ILLUSTRATED SOURCEBOOK

of

MECHANICAL COMPONENTS

S E C T I O N 28

DESIGN
Volume and CG Equations Common Area of Intersecting Circles Compound Angles Calculation of Dihedral Angles Frustums of Cones Length of Material for 90-Degree Bends 28-2 28-10 28-12 28- 15

28- 18
28- 19 28-20 28-22 28-24

8 Simple Methods to Measure Moment of Inertia

Friction Wheel Drives Designed for Maximum Torque Radii of Gyration for Rotating Bodies

28-2

Volume and CG Equations

The list covers 55 shapes, many of which are the result of drilled holes, bosses, and fillets in machined and cast parts
E. W. Jenkins

1. .Cylinder

2 . .Half cylinder

Design Formulas

28-3

or

OLUME equations are included for ail cases. Where V the equation for the (center of gravity) is not given, you can easily obtain it by looking up the volume
CG

and CG equations for portions of the shape and then combining values. For example, for the shape above, use the equations for a cylinder, Fig 1 , and a truncated cylinder, Fig 10 (subscripts C and T , respectively, in the equations below). Hence taking moments

In the equations to follow, angle B can be either in degrees or in radians. Thus B (rad) = d/180 (deg) = 0.01745 B (deg). For example, if 0 = 30 deg in Case 3, then sin 0 = 0.5 and

B=

2R (0.5) 3 (30) (0.01745)

= 0.637R

Symbols used are: B = distance from C G to reference plane, V = volume, D and d = diameter, R and r = radius, H = height, L = length,-Nicholas P. Chironis

5 . .Quadrant of cylinder

6 . .Fillet or spandrel

RL

=z=

0.2146RL

B=- 10 - 37r R = 0.2234R

12 - 37r

28-4

12. .Oblique cylinder

9 . .Sector of hollow cylinder

(or circular hole at oblique angle)

v = 0.01745 ( R ? (R2

eL

38.1972 (R:' - r : % )sin 8

- r'l) 8

I/ = ' D 2

H = 0.7854D2H seC 6 cos e

r=- d 2

B=H/2

13. .Bend in cylinder

V=

D'L = 0.3927D2L

Bi = 0.3125L B- = 0.3750

I
11. .Truncated cylinder
I

(with partial circle base)

4 V = -D2R8 = 0.0274D2R8 360

y =R

[ 1 4--&I

B I =y tan %

B:!=ycotB

14. .Curved groove in cylinder

b = R ( 1 -cos@)
V = - R:'L[sin&.--b sin:' B

e cos 0 1
8
+

5 sin 0 cos 6
[ I - cos

01

sin:' 8 cos 0 1-2

sin:' 8 [sin 0 - - 8 cos

+!]

6 '
~

COS

2R[

0 +sin - -8 2

6 '

sin 8 c o s 8
8

5 sin:' 0 w h e r e N=--6

sin:' B cos 0

12

Design Formulas

28-5

18. .Slot through hollow cylinder

L 21

19. .Intersecting cylinder

(volume of junction box)

20. .Intersecting hollow cylinders

(volume of junction box)

28-6

Design Formulas

28-7

~~

29. .Shell of spherical sector

33. .Spherical zone

30. .Shell of spherical segment

V = F ( R

- r7) (sin 02 - sin Oi)

82

31. .Circular hole through sphere

B=

0.375 ( R 4 - 1-4) (sin R3 - $

f sin 61)

RINGS
36. .Hollow torus

32. .Circular hole through hollow sphere

37. .Bevel ring

28-8

Design Formulas

28-9

28- 1 0

Common Area of Intersection Circle

Here's a fast method that will give quick, preliminary estimates.
1 . E. lversen

If you're given the radii of two intersecting circles and the distance between their centers, you can calculate their approxiniate common area quickly by means of this graph and forniula. Instead of solving many equations of considerable length (which you must d o for exact area), all you do is select a constant, K, from the graph, subtract it from 1, and multiply by the area of one of t h e circles (see

SYMBOLS

C = distance between centers

r , R = radii of circles

A R = KrR2 = partial area of circle R with no area common to circle r

A R = xr2
A c = (1
=

total area of circle r, including area common to circle R

symbols).
r for t h e abscissa, and ratio of distance
between centers to one radius the ordinate.
C

- K) rR2 = area common to both circles

R T o find K, use the ratio of radii -

as r

EXAMPLE Find area common to two circles with radii of 2 in. and 3 in., whose centers are 1.75 in. apart.

Design Formulas

28- 11

,. i hen,

Let r = 2.0, R = 3.0, c = 1 . 7 5

c
T

175 = 2.0 = 0.875

R= _ 3= _

Irom the graph, K approximates 0.66 and

A , = (1 - 0.66) B (3)2 = 9.6 sq in. The graph is separated into four

regions indicated by shaded and open areas: Ks for coniinon areas of inteisecting circles fall within thc rectangnlar, central portion. Points falling within upper left portion (outside the rectangle) indicate the circles do not intersect. Along the line, K = 1, circles aie tangent; points in lower right or left portions indicate one circle is completely within the other.

28-12

Compound Angles
D. E. Sweet
Attempts to derive formulas and tables for accurate computation of compound angles can be discouraging. Each case is usually presented in a manner such that it is often easier to consider each problem separately. There is one case, however, that can be standardized to the extent that formulas and tables can be a big help. An example is shown in Fig. 1. Here an angle is to be relieved down and away: it couId be found on a cutting tool (for example, a counterbore blade). Because the "down" and "away" angles are usually arbitrarily selected, the tables and charts given will aid the computation for the true angle. For convenience in using the table and chart, the "down" angle is designated as the "tipping angle" and the "away" angle as the "turning angle." The case angle A is tipped to angle @ and then turned to angle a ; the resultant angle is the true angle or T. In the table, constants are given for combinations of "tip" and "turn" angles from 5" to 45". There are two constants for each combination, namely, constant 1 and constant 2. To determine the true angle (using table) Rule: multiply constant 1 by the tangent of the case angle A and
add constant 2. The result of this

addition is the tangent of the true angle. If it is necessary to compute constants for tip-turn angles not given in the table, they can be found in these formulas: Constant 1 = cos + cos 9 Constant 2 = sin a tan
In
I -

Example: Case angle A = 29", tip and turn angles = 5". What is the true angle T? Tan 29" = 0.55431; constant 1 = 1.0000; constant 2 = 0.00762. Then tan T = 1 x 0.55431 0.00762 = 0.56193. T = .29"20'.

5%
E
c

0
U

U c In 2

CONSTANT TABLE
TURN ANGLES a

So

10"

1 5 '

20"

25"

30"

35"

4 0 '

45"

5" 10" 1 5 ' 20" 25" 30" 35" 40"

45O

1 1.0000 0.9886 0.9696 0.9433 0.9098 0.8693 0.8223 0.7690 0.7098 2 ,00762 ,01519 ,02264 .02992 ,03697 .04374 .05018 .05624 .06186

1 2

. 7 1 80 1.0115 1 .oooo 0.9808 0.9542 0.9203 0.8794 0.8318 0.7779 0 .01537 ,03062 .045f3 ,06031 .C7452 .OB816 .lo1 14 ,11334 .1 2468

. 0 1 95 1 .OOOO 0.9728 0.9383 0.8966 0.8480 0.7931 0.7320 1 1.0313 1 2 .02335 .04653 .06935 .09164 .11324 ,13397 .15369 .17223 .la947
1 1.0601 1.0480 1.0279 1 .OOOO 0.9645 0.9216 0.8717 0.8152 0.7525 2 .03172 .06320 .09420 ,12448 .15382 ,18198 ,20876 .23395 ,25736
1 1.0992 1.0866 1.0658 1.0368 1 .oooo 0.9555 0.9038 0.8452 0.7802 2 .04064 .OB097 .12069 .15948 .19707 ,23315 26746 .29974 .32973

. 8 165 . 0 8 5 1 1 . o m 1 .oooo 0.9459 0.8845 0 1 1.1503 1.1372 1.1153 1 2 .05032 1 0025 .1 4943 .1 9746 . 2 w o .28867 .33115 .37111 .40825

1 1.2161 1.2022 1.1792 1.14715 1.1064 1.0572 1.oooo 0.9352 0.8632 2 2 .06103 .12159 .la123 .23948 .29592 .35010 .40162 -45008 .4951

. 1 8 3 1 1.1305 1.0693 1 .OoOo 0.9230 1 1.3004 1.2856 1.2609 1.2267 1 2 ,07313 .14571 .21717 .28699 .35462 .41955 .48129 .53936 .59333

o w 0 1 1.4088 1.3927 1.3660 1.3289 1.2817 1.2247 1.1584 1.0833 1 . 2 ,08749 .17365 ,25882 ,34202 .42262 5000 .57358 .64279 .70711

Reprinted with permission from American Machinist, A Penton Media Publication

Design Formulas

28- 13

Turn 5 O Tip 5"

Turn 5O Tip IO"

Turn IOo Tip IO"

Turn 10" Tip 15'

Turn Tip

5O

15"

To Find Trne Angle:

These 5 scales show the most likely comhinationa of tipturn angles. In each combination use the black d e for the case angle A . Example: tip-turn angles are 5 O ; the case angle is 2 9 O . On shaded scale opposite 29", read that 2 0 ' must he added io get true angle T = 29O20'.

28- 14

Graphical Solution of True Angle This chart is laid out with two curves for tip-turn angle combinations. Example: case angle A 1 29", tip and turn angles are 5". Follow construction lines to see that 20' must be added to angle A = 29", to get true angle T = 29"20'.

Proof
Given 0, a and @

To Find T
Solution:

AC CB B'C' B'C" CE B'C"

= 1 = AB' = tan o = B'C = sin + = CD = COS a (B'C + CE) = tan a CD = (tan 0 + t a n a sin 9 ) X
COS a

= tan B cos a +
Angle

'8'

a + sin AC' = COS rp AC" B'C" tanT = AC" tan o cos a + sin -cos 9 COS a = tan o

cos

sin

= tan o cos

* +
cos a
a

X
$

sin

sin @

+ sin a tan Q

(-)

cos Q

Constant 1 = % cos rp Constant 2 = sin a tan q,

Design Formulas

28- 15

Calculation of Dihedral Angles

William W. Johnson
Given data:
A = angle between plane NI and plane of reference; B = angle between plane N and plane of reference; c = angle in planc (Jf reference between its intersections with the planes & ! and N Data which can be computed:

FORMULAS DEVELOPED by spherical trigonoinctry can be used to deterinin: the angles required in constructing sheet metal products such as hoppers. Ten principal and five check equations are listed later for determining all the angles required in detailing the hoppers, and verifying the calculations. Ordinarily, only the first five of thc principal equations are required but the attachments or supporting structure may necessitate the use of the next five. Referring to Fig. 1 ( A ) M and N represent two transparent planes which meet at their common intersection OC. Fig. 1(B) is another view of these planes. The angle C in the spherical triangle ABC is measured by the plane angle between tangents to AC and BC. These tangents intersect radii O A and OB produced in K and L. Therefore, the numerical measure of the angle between the tangents to the great circles of a sphere at their points of intersection is the numerical measure of a spherical angle, and also the dihedral angle between the planes M and N.
The elements involved are defined as follows.

= dihedral angle between planes

M and N

b = angle in M , between its intersection with N and plane of reference; a = corresponding angle in plane N; m = angle in plane of reference between its intersections with

M and a plane normal to the plane of reference through the intersection of the planes M and N: n = corresponding angle between intersections o f N and the @me nornial plane;
m+n=c:

+ = angle

*+e=c A horizontal plane may be chosen lor the reference plane. If this is done, the planc normal to plane of refercnce
IS

in normal plarie between its intersection with refeience plane and thc intersection of planes M and N p = angle between plane M and the same normal plane; e angle between plaiic N nnd the normal plane.

vertical.

Fig. i-Planes and angles used in thc principal and check equations are defined in (A). Thcse are used in (B) t o develop the spherical triang!e ABC.
C

Norma/ p/anc

28- 16

FORMULAS

CHECK FORMULAS
tan$(a - b) = .+&(A - B ) csc)(A B ) tan(tc) tan$(a b) = cos$(A - IS) seei(A R ) tan($c) cot (aC) cosf(a b) ser+(n - h) tan+(A H) tan m tan p = sin J.

- cos A cos R sin A sin B cos e. (1) This formula can be modified for logarithmic cornputntioo by the use of an auxiliary angle x.
LWS

C =

+ +

(I)
(11) (I 11)

Letting Then

rot x = t,an I ! ? cos c

(2)
(3)

cos

c=

sin ( A

- 2) cos B
sin z

tan 9 =

sin 8 =

sin c sin A sin C

tann sin +

(4)
(5)

sin c sin 13 sin b = sin C sin = sin b sin A = sin a sin I3 tanm = t a n b cos A tan n = tan a cos I3 cot = tan A cos b cot 8 = tan B cos a

In applying these equations, the algebraic signs must conform to Table I. SAMPLE PROBLEM
The outline of a hopper is shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 3 gives the development of the sides. This problem presents as many difficulties as are likely to occur in practice. Below is given the computation of the angles pertaining to thc intersection of the sides M and N of the hopper. The lower horizontal plane is taken as the plane of reference. The pitch angles A and B are first computed from the given d imensions,
41.625 tan A = 7 750 log tan A = 0.7300525 A = 79" 27' 11" 41 625 28.814 log tan I3 = 0.1597416 B = 55" lS'27"

Table I-Sign

Convention for Trigonometric Functions

Quadrant Angles, deg

~I I1
111
0-90 90-180 180-270

-j

I
I

sin

cos

tan

cot

sec

csc

__

tan B =

+
-

+
I

IV

270-360

+ + + + i- + + -- -+ + - - + -

Since the angle of the corner is given as 45 deg, c = 135 deg. The dihedral angle C at the intersection of the sides

Design Formulas

28-17

M and N is found from Eqs. ( 2 ) and (3) : Since log tan (1:) = 0 1597416 and log cos (c) = 9.8494550, log cot (2) = 0.0092266 Thus, .T = 135" 36' 31" and
(.4 - 2) = - 56" 9' 20" IJsing Eq. 3 and log sin z = 9.8448227, log COS C = 9. S297891 or C = 132" 30' 46"

Adding,

log tanf(a b) +(a b)

Solving simultaneously,
n = 109" 25' 36" ani1 b = 52" 4' 2".

= =

0 7,350331, sild 83" 41' 49"

Therefore.

Next, the angles n and b at which thc sides A I and must be cut are found by Eqs. (4) and ( 5 ) :
log sin a = 9.974543 1
u. = 109' 25' 36" log sin b = 0.8969296 b = 52" 4' 2"

h '

log sec$(a - b) = 0 06G8439, aiirl logtan+(A 4-n) = 0 3302131 = 9 6433301 o i From Eq. 111, log cot(4C)
?C C

log cos+(a

+ b ) = 9 2LOW731,
= I

66" 15' 23" aiicl = 132" 30' 46".

T o check, use Eqs. ( I ) , and (111), first finding $(A B ) and + ( A - B ) by addition and subtraction: f(A B) = 67" 22' 49" $(A - B) = 12" 4' 22" Thus, log sin((A - B) = 9.3204661, log c&(A P) = 0.0347617, and = 0.3827757. log tsniic Adding these three, log tan*@ - b) = 9.7380035 or *(a - b) = 28" 4 0 ' 47". Similarly, - B ) = 9.9902868, log COS)(A log sec)(A B) = 0.4149709, and log tanic = 0.3827757.

The angles d and b are identified in Fig. 3 showing the development of the hopper on the plane of reference. The corresponding angles at the other intersection, or corner of the hopper, can be determined by a similar process. The dihedral angle formed by the intersection of the sides N and P are: angle CI = 140" 34' 20". The cut angles for the sides N and P are: angle b, 66" 16' 1". angle al = 90". The pitch angle for the side P is 63" 55' 7". (See Fig. 3 ) . When the slopes of the sides M and N, and hence a and b are equal, and c = 90, the required equations then become : - COS C COS' A (1) s i nA &a=and (4) & (5) sin C

28-18

Frustums of Cones
Ronald L. Wakelee

Efficient solution of problems relating to frustums of ccnzs may be hampered for lack of quantity A , Fig. 1. This quantity does not appear in the ccnventional formula for the volume of a frustrum:

L7 -= 0.2618 h ( D 1
Frustrum of Right c i r c u l o r cone

i Dd

+ d')

a problem

Fig. 2

Quantity A, Fig. 1, was needed for solution of involving thin-wall containers of frustrum shape. The customer wished to pack a standard volume in a container with a pleasing profile or side wall angularity. Selection of can, profile starts with certain known factors: Volume V to be packed, openend d i a v e t e r D , and an approximate ratio of D / h = 2%, or h = 0.4 d as suggested by customer. If possible a standard packer's can end IS selected. In this case D is taken as 3. The problem is to find the exact value of h. First step is to draw up tentative can profiles, Figs. 2, 3, 4, of equal volume, which must be 7.218 cu in. Note that side angularity A is 10". 15". and 20" for the three profiles. The value of h in each case is calculated from the formula 7. page 312:
h =

D-

+'

0 3

- 7.64 V tan A 2 tan A

The customer-selected profile is shown in Fig. 2. Here D = 3, A = 10" and V = 7.218 cu in. By substituting these values in equation 7.
h
Fig. 3

1.176.

Bottom diameter d of the container is easily found from the formula: d = D-2tanA x h = 3 - ( 2 tan 10" X 1.1715)
z

(2 X 0.17633 X 1.176)

= 2.585

Fiq. 4

Reprinted with permission from American Machinist, A Penton Media Publication

Design Formulas

28- 19

Length of Material for 90 Degree Bends

As shown in Fig. 1, when a sheet or flat bar is bent, the position of the neutral plane with rcspcct to the outer and inner surfaces will depend on thc ratio of the radius of bend to the thickness of the bar or sheet. For a sharp corner, the neutral plane will lie one-third the distance from the inner to the outer surface. As thc radius of the bend is increased, the neutral plane shifts until it reaches a position midway between the inner and outer surfaces. This factor should be taken into consideration whcn calculating the developed length of material required for formed pieces. The table on the following pages gives the developed length of the material in the Wdeg. bend. The following formulas were used to calculate the quantities given in the table, the radius of the bend being measured as the distance from thc center of curvature to the inner surface of the bend. 1 . For a sharp corner and for any radius of bend up to T, the thickness of the sheet, the developed length L for a Wdeg. bend will be L = 1.5708 ( R
2.

+ g)

For any radius of bend greater than 2T, the length L for a SO-deg. bend will be
L = 1.5708 ( R

+f)
f=Stock thickness

R='nside 3. For any radius of bend between 1T and 2T, the value of Las given in the table was found by interpolation. The developed length L of the material in any bend other than 90 deg. can be obtained from the following formulas : f 1 . For a sharp corner or a radius up to T:
T

Sharpcorner
2. For a radius of 2T or more:

R=Torless

R-ITtoPT FIG.1.

R=PTormore

For double bends as shown in Fig. 2, if

R1

+ Rt is greater than B:

X = .\/2B(R1 Rz - B/2) With RI, R2, and B known: cos A = R I Rz - B R I Rn L = 0.0175(R1 Rz)A where A is in degrees and L is the developed length. If R I RZis less than B, as in Fig. 3, FIG.3. FIG.2. Y = B cosec A - (R1 Rz)(cosec A - cotan A) The value of X when B is greater than R I R, will be X = B cot A (R1 R~)(eosec A - cotan A) The total developed length L required for the material in the straight section plus that in the two arcs will be L * Y 0.0175(R1 Rz)A To simplify the calculations, the table on this page gives the equations for X, Y ,and the developed length for various common angles of bend. The table on following pages gives L for values of R and T for 90-deg. bends.

+ +

+ +

EQUATIONS FOR X. Y. A N D DEVELOPED LENGTHS

Angle A,
15 22% 30 45

X
3.732B 0.132(Ri Rz) 2.414B 0.199(R1 RZ) 1.732B 0.268(R1 Rz) B 0.414(R1 Ra) 0.577(8 RI R I ) 0.4148 O.668(R1 R z ) 0.268B 0.767(R1 I- Rz) RI RI

Y
0.132(Ri -k Rz) 3.864B 2.6138 0.199(R1 Ra) 2.000B 0.268(RI Rn) 1.414B 0.414(& Rt) 1.155B 0.577(Ri -k Rz) 1.082B O.668(R1 Rz) 1.035B - 0.767(R1 kz) B - RI - RZ

Developed length

60
67% 75 90

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +

+ + + +

28-20

8 Simple Methods to Measbre Moment of Inertia

Oscillating and falling weight setups combine with simple formulas to give accurate answers for complex shapes.
Bernard Brenner

oment of inertia is gcnerally difficult to find when one or more of the following conditions exist: Body shape is irregular; matcrial density is unknown; parts must be disassembled before precise dimensions can be found. The esperinicntal methods shown here handle all such cases with sufficient accuracy for most engineering work. Only requirements: measurements of weight and tinic; and simple dimensions.

Reference body iJ0

SYMBOLS
D = dia, in. d = distance, in. j = friction torque. oz-in. g = gravity, in./sec2 J = ineftia of test body about symmetry axis, oz-in.-secz J , = reference inertia, oz-in.-sec2 k = torsional spring constant, oz-in./radians L = length of pendulum, in. R = radius, in. T = eriod of oscillation (or time of weight En,, see W = weight of test body, oz W . = connecting-rod weight, oz W , = reference weight, oa

2-Thersicnaa! ~ e n d u ~ u r(nk is unknown) TI is period with J, only T2is period with Jr and J together
J
=

Jr[(g)

- 11

Thin wire fkl

Suction cup,

I-Torsional

Penddurn (when

k is known)

S-Bifilar Suspension (suspension cords musk be highly flexible)

J -

.I

kT2 4 7r2

W dz T z ___ 1G ir21 ,

Design Formulas

28-2 1

Oscillating welghi IW,)

4-Pendulum

(connecting-rod
J = W,L
-

weight

relatively

light)

(& +)

Rod f W, J assume cross -section

Identical ends 5-Pendulum

(connecting-rod weight appreciable)

7-Inclined

Plane

Body rolls d in. from rest (without slipping) in t seconds.

WR2P . J = -__ mu 0
2d

Test body

torque, t

8-Falling

Weight

Weight W, starts from rest and travels d in. in T sec. Frictionless:

ib-

With shaft friction f :

Reference weight MrJ

28-22

Friction Wheel Drives Designed for Maximum Torque

Analysis of forces present in a friction wheel drive. Development of a design for o protect machines from excessive load torques. drives that can be utilized t
Rudolf Kroener

POST WAR YEARS, as a consequence of the general scarcity of leather, rubber, and metals, in Germany efforts were made to replace belt drives and gear drives with friction wheel drives. The satisfactory results obtained are ascribed to: 1. Ability to manufacture a facing material having a high coefficient of friction. Cellulose type of materials have been developed possessing coefficients of friction ranging up to 0.5. When compared with materials having friction coefficients ranging from 0.15 to 0.2, the new materials offer an opportunity to reduce bearing pressures 60 to 70 percent. 2. Development of designs in which the contact or normal force between the friction wheels is varied automatically with changes in load torque of the driven machine. These designs make it possible to apply friction wheel drives to serve as disconnect clutches for limiting the transniission of torque before it becomes excessive.

DURING THE

When the faces of two friction wheels are pressed together, and where
=coefficient of friction of the materials in contact P = radial force pressing the wheels together, Ib T = force transmitted tangentially to the wheels at their point of contact without slip, lb T = radius of driving wheel, in. n = speed of driving wheel, rpm H = horsepower transmitted by the friction wheel drive
p

T=yP
I1 = 63,025
rn T -

Since the radial force P is equal and opposite to the force exerted by the wheels on their supporting bearings, it is evident that for constant values of T the bearing ressnres increase as the coefficient o friction decreases. Low coefficients of friction, therefore, are conducive to resultant power loss and bearing wear. In a friction wheel drive where the wheel centers are adjusted and fixed

to obtain a radial force sufficient to transmit a desired torque, the bearing pressure remains at a constant value regardless of variations in the transmitted torque. When the load torque varies to a large extent, such an arrangement com ares unfavorably. with gear drives an belt drives, since in such drives the bearing pressures vary with the tor ue transmitted. This disa vantage is overcome in types of friction drives in which the driving wheel is mounted on a swinging center. The swing drive shown in Fig. 1 is designed to change the radial pressure P simultaneously and autoniatically with variations in load torque. In this arrangement the motor is fastened to a sub-base. The sub-base is free to swing on an axle at the right side. The opposite side of the base is supported by a spring. The driving friction wheel is pushed upward by the sprinE to maintain contact with the driven wheel. The driven wheel i5 mounted on a non-adjustable center. When thc torque load on the driven

= \ /

__-Driven wheel

Ax/e in yoke'

bearings

Fig. I-Friction drive in- which swing base is supported by a spring and axle.

Fig. 2-(A) General arrangement of a maximum torque friction wheel drive with horizon-

Design Formulas

28-23

wheel changes for an reason, the state of equilibrium is dsturbed. The effect of an increase in torque load, until slipgini: occurs, is to cause the driving w ee to roll back or down on the driven wheel thus further compressing the spring. The spring force is thus increased, which results in an increased radial force P and an increase in the transmitted torque. Where
f = horizontal distance from center of p = perpendicular distance from line of
wheel centers to center of axle, in. G = resultant of motor weight, driving wheel weight, and subbase weight, referred to axis of the motor, Ib g = horizontal distance from center of axle to vertical line passing through axis of motor, in. f = perpendicular distance from tangent through point of contact of wheel faces to center of axle, in. axle to line of spring force, in.

= spring force, Ib

then to satisfy conditions of equilibrium

Pp+ Tt=O (3) and the spring force F is found by substituting in Eq (3) the value of P as given by Eq ( I ) , or
Gg-Ff-

In the design shown in Fig. 1, the extent to which the radial pressure P may build up, until slip ing occurs, in response to increasing oad torque is not limited. Excessive load torques may damage the friction facings, the driven machine. or the motor. Any of many safety devices such as slip clutches, shear pins or keys, and breaking bolts, of course, can be used to protect the driven machine from excessive overloads. Fuses, overload relays, and thermal cut o~ devices can also be installed to protect the motor. Such protective devices

are not necessary, however, when the friction wheel drive is designed to perform as a maximum tor ue clutch in which contact at the whee faces ceases when a predetermined value of load torque is exceeded. In the friction wheel drive shown in Fig. 2 ( A ) , the drive motor M is fastened to a swing late, one side of which is supporte on an axle. This axle is free to turn in yoke bearings on the ends of rods that are free to slide in fixed bearings. The spring 1 ; is compressed between a shoulder and a spacer on each slide rod. In this arrangement, an increase in load torque on the driven wheel causes the tangential force T to increase, which in turn causes the driving wheel to ride at a lower position on the face of the driven wheel. As the driving wheel drops to a lower position, the cosine of the angle included between the line of centers of the axle and motor and the horizontal centerline of the slide rods increases, thus compressing the spring F and increasing the contact force P. With an increasing load torque, the driving wheel will finally fall away from the driven wheel. At the instant of last contact of the two wheels, the spring has its maximum compression. The maximum torque that the arrangement shown in Fig. 2 (A) can transmit, therefore, depends upon the spring rate of the spring. The geometrical relations present in the drive shown in Fig. 2 ( A \ when operating under a normal load and under maximum load are shown in Figs. 2 (B) and (C), respectively. For normal load conditions, the notations for dimensi,ons and angles carry the subscript 1; for maximum load conditions they carry the subscript 2.

The geometrical relations existing are. AT A NORMAL LOAD, 01 = (R r) cos 81.

hl g( R + I) sin 01 bi = d:2 - hi2 p t = J sin - 81)
T

+
J

ti =
C !

UI

+ + cos
bi
5

(ai

- 81)
I

sin a1=

hl
~

= ~-

- ( R + r ) sin 81

AT

MAXIMUM LOAD,

a 2 = Bo a 2 = (R r ) cos 0 2 hf = g (R r ) sin pz b2 = - \ 1 5 c h 2 2 = h2/tan & p2 = J sin (a: 02) = 0 ta = r s cos (a2 &) = r cz = az ba sinal = sin 8 2 = g / ( R r 5)

+ +

+ +

Where

= spring force or horizontal com-

ponent of the reaction load exerted

N = vertical component of the reaction

load exerted by the axle, 1b

by the axle, Ib

the relations that satisfy conditions of equilibrium are

Substituting Eq (9) in Eq (6)

force F 2 required to The spri% su cient radial pressure P , maintain to transmit a maximum horsepower H 2 from Eqs (2) and (10) is then

by similar analysis

141slide rods and compression springs. (B) Geometrical relation of parts under normal driving

conditions. (C) Geometrical relation of parts under maximum torque driving conditions.

28-24

Radii of Gyration for Rotating Bodies

Solid cylinder about its own axis
Hollow R2 = 7' 2

Cylinder about axis through center Cylinder about axis at one end Cylinder about outside axis
!

cylinder about its own axis Rectangular prism about axis through center Rectangular prism about axis at one end Rectangular prism about outside axis

I
Re

- 4P t 3 7 '
12

I
41'
R1

+ 31.' + 12dl + 12d

12

4b9 c* R2 = 12

Any body about axis outside its center of gravity R*i = RPo d' where RO = radius of gyration about axis through center of gravity R1 = radius of gyration about any other parallel axis d = distance between center of gravity and axis of rotation

APPROXIMATIONS FOR CALCULATING MOMENTS OF INERTIA

NAMEOF PART
Flywheels, (not applicable t o belt pulleys)

MOMENT OF INERTIA
Moment of inertia equal t o 1.08 t o 1.15 times t h a t ofrim alone Moment of inertia equal to two-thirds of t h a t of total. weight concentrated a t t h e outer circumference Moment of inertia of teeth equal t o 40 per cent of t h a t of a hollow cylinder of t h e limiting dimensions Figured as a hollow cylinder of same limiting dimensions Equal t o 1.25 times t h e sum of t h a t of teeth plus rim Moment of inertia considered equal to 0.60 times t h e moment of inertia of the total weight concentrated a t the pitch circle Multiply outer radius of armature b y following factors to obtain radius of gyration: Large slow-speed m o t o r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.75-0.85 Medium speed d-c or induction m o t o r . . . . . 0 . 7 W . 80 Mill-type motor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.604.65

Flywheel (based on total weight a n d outside diameter) Spur or helical gears (teeth alone)

Spur or helical gears (rim alone) Spur or helical gears (total moment of inertia) Spur or helical gears (with only weight a n d pitch diameter known) Motor armature (based on total weight and outside diameter)

Design Formulas

28-25

WR2 OF SYMMETRICAL BODIES

For computing WR2of rotating masses of weight per unit volume p , by resolving t h e body into elemental shapes. See page 208 for effect of W R 2on electric motor selection.
Nole:
P

in pounds per cubic inch and dimensions in inches give W E 2in 1b.-in. squared.

1. Weights per Unit Volume of Materials.

WEIGHT, LB. Cast iron.. ............................................. .......................... Cast-iron castings of heavy section Le., flywheel rims .................................. MATERIAL
PER

Lead. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.410 Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.318

.................................. ...................................................

CU. IN. 0.260 0.250 0.283 0.319

2. Cylinder, about h i s Lengthwise through the Center of Gravity.

Volume =
(a) For a n y material:
?r

L(D21

- IPS)

WR2 = 5 pL(D'1 - 0'3 32

9
where p is the weight per unit volume. ( 6 ) For cast iron:

WR2 =
(c)

L(D'1 - D'z) 39.2

For cast iron (heavy sections): L(D4, - D'2) WR2 = 40.75 ( d ) For steel: L(D41- D42) WR2 = 36.0

3. Cylinder, about an Axis Parallel to the Axis through Center of Gravity.

Volume = - L ( D 2 , - DZ2) 4 (a) For any material:
7r

9-

W R 2 , = - pL(D21 - 0 2 2 ) 4 (6) For steel: WR2,-, =

4.50

7r

+
+

Y2)

Y2)

4. Solid Cylinder, Rotated about an Axis Parallel to a Line that Passes through the Center of Gravity and Is Perpendicular to the Center Line.
Volume = f D ~ L 4 (a) For a n y material:

WR2,, = a D2Lp
( b ) For steel:

+ +
0 2

1-2)

WR2,-,

= __

D2L L2 D2 6 44.50 12 -!- 1

(-

r2

28-26

6. Rod of Rectangular or Elliptical Section, Rotated about an Axis Perpendicular to and Passing through the Center Line. For rectangular cross sections :

For elliptical cross sections :

K 1 = 64,
- *

Kz
=

= -

a 4

Volume ( a ) For any material:

' 2

K2abL

L. . '

'

\.

t ' %

(b) For a cast-iron rod of elliptical section ( p

0.260) :

6. Elliptical Cylinder, about an Axis Parallel to the Axis through the Center of

Gravity.
Volume
( a ) For any material:
2

n-

-abL

WR2,
(b) For steel:

p:abL(a2
ubL a2 b2 4.50( 16
~

+ r2)

WR2,-,

= -

7. Cylinder with Frustum of a Cone Removed.

8. Frustum of a Cone with a Cylinder Removed.

Design Formulas

28-27

9 . Solid Frustum of a Cone.

Volume
WR2,-,

= -

wL (D31 - D32) 12 (Dl - Dz) wpL (D51 - D5J 160 (Dl - D2)

10. Chamfer Cut from Rectangular Prism Having One End Turned about a

Center.
Distance to center of gravity, where A rz
-X

R2/R1and B

C/2R1

volume X (1 - A ) 3

jR3,B

[' (A3 - 3A + 2)
(A2 - 2A
3

+ B2 3(1 - A

-A

+ 1)
' ' '

5 B6 + 672,4 (3A41- 4A3+ 1)

Volume

B2 1 jR2IB {(A2 - 2A 1) 3 [log. - (1 - A)] (1 - A) 1 B4 1 B6 4 0 2(2A3 - 3A 1) - T (4A5 - 5A4 224 A

+ +

+ +

+ 1) + - *

WR2,-,

- 'jR4IB ((A4 - 4A 6(1 - A )

+ 3) + B 2 ( A 2- 2A + 1) + 9 B4 [log. A 1 - (1 - A ) ] + 5 B6 @A3- 3A2 + 1) + . . . }

56 A

11. Complete Torus.

Volume

WR',,

r2Dr2 a2pDr2 = (D2 4

=
~

+ 3r2)

12. Outside Part of a Torus.

Volume = 2x7-2
9-

t$+

r)

WR2,-,

= wpr2

[ 4E t 2 D+ 4r) + r 2 g D + -15 r

28-28

13. Inside Part of a Torus.

14. Circular Segment about an Axis through Center of Circle.

p----- c

_____+TI
a = 2 sin-' - deg.

C 2R

Area

= ___

R 2cY C2 - 'JR2 114.59 2

(a)Any material: WR2,-, (b) For steel:

pT

[m R - $ (3R2 - 3) c2 5 c JR2 4~

T]
-1

WR2,-,

T
~

3.534

R4a ( . I [m 6

3R2 - C 2 ) R2 C J -T

2 2

16. Circular Segment about Any Axis Parallel to an Axis through the Center of the Circles. (Refer to 14 for Figure.)

WR2,p-,fl = WR2,-,

+ weight (r2 - r2,)

16. Rectangular Prism about an Axis Parallel to the Axis through the Center of Gravity. Volume = WLT

(a)For any material:

WR2,-,

pWLT(

w 2

12

+ L?

(b) For steel:

WR2,-,

___

3.534

Design Formulas

28-29

17. Isosceles Triangular Prism, Rotated about an Axis through Its Vertex.

Volume

CHT
~

18. Isosceles Triangular Prism, Rotated about Any Axis Parallel

to an Axis

through the Vertex.

CHT
2

-(y-E pCHT R2 - %C2 H2+r2)

19. Prism with Square Cross Section and Cylinder Removed, along Axis through Center of Gravity of Square.

Volume

L (HZ -

F)
W R 2about the

WR2,-,

t s (1.697H4 - D4) 32

20. Any Body about an Axis Parallel to the Gravity Axis, When

Gravity Axis Is Known.

WR2,-,

WR2,-,

+ weight X r 2

21.

WR2of a Piston, Effective at the Cylinder Center Line, about the Crankshaft

Center Line.

WR2 = r2WP
where r = crank radius L = center-to-center length of connecting rod

(f + m) r2
= weight

W,

of complete piston, rings, and pin

28-30

22. WR2of a Connecting Rod, Effective at the Cylinder Center Line, about the Crankshaft Center Line.

W R= ~ r2

[w1+ w2( ; + &)]

W 2 = weight of t h e upper or reciprocating p a r t
of t h e rod = WRLJL W R = W1 Wz,t h e weight of t h e complete rod L1 = distance from t h e center line of t h e crank-

where r = crank radius L = center-to-center length of connecting rod W1 = weight of t h e lower or rotating p a r t of t h e rod = [W& - LI)]/L

pin t o t h e center of gravity of t h e connecting rod

23. Mass Geared to a Shaft.-The equivalent flywheel effect at the shaft in question is W R 2 = h2(WR2)
where h = gear ratio - r.p.m. of mass geared t o shaft r.p.m. of shaft

(WRz) = flywheel effect of t h e body in question

about i t s own axis of rotation

24. Mass Geared to Main Shaft and Connected by a Flexible Shaft.-The

---Driven gear

effect of the mass (WR2)a t the position of the driving gear on the main shaft is

WR2 =
\Driving gear

1where h = gear ratio - r.p.m. of driven gear r.p.m. of driving gear (WR2) = flywheel effect of geared-on mass

h2(WR2) ( WR2)f2
9.775c

f = natural torsional frequency of t h e shafting

system, i n vibrations per sec. = torsional rigidity of flexible connecting shaft, in pound-inches per radian

26. Belted Drives.-The

______--c

--------+!

equivalent flywheel effect of the driven mass at the driving shaft is

wR2 =
Drivinu
pulley

h2(WR2) (WR2)lf2 19.775c

where h = R I / R - r.p.m..of pulley belted t o shaft r.p.m. of shaft (WR2) = flywheel effect of t h e driven body a b o u t its own axis of rotation f = natural torsional frequency of t h e system, in vibrations per sec.

C = R2AE/L A = cross-sectional area of belt, in sq. in. E = modulus of elasticity of belt material in
tension, in lb. per sq. in.

R = radius of driven pulley, in in. L = length of tight p a r t of belt which is clear

of t h e pulley, in in.

Design Formulas

28-3 1

26. Effect of the Flexibility of Flywheel Spokes on WE2of -.-The WR2of the rim is

effective

WR2 =

(WR2)'

(WR2)'f2 1 - ____
9.775c

where (WR2)' = flywheel effect of the rim j = natural torsional frequency of t h e system of which t h e flywheel is a member, in vibrations per sec. C = torque required to move t h e rim through one radian relative t o t h e hub

C= 1 2 ~ 5 3 b :3+ ~--1 L

where g = number of spokes E = bending modulus of elasticity of t h e spoke material k = r / 6 4 for elliptical, a n d k = for rectangular section spokes All dimensions are in inches.

">

For cast-iron spokes of elliptical section : E = 15 X lo6 Ib. per sq. in. ga3bR x 106 L R lb .-in. 0.1132L2 4- - radians'

c=

( a

Note: It is found by comparative calculations that with spokes of moderate taper very little error is involved in assuming the spoke to be straight and using cross section at mid-point for area calculation.

1 '
2c 26

The flywheel shown below is used in a Part of fly Diesel engine installation. It is required wheel to determine effective WR2for calculation (a) of one of the natural frequencies of tor- sional vibration. The anticipated natural frequency of the system is 56.4

Formula
lO((52)' - (43)']
4n 7s

= 955,300

16a

neglecting

-0.250 X 1.75 X 2 X 1.375(25)* X 8 = -6,000

Total for rim

= 1,016,300Ib.-in.

squared

5.25 X 2.5 X 11 6 x 4.90

[T

(11)*

X 0.250 X 12

Section A-A

Nde: Since the beads at the ends o f theswkes comDrise vkry little lrmr but a small part of the flywheel WR*, will result in asauming them to be of rectangular cross section. Also, because of the effect of the clamping bolts, the outer hub will be considered a square equal to the diameter. The spokes w i l l be assumed straight and of mid-point crow section.

32 11.697 X (13)4 - (6)') = 13,900 Total for remainder of flywheel = 54.400 Ih.-in. squared L From formula (26) 6 X (5.25)5 X 2.5 X 19.5 X lo6 C= 0.1132 X (11)* 11 lb.-in. - - 1 = 2,970 X 10'5 ( radians

-I

+ '19."

and W R I
1-

1,016,300 54,400 1,016,300 X (56.4)2 9.775 X 2,970 X 10' = 1,197,000 1b.-in. squared
P