Review of Algebra

REVIEW OF ALGEBRA

Review of Algebra

Here we review the basic rules and procedures of algebra that you need to know in order to be successful in calculus.
Arithmetic Operations

The real numbers have the following properties: abba ab ba a b c a b c ab c ab ac (Commutative Law) (Associative Law) (Distributive law)

abc abc

In particular, putting a 1 in the Distributive Law, we get b c 1b c 1b 1c and so b c b c

EXAMPLE 1

(a) 3xy4x 34x 2y 12 x 2y (b) 2t7x 2tx 11 14tx 4t 2x 22t (c) 4 3 x 2 4 3x 6 10 3x If we use the Distributive Law three times, we get a bc d a bc a bd ac bc ad bd This says that we multiply two factors by multiplying each term in one factor by each term in the other factor and adding the products. Schematically, we have a bc d In the case where c a and d b, we have a b2 a 2 ba ab b 2 or
1

a b2 a 2 2ab b 2

Similarly, we obtain
2

a b2 a 2 2ab b 2

REVIEW OF ALGEBRA

EXAMPLE 2

(a) 2 x 13x 5 6 x 2 3x 10 x 5 6 x 2 7x 5 (b) x 62 x 2 12 x 36 (c) 3x 14x 3 2 x 6 34x 2 x 3 2x 12 12 x 2 3x 9 2 x 12 12 x 2 5x 21

Fractions

To add two fractions with the same denominator, we use the Distributive Law: a c 1 1 1 ac a c a c b b b b b b Thus, it is true that ac a c b b b But remember to avoid the following common error:

a a a bc b c (For instance, take a b c 1 to see the error.) To add two fractions with different denominators, we use a common denominator: a c ad bc b d bd We multiply such fractions as follows: a c ac b d bd In particular, it is true that a a a b b b To divide two fractions, we invert and multiply: a b a d ad c b c bc d

REVIEW OF ALGEBRA

EXAMPLE 3

x3 x 3 3 1 x x x x 3 x 3x 2 x x 1 3x 6 x 2 x (b) x1 x2 x 1x 2 x2 x 2 2 x 2x 6 2 x x2 s2t ut s 2 t 2u s2t 2 (c) u 2 2u 2 x xy 1 y y x x x y x 2 xy xy (d) xy y xy yx y xy y 2 y 1 x x (a)

Factoring

We have used the Distributive Law to expand certain algebraic expressions. We sometimes need to reverse this process (again using the Distributive Law) by factoring an expression as a product of simpler ones. The easiest situation occurs when the expression has a common factor as follows:
Expanding

3x(x-2)=3x@-6x
Factoring

To factor a quadratic of the form x 2 bx c we note that x rx s x 2 r sx rs so we need to choose numbers r and s so that r s b and rs c.
EXAMPLE 4 Factor x 2 5x 24.
SOLUTION The two integers that add to give 5 and multiply to give 24 are 3 and 8.

Therefore x 2 5x 24 x 3x 8
EXAMPLE 5 Factor 2 x 2 7x 4.
SOLUTION Even though the coefcient of x 2 is not 1, we can still look for factors of the

form 2 x r and x s, where rs 4. Experimentation reveals that 2 x 2 7x 4 2 x 1x 4 Some special quadratics can be factored by using Equations 1 or 2 (from right to left) or by using the formula for a difference of squares:
3

a 2 b 2 a ba b

REVIEW OF ALGEBRA

The analogous formula for a difference of cubes is

4

a 3 b 3 a ba 2 ab b 2

which you can verify by expanding the right side. For a sum of cubes we have
5

a 3 b 3 a ba 2 ab b 2

EXAMPLE 6

(a) x 2 6x 9 x 32 (b) 4x 2 25 2 x 52 x 5 (c) x 3 8 x 2x 2 2 x 4 x 2 16 . x 2 2x 8

(Equation 2; a x, b 3) (Equation 3; a 2 x, b 5) (Equation 5; a x, b 2)

EXAMPLE 7 Simplify

SOLUTION Factoring numerator and denominator, we have

x 2 16 x 4 x 4 x4 2 x 2x 8 x 4 x 2 x2 To factor polynomials of degree 3 or more, we sometimes use the following fact.

6 The Factor Theorem If P is a polynomial and Pb 0, then x b is a factor

of P x.

EXAMPLE 8 Factor x 3 3 x 2 10 x 24.

b is a factor of 24. Thus, the possibilities for b are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, and 24. We nd that P1 12, P1 30, P2 0. By the Factor Theorem, x 2 is a factor. Instead of substituting further, we use long division as follows: x 2 x 12 x 2 x 3 3 x 2 10 x 24 x 3 2 x2 x 2 10 x x 2 2 x 12 x 24 12 x 24 Therefore x 3 3 x 2 10 x 24 x 2 x 2 x 12 x 2 x 3 x 4
Completing the Square

SOLUTION Let P x x 3 3 x 2 10 x 24. If Pb 0, where b is an integer, then

Completing the square is a useful technique for graphing parabolas or integrating rational functions. Completing the square means rewriting a quadratic ax 2 bx c

REVIEW OF ALGEBRA

in the form a x p2 q and can be accomplished by: 1. Factoring the number a from the terms involving x. 2. Adding and subtracting the square of half the coefcient of x. In general, we have ax 2 bx c a x 2 a x2 a x

b x c a b x a b 2a
2

b 2a
2

b 2a

b2 4a

EXAMPLE 9 Rewrite x 2 x 1 by completing the square.

SOLUTION The square of half the coefcient of x is 4. Thus
1 1 3 x2 x 1 x2 x 1 4 4 1 (x 2 ) 4 2 1

EXAMPLE 10

2 x 2 12 x 11 2x 2 6x 11 2x 2 6x 9 9 11 2 x 32 9 11 2 x 32 7

Quadratic Formula

By completing the square as above we can obtain the following formula for the roots of a quadratic equation.
2 7 The Quadratic Formula The roots of the quadratic equation ax bx c 0

are x b sb 2 4ac 2a

EXAMPLE 11 Solve the equation 5x 2 3x 3 0.

SOLUTION With a 5, b 3, c 3, the quadratic formula gives the solutions

3 s32 453 3 s69 25 10

The quantity b 2 4ac that appears in the quadratic formula is called the discriminant. There are three possibilities: 1. If b 2 4ac 0, the equation has two real roots. 2. If b 2 4ac 0, the roots are equal. 3. If b 2 4ac 0, the equation has no real root. (The roots are complex.)

REVIEW OF ALGEBRA

These three cases correspond to the fact that the number of times the parabola y ax 2 bx c crosses the x-axis is 2, 1, or 0 (see Figure 1). In case (3) the quadratic ax 2 bx c cant be factored and is called irreducible.
y y y

FIGURE 1

Possible graphs of y=ax@+bx+c

(a) b@-4ac>0

(b) b@-4ac=0

(c) b@-4ac<0

EXAMPLE 12 The quadratic x 2 x 2 is irreducible because its discriminant is

negative: b 2 4ac 12 412 7 0 Therefore, it is impossible to factor x 2 x 2.

The Binomial Theorem

Recall the binomial expression from Equation 1: a b2 a 2 2ab b 2 If we multiply both sides by a b and simplify, we get the binomial expansion
8

a b3 a 3 3a 2b 3ab 2 b 3

Repeating this procedure, we get a b4 a 4 4a 3b 6a 2b 2 4ab 3 b 4 In general, we have the following formula.
9 The Binomial Theorem If k is a positive integer, then

a bk a k ka k1b

kk 1 k2 2 a b 12

kk 1k 2 k3 3 a b 123 kk 1 k n 1 kn n a b 1 2 3 n

kab k1 b k

REVIEW OF ALGEBRA

EXAMPLE 13 Expand x 25.

SOLUTION Using the Binomial Theorem with a x, b 2, k 5, we have

x 25 x 5 5x 42

54 3 543 2 x 22 x 23 5x24 25 12 123

x 5 10 x 4 40 x 3 80 x 2 80 x 32

Radicals

The most commonly occurring radicals are square roots. The symbol s1 means the positive square root of. Thus x sa means x2 a and x0

Since a x 2 0, the symbol sa makes sense only when a 0. Here are two rules for working with square roots:

10

sab sa sb

a sa b sb

However, there is no similar rule for the square root of a sum. In fact, you should remember to avoid the following common error:

sa b sa sb (For instance, take a 9 and b 16 to see the error.)

EXAMPLE 14

(a)

s18 s2

18 s9 3 2

(b) sx 2 y sx 2 sy x sy Notice that sx (See Appendix A.)

2

x because s1 indicates the positive square root.

In general, if n is a positive integer,

n xs a

means

xn a

If n is even, then a 0 and x 0.

3 4 6 Thus s 8 2 because 23 8, but s 8 and s 8 are not dened. The following rules are valid:

n n n ab s as b s

n a a s n b sb

3 3 3 3 3 EXAMPLE 15 s x4 s x 3x s x3 s x xs x

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To rationalize a numerator or denominator that contains an expression such as a s sb, we multiply both the numerator and the denominator by the conjugate radical sa sb. Then we can take advantage of the formula for a difference of squares:

(sa sb )(sa sb ) (sa )2 (sb )2 a b

EXAMPLE 16 Rationalize the numerator in the expression

sx 4 2 . x

SOLUTION We multiply the numerator and the denominator by the conjugate radical

sx 4 2: sx 4 2 x

sx 4 2 x

sx 4 2 sx 4 2

x 4 4 x (sx 4 2)

x 1 x (sx 4 2) sx 4 2

Exponents

Let a be any positive number and let n be a positive integer. Then, by denition,
1. a n a a a
n factors

2. a 1
0

1 an n 4. a1n s a m m n n n a sa m (s a)
3. an

m is any integer

11 Laws of Exponents Let a and b be positive numbers and let r and s be any rational numbers (that is, ratios of integers). Then

1. a r a s a rs

2.

ar a rs as

3. a r a rs
s

4. abr a rb r

5.

a b

ar br

In words, these ve laws can be stated as follows: 1. To multiply two powers of the same number, we add the exponents. 2. To divide two powers of the same number, we subtract the exponents. 3. To raise a power to a new power, we multiply the exponents. 4. To raise a product to a power, we raise each factor to the power. 5. To raise a quotient to a power, we raise both numerator and denominator to the power.

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REVIEW OF ALGEBRA

EXAMPLE 17

(a) 28 82 28 232 28 26 214 x y x1 y1

2 2

(b)

1 1 y2 x2 2 2 x y x 2y 2 y2 x2 xy 2 2 1 1 yx x y yx x y xy y x y x yx xy y x xy Alternative solution: 432 (s4 ) 23 8

3

(c) 432 s43 s64 8 1 1 (d) 3 4 4 3 x4 3 x sx (e)

x y
3

y 2x z

x 3 y 8x 4 4 x 7y 5z4 y3 z

Exercises

A Click here for answers. 116

I

Expand and simplify.

2. 2 x 2 yxy 4 4. 4 3x x 6. 8 4 x

1. 6ab0.5ac 3. 2 x x 5 5. 24 3a

1 c1 27. 1 1 c1 1
I I I I I I I I I I

28. 1

1 1 1 1x
I I I I I

2948

Factor the expression.

30. 5ab 8abc 32. x 2 x 6 34. 2 x 2 7x 4 36. 8 x 2 10 x 3 38. x 2 10 x 25 40. 4 t 2 9s 2 42. x 3 27 44. x 3 4 x 2 5 x 2 46. x 3 2 x 2 23 x 60 48. x 3 3 x 2 4 x 12
I I I I I I I I I I I I

7. 4 x 2 x 2 5 x 2 2 x 1 8. 53t 4 t 2 2 2 t t 3 9. 4 x 13x 7 11. 2 x 12 13. y 46 y5 y 14. t 52 2t 38 t 1 15. 1 2 x x 2 3 x 1

I I I I I I I I I I I

29. 2 x 12 x 3 31. x 2 7x 6 33. x 2 2 x 8 35. 9 x 2 36 37. 6 x 2 5x 6 39. t 3 1 41. 4 t 2 12 t 9

I I I I

10. x x 1 x 2 12. 2 3 x2

16. 1 x x 2 2
I I I I I

43. x 3 2 x 2 x 45. x 3 3 x 2 x 3 47. x 3 5 x 2 2 x 24

I I I I I I I I

1728

Perform the indicated operations and simplify.

9b 6 18. 3b 1 1 20. x1 x1 22. 24. 2 3 4 2 a2 ab b x y z

2 8x 17. 2
1 2 19. x5 x3 21. u 1 23. 25. x y z u u1

4954 49. 51. 53.

Simplify the expression.

50. 52.

x2 x 2 x 2 3x 2 x2 1 x 9x 8
2

2x 2 3x 2 x2 4 x 3 5x 2 6x x 2 x 12

2r s s2 6 t

26.

a b bc ac

1 1 2 x3 x 9

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11

54.
I I

x 2 2 x2 x 2 x 5x 4
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

85. 87. 56. x 2 16 x 80 58. x 2 3 x 1 60. 3 x 2 24 x 50

x 92 x4 x3 a3b 4 a5b 5

86. 88.

a n a 2 n1 a n2 x1 y1 x y1

5560

Complete the square.

55. x 2 2 x 5 57. x 2 5 x 10 59. 4 x 2 4 x 2

I I I I I I I I I I

89. 312 91. 125 2 3 93. 2 x 2 y 4 32

I I I

90. 961 5 92. 6443 94. x5 y 3z 10 3 5

4 a) 96. (s 8 x5 s 4 sx 3

5 y6 95. s

6168
2 2

Solve the equation.

62. x 2 x 8 0
2

61. x 9 x 10 0 63. x 9 x 1 0 65. 3 x 2 5 x 1 0 67. x 3 2 x 1 0

I I I I I I I I I I

97. 99.
I I

64. x 2 2 x 7 0 66. 2 x 2 7x 2 0 68. x 3 3 x 2 x 1 0

I I I I I I I I I I

4
I

1 (st ) 5 t 12sst s 2 3
I I I I I I I

98.

4 4 r 2n1 s r 1 100. s

101108 101. 103.

Rationalize the expression.

102. 104. 106.

6972

Which of the quadratics are irreducible?

70. 2 x 2 9 x 4 72. x 2 3 x 6
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

69. 2 x 2 3 x 4 71. 3 x 2 x 6
I I I I I I

sx 3 x9 x sx 8 x4 2 3 s5

(1sx ) 1
x1 s2 h s2 h h 1 sx sy

7376

Use the Binomial Theorem to expand the expression.

74. a b7
4

105.

73. a b6 75. x 1
2
I I I I

76. 3 x
I I I I I I I I I I

107. sx 2 3 x 4 x
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

108. sx 2 x sx 2 x
I I I I I I I I I I

2 5

109116

7782

Simplify the radicals.

78.
3 2 s 3 54 s

I State whether or not the equation is true for all values of the variable.

77. s32 s2 80. sxy sx 3 y

I I I I I I I

79. 82.
I I I I

4 32 x 4 s 4 2 s 5 96 a6 s 5 s3a
I I I I I

109. sx 2 x

110. sx 2 4 x 2

a 16 a 1 111. 16 16
113.

81. s16a 4b 3
I I I I

1 xy 112. 1 x y1
114.

x 1 xy 1y

2 1 2 4x 2 x

83100

Use the Laws of Exponents to rewrite and simplify the expression.

I

115. x 34 x 7 116. 6 4 x a 6 4 x 4 a
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

83. 310 9 8

84. 216 410 16 6

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ANSWERS

Answers

1. 3a 2bc 2. 2 x 3 y 5 3. 2 x 2 10 x 4. 4 x 3 x 2 2 5. 8 6a 6. 4 x 7. x 6 x 3 8. 3 t 2 21t 22 9. 12 x 2 25 x 7 10. x 3 x 2 2 x 12. 9 x 12 x 4

2 2

63.

9 s85 2 7 s33 4

64. 1 2 s2

65.

5 s13 6
68. 1, 1 s2

11. 4 x 2 4 x 1 13. 30 y y y
4 5 6

66.

67. 1,

1 s5 2

14. 15 t 56 t 31 3x 7 x 2 2 x 15

15. 2 x 3 5x 2 x 1 17. 1 4 x 21. 18. 3 2 b 2x x2 1 x 23. yz 28. 3 2x 2x u 2 3u 1 u1 rs 25. 3t

69. Irreducible

70. Not irreducible 72. Irreducible

16. x 4 2 x 3 x 2 2 x 1 19. 20.

71. Not irreducible (two real roots)

73. a 6 6a 5b 15a 4b 2 20 a 3b 3 15a 2b 4 6ab 5 b 6 74. a 7 7a 6b 21a 5b 2 35a 4b 3 35a 3b 4

2 b 2 3ab 4a 2 22. a 2b 2 26. a2 b2 27. c c2

zx 24. y

21a 2b 5 7ab 6 b 7
75. x 8 4 x 6 6 x 4 4 x 2 1 76. 243 405x 2 270 x 4 90 x 6 15x 8 x 10 77. 8 78. 3
1

29. 2 x 1 6 x 2 32. x 3 x 2

79. 2 x

30. ab5 8c 33. x 4 x 2

31. x 6 x 1

83. 3 26

80. x 2 y

85. 16 x 10 89.

34. 2 x 1 x 4 36. 4 x 32 x 1 38. x 52 40. 2 t 3s2 t 3s

81. 4a 2b sb 86. a 2 n3 90. 2 5s3

82. 2a 87.

84. 2 60

35. 9 x 2 x 2 37. 3 x 22 x 3 39. t 1t t 1

2

a2 b

88. 92.

x y2 xy
1 256

1 s3

91. 25 95. y 65 100. r n2

93. 2 s2 x 3 y 6 97. t 52 102. 98.

41. 2 t 32 43. x x 12

42. x 3 x 2 3 x 9 44. x 12 x 2 46. x 3 x 5 x 4 48. x 2 x 3 x 2

x3 94. 95 6 y z
99. 103.

96. a 34 101. 104.

1 x 18

45. x 1 x 1 x 3 47. x 2 x 3 x 4

t 14 s 124

1 x s 3

1 x s x

x2 49. x2
53.

2x 1 50. x2
54.

x1 51. x8

x x 2 52. x4

x 2 4 x 16 x sx 8 3 s5 2
106.

2 s2 h s2 h

x2 x2 9
3 2 2

x 2 6x 4 x 1 x 2 x 4
56. x 82 16 59. 2 x 12 3 61. 1, 10 62. 2, 4 57. ( x
5 2 2

105.

sx sy xy
108.

55. x 12 4 58. ( x

15 4

107.

3x 4 sx 2 3 x 4 x
110. False 114. False

2x sx 2 x sx 2 x
112. False 116. True

5 4
2

109. False 113. False

111. True 115. False

60. 3 x 4 2