Fire and Explosion

Fire

Fuel

Oxygen (Air)

Fire

Ignition source

Important characteristics
Auto-ignition temperature: A fixed temperature above which material may not require an external ignition source for combustion Flash point: Lowest temperature at which liquid gives enough vapor to ignite a momentary flame or in other words forms a flammable mixture Fire point: Lowest temperature at which liquid gives enough vapor to maintain a continuous flame Flammability limit: Range of vapor concentration which on meeting ignition source would cause combustion. There are two limits LFL and UFL

Relationship between various charactertics

Non-flammable

Upper flammability limit

Concentration

Mist

Saturation curve Auto-ignition region

Lower flammability limit

Flash point

Auto-ignition temperature

Temperature

Liquids: Flash point

Generally determined experimentally using either open cup or closed method. Mathematically it may calculated using boiling point relationship

b( c / Tb ) 2 e c / Tb Tf = a + (1 e c / Tb ) 2
Where, Tf is flash point in K, a,b, and c are constants, and Tb is boiling point in K

Constants used in the equation for predicting flash point

Chemical group Hydrocarbons Alcohols Amines Acids Ethers Sulfur Esters Halogens Aldehydes a 225.1 230.8 222.4 323.2 275.9 238.0 260.5 262.1 264.5 537.6 390.5 416.6 600.1 700.0 577.9 449.2 414.0 293.0 b 2217 1780 1900 2970 2879 2297 2217 2154 1970 c

Vapor and Gases: Flammability limits

Mixtures of gases and vapors LFLmix = 1 yi LFL i
and

UFLmix =

1 yi UFL i

y is mole fraction of component i

Temperature and Pressure dependencies

LFLT = LFL25 0.75 (T 25) H c 0.75 (T 25) H c

UFLT = UFL25 +

Where Hc is the net heat of combustion (kcal/mole), and T is temperature in C

Pressure has little effect on LFL where as UFL change as follows:

UFL p = UFL + 20.6(log P + 1)

Where P is absolute pressure in Mega Pascal

Estimation of Flammability limits Using Stoichiometric Balance

C m H x O y + zO 2 mCO 2 +

x H 2O 2

LFL = UFL =

55 4.76m + 1.19x 2.38y + 1 350 4.76m + 1.19x 2.38y + 1

Using heat of combustion

LFL =

3.42 + 0.569 H + 0.0538H + 1.80 H

2 c c c

UFL = 6.30H + 0.567H + 23.5

2 c c

0 100

LOC

Air line

Methane Oxygen UFL in pure oxygen

Flammability zone

UFL Stoichiometric line

LFL in pure oxygen

100 0 0 100

Nitrogen LFL

Flammability diagram

0 100

LOC

Air line

UFL in pure oxygen Methane Oxygen

Flammability zone for

UFL

Flammability zone for air LFL in pure oxygen

100 0 0 100

Nitrogen

LFL

Flammability Zone estimation

Ignition Energy
The minimum ignition energy (MIE) is the minimum energy input required to initiate combustion. All flammable materials have MIEs. MIE depends upon specific chemical or mixture, the concentration, temperature and pressure. Experimental studies indicate:

The MIE decrease with an increase in pressure The MIE of dust re higher than the combustible gases Increase in the concentration of inert (nitrogen) increase the MIE
MIE of selected chemicals (Glassman, 1996) Chemical Acetylene Benzene Butadiene Butane Hexane MIE (mJ) 0.020 0.225 0.125 0.260 0.248 Chemical Ethane Ethene Hydrogen Methane Propane MIE (mJ) 0.240 0.124 0.018 0.280 0.250

Most of the hydrocarbons have MIEs of about0.25 mJ. This very compared to source of ignition. For example, a static discharge of 22 mJ is initiated by walking across a rug, ordinary plug discharge energy of 25 mJ.

Ignition Source of Major Fire (NSC,1974)

Source Electric Smoking Frication Overheated material %age 23% 18% 10% 8% Source Hot surfaces Flames Sparks Other %age 7% 7% 5% 22%

Types of Fires
Pool fire Flash fire Jet Fire

Fire ball

Methodology of Fire Hazard Assessment

Fire Type
Mathematical model Data: Substance and quantity involved, operating condition, topography, and proximity to other units

Fire characteristics calculation Geometric characteristics of fire Radiation intensity at the fire surface (emitting surface) View factor calculation Estimation of transmissivity Estimation of incident radiation on affected surface Estimation of thermal (fire hazard) effects

Vulnerability model

Explosions:
Explosion is a rapid release of energy causing development of pressure or shock wave. Energy may be pressure energy or chemical energy.

Important terms
Shock wave: An abrupt pressure wave (energy front) generated due to sudden release of energy, which move in the medium. Blast wave: A shock wave in open air generally followed by strong wind, the combined shock and wind is called blast wave Overpressure: The pressure on an object as a result of an impacting shock wave Deflagration: An explosion in which the reaction front (energy front) moves at a speed less than the speed of the sound in the medium. Detonation: An explosion in which the reaction front (energy front) moves at a speed greater than the speed of the sound in the medium.

Types of Industrial Explosions

Confined vapor cloud explosion An explosion in vessel or building. It may be caused due to release of high pressure or chemical energy. Vapor cloud explosion An explosion caused by the instantaneous burning of vapor cloud formed in air due to release of flammable chemical. Boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion Explosion caused due to instantaneous release of large amount of vapor through narrow opening under pressurized conditions. Vented explosion Explosion due to high speed venting of chemical. Dust explosion Explosion resulted from the rapid combustion of fine solid particles.

Explosion Characteristics
Detonation and Deflagration
Peak overpressure of order 10s of atm Reaction front Shock front

Reaction front moves at a sped greater than sound, driving shock front immediately preceding it. Both front move almost same speed

Peak overpressure of order few atm Reaction front Shock front

The reaction front moves at a speed less than sound, while the pressure front moves away from the reaction front at the speed of sound

Dust and gaseous explosions

Pmax = 7.0 bar Pmax = 8.5 bar Pressure

Time delay

Time (ms)

For Dust explosion (dP/dt)maxV1/3 = Kst For Gas explosion (dP/dt)maxV1/3 = KG

Where KG and Kst are deflagration index fro gas and dust explosion

Explosion Damage Estimation

Shock wave or overpressure is the basic cause of damage.

Peak overpressure Pressure

t0

t1

t2

t3 Time

Negative pressure t4

Missiles or projectiles are other important source of damage

TNT Equivalence method

Z =
e

r m
1/ 3 TNT

Where r is distance from the explosion site to the point of concern, m is TNT equivalence mass

TNT

mH
E
TNT

Where is empirical explosion efficiency (1 to 15% in general) m is mass of hydrocarbon (kg) Hc is heat of combustion (kJ/kg) ETNT is energy of explosion of TNT (= 4686 kJ/kg)
Scaled overpressure, ps

Over pressure maybe calculated either by: Po = ps*Pa, Where ps is read from graph and Pa is atmospheric pressure Or

2 Ze 1+ 1616 4.5 Po = Pa 2 2 2 Ze Ze Ze + 1 1 1 + + 0.048 0.32 1.35

Scaled distance, ze

Damage estimation Based on Overpressure

Overpressure, kPa 0.28 0.69 2.07 3.4-3.6 4.8 6.9-13.8 15.8 17.2 27.6 34.5-48.2 62 68.9 Damage Loud noise (143 dB) glass failure Breakage of small windows Safe distance (probability of 0.95 of no serious damage below this value Windows usually shatter, occasional damage to frame Minor damage to house structure Significant damage to structures (wood and asbestos) Lower limit of serious structural damage 505 destruction of brickwork house Cladding of light industrial building ruptures, oil tank ruptures, 50% probability of human fatality Nearly complete destruction of houses Loaded train boxcars completely demolished Probable total destruction of building, heavy machinery

Probit value versus percentage

Probit value 3.5 3.72 4.0 4.16 4.48 4.5 4.75 5.0 %age 6.7 10 15.9 20 30 30.9 40 50 Probit value 5.25 5.50 5.52 5.84 6.0 6.28 6.5 7.0 7.5 %age 60.0 69.1 70.0 80.0 84.1 90.0 93.3 97.7 99.38 Probit value

Percentage

Energy in Chemical Explosions

Heat of combustion may be used as mode to assess the explosion strength as past studies revealed that explosion energy differs just 10% from the heat of combustion

Explosion Energy in Physical Explosions

Four approaches are available: Brodes method

E=

(P P )V
2

Isentropic expansion

PV P E = 1 P 1
2 1 2

( 1 )

Isothermal expansion

E = PV ln
2

P P

Where E is explosion energy, P1 is atmospheric pressure, P2 bursting pressure of vessel, V volume of the vessel and is heat capacity ratio