Classical thermodynamics

Classical thermodynamics accounts for the adventures of a thermodynamic system in terms, either of its time-invariant equilibrium states, or else of its continually repeated cyclic processes, but, formally, not both in the same account. It uses only time-invariant, or equilibrium, macroscopic quantities measureable in the laboratory, counting as time-invariant a long-term time-average of a quantity, such as a flow, generated by a continually repetitive process.[36][37] In classical thermodynamics, rates of change are not admitted as variables of interest. An equilibrium state stands endlessly without change over time, while a continually repeated cyclic process runs endlessly without a net change on the system over time. In the account in terms of equilibrium states of a system, a state of thermodynamic equilibrium in a simple system is spatially homogeneous. In the classical account solely in terms of a cyclic process, the spatial interior of the 'working body' of that process is not considered; the 'working body' thus does not have a defined internal thermodynamic state of its own because no assumption is made that it should be in thermodynamic equilibrium; only its inputs and outputs of energy as heat and work are considered.[38] It is common to describe a cycle theoretically as composed of a sequence of very many thermodynamic operations and processes. This creates a link to the description in terms of equilibrium states. The cycle is then theoretically described as a continuous progression of equilibrium states. Classical thermodynamics was originally concerned with the transformation of energy in a cyclic process, and the exchange of energy between closed systems defined only by their equilibrium states. The distinction between transfers of energy as heat and as work was central.