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01 Handout Maths Lect 1
01 Handout Maths Lect 1
Chapter 1
A set is a collection of distinct objects. The objects in a set are called the elements or members of the set.
Example 1.1
MATH1131 is an element of the set of all mathematical courses offered at UNSW. UCLA is not a member of the Australian universities.
Example 1.2
We write 14 N and read 14 is an element of the natural numbers and 4 /Z 3 and read 4/3 is not an element of the integers
Example 1.3
The set of all students doing MATH1131 this year whose ages are below 10 is an empty set. The set of all real numbers x satisfying x 2 + 1 = 0 is an empty set.
List all members inside a pair of curly brackets (or braces): {}. Give a rule to determine which members of some previously dened set are to be members of the set being dened.
Example 1.4
The set of all natural numbers less than 3 can be represented by one of the following ways {0, 1, 2} or {2, 1, 0} or {n N : n < 3}.
The equation x 2 = 1 has two real solutions 1 and 1. The set of all solutions of this equation can be written as {1, 1} or {x R : x 2 = 1}.
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Suppose that A and B are two sets. If x A implies that x B , then A is called a subset of B . We write A B .
Example 1.5
NZ (N (R is a subset of Z) contains Q).
RQ
Intervals
If a < b are two real numbers, we write (a, b) [a, b] (a, b] [a, b) (, a] [a, ) for {x R : a < x < b } {x R : a x b } {x R : a x < b } {x R : a < x b } an open interval a closed interval
(, a)
(a, )
{x R : x < a}
{x R : a < x }
{x R : x a}
{x R : a x }
Note
is not a real number. The only sensible relations involving the symbol and real numbers x and y are < x or y < .
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Inequalities
Theorem 1.1
For x , y , z R we have 1. if x > y then x + z > y + z 2. if x > y and z > 0 then xz > yz 3. if x > y and z < 0 then xz < yz 4. if y > x > 0 then y > x > 0 1 1 5. if y > x > 0 then 0 < < y x
Note
Note the change of direction of the inequality signs in (3) and (5).
Solving inequalities
There are 2 basic types: polynomial inequalities
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!
Example 1.6
Find S = {x R : 3(4 x ) < 21}.
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!
Example 1.7
Find T = {u R : u 3 3u > 2u 2 }.
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!
Example 1.8
Find the set of all x R satisfying 1 1 > . (x 1)(x 2) (x 1)(x 3)
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Notes
To be precise, when we multiply (x 1)2 (x 2)2 (x 3)2 to the inequality we have to assume that x = 1, 2, 3. Otherwise, the inequality becomes equality. The assumption is clearly valid so that the fractions are dened.
is read union.
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Absolute values
Denition 1.2
The absolute value |x | of a real number x is dened by |x | = x x if x 0 if x < 0.
Theorem 1.2
| x | = |x |
|xy | = |x | |y |
|x y | |x | + |y |
|x | |y | |x y |
Important facts
If x R then
x 2 = |x |
and |x |2 = x 2 .
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Important facts
If a > 0 then
|x | < a means a < x < a; equivalently, we can write x (a, a) |x x0 | < a means x0 a < x < x0 + a; equivalently, we can write x (x0 a, x0 + a) |x | > a means (x < a or x > a).
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Example 1.9
The function f :RR we can also write f :RR dened by f (x ) = x 2
x f (x ) = x 2 .
Example 1.10
The following functions are all different f :RR g : [0, ) R h : [0, ) [0, ) x x 2.
x x2
x x2
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A convention
It is emphasised that f (x ) is a number, the value of the function at x . It is not a function. However, sometimes only the rule is given (e.g., f (x ) = x ). For rules which operate on real numbers and produce real numbers as output we use the following convention:
The default domain is the largest possible set of x values for which f (x ) R; The default codomain is the smallest possible set of values of f (x ).
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Range
Denition 1.4
The range of a function f : A B , denoted by Range(f ) or f (A), is the set {y B : y = f (x ) for some x A}.
Notes
The range is a subset of the codomain. f (A) is a subset of B . The codomain indicates where we should look for the function values the range tells us the actual function values obtained.
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!
Example 1.11
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Operations on functions
Denition 1.5
Suppose that f : D R and g : D R are two functions with the same domain D , a subset of R. Then the functions f g , f g and f /g are dened by the rules (f g )(x ) = f (x ) g (x ) (f g )(x ) = f (x )g (x ) f (x ) (f /g )(x ) = g (x ) x D x D x D satisfying g (x ) = 0.
Thus the domains of these functions are Dom(f g ) = D Dom(f g ) = D Dom(f /g ) = {x D : g (x ) = 0}.
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Notes
Polynomials and rational functions are made using the above ideas.
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Rational functions are functions of the form p (x ) q (x ) where p and q are polynomials. Their domain is {x R : q (x ) = 0}.
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!
Example 1.12
Find the domains of the functions dened by these rules f (x ) = 2x x2 + 3 and g (x ) = x 3 + 5x 7 . x 2 4x + 3
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!
Example 1.13
Does the following rule denes a rational function? f (x ) = x + 1 x2 2 . +2
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Composition of functions
Denition 1.6
Consider two functions: f : C D and g : A B . When the range of a function g is a subset of the domain of a function f , we can dene the composition f g : A D is dened by (f g )(x ) = f g (x ) x A. Note the order of f and g is important!
f g
11111111 00000000 00000000 11111111 00000000 11111111 00000000 11111111 00000000 11111111 00000000 11111111 00000000 11111111 A 00000000 11111111 00000000 11111111
B
111111 000000 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 000000 111111 111 000 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111
D f
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Example 1.14
If f : R R and g : R R are dened by f (x ) = sin x then (f g )(x ) = f g (x ) = f (x + 1) = sin(x + 1). and g (x ) = x + 1.
Note
Compositons do not always exist.
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Example 1.15
Let f : R R and g : [0, ) R be dened by f (x ) = x 2 1 and g (x ) = x . In this case f g : [0, ) R is dened by (f g )(x ) = f (g (x )) = f ( x ) = ( x )2 1 = x 1. (Note that f g is different from h : R R dened by h(x ) = x 1.) Here, however, g f is not dened. Indeed, if x = 0 then f (x ) = 1 and thus g (f (x )) = dened (as a real number).
1 is not
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Trigonometric functions
(cos t , sin t )
t 1
If t is a real number then (cos t , sin t ) are the coordinates of the point on the unit circle x 2 + y 2 = 1 whose distance around the circle in the anticlockwise direction from (1, 0) is t . The angle from the positive x -axis to this point is t radians.
So 2 radians is same angle as 360 . From now on always measure angles in radians. From the diagram we have sin t t for t 0.
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y
1
sin(t)
1
y0
y0
t0 -1 x0 1
t0
t
p/2 p 3p/2 2p 5p/2 3p 7p/2 4p
-1
-1
cos(t)
1 x0
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+ k , k Z}, 2
Dom(cosec) = {x R : x = k , k Z},
Elementary functions
The following are known as elementary functions:
polynomials the nth root function f (x ) = x 1/n where n Z+ the exponential function f (x ) = ex the natural logarithm function f (x ) = ln x the absolute value function f (x ) = |x | all the trig functions (and their inverses) where you can use high school denitions for the moment!
Any function obtained by combining a nite number of the above functions via +, , , and is also an elementary function.
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!
Example 1.16
The function f :RR such that x esin
2
x +3 sin x 1
is an elementary function.
Note
In Maple the exponential function is also exp(x ).
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(1)
Example 1.17
The Maple command smartplot(y^3 + 3*x*y^2 + 3*y*x^2 + y + 5=0); can be used to get a picture of the curve y 3 + 3xy 2 + 3x 2 y + y + 5 = 0. Challenge: Prove mathematically that (2) denes function y = g (x ) with R as its domain. (2)
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Continuous functions
A primitive, but vaguely useful, notion of continuity is a function is continuous if its graph can be drawn without lifting the pencil off the page Better is a function is continuous if small changes in the input variable produce small changes in the function value However, a lot of work is required to convert this to serious mathematics. To make efcient progress in MATH1131 we initially take as a fact that the elementary functions are continuous on their domain of denition. This procedure then allows us to draw diagrams to help understand the important concept of a limit. It also justies many of the calculations of limits you did in the revision examples.
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