1168

'.J. #agner e! al. Journal of Food Engineering 78 (2007) 11671173

,e Qries( ;luimer( M @lo&sma( 1>8>). )4is mec4anism can %e divided in!o four s!ages (,e Qries e! al.( 1>8>)F

!re !o de!ermine !4e wa!er con!en! af!er oven dr.ing. )4e num%er of re$lica!es or re$e!i!ions was no! given. )4e wa!er con!en! measured af!er cooling (83.7>T) was ver. Journal of Food Engineering 78 (2007) 11671173 close !o !4e ini!ial wa!er con!en! in doug4 (83.6>T)( 1. Firs!l. wa!er eva$ora!es on !4e warmer side of !4e gas www.elsevier.com loca!e "foodeng w4ereas an increase of 3.7T was measured direc!l. af!er cell( a%sor%ing la!en! 4ea! of va$orisa!ion. %a&ing. 1ons!an! wa!er con!en!s were also o%served in 2. Qa$our migra!es !4roug4 !4e gas $4ase( induced %. !4e !4ree sam$les !a&en a! !4e core 10 min af!er removal from va$our concen!ra!ion gradien! inside !4e cell. !4e oven ('ars!on( 1>76). 1Kuc4a"ows&a( 3omeranK( and 3. Qa$our !4en condenses on !4e colder side of !4e gas cell( Jeers (1>8>) wai!ed over an 4our af!er %a&ing %efore se!!ing free i!s la!en! 4ea!. removing crum% sam$les and !4e Bnal wa!er con!en! was 8. *iGuid wa!er is !rans$or!ed %. diusion !4roug4 !4e 23T lower !4an !4e ini!ial wa!er con!en! in doug4 doug4 mem%rane !o !4e warmer side of !4e ne9! gas cell( a(% a(+ % demon6 (%e!ween 86.3>T 88.88T). )4e la!!er resul!s ( ,. *e -a.and a( /. )r.s!ram 'uriel J. #agner ( ). *ucas w4ere !4e series of $rocesses can s!ar! again. s!ra!e !4a! fur!4er c4anges leading !o wa!er redis!ri%u!ion a during !4e cooling delica!e 01E'2/-EF( Food occur 3rocesses Engineering -esearc4$4ase( 5ni!( 17rendering av. de 1ucille( F637088!4e -ennes 1ede9( France de!ec!ion of an increase in wa!er con!en! dicult due !o %E:;<2( Food Engineering -esearc4 5ni!( 1 avenue des =l.m$iades( F6>1788 'ass. 1ede9( France #4en !4e gas $4ase %ecomes con!inuous( !4e four!4 !4e eva$ora!ioncondensa!ion $rocess. -eceived 11 June 2007? acce$!ed 1> ,ecem%er 2007 Lanoni and 3eri (1>>3) cu! %read slices in!o 27 $ieces s!age no longer e9is!s. )4is mec4anism !a&es $lace as long 2vaila%le online 6 'arc4 2006 as a !em$era!ure gradien! remains (and wa!er remainsR) direc!l. af!er %a&ing and sam$les were immedia!el. $laced in se$ara!e $ol.e!4.lene %ags( froKen in liGuid ni!rogen and and !4e core !em$era!ure 4as no! reac4ed 100 A1. )4orv6 aldsson and ;&"olde%rand (1>>8) re$or!ed !4a! !4is mec4a6S s!ored a! U20 A1. #a!er con!en! was measured in !ri$lica!e nism occurs onl. w4en !4e gas $4ase is con!inuous( in o!4er a! dierent loca!ions in !4e loaf and a! dierent %a&ing 2%s!rac! words w4en !4e doug4 4as alread. %een !ransformed in!o !imes %e!ween 0 and 30 min. =nl. !4e crus! was aected crum%( wi!4 $ore in!erconnec!ivi!. (onl. s!ages 13). <n %. de4.dra!ion( w4ereas !4e value of wa!er con!en! in !4e )4e main of !4is s!ud. was o%!ain !4e da!awa!er on local wa!er con!en! in %read during %a&ing. @reads %a&ed erent addi!ion( on aim i!s wa. !owards !4e!o cen!re( va$our crum% %enea!4 !4ewere crus! was for !4edi same as !imes in raw doug4 2 !o min and 60 min%. a! 182 A1. 2! !4e %e!ween end of eac4 %a&ing run( sam$les were(88T). !a&en a! dierent levels in !4e %read !o assess wa!er is %e!ween %elieved %e s!o$$ed !4e in!erface !4e Even w4en sam$ling !oo& $lace "us! af!er removal con!en! $roBles. )4e resul!s s4owed an increase in wa!er con!en! in !4e %read core a! !4e ver. %eginning of %a&ing. Cowever !4e core crum% (o$en s!ruc!ure) and !4e doug4 (closed s!ruc!ure) from !4e oven( !4e resul!s were am%iguous wi!4 ei!4er con6 wa!er con!en! was !4e same as in raw doug4 af!er 7 min of %a&ing. )4ese resul!s were com$ared !o $reviousl. $u%lis4ed resul!s( and !4e and no! !o move an. dee$er. )4e au!4ors s!ressed !4e 4ig4 for suc4 local increases s!an! or increasing mec4anisms of eva$ora!ioncondensa!ion w4ic4 are res$onsi%le are deBned. (,e Qries e! al.( 1>8>) wa!er con!en! a! $ro%a%ili!. !4a! !4is is a%sor%ed core. D 2006 Elsevier *!d.wa!er 2ll rig4!s reserved. %. s!arc4 gela!inisa6 !ion !a&ing $lace "us! %enea!4 !4is crum% doug4 in!erface. <n addi!ion !o !4e conven!ional( des!ruc!ive me!4od of =nl. w4en !4e core 4as c4anged in!o crum% can !4e wa!er sam$ling and oven6dr.ing( o!4er con!inuous wa!er con!en! move freel.)rans$or!? and wa!er con!en! rise in Eva$ora!ioncondensa!ion? !4e cen!re. measuremen! !ec4niGues 4ave %een $ro$osed. )4e micro6 Ee.wordsF #a!er con!en!? @read? @a&ing )4e $rinci$le of eva$ora!ion and condensa!ion was $ro6 wave !ec4niGue can %e used !o measure wa!er con!en! $osed %. ;luimer (ci!ed %. ,e Qries e! al.( 1>8>) !o e9$lain !4roug4 !4e de$endence of an elec!romagne!ic Beld on ra$id 4ea! !rans$or! during %a&ing. ,e Qries e! al. (1>8>) !4e dielec!ric and $ower dissi$a!ion $ro$er!ies of wa!er. demons!ra!ed !4a! conduc!ion alone could no! e9$lain 2no!4er con!inuous me!4od %ased on near infrared !4e1. ra$idi!. of 4ea! !rans$or! during %a&ing. <n !4eor.( (:<-) reHec!ance was $ro$osed %. )4orvaldsson and !4e wa!er va$our concen!ra!ion gradien!. 2 concomi!an! <n!roduc!ion !4e !4ermal diusivity in a foam eGuals !4e !4ermal diu;&"olde%rand )o !4e ensures local con!en! aS liGuid wa!er (1>>6). gradien! is measure formed and !4e diof usive sivi!. of !4e con!inuous $4ase( mul!i$lied %. a fac!or eGual sam$le( lig4! was sen! in!o !4e sam$le !4roug4 an o$!ic !ransfer of wa!er from !4e core !o !4e surface. 2s !4e di u'easuring and unders!anding wa!er dis!ri%u!ion during !o or smaller !4an uni!.( !a&ing in!o accoun! $resence B%re and !4e in!ensi!. of !4e reHec!ed lig4! sive How of liGuid wa!er from !4e core is was less measured. ra$id !4an %a&ing is fundamen!al !o %e!!er con!rol of!4e Bnal %read Gual6 of insula!ing elemen!s (gas in !4e con!inuous )4e ins!rumen! is also &nown !o %e sensi!ive !o !4e s!ruc6 eva$ora!ion How a! !4e surface( a dr.ing Kone is develo$ed( i!.. #a!er con!en! and i!s%u%%les) dis!ri%u!ion govern !e9!ural $4ase. <f conduc!ion !4e onl. 4ea! !rans$or! !ure and slowl. !em$era!ure of !4e and de$endence on w4ic4 increases in sam$le( !4ic&ness and forms !4e crus!. $ro$er!ies suc4 as is sof!ness ofmec4anism( crum%( cris$ness of !4e crus! in a gas free doug4 would !4en %e an as ra$id as orrole fas!er !em$era!ure can %e 3eri incor$ora!ed in!o !4e cali%ra!ion. @o!4 Lanoni and (1>>3) and *os!ie e! al. (2002) c4ar6 and s4elf6life. #a!er also $la.s im$or!an! in !4an !4e !rans$or! in fermen!ed doug4 $ieces. ,e Qries e! al. (1>8>) ;!ruc!ural ma&es Guan!i!a!ive measuremen!s ac!eriKedde$endence !4is !rans$or!? %read crus! !4ic&ness was evalu6 ma"or $4.sical c4anges (e.g. e9$ansion of %u%%les) and recorded !4ec4anges !em$era!ure %a&ing in !4e cen!re of gas ina!ed !4e sam$le dicult for in4omogeneous )4e a! dierent %a&ing !imes (Lanoni Mma!erials. 3eri( 1>>3)( and c4emical (e.g. during s!arc4 gela!inisa!ion) !4a! !a&e $lace free and fermen!ed doug4s wi!4 !4e same e9!ernal dimen6 B%re o$!ic me!4od is %e!!er sui!ed for d.namic s!udies wa!er con!en! in a s$onge ca&e crus! was measured af!er during %read ma&ing. sions( and!rans$or! s4owed !4a! 4ea! !4e !rans$or! fermen!ed doug4 w4en !4e $ro%e ise $laced in a B9ed environmen! during sam$ling a! di ren! %a&ing !imes and !4e dr.ing ra!e Cea! !owards cen!rein during %a&ing was muc4 fas!er in gas free doug4. ;uc4 resul!s could !4e en!ire measuremen! $eriod and !4is is w4. !4e au!4ors was calcula!ed (*os!ie( 3ecKals&i( 2ndrieu( M *auren!( induces wa!er !4an !rans$or! and !4erefore a c4ange in !4e wa!er %e dis!ri%u!ion. onl. e9$lained %.direc!ions !4e con!ri%u!ion of!rans$or! !4e eva$ora!ion did no! in!er$re! Bndings during !4e oven rise. )4orvalds6 2002). )wo of wa!er occur con6 condensa!ion !o fas!er!owards 4ea! !rans$or!. son 'oreover( and ;&"olde%rand (1>>8) s4owed aninside increase wa!erS !4e !em$era!ure gradien! !4e in %read comi!an!l. mec4anism during !4e $rocessF !4e !4ermal cen!re <n $rac!ical !erms( al!4oug4 !4e overall wa!er loss is eas. con!en! in !4e core immedia!el. af!er !4e local !em$era!ure induces a $ar!ial wa!er va$our $ressure gradien!( via !4e of !4e $roduc! and !owards !4e surface. !o assess (Casa!ani( 2rai( Carui( M <!a.a( 1>>2? *os!ie 4ad reac4ed wa!er 70 V 7va$our A1 (i.e. af!er e9$ansion or sa!ura!ing $ressure. @enea!4was !4e more dr.ing 2s soon as !4e $roduc! is $laced in !4e oven( wa!er eva$6 e! al.( 2002)( !4e de!ermina!ion of wa!er con!en! $roBles less com$le!e). wa!er con!en! of !4e doug4 region( wa!er )4e va$our migra!es !4roug4 !4e gaswas $4ase ora!es from !4e warmer region( a%sor%ing la!en! 4ea! of in crum% duringand %a&ing reGuires !4e se!!ing u$ of a@enea!4 me!4od 81.8>T and !4e average wa!er con!en! inw4ere !4e cen!re a! !4e !owards !4e !4ermal core of !4e %read( !4e $ar!ial va$orisa!ion !4e surface la.ers s!ar! dr.ing. for!4is accura!e cu!!ing ofwa!er !4e loaf in!o sam$les s!ill 4o! end of %a&ing (37 min a!is 227 A1) was 8>.6T 7.8. wa!er va$our $ressure a! i!s lowes!. ;uc4 V !rans$or! occurs dr.ing region( va$our diusesw4ile !4roug4 !4e in!er6 and deforma%le( and !4e minimiKa!ion of wa!er losses %. 2ccording !o !4e a%ove anal.ses( wa!er con!en! mea6 according !o !4e #a!!6$rinci$le or NN4ea! $i$eOO. @ecause !4e connec!ed $ores !owards !4e surface( under !4e inHuence of eva$ora!ion from cu! surfaces. ,e Qries e! al. (1>8>) de!er6 suremen! mus! ideall. %e !o de!ermined direc!l. af!er wa!er migra!es coun!er !4e !4ermal gradien!( i! %a&ing( is accom6 mined wa!er con!en! in !4e cen!re of !4e %read direc!l. af!er in$anied order !o minimise e9$erimen!al %ias.!4is 'oreover( avail6 %. condensa!ion. )4is is w4. mec4anism is also %a&ing( and af!er cooling !o am%ien! !em$era!ure. )4e called NNeva$ora!ioncondensa!ionOO. Cenr. $ro$osed !4e %read was sliced and a sam$le was !a&en from !4e loaf cen6 !4eor. of eva$ora!ion and condensa!ion in 1>3> (ci!ed %.

#a!er !rans$or! in %read during %a&ing

1orres$onding au!4or. Fa9F I33 223882117. E6mail addressF !i$4aine.lucasJcemagref.fr (). *ucas).

026068778 P 6 see fron! ma!!er D 2006 Elsevier *!d. 2ll rig4!s reserved. doiF10.1016 "."foodeng.2007.12.02>

'.J. #agner e! al. Journal of Food Engineering 78 (2007) 11671173

116>

a%le da!a mos!l. c4arac!erise !4e end of %read %a&ing and are of!en con!radic!or.. 2!!em$!s !o moni!or d.namicall. !4e local wa!er con!en! in %read during %a&ing 4as failed !o s4ow an. increase in wa!er con!en! a! !4e core (Lanoni M 3eri( 1>>3) or c4arac!erise !4e Brs! $ar! of !4e %a&ing $rocess ()4orvaldsson M ;&"oSlde%rand( 1>>8). )4e aim of !4is s!ud. was !o $resen! addi!ional wa!er con!en! da!a over !4e en!ire dura!ion of !4e %a&ing $rocess. <deall.( a non6des!ruc!ive !ec4niGue s4ould %e used. Cowever( $revi6 ous s!udies using :<- ()4orvaldsson M ;&"olde%rand(S 1>>8) or '-< (#agner e! al.( 2003) s4owed !4a! suc4 me!4ods 4ad !o %e im$roved %efore %eing a%le !o conver! !4e ou!6coming signal in!o wa!er con!en!. #e !4erefore c4ose !o cu! %read sam$les a! dierent %a&ing !imes( w4ile em$4asising !4e num%er of re$lica!es and re$e!i!ions. )4e $resen! Bndings were com$ared !o !4ose re$or!ed in !4e li!6 era!ure( and also !o $reviousl. formula!ed !4eories of eva$6 ora!ioncondensa!ion. )4is las! o%"ec!ive was su$$or!ed %. $arallel measuremen!s of !em$era!ure inside !4e %read.

of !em$era!ure measuremen!s( o$!ic B%res were $laced ver6 !icall. a! dierent levels inside !4e doug4 (.6a9is) %efore %a&ing. 2.2. E9$erimen!al $ro!ocol 2n oven s$eciBcall. designed for an '- imager was used as descri%ed in de!ail %. #agner e! al. (2003) and o$era!ing condi!ions wereF air !em$era!ure 182 V 3 A1 and mean air s$eed 3 m s. )4ermal insula!ion on !4e wall sides of !4e mould insured one6dimensional 4ea! !ransfer along !4e ver!ical a9is (.6a9is) and mass !ransfer was e9$ec!ed !o %e4ave similarl. (e9ce$! a! !4e in!erface on !4e la!eral sides). )4e mould was $laced in !4e oven a! !0 and !em$era!ures were recorded over 87 min. For measure6 men! of wa!er con!en!( !4e %a&ing $rocess was in!erru$!ed a! !imes (!) 2( 8( 7( 17( 20( 27( 30( 80 and 60 min. )4ree slices 1 cm !4ic& were cu! a! $osi!ions 80( 100( 120 mm along !4e K6a9is( w4ile !4e loaf was s!ill 4o!. 2 ver!ical $iece of onl. 1.7 cm !4ic& was sam$led a! !4e mid6wid!4 of eac4 slice. Eac4 $iece was cu! ou! in!o seven sam$les as s4own in Fig. 1(a) for de!ermina!ion of dr. ma!!er and !4e ver!ical $osi!ion of eac4 sam$le was measured. 3ar!icular a!!en!ion was $aid !o ra$idi!. of cu!!ing and weig4ing of sam$les %. all !4ree o$era!ors. 2s s4own in Fig. 1(%)( onl. !4ree regions could %e dis!inguis4ed a! ! X 7 minF !o$( cen!re and %o!!om. )4e !o$ and %o!!om regions were alread. crum% and no crus! could %e dis!inguis4edF !4ree sam$les along !4e K6a9is were removed from eac4 of !4ese regions. )4e core was s!ill liGuid doug4( from w4ic4 !4ree sam$les were !a&en. 2! ! Y 7 min( four sam$les were !a&en along !4e K6a9isF !4ree in !4e same regions as descri%ed a%ove and one sam$le from !4e crus!( w4ic4 was a !4in de4.6 dra!ed la.er. @a&ing !imes of 8( 7 and 20 min were re$ea!ed !4ree or four !imes and 80 min was re$ea!ed !wice.

2. 'a!erials and me!4ods 2.1. ;am$le $re$ara!ion 2 reci$e for w4i!e %read was used in !4e s!ud. wi!4 !4e following Guan!i!ies and ingredien!sF 300 g w4ea! Hour( 227 g wa!er( 6 g sacc4arose( 6 g sal!( > g com$ressed .eas!( 6 g ra$e seed oil. Flour was s!ored a! U20 A1 %e!ween e9$erimen!s and defros!ed a! 8 A1 28 4 %efore e9$erimen!s. )wo series of wa!er con!en! measuremen!s were $erformed a! a si9 mon!4sO in!erval. ,uring !4e Brs! series( !4e wa!er con!en! of Hour was 13.77T and in !4e second series i! was 18.86T( ma&ing !4e ini!ial wa!er con!en! in doug4 var. slig4!l.. )4e ingredien!s were mi9ed in a mi9er ada$!ed from a 14o$in alveogra$4 a! 37 r$m for 7 min and a! >0 r$m for 12 min. )4e Bnal !em$era!ure of !4e doug4 was 26 V 1 A1. Four doug4 sam$les were used for !4e de!ermi6 na!ion of ini!ial dr. ma!!er. )4e doug4 was $laced in a rec!angular glass mould (270 W 70 W 60 mm)( !4a! was coa!ed wi!4 )eHon !o reduce ad4erence. )4e doug4 was $roved for 1410 in a $roving c4am%er wi!4 sa!ura!ed air a! 27 A1. )4e la!eral walls of !4e mould were e9!ernall. insula!ed wi!4 a ceramic la.er %efore %a&ing. <n !4e case

2.3. 'easuremen!s and e9$ression of resul!s 2.3.1. )em$era!ure )em$era!ures in !4e loaf were measured wi!4 o$!ic B%res (diame!er 1 mm( accurac. 1 A1). Fi%res were $osi!ioned a! dierent levels in !4e loafF 0( 7( 20( 30 and 80 mm from !4e %o!!om of !4e mould and along !4e ver!ical a9is (.6a9is). )em$era!ures were collec!ed using a da!a acGuisi!ion

50 mm top 6 mm

y i+1

core 60 mm 55 mm 39 mm

yi

bottom z x 0

10 mm

50 mm

Fig. 1. ;am$le $osi!ioning de$ending on !4e %a&ing !imeF (a) for ! Z 10 min? (%) for ! X 10 min[values given a$$l. !o ! Y 8 min.

1170

'.J. #agner e! al. Journal of Food Engineering 78 (2007) 11671173

*u9!ron 7>0 connec!ed !o a 31 and recorded ever. 7 s. )em$era!ures a! 20 mm were re$ea!ed four !imes. 2.3.2. Ceig4! )4e !o!al 4eig4! of !4e loaf (\ e9$ressed in millime!res) was measured wi!4 a gradua!ed ruler (V1 mm) %efore cu!6 !ing( !4en sam$les were cu! ou! and $laced on gra$4 $a$er !o measure !4eir res$ec!ive 4eig4!s (,.). )4e 4eig4!s of !4e !o$ and %o!!om crus!s were measured using a slide calli$er. )4e ver!ical $osi!ion .i a!!ri%u!ed !o eac4 sam$le was cen6 !red a! mid64eig4!( wi!4 !4e %o!!om of !4e loaf as reference (. Y 0). /iven .1( !4e 4eig4! of !4e sam$le near !4e %ase of !4e loaf was

.+ Y 0.07( 0.8> and 0.>>( and !4eir res$ec!ive wa!er con!en! was com$ared !o !4ose a! $osi!ions .+ Y 0.03( 0.88 and 0.>7. For ! Y 8 min( !4e $osi!ions of !4e !4ree regions were .+ Y 0.0>( 0.87 and 0.>8 and !4eir res$ec!ive wa!er con!en! was com$ared !o !4ose a! $osi!ions .+ Y 0.18( 0.88 and 0.>7. For ! Y 7 min( !4e $osi!ions of !4e four regions were .+ Y 0.08( 0.88( 0.86 and 0.>6 and !4eir res$ec!ive wa!er con!en! was com$ared !o !4ose a! $osi!ions .+ Y 0.18( 0.88( 0.87 and 0.>7.

,. 1 .1 ] 2 For 2 6 i 6 7F ,. iU1 ,. i a 22 @ecause !4e %read did no! reac4 i!s ma9imum 4eig4! during %a&ing (es$eciall. a! !4e %eginning)( !4e 4eig4!s in eac4 loaf were s!andardiKed !o com$are wa!er con!en! $roBles wi!4 eac4 o!4erF . .b ] i^3_i\ . i ] . iU1 a <! mus! %e em$4asiKed( 4owever( !4a! suc4 com$arison assumes uniform e9$ansion of !4e %read. ;even common regions were !4us deBned( w4ose average corres$onding mid64eig4!s were .+ Y 0.03 V 0.01( 0.18 V 0.03( 0.33 V 0.02( 0.88 V 0.03( 0.67 V 0.02( 0.87 V 0.01 and 0.>7 V 0.02. For ! Y 2 min( !4e $osi!ions of !4e !4ree regions were

^1_

2.3.3. ,r. ma!!er and wa!er con!en! ;am$les were weig4ed (m)( $laced in a dr.ing oven a! 108 A1 for 28 4 and weig4ed again (mdr.). )4e resul!s were e9$ressed in grams of wa!er $er 100 g of doug4 a! !0 or $er 100 g of %read a! !F m U m dr. 9]` 100^8_ m )4e wa!er con!en! values o%!ained a! !4e same level in !4e !4ree dierent slices (along !4e K6a9is) were averaged a! gi6 ven %a&ing !imes( accom$anied %. !4e corres$onding s!an6 dard devia!ion. 3. -esul!s Fig. 2 $resen!s wa!er con!en! values of sam$les a! dieren! levels inside !4e loaf during %a&ing. 2s $reviousl. re$or!ed (e.g. Lanoni M 3eri( 1>>3)( de4.dra!ion aected onl. !4e su$erBcial la.ers (crus!) a! !4e !o$ and %o!!om( w4ereas !4e crum% wa!er con!en! remained cons!an! and eGual !o !4a! measured in !4e un%a&ed doug4. Cowever( a! 8 min (all !4ree runs) and a! 7 min (!wo runs ou! of !4ree)( !4e wa!er con!en! a! !4e core (doug4) was signiB6

^2_

50 45 40

Water content 35 (%)

30 25 20 15 10 0
y* = 0.03

51

50

49 0 3 6 9 12 15

10
y*= 0.14

15
y*= 0.33

20
y*= 0.4

25

30

35
y*= 0. 5

40

45
y*= 0.9!

50

55

60

"ime (min)
y*= 0.6! initia# $ater content a%era&e

Fig. 2. #a!er con!en! during %a&ing a! dierent levels ^. b _ inside !4e loaf (da!a acGuired during !4e Brs! series of %a&ing runs). #a!er con!en!i measuremen! was re$ea!ed !4ree !imes a! 7 and 20 min and !wice a! 80 min.

'.J. #agner e! al. Journal of Food Engineering 78 (2007) 11671173

1171

can!l. 4ig4er !4an !4e ini!ial wa!er con!en! (0.81.3T( see )a%le 1). :o signiBcan! increase in wa!er con!en! a! !4e core could %e measured %efore 8 min (see ! Y 2 min in )a%le 1). )4e order of magni!ude of !4e increase in wa!er con!en! was slig4!l. lower !4an values re$or!ed in !4e li!era!ure (8T (,e Qries e! al.( 1>8>) !o 18.7T on average ()4orvaldsson M ;&"olde%rand( 1>>8)). )4is can %e e9$lained %. !4e dier-S ence in %read geome!r. as !4e !4ermal gradien!( i.e. !4e driving force for wa!er !rans$or! !owards !4e core( is more in!ense and $ersis!en! for a larger6siKed $roduc! 780 g of doug4 in a rec!angular !in of > W 27 W 6 cm dimensions ()4orvaldsson M ;&"olde%rand( 1>>8)( and 870 g of doug4S in a c.linder of 7 cm radius (,e Qries e! al.( 1>8>). 2no!4er $ossi%le e9$lana!ion is !4e %a&ing !ime selec!ed for o%ser6 va!ion as !4e wa!er con!en! a! !4e core is e9$ec!ed !o increase con!inuousl. wi!4 %a&ing ($rovided !4a! a !4ermal gradien! $ersis!s) and 4ig4er wa!er con!en! s4ould %e o%!ained a! !4e core a! !4e end of %a&ing. Qalues were o%!ained af!er 37 and 80 min %. )4orvaldsson and ;&"olde6S %rand (1>>8) and ,e Qries e! al. (1>8>)( res$ec!ivel.( ins!ead of 87 min in !4is s!ud..

)4e $resen! s!ud. measured !4e increase in wa!er con6 !en! a! !4e core a! !4e ver. %eginning of %a&ing. 2! !4is s!age( !4e core was s!ill liGuid (doug4)[see ;ec!ion 2. Fig. 3(a)(c) $resen! !4e !em$era!ure $roBles in eac4 region a! 2( 8 and 7 min of %a&ing( res$ec!ivel.. )4e !em$era!ures in !4e !o$ and %o!!om regions increased w4ereas !4e !em6 $era!ures in !4e core region did no! e9ceed 6067 A1 (!4is !em$era!ure range was calcula!ed af!er linear in!er$ola!ion %e!ween e9$erimen!al da!a and can !4us %e slig4!l. over6 es!ima!ed). ;uc4 !em$era!ures are of!en re$or!ed a! !4e onse! of s!arc4 gela!inisa!ion (@lo&sma( 1>>0? Engelsen( Jensen( 3edersen( :orgaard( M 'unc&( 2001? Lanoni( 3eri( M @runo( 1>>7) w4ic4 is consis!en! wi!4 a s!ill liGuid core (doug4). )4is com%ina!ion of local wa!er con!en! and !em6 $era!ure measuremen!s conBrmed !4a! !4e eva$ora!ion condensa!ion mec4anism !a&es $lace even w4en !4e $ores are no! connec!ed (closed $orous s!ruc!ure) as $reviousl. $ro$osed %. ,e Qries e! al. (1>8>). 'oreover( i! sugges!s !4a! wa!er moving !owards !4e core is no! (or no! full.) mo%iliKed %. !4e area under gela!iniKa!ion as $reviousl. s!a!ed %. )4orvaldsson and ;&"olde%rand (1>>8). :o realS increase in wa!er con!en! was o%served a! 2 min al!4oug4

)a%le 1 #a!er con!en! during %a&ing a! dierent %a&ing !imes @a&ing !ime ! (min) ;eries num%er -un num%er -egion in !4e loaf slice #a!er con!en! (T we! %asis) 2! !0 (doug4) 9 1 )o$ 1ore @o!!om )o$ 1ore @o!!om )o$ 1ore @o!!om )o$ 1ore @o!!om )o$ 1ore @o!!om )o$ 1ore @o!!om )o$ 1ore @o!!om )o$ 1ore @o!!om 8>.6 r 0.1 2! ! 9 32.6 70.2 87.> 30.0 70.3 86.0 28.> 8>.8 87.0 37.0 8>.> 86.3 82.> 71.0 88.2 81.1 71.8 8>.3 87.7 70.6 88.1 81.1 8>.8 86.8 r 0.1 0.8 0.7 0.8 1.2 0.7 0.0 0.7 1.8 0.2 1.0 0.7 0.2 0.8 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.8 0.1 0.6 1.7 0.2 1.3 0.6 ,

8>.6

0.0

0.7

8>.3

0.1

0.1

8>.0

0.1

0.>

70.2

0.0

0.8

70.1

0.0

1.3

70.2

0.1

0.8

8>.0

0.1

0.8

'ean values refer !o !4ree sam$les along !4e K6a9is? r is !4e corres$onding s!andard devia!ion. , is !4e dierence in average wa!er con!en! %e!ween ! and !0 (doug4).

1172
60

'.J. #agner e! al. Journal of Food Engineering 78 (2007) 11671173

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!imes( since !4e la!!er were clearl. no! %ased on re$e!i!ions (,e Qries e! al.( 1>8>? )4orvaldsson M ;&"olde%rand(S 1>>8). 'oreover( o!4er s!udies (Lanoni M 3eri( 1>>3) o%served no increase in wa!er con!en! a! !4e end of %a&ing (30 min). <! is $ro%a%le !4a! !4e eva$ora!ioncondensa!ion mec4anism s!ill $ersis!ed in our o$era!ing condi!ions( %u! was no! measura%le %ecause wa!er losses %. eva$ora!ion from cu!( 4o! surfaces coun!er%alanced !4e $ossi%le increase %. eva$ora!ioncondensa!ion. <ndeed( a! ! 6 7 min !4e core !em$era!ure did no! e9ceed 67 A1 (Fig. 3(a)(c)) and wa!er losses could 4ave %een small enoug4 !o allow !4e measure6 men! of an. increase in wa!er con!en!. )4e $orous s!ruc!ure is e9$ec!ed !o %e closed %efore !4e doug4 crum% !ransfor6 ma!ion and !4is ma. also con!ri%u!e !o limi!ed %ias w4en sam$ling a! earl. %a&ing !imes. 2$ar! from e9$erimen!al %ias due !o des!ruc!ive sam$ling( ano!4er e9$lana!ion for no! o%serving an. increase in wa!er con!en! could %e !4e severe reduc!ion in !4e driving force for wa!er !rans$or!( i.e. !4e !em$era!ure gradien!. )4e !em$era!ure gradien! a! ! Y 17 min did no! e9ceed 30 A1 in !4e lower $ar! of !4e loaf (Fig. 3(d))( w4ereas i! reac4ed 8070 A1 for ! 6 7 min. )4is is !.$ical of small6siKed $roduc!s and again could e9$lain !4e dierences from $reviousl. Bndings.

cr',t

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30
#i('i) core

8. 1onclusion =ur resul!s s4owed an increase in wa!er con!en! a! !4e core during !4e Brs! 7 min of %a&ing and wi!4 !4e resul!s from ,e Qries e! al. (1>8>) and )4orvaldsson and ;&"oSlde6 %rand (1>>8)( conBrmed !4e occurrence of !4e eva$ora6 !ioncondensa!ion mec4anism during %read %a&ing. )4is increase was o%served in regions w4ere !4e !em$era!ure did no! e9ceed 67 A1( !ending !o conBrm !4e $ossi%le occurrence of !4e eva$ora!ioncondensa!ion mec4anism even in a closed $orous s!ruc!ure (doug4). #4en com$aring our values !o values re$or!ed in !4e li!6 era!ure( increases in wa!er con!en! a$$eared !o var. in am$li!ude and wi!4 !4e %a&ing !ime( suc4 varia!ions mainl. %eing e9$lained %. !4e dierences in loaf !4ic&ness. )4ic&6 ness ac!s on !4e driving force for wa!er !rans$or! %. eva$6 ora!ioncondensa!ion i.e. !4e !em$era!ure gradien!? i! is e9$ec!ed !o modif. %o!4 i!s slo$e (or in!ensi!.) and i!s !ime dura!ion. /iven !4e num%er of !ransforma!ions !a&ing $lace during %a&ing and !4eir in!erac!ions( !4is 4.$o!4esis can onl. %e valida!ed %. com$aring a !4eore!ical model of %a&ing including wa!er !rans$or! wi!4 !4e eva$ora!ion condensa!ion mec4anism. )4is will %e our ne9! s!age of inves!iga!ion. 2s da!a free of %ias are reGuired for full val6 ida!ion of suc4 a model( and %ias from sam$ling canno! %e Guan!iBed( !4e develo$men! of non6des!ruc!ive( Guan!i!a6 !ive me!4ods is also reGuired in !4is researc4 area.

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"emperat're (-)

Fig. 3. (a)(d)F )em$era!ure $roBles a! 2 min (a)( 8 min (%)( 7 min (c) and 17 min (d) of %a&ing inside !4e loaf. )4e !em$era!ure value a! 20 mm is !4e mean of four re$e!i!ions and is accom$anied %. !4e corres$onding s!andard devia!ion. )4e !4ree regions dis!inguis4ed a! earl. %a&ing !imes are s$eciBed on !4e rig4! of !4e Bgure. -efer !o !4e !e9! for fur!4er de!ails.

signiBcan! !4ermal gradien!s 4ad alread. develo$ed (Fig. 3(a)). )4ese could !4erefore %e in!er$re!ed as iner!ia eects. )4e increase in wa!er con!en! was no! signiBcan! a! ! Z 7 min. For ins!ance( a! 80 min( one %a&ing run ou! of !wo $resen!ed( a 0.23T increase for .+ Y 0.88 com$ared !o !4e ini!ial wa!er con!en!. <! can 4ardl. %e concluded !4a! !4e las! resul!s are no! consis!en! wi!4 $reviousl. re$or!ed Bndings for long %a&ing

2c&nowledgemen!s )4is wor& was su$$or!ed %. gran!s from !4e Frenc4 'inis!r. of -esearc4 (-2-E61anal6salve( 01 30838601 3 083>601 3 0880).

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-eferences
@lo&sma( 2. C. (1>>0). ,oug4 s!ruc!ure( doug4 r4eolog. and %a&ing Guali!.. 1ereal Foods #orld( 37(2)( 237288. 1Kuc4a"ows&a( L.( 3omeranK( \.( M Jeers, C. 1. (1>8>). #a!er ac!ivi!. and mois!ure con!en! of doug4 and %read. 1ereal 14emis!r.( 66(2)( 128132. ,e Qries( 5.( ;luimer( 3.( M @lo&sma( 2. C. (1>8>). 2 Guan!i!a!ive model for 4ea! !rans$or! in doug4 and crum% during %a&ing. <n 1ereal ;cience and )ec4nolog. in ;weden( 3roceedings of an <n!erna!ional ;.m$osium ($$. 178188). ;wedenF *und 5niversi!.. Engelsen( ;. @.( Jensen( '. E.( 3edersen( C. ).( :orgaard( *.( M 'unc&( *. (2001). :'-6%a&ing and mul!ivaria!e $redic!ion of ins!rumen!al !e9!ure $arame!ers in %read. Journal of 1ereal ;cience( 33(1)( 7>6>. Casa!ani( '.( 2rai( :.( Carui( C.( M <!a.a( \. (1>>2). Eect of dr.ing on 4ea! !ransfer of %read during %a&ing in oven. ,r.ing )ec4nolog.( 10(3)( 62363>.

*os!ie( '.( 3ecKals&i( -.( 2ndrieu( J.( M *auren!( '. (2002). ;!ud. of s$onge ca&e %a!!er %a&ing $rocess. <F E9$erimen!al da!a. Journal of Food Engineering( 71(2)( 131137. 'ars!on( 3. E.( M #annan( ). *. (1>76). @read %a&ingF !4e !ransforma6 !ion from doug4 !o %read. @a&ers ,iges!( 2828. )4orvaldsson( E.( M ;&"olde%rand( 1. (1>>6). 'e!4od and ins!rumen! forS measuring local wa!er con!en! inside food. Journal of Food Engineering( 2>( 111. )4orvaldsson( E.( M ;&"olde%rand( 1. (1>>8). #a!er diusion in %readS during %a&ing. *e%ensmi!!el #issensc4af! und )ec4nologie( 31( 678663. #agner( '.( *ucas( ).( ,avenel( 2.( @ro.ar!( @.( 1ollewe!( /.( M )r.s!ram( /.( (2003). ;!ud. of %read %a&ing $rocessF '-< e9$eri6 men!al da!a. <n 3roceedings <1EF>( 'on!$ellier( Fr( $. 8>6. Lanoni( @.( M 3eri( 1. (1>>3). 2 s!ud. of !4e %read6%a&ing $rocess <F 2 $4enomenological model. Journal of Food Engineering( 1>(8)( 38>3>8. Lanoni( @.( 3eri( 1.( M @runo( ,. (1>>7). 'odelling of s!arc4 gela!ini6 sa!ion &ine!ics of %read crum% during %a&ing. *e%ensmi!!el #issens6 c4af! and )ec4nologie( 28(3)( 318318.