Heat and Pipes

Introduction
Mechanisms of heat transfer
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Heat transfer and pipe ow

Professor Eric S Fraga Room 2.05 Engineering Front Building Department of Chemical Engineering UCL
c 2009
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Introduction
Objectives
Heat exchangers
Pumps
What is heat transfer? How is heat transferred? What equipment is used to transfer heat between two uids and how does it work? What is the power required for pumping a uid?
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Introduction
Reading material
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Coulson, J.M and Richardson J.F. Chemical Engineering Vol. 1, Pergamon Press. Pitts, D. and Sissom, L. Heat Transfer, Schaum's Outlines, McGraw-Hill. Cengel, Y.A. Heat transfer a practical approach, McGraw-Hill.
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Introduction
Heat transfer
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Heat transfer is concerned with temperature: represents the thermal energy, or heat, that is available, and ow of heat: represents the movement of thermal energy from one place to another. Heat transfer is thermal energy in transit due to a !temperature dierence!. Temperature dierence is the driving force that causes heat to be transferred. Heat transfer plays a major role in the design of process equipment.
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Introduction
How is heat transferred?
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Heat may be transferred in three dierent ways: conduction transfer of heat as a result of molecular motion and the subsequent transfer of kinetic energy. Conduction is predominant in solid materials and in static uids. convection the ow of heat as a result of macroscopic movement of matter from a hot to a cool region radiation transfer of energy in the form of rays or waves or particles (, , ) We will consider only conduction and convection.
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Introduction
Consider a wall of thickness x and surface area A that has a uniform temperature T1 on one side and T2 on the other:
Conduction through a wall
Heat exchangers
Pumps
The heat transfer, q (W ), through the wall is
W ) is the thermal conductivity of the material where k (in m K which gives a measure of the ability of the material to conduct heat and T T1 T2 .
Heat transfer and pipe ow 6 / 104
k q = AT x
(1)
Introduction
Thermal conductivity
Materials with a large thermal conductivity, over time, e.g. copper.
Heat exchangers
Pumps
k , are good
thermal conductors. These will transfer large amounts of heat
Conversely, materials with low thermal conductivities are poor thermal conductors. These will transfer small amounts of heat over time, e.g. concrete. The ratio
k x
is called the heat transfer coecient.
The inverse of the heat transfer coecient, resistance.
x k,
is the thermal
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Introduction
Composite wall example
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Applying eq. 1 to each section of the composite wall:
k q = i A(Ti Ti +1 ) i = 1, . . . , 3 xi 1 q = xi AT
ki
so overall thermal resistance is sum of the individual resistances (analogous to electrical circuits).
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Introduction
Heat transfer through convection
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Example: heating a pot of water. At rst, when the water is cold and still, it behaves as a solid and heat is transferred by conduction through the bottom of the pot. Bubbles, when created, will transfer heat from the bottom to the top by convection due to buoyancy. Cooler, more dense water at the top will sink to the bottom.
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Introduction
Types of convection
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Natural convection occurs when the motion of uid is due to buoyancy eects. Example, the cooling of a heated pipe:
Forced convection is when the uid motion is produced by an external agent.
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Introduction
Convective heat transfer

q = hAT
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Heat transfer by convection, q , is (2) where
A (m2 ) is the characteristic area of contact.

T
(
K ) is the temperature dierence between the solid and
the uid.
h ( mW 2 K ) is the convective heat transfer coecient and is a

thermal conductivity,
property of the system, not a property of the uid as is the
k.
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Introduction
Convective heat transfer coecient
Heat exchangers
Pumps
The value of h depends on the surface geometry, the properties of the uid and the uid motion regime: Type of convection Material h mW 2K Natural Gases 2-25 Liquids 50-1000 Forced Gases 25-250 Liquids 100-20000 Liquids transfer greater amounts of heat than gases, which are good thermal insulators and forced convection gives greater heat transfer than natural convection for both gases and liquids.
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Introduction
What aects convective heat transfer?
Heat exchangers
Pumps
h is a function of the properties of the system and depends on:

geometry of the system, i.e. a characteristic length physical properties of the uid: i.e. viscosity, heat capacity,
L.
,
cp , and thermal conductivity, k . v.
density,
uid regime, i.e. a characteristic velocity To determine experiments.
h is therefore a complex task and we rely on
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Introduction
Prandtl and Nusselt numbers
Heat exchangers
Pumps
The properties of the uids and the dierent forms of heat transfer can be described by some dimensionless numbers: Prandtl the ratio between uid ability to store heat and to transfer heat through conduction, independent of the system geometry:
Pr =
cp
Nusselt ratio between heat transfer through convection and conduction:
Nu =
hL k
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Introduction
Reynolds and Grashof numbers
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Other numbers describe uid ow properties: Reynolds The ratio between inertial and viscous forces in the uid which identies the uid ow regime:
Re =
vL
(3)
High values correspond to turbulent ow regime, and therefore to high convection h.t.c. Grashof replaces Re when uid motion is driven by thermal expansion of the uid:
Gr =
T 2 gL3 2
where is the volumetric thermal expansion coecient.
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Introduction
Flow patterns and temperature proles

Consider the ow of air over an innite at plate.
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Ts
is the temperature of the plate, while
temperature away from the plate, with
Tf is the air ow Ts > Tf .
Regardless of the type of convection, we analyse the ow pattern and the temperature proles at the wall and away from it.
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Introduction
Flow layers
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Adjacent to the wall, a laminar sub-layer forms with no uid mixing. Heat transfer across the sub-layer is by conduction only with large resistance to heat transfer and large temperature change. Away from the wall, turbulent ow with large eddies and high uid mixing. Heat transfer is by convection with low resistance to heat transfer and small temperature change.
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Introduction
Given a at wall of uniform, homogeneous material having constant thermal conductivity, k , exposed to uids h, at temperature Th , and c , at Tc , on either side:
Overall heat transfer coecient
Heat exchangers
Pumps
with convective heat transfer coecients hh and hc , wall thermal conductivity, k , and wall thickness, x . What is the overall heat transfer coecient, U ( mW 2 K ), for the combined conductive-convective heat transfer:
q = UAT
(4)
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Introduction
Assumptions
Heat exchangers
Pumps
In steady state, the same amount of heat each section.
q must pass through
Heat transfer is by convection across the hot and cold lm and by conduction through the solid wall. The uid temperatures suciently far from the wall,
Th and Tc , are unaected by the heat transfer and are known. T1 and T2 are unknown. A, is the same for all sections.
The surface temperatures The heat transfer area,
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Introduction
Overall heat transfer

q = hh A(Th T1 ) k q = A(T1 T2 ) x q = hc A(T2 Tc )
Heat exchangers
Pumps
hot lm solid wall cold lm (solve)

= UAT
q=
A(Th Tc )
x 1 hh + k + hc
1
Note: U can be calculated in a manner similar to resistances in electrical networks: 1 1 (5)
Ui
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Introduction
Example: double-paned glass window

Consider a 0.8m-high and 1.5m-wide double-pane glass window consisting of two 4 mm thick layers of glass (
Heat exchangers
Pumps
W ) separated by a 10 mm wide stagnant air space kg = 0.78 mK W (ka = 0.026 mK ).

Determine the steady rate of heat transfer,
q , through the
double-pane window and the temperature of its inner surface,
T1 , for a day during which the room is maintained at 20 C

while the temperature outside is
10 C.
Take the convection heat transfer coecients on the inner and outer surfaces of the window to be
h2
W . = 40 m 2K
h1 = 10 mW 2K
and
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Introduction
Solution: Diagram
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Assume that the heat transfer through the window is steady state since the surface temperatures remain constant.
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Introduction
From eq. 5, where
Solution: overall thermal resistance

U
1
Heat exchangers
Pumps
h1
= = = = =
L1 L2 L1 1 + + + kg k2 kg h2
h1 L1 kg L2 k2 L3 kg h2
1
1 m2 K = 0.100 W W 10 m2 K 0.004m m2 K = 0 . 00513 W W 0.78 m K 0.01m m2 K = 0.385 W W 0.026 m K 0.004m m2 K = 0 . 00513 W W 0.78 m K 1 m2 K = 0.025 W W 40 m2 K
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Introduction
Solution: heat transferred

m2 K = 0.52026 U W W U = 1.92 2 mK A = 0.8 m 1.5 m = 1.2 m2 q = UA(Ti To ) W = 1.92 2 1.2m2 30 K mK = 69.12W
1
Heat exchangers
Pumps
and
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Introduction
Solution: inner surface temperature

q = h1 A(Ti T1 )
Heat exchangers
Pumps
T1 = Ti
q h1 A
= (20 + 273) K = 287.24 K = 14.24 C
2 10 mW 2 K 1.2 m
69.12W
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Introduction
Non-uniform heat transfer area
Heat exchangers
Pumps
In some cases, the area for transfer applicable to each media could dier. For example, the radial ow of heat through a thick pipe wall or cylinder. The area of transfer in these cases is a function of position.
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Introduction
Example: curved wall
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Consider a curved solid wall with constant thermal conductivity k exposed to a convective hot outer uid and a convective cold inner uid:
To ho
and and
Ti hi
are the temperatures at
ro
and
ri
respectively.
are the convective heat transfer coecients in the
outer and inner lm, and impact of the thickness of these lms is assumed to be negligible.
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Introduction
Derivation
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Start with eq. 1,
q=k x AT , and let x r . q dr kA
Consider heat transfer over a small part of the pipe and the corresponding change in temperature:
dT
Integrate over the pipe wall:
ro q q dr = dr ri kA ri 2 rLk Ti q To Ti = (log ro log ri ) 2 Lk k q= 2 L (To Ti ) log(ro /ri )
To
dT
ro
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Introduction
Combined system
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Assuming thin lms on either side of the pipe, we can write three equations:
q = ho 2ro L(Th To ) k 2 L(To Ti ) q= log(ro /ri ) q = hi 2ri L(Ti Tc )

which have three unknowns, To , Ti and q , so we can solve as usual. Note: the heat transfer coecient will often be given with respect to a specic reference area.
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Introduction
Engineers and heat transfer
Heat exchangers
Pumps
In practice, engineers often have to design equipment to eect heat transfer, say to achieve a specic temperature change in a uid stream of known mass ow rate, Such equipment will typically be in the form of a heat exchanger and the engineer will need to
determine the surface area to transfer heat at a given rate for given uid temperatures and ow rates. predict the outlet temperatures of hot and cold uid streams for a specied heat transfer.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Heat exchangers
Pumps
A heat exchanger is any device that eects transfer of thermal energy between two uids that are at dierent temperature. The two uids do not come in direct contact but are separated by a solid surface or tube wall. Common heat exchangers include:
Shell-and-tube (single pass or multi-pass) Flat-plate Finned tubes
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Introduction
Double pipe heat exchanger

The simplest form of an heat exchanger consists of two concentric cylindrical tubes, the double pipe heat exchanger:
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Heat transfer involves convection in each uid and conduction through the wall separating the two uids.
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Introduction
Parallel or co-current ow
Heat exchangers
Pumps
The uids both ow in the same direction:
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Introduction
Counter-current ow
Heat exchangers
Pumps
The uids ow in opposite directions:
In both cases, the uids are forced to ow using pumps or fans.
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Introduction
Shell and tube single pass
Heat exchangers
Pumps
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Pumps
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Introduction
Multi-pass shell and tube
Heat exchangers
Pumps
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Introduction
Multi-pass ow arrangement
Heat exchangers
Pumps
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Pumps
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Introduction
Plate heat exchangers
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Plate heat exchangers are built up from individual plates separated by gaskets, assembled in a pack and clamped in a frame.
They are applied in the energy recovery section of many processes because of low initial cost, high eciency and low maintenance costs.
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Introduction
Plates
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Thin sheet material, resulting in economic units, particularly when expensive material is involved. Plates are especially corrugated to promote turbulence also at low resulting in:
Re ,
very high heat transfer coecients reduces fouling facilitates chemical cleaning
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Introduction
Finned tube heat exchangers
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Finned tubes exchangers are employed in large air/liquid heat exchanger systems to give greater heat transfer area because gases, which are good thermal insulators, transfer smaller amounts of heat than liquids. There are various types of nned tubes, depending on the application. Applied in various systems:
large air conditioning systems radiators for large truck.

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Introduction
Heat transfer in a heat exchanger
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Heat exchangers operate for long periods of time with no change in the operating conditions, thus they can be modelled as steady-ow devices:
1
The overall heat transfer coecient, throughout the exchanger.
U , is constant
2 3 4
The mass ow rate of each uid remains constant. The specic heats of the uids are constant. The temperature of the two uids are constant over a specic cross-section.
The outer surface is perfectly insulated, so that any heat transfer occurs between the two uids only.
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Introduction
Energy balance
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Under these assumptions, it follows that the rate of heat transfer from the hot uid to be equal to the rate of heat transfer to the cold one. The basic design equations for heat exchangers are therefore the energy balance for each uid:
h cph (Tho Thi ) q = m c cpc (Tco Tci ) q=m
(Energy given up by hot uid) (Energy gained by cold uid)
where
(kg/s) is the mass ow rate and cp m T ?
specic heat. But what is the driving force,
kJ kg K )
is the
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Introduction
Temperature prole: co-current ow

The temperature dierence
Heat exchangers
Pumps
is
large at the inlet but decreases exponentially towards the outlet. Temperature of the hot uid decreases and the temperature of the cold uid increases along the heat exchanger. The outlet temperature of the cold uid can never exceed that of the hot uid, no matter how long the heat exchanger.
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Introduction
Temperature prole: counter-current ow

The hot and cold uids enter the
Heat exchangers
Pumps
heat exchanger from opposite ends. The outlet temperature of the cold uid may exceed the outlet temperature of the hot uid, temperature cross. The outlet temperature of the cold uid can never exceed the inlet temperature of the hot uid.
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Introduction
Design
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Recall eq. 4,
q = UAT .
T
for either
Need to calculate exchange.
co-current or counter-current
However, the temperature dierence varies across the range of operation. We introduce the log mean temperature dierence (LMTD),
TLM ,
as an expression of
T .
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Introduction
Log mean temperature dierence derivation I

At any point along the exchanger:
h cph Th q = m c cpc Tc q = m q = U (Th Tc ) A
Heat exchangers
Pumps
(6)
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Introduction
Rearrange for T in each equation and nd the dierence:

Th = h cph m q Tc = c cpc m q
LMTD II
Heat exchangers
Pumps
+(6) :
Th Tc = q
h cph m
c cpc m
(Th Tc ) = U A(Th Tc ) (Th Tc ) = U A (Th Tc ) h cph m
h cph m c cpc m
c cpc m
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Introduction
Let the terms be dierentials and integrate along the length of the exchanger: log (Tho Tco ) log (Thi Tci ) = UA
h cph m
LMTD III
Heat exchangers
Pumps
c cpc m
which, when combined with overall energy balance on each p term and substitute): uid (solve for mc log (Tho Tco ) log (Thi Tci ) = UA
(Thi Tho ) + (Tco Tci )
log T2 log T1 = UA
T2 T1
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Introduction
LMTD IV
q = UA q = UA
Heat exchangers
Pumps
T2 T1 log T2 log T1 T2 T1
T2 log T1
or
The term in the box is dierence (LMTD).
TLM ,
the log mean temperature
For counter-current exchangers, the same result is obtained although for dierent
T1
and
T2 .
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Introduction
Correction factor for complex heat exchangers

Determination of the average temperature dierence, is dicult for complex heat exchangers. It is practice to introduce a correction factor, transfer rate is then given by:
Heat exchangers
Pumps
TLM ,
Ft .
The heat
q = UA Ft TLM
where
TLM
is that for the counter ow double-pipe heat
exchangers with the same uid inlet and outlet temperatures as in the more complex design.
Ft
values for several congurations are given in reference
books (cf. Perry or Kern).
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Introduction
Example: area comparison
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Thi = 200 C and Tho = 150 C, and a cold stream, with Tci = 80 C and Tco = 120 C.
Assuming the same heat transfer coecient, and the same amount of heat, for counter-current exchange?
Suppose we wish to exchange heat between a hot stream, with
q , to be exchanged, what is the
U , in both cases
ratio of area required for co-current exchange to area required
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Introduction
Solution
Heat exchangers
Pumps
co-current
T2 = 150 C 120 C = 30 C 30 C 120 C Tco-current = 65 C

30 C log 120 C
T1 = 200 C 80 C = 120 C
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Introduction
Solution
Heat exchangers
Pumps
co-current
T2 = 150 C 120 C = 30 C 30 C 120 C Tco-current = 65 C T2 = 150 C 80 C = 70 C 70 C 80 C Tcounter-current = 75 C T1 = 200 C 120 C = 80 C

30 C log 120 C
T1 = 200 C 80 C = 120 C
counter-current
C log 70 80 C
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Introduction
Solution
Heat exchangers
Pumps
co-current
T2 = 150 C 120 C = 30 C 30 C 120 C Tco-current = 65 C T2 = 150 C 80 C = 70 C 70 C 80 C Tcounter-current = 75 C T1 = 200 C 120 C = 80 C

30 C log 120 C
T1 = 200 C 80 C = 120 C
counter-current
C log 70 80 C q U Tco-current Aco-current = q Acounter-current U T counter-current

= Tcounter-current Tco-current
1.15
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Introduction
A counter-ow double-pipe heat exchanger is used to cool a hot process uid using water. The process uid ows at 18 kg s and is cooled from 105 C to 45 C. The water ows counter-currently to the process uid, entering at 25 C and leaving at 50 C.
1
Assuming no heat losses, calculate the required ow-rate for the cooling water. The specic heat for water is 4.2 that of the process uid is
Example: Cooling a hot process uid in a counter-ow heat exchanger
Heat exchangers
Pumps
kJ 3.4 kg K .
kJ kg K
and
Neglecting the tube wall curvature, calculate the required area
W m2 K , the cooling W water side heat transfer coecient is 1200 2 . The tube wall mK W thickness is 3 mm and the thermal conductivity is 220 mK .
side lm heat transfer coecient is 2500
for heat exchange. Under these conditions, the process uid
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Introduction
Solution: Diagram
Heat exchangers
Pumps
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Introduction
Solution: 1. required water ow rate
Heat exchangers
Pumps
q = Gf cpf (Tho Thi ) = 3672kW (heat from hot stream) = Gw cpw (Tco Tci ) (energy balance)
Gw
= 34.97
kg s
(water ow rate required)
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Introduction
Solution: 2. heat exchanger area

q = UATLM T2 T1
=
Heat exchangers
Pumps
TLM =
x 1 + (thermal resistance) U hf k hw W U = 802 2 (overall htc) mK q = 132.3m2 A= U TLM

1 1
+
T2 log T1
= 34.6 K
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Introduction
Fouling
Heat exchangers
Pumps
The performance of a heat exchanger depends upon surfaces being clean but deposits form over time. The layer of deposits presents additional resistance to heat transfer and must be accounted for by a fouling factor, Perry, Kern).
Rf
(cf.
= Rconv,hot
uid
+ Rcond,wall +
Rf
+ Rconv,cold
uid
Deposits can occur by the precipitation of solid deposits (e.g. calcium in a kettle), corrosion or chemical fouling due to chemical reactions, and the growth of algae, biological fouling. Can apply water treatment, coatings and chemical treatments. Periodic cleaning of exchangers and the resulting down time are additional penalties associated with fouling.
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Introduction
Pumping of liquid uids

Pumps are the devices used to add energy to a uid in order to maintain ow. Fluids ow in the direction of decreasing pressure. Pumps direct a uid from one vessel to another or through a long pipeline.
Heat exchangers
Pumps
The energy added to the uid compensates for the mechanical energy losses due to friction and provides an increase in the velocity, the pressure, or the height of the uid.
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Introduction
Valves
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Valves are used to control the ow rate:

On/O valves: gate (30% of all on/o valves) and ball Throttling valves: globe (50%), needle and diaphragm Check valves: allow ow only in one direction Automatic valves Relief valves (for safety): spring loaded, bursting disk.
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Introduction
Pumping devices for liquids
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Liquids used in the chemical industry dier considerably in physical and chemical properties so a variety of pump types exists. Most pumps fall into one of two major classications:
Positive-displacement pumps Centrifugal pumps
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Introduction
Positive-displacement pumps
Reciprocating pumps involve a back-and-forth motion of a piston in a cylinder. Rotary pumps depend upon a rotating motion.
Heat exchangers
Pumps
The ow from these pumps is pulsating. The higher the speed of the pump, the higher the ow rate delivered. Deliver a controlled amount of liquid for each stroke or revolution. Used when nearly constant delivery rates are required.
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Introduction
Examples
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Reciprocating pumps:
Diaphragm pump Piston pump

Rotary pumps:
Gear pump Lobe pump Peristaltic pump Screw pump
For details on other types of pump refer to Coulson & Richardson.

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Introduction
The Piston pump
Heat exchangers
Pumps
In these pumps, the motion of a rotor is converted into a back-and-forward motion of a piston. The rate of liquid delivery is a function of the volume swept out by the piston in the cylinder and the number of strokes the piston make per unit time. For each stroke of the piston, a xed volume of liquid is discharged from the pump.
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Introduction
Piston pumps
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Piston pumps may be single-acting, with the liquid admitted only to the portion of the cylinder in front of the piston.
When the piston moves towards the disk it creates a partial vacuum in the chamber. This allows atmospheric pressure to push the uid from below. On the return half of the cycle the top check valve opens and the bottom one closes. The water is forced up through the pipe.
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Introduction
Double-acting piston pumps

Piston pumps can also be double-acting, in which case the feed is admitted to both sides of the piston.
Heat exchangers
Pumps
As the piston moves downwards, it forces the uid out through the bottom right valve and creates at the same time a partial vacuum in the upper chamber, pushing the uid through the top left valve. When the piston is moving upwards it forces the uid out through the top right valve, while creates at the same time a partial vacuum in the lower chamber, pushing the uid in through the bottom left valve.
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Introduction
Piston pump applications

These pumps can deliver the highest pressure of any other pump. Piston reciprocating pumps have long been used in many applications, including pumping of oil, feed water and mud. However, their capacities are relatively small compared to centrifugal pumps. Not used with liquid containing abrasive material as it can damage the machined surfaces of the cylinder and piston.
Heat exchangers
Pumps
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Introduction
Diaphragm pump
Heat exchangers
Pumps
In one section a piston operates in a cylinder in which an inert liquid is displaced. The movement of the uid is transmitted by means of the exible diaphragm. They have been developed to handle corrosive liquids or suspensions with abrasive solids. They are used for example to move gasoline from the gas tank to the carburetor. They are not used for high pressure applications.
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Introduction
Rotary pumps: the Gear pump
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Has been developed to deal with viscous uids. Two gears operate within a casing. Small packages of uids are carried between the teeth and the casing from the low pressure inlet side to the high pressure delivery side.
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Introduction
The 3 lobe pump
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Works on the same principle of the gear pump but the gear teeth are replaced by two or three lobes. A small clearance between the lobes can be maintained and wear is reduced.
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Introduction
The Peristaltic pump

speed of a rotor.
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Delivers ow precisely controlled by the
An elastic tube is compressed in stages by a rotor. As the rollers rotate, they atten the tube against the track at the points of contact. These ats move the uid along the tube. They are mainly used in labs. They are particularly good in handling biological uids, where all forms of contacts must be avoided.
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Introduction
The screw pump
Heat exchangers
Pumps
One of the oldest pumps: its usage goes back 2000 years. It consist of a helical screw. Suitable for very viscous uids (e.g. polymers) and also for sewage uids. The uid is sheared in the screw channel and so is raised to the delivery side.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Figure: Example of a screw pump used in a waste water treatment plant.
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Introduction
Centrifugal pumps
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Pumps that cause the pumped uid to centrifugal pumps.
rotate
are called
Centrifugal pumps are the most widely applied in the chemical and petroleum industry. They are applied for large capacity applications. They pump liquids with very wide-ranging properties and suspensions with high solids content. They cannot handle highly viscous uids.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Pumps
A Centrifugal pump has an impeller enclosed by a casing or volute. The impeller consists of a series of curved vanes. The greater the number of vanes, the greater is the control over the direction of motion of the uid.
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Introduction
Heat exchangers
Pumps
The uid is fed to the centre of the rotating impeller and is thrown from the impeller vanes into the casing by centrifugal force. As a result, the liquid acquires a high kinetic energy. This velocity energy is converted in pressure as the uid leaves the impeller and enters the casing.
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Introduction
Turbine pump
Heat exchangers
Pumps
In the turbine pump, the liquid ows from the impeller into a series of xed vanes, called diusers. These give more gradual change in direction to the uid and more ecient conversion of kinetic energy into pressure energy.
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Introduction
Summary of types
Heat exchangers
Pumps
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Introduction
Pump characteristics
Centrifugal
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Head
High, single stage up to 600 ft Multistage up to 6000 psi Capacity Low (100 gal/min) to very high (200,000 gal/min) Liquids Clear or dirty, non viscous
Reciprocating (piston) Highest available 100,000 psi Intermediate (500 gal/min) Clean no solids
Rotary (gear or screw) Intermediate up to 600 psi
Low (1 gal/min) to intermediate (500 gal/min) High viscosity, non abrasive
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Introduction
Summary of characteristics
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Pump
Pressure delivered Piston very high Diaphragm not high Rotating not high Centrifugal not high
Flow delivered pulsating pulsating pulsating continuous
Capacity not high not high not high very high
Fluid non-corrosive corrosive highly viscous not viscous
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Introduction
Operating characteristics of centrifugal pumps

and petroleum industry.
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Centrifugal pumps are the most widely applied in the chemical
Centrifugal pumps operate at constant speed and the capacity depends upon the total head, conditions. Pumps usually achieve maximum eciency at one particular ow rate. Operating characteristics are described through use of characteristic curves.
H , the design and the suction
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Introduction
Characteristic curves
Heat exchangers
Pumps
For a pump at a particular speed, the characteristic curves show the inter-relation between:
Total head and capacity, the H Q curve. Power input and pump capacity, the P Q curve. Pump eciency and capacity, the Q curve.
The duty point shows the optimum conditions for operation.
This is the point where the head curve cuts the ordinate through the point of maximum eciency.
83 / 104
Introduction
Characteristic curve graph
Heat exchangers
Pumps
For a pump having the characteristics shown above: maximum eciency would occur at a capacity of 2500 gal/min and a total head of 80ft.
84 / 104
Introduction
Variable speeds
Heat exchangers
Pumps
When a pump is capable of being operated at variable speeds, then, at higher speed of rotation gives higher capacity and requires more horsepower to supply the increased supply of liquid.
85 / 104
Introduction
Pump design
Heat exchangers
Pumps
The energy required for a pump will depend on

the height through which the uid raises, the pressure required at the delivery point, the length and diameter of the pipe, the rate of ow, and the physical properties of the uid, density and viscosity.
86 / 104
Introduction
General scenario for pumping
Heat exchangers
Pumps
87 / 104
Introduction
The work done on a uid by a pump is expressed as head, H (m), and is given by the mechanical energy balance (per unit mass):
Energy balance
Heat exchangers
Pumps
H=
where hfT represents the total friction loss in the system and is the sum of the losses in the whole pipe length and other losses due to ttings: where hf is the frictional head loss.
hft = hf + htting loss
p u2 + + z + hfT g 2g 2 2 P2 P1 u2 u1 + + (z2 z1 ) + hfT = g 2g
(7)
88 / 104
Introduction
Frictional losses
Heat exchangers
Pumps
hf is expressed as a frictional pressure drop: hf = 2cf
where the Fanning friction factor, cf , is given as a function of the Reynolds number, Re (eq. 3): 16 Laminar ow cf = Re Turbulent ow cf = 0.079Re 0.25 Rough pipes use Moody diagram to estimate the value
dg
1 u2
pf g
89 / 104
Introduction
Fitting losses
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Loss due to ttings, such as bends and valves, can generate large-scale turbulence in which energy is dissipated as heat. For turbulent ow, these losses are proportional to the square of the uid velocity and can be expressed as the frictional loss due to an
equivalent length of straight pipe, le ,
estimated
as a multiple of the pipe diameter:
le = nd
so that
htting
loss
= 2cf
le u 2 d g
90 / 104
Introduction
Total friction losses
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Total friction loss is therefore equal to
l + le u 2 hfT = 2cf d g
which in terms of pressure losses is
pfT = g hfT = 2cf
(8)
l + le 2 u d
91 / 104
Introduction
Power requirements
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Thus, from eq. 7, the head, H , that must be supplied by the pump is:
2 2 P2 P1 u2 l + le u 2 u1 H= + + (z2 z1 ) + 2cf g 2g d g
The power required by the pump to deliver H is given by: Power = Pp Q = H g Q where Q is the volumetric owrate of the uid that the pump moves and is known as the capacity of the pump.
92 / 104
Introduction
Example
Heat exchangers
Pumps
2.32 m h of water is pumped in a 35 mm internal diameter pipe through a distance of 125 m in a horizontal direction and then up through a vertical height of 12 m. The friction loss in the 90 square elbow may be taken as equivalent to 60 pipe diameters. Also in the line there is a control valve fully open and frictional losses may be taken equivalent to 200 pipe diameters. Calculate the total head hfT to be developed to overcome the total frictional losses in the pipeline. You may assume that for this pipe f = 0.079Re 0.25 . Assume the water to ow in turbulent regime through the pipe. Density and viscosity of kg and 0.65 mN s respectively. water in the pipe are 1000 m 3 m2
3 Heat transfer and pipe ow
93 / 104
Introduction
Solution: data collection

Units
m3 h kg m3 mN s m2 N m2 s
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Value Q 2.32 1000 0.65 0.65 103 Internal pipe diameter d 35 0.035 Horizontal pipe length lh 125 Vertical pipe length lv 12 90 square elbow friction loss 60d Control valve friction loss 200d Friction coecient cf 0.079Re 0.25
Quantity Volumetric Flow rate Density of water Viscosity of water
m m m m
mm m
94 / 104
Introduction
The total friction losses, eq. 8, in the pipeline for turbulent ow regime is expressed as:
hfT =
Solution
gd
Heat exchangers
Pumps
2cf (l + le )u 2
with l = lh + lv = 125m + 12m = 137m and le from the denition of the equivalent pipe length:
le = 200d + 60d = 200x 0.035m + 60x 0.035m = 9.1m

The velocity of the water in the pipe is given by the volumetric ow rate divided by the pipe cross-section area:
u=
d 2
1h 2.32 m h 3600s
3
0.035m 2
= 0.67
m s
95 / 104
Introduction
Solution
Heat exchangers
Pumps
The friction coecient depends on Re , the Reynolds number (eq. 3):

kg 0.035m 0.67 m 1000 m 3 s Re = = 36076 = N 3 0.65 10 m2 s cf = 0.079Re 0.25 = 0.079 360760.25 = 0.0057 2cf (l + le )u 2
du
hfT = =
2 2 0.0057 (137 + 9.1)m (0.67 m s ) = 2.17m m 0.035m 9.81 s 2
gd
pfT = hfT g = 2.17m 9.81
m kg 1000 s2 m3
= 21287
N m2
96 / 104
Introduction
Cavitation in centrifugal pumps

uid when the pressure on the uid falls below the vapour pressure of the liquid,
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Cavitation is the formation of cavities or bubbles in a pumped
Pv
(or
p ).
When a centrifugal pump is operated at high capacity, low pressure may develop at the impeller eye or vane tips and so vapourisation may occur. Cavitation leads to:
A reduction in pump capacity. A reduction in the head of the pump. A noise that can be heard when the pump is running. Mechanical damage that can be seen on the pump impeller and volute.
To avoid cavitation, the pressure at the pump inlet must exceed the vapour pressure of the liquid.
97 / 104
Introduction
Pump congurations
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Negative suction head

Pump is placed above the reservoir of uid to be pumped, drawing uid up with suction:
Positive suction head

Pump is placed below the reservoir of uid to be pumped and is fed by gravity action:
98 / 104
Introduction
Net positive suction head (NPSH)
Heat exchangers
Pumps
To avoid cavitation, the pressure at the pump inlet must exceed the vapour pressure of the liquid. There are two cases: NPSH is the amount by which the pressure at the suction point of the pump must exceed the vapour pressure of the liquid and is expressed as a head of the liquid to be pumped. For any pump, the manufacturers specify the minimum value of the NPSH required at the impeller eye to avoid cavitation.
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Introduction
Typical conguration
Heat exchangers
Pumps
P1 , pressure at the tank

liquid surface.
h1 , height of the liquid

surface above the pump centre-line at the suction inlet.
u1 , liquid velocity on the

surface.
u2 , velocity at the pump

inlet.
hf , total piping friction loss

between (1) and (2).
100 / 10
Introduction
Start with energy balance (per unit mass):
Available NPSH
Heat exchangers
Pumps
2 P2 u2 + h1 hf = + + h2 (9) g 2g If the reference plane is taken at h2 , and the liquid velocity in the reservoir, u1 , is negligible compared with u2 :
P1 g
2 u1 + 2g
The available NPSH is the dierence between the static head and the head corresponding to the vapour pressure of the liquid at the suction inlet. NPSHA =
P1 g
+ h1 hf =
P2 g
2 u2 2g
(10)
P2 g
2 u2 2g
Pv g
P1 Pv g
+ h1 hf
(11)
101 / 10
Introduction
Required NPSH - I
P2 g P1 g
2 u2 2g
Heat exchangers
Pumps
From eq. 10, the total head at the suction inlet is:
= + h1 hf
(12)
Cavitation usually occurs at the impeller eye where the pressure will be less than at the suction inlet by
P =
2 u3 2g
(13)
Where is a pressure drop coecient characteristic of pump geometry and u3 is the uid velocity at the eye.
102 / 10
Introduction
Required NPSH II
Heat exchangers
Pumps
Cavitation is probable if the total head at the impeller eye (rhs of eq. 12 minus eq. 13) is equal to or less than the vapour pressure:
Limiting case therefore is
P1 g
+ h1 hf
2 u2 2g
2 u3 2g
Pv g
2 u3 2g
where the right hand side is the NPSH required at the impeller eye: NPSHR =
2 u2 2g
P1 Pv g
+ h1 hf =
2 u2 2g
2 u3 2g
103 / 10
Introduction
Avoiding cavitation
Heat exchangers
Pumps
greater than the NPSHR required at impeller eye: NPSHA
In order to avoid cavitation, the NPSHA available has to be
> NPSHR
The value of the required NPSHR for the particular pump being used may be obtained from the pump manufacturer. If NPSHA is too low, then cavitation can be avoided by increasing
h1 .
This is why pumping uids that are close to saturated conditions require that the vessel upstream be elevated . . . . . . or, more generally, that the pump be lowered.
104 / 10

Heat and Pipes

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Heat and Pipes

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Introduction

Mechanisms of heat transfer

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Mechanisms of heat transfer

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Mechanisms of heat transfer

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Mechanisms of heat transfer

Heat transfer and pipe ow

How is heat transferred?

Mechanisms of heat transfer

Conduction through a wall

Mechanisms of heat transfer

The heat transfer, q (W ), through the wall is

Mechanisms of heat transfer

thermal conductors. These will transfer large amounts of heat

is called the heat transfer coecient.

The inverse of the heat transfer coecient, resistance.

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Composite wall example

Mechanisms of heat transfer

Applying eq. 1 to each section of the composite wall:

Heat transfer through convection

Mechanisms of heat transfer

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Mechanisms of heat transfer

Forced convection is when the uid motion is produced by an external agent.

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Convective heat transfer

Mechanisms of heat transfer

Heat transfer by convection, q , is (2) where

A (m2 ) is the characteristic area of contact.

K ) is the temperature dierence between the solid and

h ( mW 2 K ) is the convective heat transfer coecient and is a

property of the system, not a property of the uid as is the

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Convective heat transfer coecient

Mechanisms of heat transfer

What aects convective heat transfer?

Mechanisms of heat transfer

h is a function of the properties of the system and depends on:

cp , and thermal conductivity, k . v.

uid regime, i.e. a characteristic velocity To determine experiments.

h is therefore a complex task and we rely on

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Prandtl and Nusselt numbers

Mechanisms of heat transfer

Nusselt ratio between heat transfer through convection and conduction:

Reynolds and Grashof numbers

Mechanisms of heat transfer

where is the volumetric thermal expansion coecient.

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Flow patterns and temperature proles

Mechanisms of heat transfer

is the temperature of the plate, while

temperature away from the plate, with

Tf is the air ow Ts > Tf .

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Mechanisms of heat transfer

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Overall heat transfer coecient

Mechanisms of heat transfer

Mechanisms of heat transfer

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Heat transfer and pipe ow

is called the heat transfer coecient.

The inverse of the heat transfer coecient, resistance.

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Forced convection is when the uid motion is produced by an external agent.

Heat transfer and pipe ow

K ) is the temperature dierence between the solid and

h ( mW 2 K ) is the convective heat transfer coecient and is a

property of the system, not a property of the uid as is the

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Convective heat transfer coecient

What aects convective heat transfer?

uid regime, i.e. a characteristic velocity To determine experiments.

Heat transfer and pipe ow

where is the volumetric thermal expansion coecient.

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Flow patterns and temperature proles

Tf is the air ow Ts > Tf .

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Overall heat transfer coecient

Heat transfer and pipe ow

hot lm solid wall cold lm (solve)

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Heat transfer and pipe ow

are the convective heat transfer coecients in the

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Parallel or co-current ow

The uids both ow in the same direction:

Heat transfer and pipe ow

The uids ow in opposite directions:

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Multi-pass ow arrangement

Heat transfer and pipe ow

Heat transfer and pipe ow