium cevaportes, such as halite (NaCl) about 10,000 mg/l in seawater; inthe presence of suspended mater and mirbilite (NayS0, 10H;0}, aout 25,000 mg/l in brines. causes foaming, which accelerates scale industial wastes focmation and corrosion i boilers Sodium and potasivm carbonate in Potassium (I) Feldapars(orthoclase and micro. Generally ess han about 10 mg/_ recirculating coling water can cause = cline), feldspathoids, some as much as 100 mg/l in hot deterioration of wood in cooling towers. Dissoly ‘micas, clay minerals ‘springs; as much as 25,000 mg/l More than 65 mg/l of sodium can cause in bres. problems in ce manufacture Carbonate (C03) CCoramonty lessitan 10myfin Upon heating, bicarbonate fs changed sroundwvater Water high in inf team, earbon dixie, and exrbor. sodium may contain as much 88 te. The carbonate combines with alkaline sO mgf of carbonate, carths—peincipally caeium and ‘magnesium—to form a crust-like scale of —_— Limestone, dolomite calcio cazbonate that retards flow of Bicarbonate (HCO,) ‘Commonly less than 500 mg/l; heat through pipe walls and restricts flow ray exceed 1,000 mg/lin water of fluids in pipes. Watec containing large highly charged with caton amounts of bicarbonate and alkalinity oxide is undesirable in many industries Sulfate (SO) Oxidation of sulfide ores; ‘Commonly less than 300 mg/l ‘Sulfate combines with calcium to form ‘gypsum; anhydrite exceptin well influenced by anadherent, heatsetardng scale, More acid mine drainage. At uch as than 250 mg/isobjetionable in water in 200,000 mg/l in some brines. ‘some industries. Water containing about 500 ma of sulfate tastes iter, water ‘containing about 1,000 mg/l may be cathartic, Chloride (CI) Chietsource i sedimentary Commonly es than IOmg/lin Corie in exces of 100 mg imparts @ roc (evaporite); noc sources bunid regions but upto 1,000 salty taste. Concentration greatly in se igneous rocks mg/l more ard egions excess of 100 mef may cause physiolo- 73 MI gical damage, Food processing industries ‘About 19,300:mg/lin seawater, usually require less than 250 mg. Some as much as 200,000 mg/l industries textile processing, paper in brines. ‘manvfacturing, ad synthetic rubber manufacturing—desire less than 100 mg (continues)73. Measures of Water Quality 335 bitty ‘able 7.21 (continued) Principal Chemical Constituents in Groundwater—Theis Sources, Concentration, and Bfect on Usability (modified fom C. N. Durfer, and E. Baker, USGS Water-Supply Paper 1812, 1964) Constituent Major natural sources Concentration in natural water Effect on usability of water vith Fuori (F) Amphiboles (hornblende), «Concentrations generally do not Fluoride conceatration between 0.6 and 4 silica apatite, floorit, mica exceed 10 mg/l Concentrations 1.7 mf indinking water has benef sing ray be as much as 1,600 mg/l in cial effect on the structure and resistance brine. to decay of children's teeth. Floorde in ‘excess of 5 mg/l in some areas causes “mottled enamel” in children's teeth. Fluoride in excess of 6.0 mg/l causes pronounced mottling and disfiguration oftee Nae (NO,) Atmosphere: legumes, plant Commonly ess than IOmg/. Water containing large amount of rate wets debris, animal excrement (nore than 100 mgM isbiter tasting and may cause physiological disuess, Water ‘asim iro shallow well conaning more than ct 45 mit ha been reported to cause Secale ‘methemoglobin in infants. Sal : amounts ofiate help reduce cracking in of high-pressure boiler steel tue Dissolved solids The mineral constinens ‘Commonly contains ess than ‘More than S00 mg is undesirabie for lowes. dissolved in water constitute 5,000 ml some brinesconsin_inng and many industia uses, Less seas ‘he dissolved soi as much as 300,000 mg. than 300 rog/isdesirabe for dyeing of tenes and te manufzcrue of plastics, lp paper andreyo. Dissolved solids sa tne oon sean oles eas sslkaine mum peomsible content decreases wih increases in operating presse scale of wot ins flow ‘An important source of salinity in groundweter in coastal regions is airborne salts origi- ing large ating from the air-water interface over the sea. Detailed studies on a worldwide basis"? and linity for Israel® suggest that salts are deposited on land both by precipitation and by dry fallout . ‘Chloride deposition in coastal areas has been calculated to range from 4 to 20 kg CVha. The ‘form deposition decreases inland, varying exponentially with distance from the sea. Thus, Israeli More water measurements yielded the relation ‘satou N=110 600 (7.2. water ‘where Mis the annual amount of chloride precipitation in kena and dis the distance from the ge sea in kilometers. In ari regions, where surface runoff is small and evapotranspiraton is large atborne salt deposition becomes intensified several fold in groundwater. ses fyi 73 MEASURES OF WATER QUALITY sso ‘The chemical characteristics of groundwater are determined by the chemical and biological saper reaction inthe zones through which the water moves, as illustrated in Figure 7.3.1 In speci- bbe fying the quality characteristics of groundwater, chemical, physical, and biological analyses 21100 mah ‘se normally required. The characteristics of water that affect water quality depend both on substances dissolved in water and on certain properties. Natural inorganie constituents (continues) commonly dissolved in water that are most likely to affect water use include bicarbonate,336 Chapter 7 Quality of Groundwater Aumosphere Land surface and soil zone Shallow aquifers AN NN AMY | Freshwater and saltwater interfaces. Figure 73.1. The chemical characteristics of groundwater are determined by the chemical and biological reactions inthe 2ones through which the water moves (Heath), carbonate, calcium, magnesium, chloride, flouride, iron, manganese, sodium, and sulfate. See ‘Heath for more details. Table 7.3.1 provides a list of characteristics of water that affect water quality. A complete chemical analysis ofa groundwater sample includes the determination of the concentrations ofthe inorganic constituents present; organic and radiological parameters are normally of concern only where human-induced pollution affects quality (see Chapter 8). Dissolved salts in groundwater of normal salinity occur as dissociated ions; in addition, other minor constituents are present and reported in elemental form. The analysis also includes measurement of pH and specific electrical conductance. Depending on the purpose of a water quality investigation, partial analyses of only particular constituents will sometimes suffice Properties of groundwater evaluated in a physical analysis include temperature, color, turbidity, odor, and taste. Biological analysis includes tests to detect the presence of coliform bacteria, which indicate the sanitary quality of water for human consumption. Because certain coliform organisms are normally found in intestines of humans and animals, the presence of these in groundwater tantamount to its contact with sewage sources Char Hard PH fo hyde Specif elect cond Tota) disso solids TAL74 Chemical Analysis 337 ‘Table 73.1 Characteristics of Water that Affect Wates Quality Caracteistic Principal cause Significance Remarks Warcaess Calum and magnesium Calcium and magnesium combine with soap USGS classification of hardness dissolvedin the water to forman insoluble precipitate (curd) and thus (am/Las CaCO hamper the formation of a later. Hardness 0-60: Sot also affects the suitability of water forusein 61-120: Moderately hard the textile and paper industries an certain 121-180: Hard others, end in steam boilers and water heaters. More than 180: Very hard pH for Dissociation of water The pH of wateris @ measure ofits reactive _pH values less than 7, hydrogen- molecules and of acids and characteristics. Low values of pH, particularly waters aide, jon activity bases dissolved in water below pH, indicate a corosive water that will value of 7, waters neural; tend to dissolve metals and other substances more than 7, water is Basie. thet it contacts. High values of H, particularly above pli 85, indicate an alkaline water that, on heating, will tend to form a sale. The pH significantly affects the treatment and use of water Specific Substances that form ions Most substances dissolved in water dissociate Conductance values indicate electrical when dissolved in water into ons thet can conduct an electical curent. the electrical condvetivity, in conductance ‘Consequently, specific electrical conductance mieromnhos, of I ony of water isa valuable indicator ofthe amount of material at atenperature of 25°C. 7 Aissolved in water. The larger the conductance, the more mineralized the water. Toa! Mineral substances “Total dissolved solids is measure ofthe total USGS clasifiction of water Gissolved dissolved in watee amount of minerals dissolved in water ands, based on éissolved solids solids therefore, a very useful parameter in the evala- (mg/L): ee ation of water quality. Water containing less than Less than 1,000: Fresh 500 mg/L is prefered for domestic use and for _1,000-3,00: Sightly saline ‘many industrial processes. 3,000-10,000: Moderately saline 10000-35,000: Very saline More than 35,000: Briny Source: Heath 7.4 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS Once # sample of groundwater has been analyzed in a laboratory, methods for reporting water te, See analyses must be considered. From an understanding of expressions and units for describing tater ‘water quality, standards can be established so that analyses can be intezpreted in terms of the ation of ultimate purpose of the water supply. In chemical analysis of groundwater, concentrations of meters different ions are expressed by weight or by chemical equivalence, Total dissolved solids can pter 8) be measured in terms of electrical conductance. These and other measures of chemical qual- s,other ity are described in the following sections. reludes awater P ‘ ithe 7.4.1 Concentrations by Weight » color, Concentrations ofthe common ions found in groundwater are reported by weight-per-volume. aliforra units of milligrams per liter (mg/) or micrograms per liter (mg/L). The total ionic concente- certain tion (or total dissolved solids) is also reported in this manner. The units milligrams per liter ence of bave replaced parts per million; however, they are numerically equivalent up to a concentration of dissolved solids of about 7,000 mg.

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