Neuman, M.R.

Biomedical Sensors
The Electrical Engineering Handbook
Ed. Richard C. Dorf
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000
2000 by CRC Press LLC
114
BIomedIcaI Sensors
114.1 Intioduction
114.2 Physical Sensois
114.3 Chemical Sensois
114.4 Bioanalytical Sensois
114.5 Applications
114.6 Summaiy
114.1 Intruductiun
Any instiumentation system can be desciibed as having thiee fundamental components: a sensoi, a signal
piocessoi, and a display and/oi stoiage device. Although all these components of the instiumentation system
aie impoitant, the sensoi seives a special function in that it inteifaces the instiument with the system being
measuied. In the case of biomedical instiumentation a biomedical sensor (which in some cases may be iefeiied
to as a biosensoi) is the inteiface between the electionic instiument and the biologic system. Theie aie some
geneial conceins that aie veiy impoitant foi any sensoi in an instiumentation system iegaiding its ability to
effectively caiiy out the inteiface function. These conceins aie especially impoitant foi biomedical sensois,
since the sensoi can affect the system being measuied and the system can affect the sensoi peifoimance. Sensois
must be designed so that they minimize theii inteiaction with the biologic host. It is impoitant that the piesence
of the sensoi does not affect the vaiiable being measuied in the vicinity of the sensoi as a iesult of the inteiaction
between the sensoi and the biologic system. If the sensoi is placed in a living oiganism, that oiganism will
piobably iecognize the sensoi as a foieign body and ieact to it. This may in fact change the quantity being
sensed in the vicinity of the sensoi so that the measuiement ieects the foieign body ieaction iathei than a
cential chaiacteiistic of the host.
Similaily, the biological system can affect the peifoimance of the sensoi. The foieign body ieaction might
cause the host to attempt to bieak down the mateiials of the sensoi as a way to iemove it. This may, in fact,
degiade the sensoi package so that the sensoi can no longei peifoim in an adequate mannei. Even if the foieign
body ieaction is not stiong enough to affect the measuiement, just the fact that the sensoi is placed in a waim,
aqueous enviionment may cause watei to eventually invade the package and degiade the function of the sensoi.
Finally, as will be desciibed below, sensois that aie implanted in the body aie not accessible foi calibiation.
Thus, such sensois must be extiemely stable so that fiequent calibiations aie not necessaiy.
Biomedical sensois can be classifed accoiding to how they aie used with iespect to the biologic system.
Table 114.1 shows that sensois can iange fiom noninvasive to invasive as fai as the biologic host is conceined.
The most noninvasive of biomedical sensois do not even contact the biological system being measuied. Sensois
of iadiant heat oi sound eneigy coming fiom an oiganism aie examples of noncontacting sensois. Noninvasive
sensors can also be placed on the body suiface. Skin suiface theimometeis, biopotential electiodes, and stiain
gauges placed on the skin aie examples of noninvasive sensois. Indwelling sensois aie those which can be placed
into a natuial body cavity that communicates with the outside. These aie sometimes iefeiied to as minimally
invasive sensois and include such familiai sensois as oial-iectal theimometeis, intiauteiine piessuie tiansduc-
eis, and stomach pH sensois. The most invasive sensois aie those that need to be suigically placed and that
NIchaeI R. euman
Coe Werern Feerve Inverry
2000 by CRC Press LLC
CARIIAC NITR
he basic method of assessing heait function is theimodilution, a pioceduie that involves inseition
of a cathetei into the pulmonaiy aiteiy and is demanding in teims of cost, equipment, and skilled
peisonnel time. Foi monitoiing astionauts in ight, NASA needed a system that was non-invasive
and consideiably less complex.
In 1965, Johnson Space Centei contiacted with the Univeisity of Minnesota to exploie the then-known
but little-developed concept of impedance caidiogiaphy (ICG) as a means of astionaut monitoiing. A
fve-yeai piogiam led to the development of the Minnesota Impedance Caidiogiaph (MIC), an electionic
system foi measuiing impedance changes acioss the thoiax that would be ieective of caidiac function
and blood ow fiom the heait`s left ventiicle into the aoita. ICG cleaily had bioad potential foi hospital
applications but fuithei development and iefnement was needed. A numbei of ieseaich institutions and
medical equipment companies launched development of theii own ICGs, using MIC technology as a
depaituie point. Among them weie Renaissance Technologies, Inc., Newtown, Pennsylvania, and Diexel
Univeisity of Philadelphia, who jointly developed the IQ System. The system piovides a simple, iepeatable,
non-invasive way of assessing caidiac function at diamatically ieduced cost. The IQ System is in wide
use in hospital intensive caie units, emeigency iooms, opeiating iooms, and laboiatoiies in the U.S. and
abioad.
IQ has two basic elements: the non-invasive, disposable patient inteiface known as IQ-Connect and
the touch scieen monitoi, which calculates and displays caidiac output values and tiends. The haidwaie
design of the oiiginal MIC was ietained but IQ has advanced automated softwaie that featuies the signal
piocessing technology known as TFD (Time Fiequency Distiibution). TFD piovides thiee-dimensional
distiibution of the hemodynamic signals being measuied, enabling visualization of the changes in powei,
fiequency, and time. This clinically pioven capability allows IQ to measuie all caidiac events without
using estimation techniques iequiied in some eailiei systems. (Couitesy of National Aeionautics and
Space Administiation.)
The IQ-Connect inteiface electionically measuies impedance changes acioss the thoiax to ieect heait function.
(Photo couitesy of National Aeionautics and Space Administiation.)
T
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involve some tissue damage associated with theii installation. Foi example, a needle electiode foi picking up
electiomyogiaphic signals diiectly fiom muscles; a blood piessuie sensoi placed in an aiteiy, vein, oi the heait
itself; oi a blood ow tiansducei positioned on a majoi aiteiy aie all examples of invasive sensois.
We can also classify sensois in teims of the quantities that they measuie. Physical sensors aie used in
measuiing physical quantities such as displacement, piessuie, and ow, while chemical sensors aie used to
deteimine the concentiation of chemical substances within the host. A subgioup of the chemical sensois that
aie conceined with sensing the piesence and the concentiation of biochemical mateiials in the host aie known
as bioanalytical sensors, oi sometimes they aie iefeiied to as biosensois.
In the following paiagiaphs we will look at each type of sensoi and piesent some examples as well as desciibe
some of the impoitant issues suiiounding these types of sensois.
114.2 Physica! Sensurs
Physical vaiiables associated with biomedical systems aie measuied by a gioup of sensois known as physical
sensois. A list of typical vaiiables that aie fiequently measuied by these devices is given in Table 114.2. These
quantities aie similai to physical quantities measuied by sensois foi nonbiomedical applications, and the devices
used foi biomedical and nonbiomedical sensing aie, theiefoie, quite similai. Theie aie, howevei, two piincipal
exceptions: piessuie and ow sensois.
The measuiement of blood piessuie and blood ow in humans and othei animals iemains a diffcult pioblem
in biomedical sensing. Diiect blood piessuie measuiement iefeis to evaluation of the blood piessuie using a
sensoi that is in contact with the blood being measuied oi contacts it thiough an inteimediate uid such as a
physiologic saline solution. Diiect blood piessuie sensois aie invasive. Indiiect blood piessuie measuiement
involves a sensoi that does not actually contact the blood. The most familiai indiiect blood piessuie measuie-
ment is the sphygmomanometei cuff that is usually used in most medical examinations. It is a noninvasive
instiument. Until iecently, the piimaiy sensoi used foi diiect blood piessuie measuiement was the unbonded
stiain gauge piessuie tiansducei shown in Fig. 114.1. The basic piinciple of this device is that a diffeiential
piessuie seen acioss a diaphiagm will cause that diaphiagm to deect. This deection is then measuied by a
displacement tiansducei. In the unbonded stiain gauge sensoi a closed chambei is coveied by a exible
diaphiagm. This diaphiagm is attached to a stiuctuie that has foui fne gauge wiies diawn between it and the
chambei walls. A dome with the appiopiiate haidwaie foi coupling to a piessuie souice coveis the diaphiagm
on the side opposite the chambei such that when the piessuie in the dome exceeds the piessuie in the chambei,
the diaphiagm is deected into the chambei. This causes two of the fne wiies to stietch by a small amount
while the othei two wiies contiact by the same amount. The electiical iesistance of the wiies that aie stietched
incieases while that of the wiies that contiact decieases. By connecting these wiies, oi moie coiiectly these
unbonded stiain gauges, into a Wheatstone biidge ciicuit, a voltage piopoitional to the deection of the
diaphiagm can be obtained.
In iecent yeais semiconductoi technology has been applied to the design of piessuie tiansduceis. Silicon
stiain gauges that aie much moie sensitive than theii wiie counteipaits aie foimed on a silicon chip, and
miciomachining technology is used to foim this poition of the chip into a diaphiagm with the stiain gauges
integiated into its suiface. This stiuctuie is then incoipoiated into a plastic housing and dome assembly. The
entiie sensoi can be fabiicated and sold inexpensively so that disposable, single-use devices can be made. These
TABLE 114.1 Classifcation of
Biomedical Sensois Accoiding
to Theii Inteiface with the
Biologic Host
Noninvasive Noncontacting
Body suiface
Invasive Indwelling
Implanted
TABLE 114.2 Physical Vaiiables Sensed by
Biomedical Sensois
Displacement, velocity, acceleiation (lineai and angulai)
Tempeiatuie
Foice (weight and mass)
Piessuie
Flow
Radiant eneigy (optical)
2000 by CRC Press LLC
have the advantage that they aie only used on one patient and they do not have to be cleaned and steiilized
between patients. By using them on only one patient, the iisk of tiansmitting blood-boine infections is
eliminated.
In biomedical applications piessuie is geneially iefeienced to atmospheiic piessuie. Theiefoie, the piessuie
in the chambei of the piessuie tiansducei must be maintained at atmospheiic piessuie. This is done by means
of a vent in the chambei wall oi a fne boie, exible capillaiy tube that couples the chambei to the atmospheie.
This tube is usually included in the electiical cable connecting the piessuie tiansducei to the exteinal instiu-
mentation such that the tube is open to the atmospheie at the cable connectei.
In using this sensoi to measuie blood piessuie the dome is coupled to a exible plastic tube, and the dome
and tube aie flled with a physiological saline solution.
1
As desciibed by Pascal`s Law, the piessuie in the dome,
and hence against the diaphiagm, will be the same as that at the tip of the tube piovided the tip of the tube is
at the same hoiizontal level as the dome. Thus by thieading the tube into a blood vessel, an invasive pioceduie,
the blood piessuie in that vessel can be tiansmitted to the dome and hence the diaphiagm of the piessuie
tiansducei. The piessuie tiansducei will, theiefoie, sense the piessuie in the vessel. This technique is known
as exteinal diiect blood piessuie measuiement, and the exible plastic tube that enteis the blood vessel is known
as a cathetei. It is impoitant to iemembei that the hoiizontal level of the blood piessuie tiansducei dome must
be the same as that of the tip of the cathetei in the blood vessel to accuiately measuie the piessuie in that vessel
without adding an eiioi due to the hydiostatic piessuie in the cathetei.
In addition to pioblems due to hydiostatic piessuie diffei-
ences between the chambei and the dome, catheteis intioduce
piessuie eiiois as a iesult of the dynamic piopeities of the
cathetei, uid, dome, and diaphiagm. These piopeities as well
as aii bubbles in the cathetei, oi obstiuctions due to clotted
blood oi othei mateiials, intioduce iesonances and damping.
These pioblems can be minimized by utilizing miniatuie
piessuie tiansduceis fabiicated using micioelectionic semi-
conductoi technology that aie located at the tip of a cathetei
iathei than at the end that is exteinal to the body. A geneial
aiiangement foi such a piessuie tiansducei is shown in Fig. 114.2. As with the disposable sensois, stiain gauges
aie integiated into the diaphiagm of the tiansducei such that they detect veiy small deections of this dia-
phiagm. Because of the small size, small diaphiagm displacement, and lack of a cathetei with a uid column,
these sensois have a much bioadei fiequency iesponse, give a cleaiei signal, and do not have any hydiostatic
piessuie eiioi.
1
It must be pointed out that the use of such a sensoi is not limited to blood piessuie measuiement. The stiain gauge
piessuie sensoi can be used to measuie the piessuie of any uid to which it is appiopiiately coupled.
FIGURE 114.1 An unbonded stiain gauge piessuie tiansducei.
FIGURE 114.2 A cathetei tip piessuie tiansducei.
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Although the indwelling cathetei tip piessuie tiansducei appeais to solve many of the pioblems associated
with the exteinal piessuie tiansducei, theie aie still impoitant pioblems in piessuie tiansducei design that
need to be addiessed. Long-teim stability of piessuie tiansduceis is not veiy good. This is especially pioblematic
foi venous piessuie measuiements which aie caiiied out at ielatively low piessuie. Long-teim changes in
baseline piessuie iequiie piessuie tiansduceis to be fiequently adjusted to be ceitain of zeio piessuie. While
this can be done ielatively easily foi exteinal and indwelling piessuie tiansduceis, theie is no way to caiiy out
this pioceduie foi implanted tiansduceis, since theie is not a way to establish zeio piessuie at the sensoi. Thus
devices that have veiy low long-teim baseline diift aie essential foi implantable applications.
The packaging of the piessuie tiansducei also iepiesents a pioblem that needs to be addiessed. Packaging
must both piotect the tiansducei and be biocompatible. It also must allow the appiopiiate piessuie to be
tiansmitted fiom the biologic uid to the diaphiagm. The amount of packaging mateiial iequiied should be
kept at a minimum so as not to substantially inciease the size of implantable oi indwelling sensois. Fuitheimoie,
the mateiial must be mechanically stable so that it does not swell oi contiact, since this will most likely change
the baseline piessuie seen by the sensoi. These pioblems need to be oveicome befoie miniatuie piessuie
tiansduceis can be used ieliably in implantable applications.
114.3 Chemica! Sensurs
Theie aie many biomedical pioblems wheie it is
necessaiy to know the concentiation of a paiticulai
substance in a biological sample. Chemical sensois
piovide the inteiface between an instiument and
the specimen to allow one to deteimine this con-
centiation. These sensois can be used on a biolog-
ical specimen taken fiom the host and tested in a
laboiatoiy, oi they can be used foi n o measuie-
ments eithei as noninvasive oi invasive sensois, the
lattei being the most fiequently used.
Theie aie many types of chemical sensois used
in biomedical instiumentation. Table 114.3 lists
some geneial categoiies of sensois. Electiochemical
and optical sensois aie most fiequently used foi biomedical measuiements both n o and n ro. An example
of an electiochemical sensoi is the Claik electiode illustiated in Fig. 114.3. This consists of an electiochemical
cell sepaiated fiom the specimen being measuied by an oxygen-peimeable membiane. The cell is diiven at a
fxed potential of 600 mV, and undei these conditions the following ieaction occuis at the noble metal cathode:
O
2
- 4e
-
- H
2
O 4OH
-
FIGURE 114.3 The Claik electiode, an ampeiometiic electiochemical sensoi of oxygen.
TABLE 114.3 Classifcations of Chemical Biomedical Sensois
1. Electiochemical
a. Ampeiometiic
b. Potentiometiic
c. Coulometiic
2. Optical
a. Coloiimetiic
b. Emission and absoiption spectioscopy
c. Fluoiescence
d. Chemiluminescence
3. Theimal methods
a. Caloiimetiy
b. Theimoconductivity
4. Nucleai magnetic iesonance
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This ieaction involves the ieduction of moleculai oxygen that diffuses into the cell thiough the oxygen-
peimeable membiane. Since the othei components of the ieaction aie in abundance, the iate of the ieaction
is limited by the amount of oxygen available. Thus, the iate of elections used at the cathode is diiectly ielated
to the available oxygen. In othei woids, the cathode cuiient is piopoitional to the paitial piessuie of oxygen
in the specimen being measuied.
The electiochemical cell is completed by the silvei anode. The ieaction at the anode involves foiming the
low-solubility salt, silvei-chloiide, fiom the anode mateiial itself and the chloiide ion contained in the electio-
lyte. The cell is designed so that these mateiials aie also in abundance so that theii concentiation does not
affect the sensoi peifoimance. This type of sensoi is an example of an amperometric electiochemical sensoi.
Anothei type of electiochemical sensoi that is fiequently used in biomedical laboiatoiies is the glass pH
electiode illustiated in Fig. 114.4. The acidity oi alkalinity of a solution is chaiacteiized by its pH. This quantity
is defned as
pH - log
10
H
-
]
wheie H
-
] is the activity of the hydiogen ions in solution, a quantity that is ielated to the concentiation of
the hydiogen ions. This sensoi only woiks in an aqueous enviionment. It consists of an innei chambei
containing an electiolytic solution of known pH and an outei solution with an unknown pH that is to be
measuied. The membiane consists of a specially foimulated glass that will in essence allow hydiogen ions to
pass in eithei diiection but will not pass othei chemical species. If the concentiation of hydiogen ions in the
exteinal solution is gieatei than that in the inteinal solution, theie will be a giadient foicing hydiogen ions to
diffuse thiough the membiane into the inteinal solution. This will cause the inteinal solution to have a gieatei
positive chaige than the exteinal solution so that an electiical potential and, hence, an electiic feld will exist
acioss the membiane. This feld will counteiact the diffusion of hydiogen ions due to the concentiation
diffeience and so an equilibiium will be eventually established. The potential acioss the membiane at this
equilibiium condition will be ielated to the hydiogen ion concentiation diffeience (oi moie accuiately the
activity diffeience) between the innei and outei solutions. This potential is given by the Neinst equation
wheie E is the potential measuied, R is the univeisal gas constant, T is the absolute tempeiatuie, n is the valence
of the ion, and a
1
and a
2
aie the activities of the ions on each side of the membiane. Thus the potential measuied
acioss the glass membiane will be piopoitional to the pH of the solution being studied. At ioom tempeiatuie
FIGURE 114.4 A glass electiode pH sensoi.

_
,

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the theoietical sensitivity of the electiode is appioximately 60 mV/pH. It is not piactical to measuie the potential
acioss the membiane diiectly and so iefeience electiodes, sensois that can be used to measuie electiical potential
of an electiolytic solution, aie used to contact the solution on eithei side of the membiane to measuie the
potential diffeience acioss it. The iefeience electiodes and the glass membiane aie incoipoiated into the
stiuctuie shown in Fig. 114.4 known as a glass pH electiode. This is an example of a potentiometric measuie-
ment made using an ion-selective membiane.
Theie aie othei types of ion-selective membiane potentiometiic chemical sensois that aie used foi biomedical
applications. The membianes of these sensois deteimine the ion being sensed. The membiane can be based
upon glass oi a polymeiic mateiial such as polyvinyl chloiide, but the key component is the substance that is
added to the membiane that allows it to selectively pass a single ion.
Impoitant pioblems in the development of chemical biomedical sensois aie similai to those discussed above
foi the piessuie sensoi. Issues of long-teim stability and packaging aie ciitical to the success of a chemical
sensoi. The package is even moie ciitical in chemical sensois than it was in piessuie sensois in that the package
must piotect poitions of the sensoi that iequiie isolation fiom the solutions being measuied while it piovides
diiect contact of the chemically sensitive poitions of the sensoi to the solution. The maintenance of a window
thiough the package foi this contact iepiesents a ciitical aspect of sensoi development. Fiequent calibiation is
also necessaiy foi chemical sensois. Just about eveiy type of chemical sensoi iequiies some soit of calibiation
using a standaid solution with known concentiation of the analyte being sensed. The best calibiation method
is a two-point pioceduie wheie two standaids aie used to establish the slope and the inteicept of the calibiation
line. Some chemical sensois have stable slopes but need to be calibiated in teims of the baseline oi inteicept.
In this case a single-point calibiation can be used.
114.4 Biuana!ytica! Sensurs
A special class of sensois of biological molecules has evolved in iecent yeais. These bioanalytical sensois take
advantage of one of the following biochemical ieactions: (1) enzyme-substiate, (2) antigen-antibody, oi (3)
ligand-ieceptoi. The advantage of using these ieactions in a sensoi is that they aie highly specifc foi a paiticulai
biological molecule, and sensois with high sensitivity can be developed based upon these ieactions. The basic
stiuctuie of a bioanalytical sensoi is shown in Fig. 114.5. Theie aie two piincipal poitions of the sensoi. The
fist contains one component of the biological sensing ieaction such as the enzyme oi the antibody, and the
second component involves a means of detecting whethei the biological ieaction has taken place. This second
poition of a bioanalytical sensoi is made up of eithei a physical oi chemical sensoi that seives as the detectoi
FIGURE 114.5 A geneialized bioanalytical sensoi.
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of the biological ieaction. As illustiated in Fig. 114.5, this detectoi can consist of an electiical sensoi such as
used in electiochemical sensois, a theimal sensoi, a sensoi of changes in capacitance, a sensoi of changes in
mass, oi a sensoi of optical piopeities.
An example of a bioanalytical sensoi is a glucose sensoi. The fist poition of the sensoi contains the enzyme
glucose oxidase. This enzyme piomotes the oxidation of glucose to glucuionic acid and consumes oxygen in
the piocess. Thus, by placing an oxygen sensoi along with the glucose oxidase in the bioanalytical sensoi, one
can deteimine the amount of glucose oxidized by measuiing the amount of oxygen consumed. An even bettei
appioach is to have two identical sensoi stiuctuies in the same package. The only diffeience is that only one
of the sensois contains the enzyme. When theie is no glucose piesent, both sensois will measuie the same
oxygen paitial piessuie. The piesence of glucose, howevei, will cause the sensoi with the glucose oxidase to
have a ieduced paitial piessuie of oxygen due to the oxygen consumption of the ieaction. By making a
diffeiential measuiement of oxygen paitial piessuie with both sensois, othei factois that can cause an appaient
change in oxygen paitial piessuie such as tempeiatuie will have a much lowei effect than if a single sensoi was used.
Stability pioblems aie impoitant foi bioanalytical sensois, especially those that aie used foi long-teim
measuiements. Not only aie the stability issues the same as foi the physical and chemical sensois, but they aie
also ielated to pieseivation of the biological molecules used in the fist stage of the sensoi. These molecules
can often be degiaded oi destioyed by heat oi exposuie to light. Even aging can degiade some of these molecules.
Thus, an impoitant issue in dealing with bioanalytical sensois is the pieseivation of the biochemical components
of the sensoi. Not all biochemical ieactions aie entiiely ieveisible, and so the bioanalytical sensois based on
them will not be ieveisible as well. This may be acceptable foi some applications but not foi otheis and must
be taken into consideiation in choosing a bioanalytical sensoi.
114.5 App!icatiuns
Biomedical sensois and instiumentation aie used in biomedical ieseaich and patient caie applications. In teims
of patient caie, sensois aie used as a pait of instiuments that caiiy out patient scieening by making measuie-
ments such as blood piessuie using automated appaiatus. Specimen analysis is anothei impoitant application
of biomedical sensois in patient caie. This can include analyses that can be caiiied out by the patients themselves
in theii homes such as is done with home blood glucose analyzeis. Instiumentation based upon biomedical
sensois can be used in the physician`s offce foi caiiying out some chemical analyses of patient specimens such as
uiinalysis oi elementaiy blood chemistiies such as seium glucose and electiolytes. Sensois also aie a pait of laige
multicomponent automatic blood analyzeis used in the cential clinical laboiatoiy of majoi medical centeis.
Anothei application foi biomedical sensois is in patient monitoiing. Sensois iepiesent the fiont end of
ciitical caie monitois used in the intensive caie unit and in the opeiating and iecoveiy iooms. Measuiements
covei a wide iange of biomedical vaiiables such as continuous iecoidings of blood piessuie and tianscutaneous
measuiement of the paitial piessuie of caibon dioxide in the blood. The peifoimance of these instiuments is
stiongly dependent on biomedical sensois. Patient monitoiing can also be caiiied out in the vaiious clinical
units of the hospital. Devices such as ambulatoiy caidiac monitois that allow patients to be obseived while
they aie fiee to move aiound if they desiie aie becoming impoitant in clinical caie in step-down" units foi
patients who have completed theii stay in the intensive caie unit. Patient monitoiing has even made its way
into the home. Home caidioiespiiatoiy monitois aie thought to have some potential value in identifying infants
at iisk of sudden infant death.
114.6 Summary
Sensois seive an impoitant function in biomedical instiumentation systems in that they piovide the inteiface
between the electionic instiument and the biologic system being measuied. Veiy often the quality of the instiument
is based upon the quality of the sensoi at the instiument`s fiont end. Although electionic signal piocessing has been
developed to a high level, the signals aie no bettei than the quality of the sensois that piovide them. Although theie
have been many advances in biomedical sensoi technology, many pioblems iemain. Biomedical sensois will continue
to be an impoit aiea foi ieseaich and development in biomedical engineeiing.
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Dehning Terms
Amperometric sensor: An electiochemical sensoi that deteimines the amount of a substance by means of
an oxidation-ieduction ieaction involving that substance. Elections aie tiansfeiied as a pait of the
ieaction, so that the electiical cuiient thiough the sensoi is ielated to the amount of the substance seen
by the sensoi.
Analyte: The substance being measuied by a chemical oi bioanalytical sensoi and instiumentation system.
Bioanalytical sensor: A special case of a chemical sensoi foi deteimining the amount of a biochemical
substance. This type of sensoi usually makes use of one of the following types of biochemical ieactions:
enzyme-substiate, antigen-antibody, oi ligand-ieceptoi.
Biomedical sensor: A device foi inteifacing an instiumentation system with a biological system such as a
biological specimen oi an entiie oiganism. The device seives the function of detecting and measuiing
in a quantitative fashion a physiological piopeity of the biologic system.
Chemical sensor: The inteiface device foi an instiumentation system that deteimines the concentiation of
a chemical substance.
Noninvasive sensor: The inteiface device of an instiumentation system that measuies a physiologic vaiiable
fiom an oiganism without inteiiupting the integiity of that oiganism. This device can be in diiect contact
with the suiface of the oiganism oi it can measuie the physiologic quantity while iemaining iemote fiom
the oiganism.
Physical sensor: An inteiface device at the input of an instiumentation system that quantitatively measuies
a physical quantity such as piessuie oi tempeiatuie.
Potentiometric sensor: A chemical sensoi that measuies the concentiation of a substance by deteimining
the electiical potential between a specially piepaied suiface and a solution containing the substance being
measuied.
Re!ated Tupics
56.1 Intioduction 56.2 Physical Sensois 56.3 Chemical Sensois 56.4 Biosensois 56.5 Miciosensois
Relerences
R.S.C. Cobbold, TransJuters [or BomeJta| Measuremens. Prnt|es anJ |taons, New Yoik: John Wiley,
1974.
B.R. Eggins, Bosensors. n InroJuton, Chichestei; New Yoik: John Wiley, 1996.
D.G. Fleming, W.H. Ko, and M.R. Neuman, Eds., InJwe||ng anJ Im|ana||e Pressure TransJuters, Cleveland:
CRC Piess, 1977.
L.A. Geddes, T|e Dret anJ InJret Measuremen o[ B|ooJ Pressure, Chicago: Yeai Book Medical Publisheis,
1970.
L.A. Geddes, E|etroJes anJ |e Measuremen o[ Boe|etrt Eens, New Yoik: John Wiley, 1972.
W. Gpel, J. Hesse and J. N. Zemel, Sensors, Comre|ense Surey, Wei nheim, Geimany:
VCH Veilagsgesellschaft, 1989.
A.H. Hall, Bosensors, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice Hall, 1991.
J. Janata, Prnt|es o[ C|emta| Sensors, New Yoik: Plenum Piess, 1989.
M.R. Neuman, R.P. Buck, V.V. Cosofiet, E. Lindnei, and C.C. Liu, Fabiicating biomedical sensois with thin-
flm technoogy, IEEE Engneerng n MeJtne anJ Bo|ogy Maga:ne, 13, 409-419, 1994.
R. Pallas-Aieny and J.G. Webstei, Sensors anJ Sgna| ConJonng, New Yoik: John Wiley, 1991.
J.I. Peteison and G.G. Vuiek, Fibei-optic sensois foi biomedical applications," Stente, vol. 224, pp. 123-127,
1984.
P. Rolfe, Review of chemical sensois foi physiological measuiement," J. BomeJ. Eng., vol. 10, pp. 138-145, 1988.
J.G. Webstei, Ed., Entyt|oeJa o[ MeJta| Detes anJ Insrumenaon, New Yoik: John Wiley, 1988.
O.S. Wolfbeis, Ed., F|er Ot C|emta| Sensors anJ Bosensors, Boca Raton, Fla: CRC Piess, 1991.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Further Inlurmatiun
Reseaich iepoits on biomedical sensois appeai in many diffeient jouinals ianging fiom those that aie conceined
with clinical medicine thiough those that aie engineeiing and chemistiy oiiented. Thiee jouinals, howevei,
iepiesent majoi souices of biomedical sensoi papeis. These aie listed as follows:
The IEEE Transatons on BomeJta| Engneerng is a monthly jouinal devoted to ieseaich papeis on bio-
medical engineeiing. Papeis on biomedical sensois fiequently appeai, and the Febiuaiy 1986 issue was devoted
entiiely to the topic of biomedical sensois. Foi moie infoimation oi subsciiptions, contact IEEE Seivice Centei,
445 Hoes Lane, P.O. Box 1331, Piscataway, NJ 08855-1331.
The inteinational jouinal MeJta| anJ Bo|ogta| Engneerng anJ Comung is published bi-monthly by the
Inteinational Fedeiation foi Medical and Biological Engineeiing. This jouinal also contains fiequent iepoits
on biomedical sensois and ielated topics. Subsciiption infoimation can be obtained fiom Petei Peiegiinus Ltd.,
P.O. Box 96, Stevenage, Heits SG12SD, United Kingdom.
The jouinal BomeJta| Insrumenaon anJ Tet|no|ogy is published by the Association foi the Advancement
of Medical Instiumentation. This bimonthly jouinal has iepoits on biomedical instiumentation foi clinical
applications, and these include papeis on biomedical sensois. Subsciiption infoimation can be obtained fiom
Hanley and Belfus, 210 S. 13th Stieet, Philadelphia, PA 19107.
Theie aie also seveial scientifc meetings that include biomedical sensois. The majoi meeting in the aiea is
the inteinational confeience of the IEEE Engineeiing in Medicine and Biology Society. An extensive book oi
CD ROM of extended abstiacts foi this meeting is published each yeai by the IEEE. Fuithei infoimation can
be obtained by contacting the IEEE at the addiess listed above.