Manufacturing Processes PDF

State University of New York at Buffalo
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering.

MAE 364: MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

PROJECT PAPER

SUBMITTED BY: LEE LENG FENG
DOUG FERRICK
KENNETH CAMPBELL

DATE: MAY 6, 2002

TABLE OF CONTENTS:

Topics Covered Page
1. ABSTRACT. 1
2. INTRODUCTION. 1-2
3. MANUFACTURING PROCESS FOR EACH ENGINE PARTS.
-Engine Block. 3-5
-Camshaft. 6-8
-Flywheel. 9-11
-Crankshaft. 12-16
-Main Bearing. 17-19
-Main Bearing Cap. 20-25
-Vibration Damper. 26-31
-Piston. 32-35
-Piston Ring. 36-38
-Piston Pin. 39-40
-Connecting Rod and Rod Cap. 41-44
-Rod Bearing. 45-46
4. ASSEMBLY SEQUENCE, AUTOMATION PROCESS: 47-49
5. CONCLUSION. 50
6. REFERENCE. 51

MAE364. Manufacturing Processes- Final Project. 1

ABSTRACT:

This project discussed the different type of manufacturing process used in the
production of the parts of an engine. There are thirteen parts being study and discussed in
this projects. We discuss the factors that determine the process being used, the material
properties required, metallurgy consideration in the process, quality, volume of
production, and also the cost consideration for manufacture each engine parts. Finally, we
also discussed the assembly process for the each part to form a complete engine.

INTRODUCTIONS:

There are thirteen parts in the engine as shown in Figure 1. We will discuss each
part in the following paragraph.

Figure 1. Components of engine parts discussed in this project.
The thirteen parts that shown in this figure are:
1. Engine Block. 8. Piston.
2. Crankshaft 9. Rod Bearing.
3. Main bearing. 10. Rod Cap.
4. Piston Pin. 11. Camshaft.
5. Piston Rings. 12. Main Bearing Caps.
6. Vibration Damper. 13. Flywheel.
7. Connecting Rod.

In the following section, we will discuss the function, material used, mechanical
properties of the part, the quality requirements, volume of production requirements, rate
of production requirements, the process used, alternates process base on the volume, and
a cost analysis of producing those parts. These will be done for each of the thirteen parts
that shown in Figure 1.


MANUFACTURING PROCESS FOR EACH PART:

1. ENGINE BLOCK.

Figure 1-1. An Engine Block.[2]

1-1 Description:

The Engine Block is a single unit that contains all the pieces for the engine. The
block serves as the structural framework of the engine and carries the mounting pad by
which the engine is supported in the chassis [1]. The block is made of cast iron and

sometimes aluminum for higher performance vehicles. The engine block is manufactured
to withstand large amounts of stress and high temperatures.

1-2. Production requirements:

The Internal design of the engine block must be extremely precise, because all
parts must fit and be able to function properly once the entire engine is assembled. The
outside design of the engine only has to fit fewer requirements like attaching to the car
properly. Engines are made in all different shapes and sizes to fit inside the frame of the
car, therefore a company must be able to manufacture many different engine block
designs yet keep up with product demand. There are 6000-8000 engine blocks made a
day at a highly qualified company, this may be for many different models. [16]

1-3. Process Requirements:

The Engine block goes through two manufacturing processes before it is ready for
assembly. The first process is die casting manufactured using cast iron. The strength of
the piece depends on the type of iron used and if any other materials are added. The
higher strength iron alloys can include Molybdenum, Chrome or Copper for increased
strength (2-eng). For the engine block the hot-chamber process is used. This process
uses a die cut into three parts then combined using a large amount of pressure and
temperature. Two parts of the die will contain extrusions to produce holes and cavities.
This eliminates much machine process and saves time. Then all the die parts are forced
together with the material inside to produce the engine block cast. Once the part has been
casted then cooled (using a chill plat) the second process may be preformed. This
processes is machining and is very important the overall performance of the engine. The
first machining process is to bore out the cylinders for the pistons and then for the
camshaft. Next the cylinders need to be sleeved; this provides the surface with a small
gradient to trap an oil film. The next operation is to grind down and area for the bearing
to set in, this does not have to be surface finished because bushings will be set down in
first. The next operation is end milling. This will provide a smooth surface finish for the
joining of the oil pan, the crankshaft cap and areas for mounting. [17] The final

operations include drilling, reaming and taping. These provide locations for the engine
block to be mounted.

1-4. Cost Analysis:

Pressure die casting the engine block first allows for a precise design, produced at
a quicker rate. Sand casting would require more time to make a mold for each engine
block produced. Another process that could be used is the lost foam process, and is used
to make aluminum engines that are lighter. This process can be rather quick but does not
work as well for steel. An engine block that is hot forged would involve more machining
and a larger press. This will lead to longer labor time and more expenses. Completely
machining a block would greatly increase the amount of unused material and take a
considerably large amount of time. Using the pressure die casting then machining allows
for a quicker production time with a smaller waste of materials. [20]

2. CAM SHAFT.

Figure 2-1. A camshaft.[16]

2-1. Description:

The valves are opened and closed by means of a camshaft. A camshaft is a rotating
shaft that has individual lobes for each valve. Most engines have one camshaft located in
the engine block with the lifters connecting to the valves through a series of linkages.
The camshaft must be synchronized with the crankshaft so that it makes one revolution
for every two revolutions of the crankshaft.

The Camshaft is a steel rod (shaft) that rotates causing the valves in the engine to
open and close synchronically. The valves let the air/fuel mixture into the engine and the
exhaust out of the engine and must be preformed with perfect timing [15] Refer to the
piston description for more on the cycling information. The rotating camshaft accounts
for this timing and must be precise. The design of the cams on the shaft push the valves
open at certain point in rotation. [4]


The cams on the camshaft must be made with high precision and provide a long
product life. Because the valves are constantly producing friction across the cam, the
material must be able to handle high temperatures. The cams must also remain smooth
and not develop surface roughness caused by friction. Camshafts are found in every
modern engine and their model will depend on the engine design. Therefore if 7,000

engines of one model are made a day, then 7,000 for a 4 cylinder only, V-6s and V-8s
have at least two over head cams. These camshafts will need to be produced to keep up
with car assemblies.[2]

2-3. Process Requirements:

The camshaft needs to go through two main manufacturing processes to be
produced. The first process used is closed die forging. Closed die forging allows for the
making of the overall camshaft with necessary precision.

In closed die forging, a negative image of the part to be made is sunk into a die
steel block or pair of blocks. The die set is keyed or otherwise clamped into a press or
hammer that supplies the energy for the deformation. This method is used to make
everything from cutlery and automotive parts to parts for aircraft engines. Figure 2-2
shows a cut away cross section of a pair of press dies used to make a gear blank (This is
over-simplified for discussion purposes since in reality there would be a series of dies of
increasing refinement leading up to the finished forging).

Figure 2-3. Close die forging[12]

After forging in the impression dies the flash or excess metal is trimmed off in a
press. Flash is metal that has been expelled from the die cavity during forging- Its not
necessarily waste but becomes trapped in the flash line between the dies and aids in
filling the die cavity by creating a restriction that tends to keep the bulk of the metal in
the cavity. [12]

This forging process creates the general shape of the camshaft, with proper length,
diameter and cam positioning. The dies used for this manufacturing process are
previously shaped and made of steel containing nickel; this produces a die much harder
than the camshaft. The draft angle on the die is set at 7
o
for internal angles and 4
o
for
external angles. The steel material is forged at 2000
o
F (3-cam pgs 320-323). This allows
for easier formation. Because the final shape of the cams must be precisely made, a
machining process must be used. A CNC camshaft-grinding machine can be used to
machine the face of the cam and bearing groove. This will provide the cams and bearing
grooves with a smooth surface finish, decreasing friction and temperature. The CNC
machine allows for accuracy, flexibility, power, speed, productivity, ease of use and
durability, increasing quality for the customer (2-cam). The CNC machine also performs
the task of machining without changing the tool holding position; this decreases the
amount of labor time. [2]

2-4. Cost Analysis:

Forging then machining allows for better material handling and quick, high
quality way to produces a camshaft part. Forging adds strength to the piece by increasing
strain, and machining improves dimensions and surface finish. Casting then machining
would lead to more defects and decreasing strength in the piece with a greater production
time, therefore increasing costs. Strait machining of the piece without casting or forging
would increase the waste of materials and would be high in cost.

3. FLY WHEEL.

Figure 3-1. A flywheel.

3-1. Description:

The purpose of a flywheel is to provide the inertia necessary to smooth out
potentially large variations in engine speed between combustion events. a flywheel is
attached to the back of the crankshaft. The flywheel is a disk that is about 12 to 15 inches
in diameter. On a standard transmission car, the flywheel is a heavy iron disk that doubles
as part of the clutch system. On automatic equipped vehicles, the flywheel is a stamped
steel plate that mounts the heavy torque converter. The flywheel uses inertia to smooth
out the normal engine pulses.[2]

The flywheel mounts at the rear of the crankshaft near the rear main bearing. This
is usually the longest and heaviest main bearing in the engine, as it must support the
weight of the flywheel.The flywheel can stores up rotation energy during the power
impulses of the engine. It releases this energy between power impulses, thus assuring less
fluctuation in engine speed and smoother engine operation. The size of the flywheel will
vary with the number of cylinders and the general construction of the engine. With the
large number of cylinders and the consequent overlapping of power impulses, there is
less need for a flywheel; consequently, the flywheel can be relatively small. The flywheel
rim carries a ring gear, either integral with or shrunk on the flywheel, that meshes with

the starter driving gear for cranking the engine. The rear face of the flywheel is usually
machined and ground and acts as one of the pressure surfaces for the clutch, becoming a
part of the clutch assembly.

The flywheel is a heavy wheel attached to a rotating shaft to smooth out delivery
of power from a motor to a machine [17]. Power impulses, caused by igniting the air/fuel
mixture in the combustion chamber of each cylinder, can cause the crankshaft to make
sudden movements resulting in a rough running engine. The flywheel enables the
crankshaft to make a smooth transition from one power stroke to the next [14]. The
flywheel consists of a heavy circular cast-iron disk with a hub for attachment to the
engine. Its heavy rotating mass has sufficient momentum to oppose all changes in its
rotational speed and to force the crankshaft to turn steadily at this speed. The engine thus
runs smoothly with no evidence of rotational pulsations. The outer rim of the flywheel
usually carries gear teeth so as to mesh with the starter motor. The driving component of
a clutch or fluid coupling for the transmission may be incorporated in the flywheel [18].


Because the flywheel helps maintain revolving inertia throughout its cycles, the
weight of the flywheel must be equally dispersed through out the radius. Therefore the
center of the flywheel must be very precise, so that as the crankshaft turns there is not a
change in inertia due to the flywheel (3-fly). The flywheel must have a perfectly circular
circumference. Due to the fact that every car needs a flywheel, they are massed produced
and flywheels of one design can be used for different engine designs. A flywheel is used
for on every modern engine and therefore must keep up with the engine blocks
production rates of 6000-8000 a day.

3-3. Process Used:

The flywheel begins being manufactured by die-casting. This involves the hot
chamber process which casts the flywheel use large amounts of pressure and temperature
using a single-cavity die. The die contains two pieces, the first half of the die contains

the cavity for the main body, and this forms the teeth around the wheel. Die-casting is a
century old process of injecting molten metal into a steel die under high pressure. The
metal, either aluminum, zinc, magnesium and sometimes copper, is held under pressure
until it solidifies into a net shape metal part. In modern applications, using computerized
controls, die casters produce precision and high- strength products at a rapid production
rate. No other metal casting processes allow for a greater variety of shapes, intricacy of
design or closer dimensional tolerance. [1]

Die-casting is similar to permanent mold casting except that the metal is injected
into the mold under high pressure of 10-210Mpa (1,450-30,500) psi . This results in a
more uniform part, generally good surface finish and good dimensional accuracy, as good
as 0.2 % of casting dimension. For many parts, post-machining can be totally eliminated,
or very light machining may be required to bring dimensions to size. [6]

The second half of the die contains a protrusions creating the center hole and
holes for it to connect to the crankshaft. Creating the holes during the casting process
eliminates a drilling process and saves valuable time and money. The two halves of the
die connect at the top of the flywheel surface. Once this process is complete the piece
then needs to be reamed. The reaming of the center hole and five surrounding holes, this
allows for a better fit and tighter tolerances.

3-4. Cost Analysis:

Machine is extremely accurate and provides great precision with high quality but
can consume a large percentage of time to mass-produce a large quantity of products.
Machining can also be costly due to labor time and tooling. Forging can cut labor time
and cost by providing a die and quickly mass-producing the product, but with rounded
corners and low precision. Because the flywheel must be precise quality is chosen over
cost.

4. CRANKSHAFT.

Figure 4-1. A crankshaft [2].

4-1. Descriptions:

All the pistons in the engine are connected through individual connecting rods to
a common crankshaft. The crankshaft is located below the cylinders on an in-line engine,
at the base of the V on a V-type engine and between the cylinder banks on a flat engine.
As the pistons move up and down, they turn the crankshaft just like our legs pump up and
down to turn the crank that is connected to the pedals of a bicycle. The materials used in
producing crankshaft including cast iron and steel. It depends on manufacturer and the
strength needed. For racing car, steel will usually be used. It is used for transform the
rotation of the cylinder due to the combustion process that take place in the engine. [2]

4-2. Product requirement:

The quality requirement of crankshaft is high. It need high precisions because it
used to transform the rotations, it should precisely produce such that that it can transmit
that rotation correctly. The production amount of crankshaft depends on the
manufacturer; however, since it is a replaceable part for engine, some producer actually
producing more. The production rate depends on the process used and the crankshaft
usually can be produce using two methods, such as Expandable pattern casting (lost
form) and forging [1]. Here we will just discuss the forging process.

4-3. Process used:

The process use in the production of the crankshaft is bulk deformation process
called the forging process. Crankshafts are a high cost replacement item.
1. Forged and precision machined from premium, high strength steel.

2. Heat treated by hardening process for high strength and outstanding wears
characteristics.
3. Journals are finish-ground and polished assuring ultimate smoothness for less
internal friction and long bearing life.
4. All crankshaft are precision balanced, both statically and dynamically to provide
long life.

The forging process is a process of processing work piece having a relatively small
surface area-to-volume ratio. It is a process by which plastic deformation of the work
piece is carried out by compressive forces. Forging is one of the oldest metalworking
operations known. This process can be carrying out at room temperature or at an elevated
temperature. Called the hot forging or the cold forging. This process is being chosen to
produce the crankshaft is because it gives high precision and also harden the material
either by hot work or cold work.

The production of the crankshaft involves several different stages so to get the desired
shape. These steps are describe in the following diagram:

Figure 2. Intermediate stages in forging a crankshaft.[1]

These steps is needed because the proper design of the forging dies and selection of
die materials required considerable experience and knowledge of the strength and
ductility of the workpiece material, its sensitivity to strain rate and temperature, and its
frictional characteristics. From Figure 2, we can see that there are five passes in the

forging process of a crankshaft. These intermediate stages are important for distributing
the material and filling the die cavities properly.

The materials use in the production of crankshaft depends on its application. For best
performance, the crankshaft is made by steel using the forging process. For some
application, the crankshaft can be produce by casting process and the material used can
be cast iron. For crankshaft produced using casting process, the following requirement
must be made:

1. Upgraded Nodular cast iron 80-60-06 to be selected for material which metal
microstructure consists of pearlite iron 80 to 90%, graphite type over grade 2
and size over grade 3.
2. All casting pieces are instruments checked for pearlite and graphite. The
deflection of straightness of casting piece should not be over 5/1000".
Ultrasonic inspection for internal defect is an essential process for every
casting piece to eliminate any internal defective.
3. All journals' radius is enlarged to eliminate stress spots and surface micro
polished to 0.25 um. The roundness & size of every journal designed to be
accurate to .0001". Magnaflux inspection on all journal surfaces upon
completion of machining to ensure perfection. [2]

The material use in the crankshaft is AISI 5140 steel is a medium carbon with
chromium. Chromium has a twin effect on steel, acting as a carbide former. This
improves the harden ability, allowing deeper hardening with less quenching medium.
Chromium also improves the corrosion resistance better than plain carbon steel.
Currently, to produce a very good quality crankshaft, the manufacturing process of every
crankshaft involves 9 basic operations: Magnafluxing, larger journal radius, main side
grinding, flywheel flange grinding, oil holes chamfering, journal micro-finishing, and
ultrasonic testing. Also, All journals are induction hardened to HRC 55 and above for
high performance applications. [2]

4-4. Cost analysis:

Manufacturing cost includes the cost of labor plus the cost of purchasing,
maintaining and operating the required machinery and material handling equipment. A
portion of these costs is charged to each forging produced. In most cases it also includes
the cost of maintaining and replacing the forging tools. Machinery typically includes
saws, shears, furnaces, preforming equipment, the forging press or hammer with its
associated controls and trim presses. Material handling equipment typically includes
cranes, lift trucks, conveyors, etc.

Manufacturing cost is driven by the number of operations required to produce the
forging and the cost of each cost center. Each cost center is assigned an hourly operating
cost, which is divided by the number of pieces produced per hour to arrive at the cost
charged to the forging. For example, when forging microalloyed steels, which are used to
eliminate heat treating, the cost of using special cooling conveyors will be included. The
total manufacturing cost is the sum of the costs of the individual operations.

Design simplifications that reduce the number of operations, or reduce the size or
complexity of the required forging machines drive toward minimum processing cost. For
example, an impression die forging may require several pre-forming operations, a blocker
operation, a finish operation and a trimming operation. The total processing cost is the
sum of the costs for each operation. If the design can be modified to reduce the number of
operations, processing cost is sometimes reduced significantly.

Processing cost can be reduced by designing the forging to facilitate metal flow in
the die and reduce forging pressures. This usually involves modifying sharp details to
provide larger radii. In some cases it may be possible to use a smaller forging press with a
lower hourly operating cost that produces more parts per hour. Lower forging pressures
also tend to reduce tool maintenance and replacement cost, which is usually a part of the
quoted piece price.

The comparison of the cost for each different type of forging process is describe
as follow:
Forging
Processes
Cost comparison and explanation.
Open Die
Open die forgings are made with standard "V", swage or flat dies. Tooling
cost is not significant.
Impression
Die
Tooling cost is usually significant in impression die forgings. It includes
one or more impressions (preform, blocker, finisher or other impressions),
sometimes preforming rolls, edger or fullering impressions, and usually
trim dies. The cost of manufacturing the impression dies is driven by the
size and complexity of the forging. Trim die cost is driven by the size of
the forging and the complexity of the geometry. Press tooling can differ
significantly from hammer tooling due to features such as knockouts,
strippers and master tool holders. Die wear necessitates periodic
maintenance, re-sinks, and ultimately replacement of the dies. Die wear
varies with the alloy being forged with the harder alloys causing faster die
wear. This tendency can be reduced by proper adjustments to product
design.
Rolled
Rings
Tooling cost, including manufacturing, maintenance and replacement for
rolled rings, is low compared with the impression die process. There is
virtually no tooling cost for plain rectangular section rings. However,
shaped rollers are required to roll rings that have inside or outside contours.
Rolls for forming inside contours (mandrel) cost substantially less than
rolls for outside contours (main rolls). Profiled ring rolling also requires
dies for the preforming operation. They are less costly than those used for
the impression die process, but must be recognized.

Cold
Forging
Tooling cost for cold forgings is typically five to ten times as much as for
equivalent hot impression die forgings when also considering the
automation that typically accompanies cold forging processes. But tool life
in cold forging is much greater. In many cases, a sequence of operations is
used requiring several dies, so that quantities are typically very high. Tool
cost can be reduced when similar parts can share common tool details.

5. MAIN BEARING.

Figure 5-1. Bearings.

5-1. Descriptions:

Bearings are relatively inexpensive wear items designed to protect the expensive
crankshaft, connecting rod and block. The purposes of bearings are:
1. Providing a soft, smooth surface with a high load carrying capability. This
protects crankshaft journal surfaces during engine start-ups and heavy loads.
1. Trapping or embedding small pieces of metal and debris in the soft bearing
surfaces to prevent damage to the journal surfaces.
2. Maintaining correct oil flow and pressure between parts.

5-2. Materials used:

The materials that use for bearing have different type that gives give different
properties and quality, this are shown in the graph below:

The three bearing material and design is for different engine system, as describe
below:

Aluminum alloy bearing
(Bi-metal)
Feature an advanced aluminum alloy and no overlay,
providing more consistent bearing clearance and little wear.
Aluminum alloy bearings
(with overlay)
Feature aluminum bearing and copper bonding materials to
prevent scuffing and corrosion, reducing the chance of
failure.
Copper/lead bearings Feature greater fatigue strength, increasing durability and
reliability.


The quality requirements for producing the bearing are as follow:

A. Consistent wall thickness:
When the main or rod cap is bolted in place, the bearing and crankshaft journal are
in close proximity. A film of oil exists between the two components during engine
operation to protect them from damage. The consistent wall thickness of the bearings
ensures that the film of oil is the proper thickness, helping prevent the friction and metal-
to-metal contact that can cause excessive wear and premature failure.

B. Precise crush height:
Cat bearings feature precise crush height, which helps ensure proper clearance and
contact pressure between the bearings and bore.

5-4. Process Descriptions:

It was shown in the textbook that bearing is produced using Centrifugal-casting
process [4]. The centrifugal casting utilized the inertial force caused by rotation to
distribute the molten metal into the mold cavities. There are three type of centrifugal
casting: true centrifugal casting, semi-centrifugal casting, and centrifuging. The process
used in manufacturing the bearing is true centrifugal casting. As we will explain in the
following paragraph.

In true centrifugal casting, the molten metal is poured into a rotating mold. The
axis of rotation is usually horizontal. Mold are usually made of steel, iron, or graphite and
may be coated with a refractory lining to increase mold life. Mold surface like the one
shown in the bearing, can be cast. The inner surface of the casting remains cylindrical
because the molten metal is uniformly distributed by centrifugal force.

Cylindrical parts ranging from 13mm to 3m in diameter and 16m long can be cast
centrifugally, with wall thickness ranging from 6mm to 125mm. By using centrifugal
casting, casting of good quality, dimensional accuracy, and external surface details can be
obtain by this process.

5-5. Cost Analysis.

Since the bearing is used in a large amount in an engine, it can produce with a
mass production and thus can reduce its cost by doing so. The quantity of producing the
bearing is much higher than the quantity that required for the engine block alone. This is
partly because bearing is replaceable. With mass production rate, the cost of producing
the bearing is low compare to other compartments. Of course, after casting, some
machining cutting is required to obtain the desired shape.
The cost of manufacturing the main bearing is considerably low. It depends on the
manufacturer and also the size of the company. Usually the main bearing does not cost
more than $1 dollars for supply to the car manufacturing company. This is because when
mass production is used, the cost is reduced. Also, because the manufacturer that
produces the bearing can not only supply the bearing to only one car Manufacture
Company but also a lot of Car Company uses the same bearing in their engines. This
cause the price of the bearing is considerably low compare to other parts in the engines.

6. MAIN BEARING CAPS.

Figure 6-1. A Main Bearing Cap.[1]

6-1. Descriptions:

Main bearing Caps are manufactured from billet steel with CNC machine
finishing on bore and bolt holes for accurate positioning. Anodized surfaces resist rust
and extend useful life. These billet steel caps are for automotive racing applications.
Bearings are placed in the engine where there is rotary motion between engine parts.
These bearings are usually sleeve bearing that fit like sleeves around the rotating shafts.
One half of the main bearing firs into a semicircle machined in the cylinder block. The
other half of fits into the main bearing cap. [2]

Each main bearing half has a steel or bronze back with up to five linings of soft
material. The bearing wears, and not the more expensive crankshaft or other part. This
reduces the cost of repair by allowing the reuse of the more expensive part. [2]


The requirement for bearing cap is that bearing cap must carry the loads imposed
by high-compression, high speed engines, the bearing surface must be soft enough to
embed small particles that work their way onto the bearings. However, the bearing must
be hard enough not the wear too rapidly. If the bearing material is too hard, the particles
lie on the surface and scratch the journal. Particles could also gouge out the bearing. With
either condition, failure will result.

Because there are more than one main bearing used in each engine block. And
usually each of the manufacturers does not produce the main bearing just for one
company. For different brand of the car, they may use the main bearing that is produced
from the same company. Thus, there is a advantage for using mass production. We will
need a process that will give a good surface finish and provided a good strength for the
product. The cost should also considerable low. The main bearing is usually produced
using casting process which then machining the surface of the main bearing for better
surface finishing. From the information that we have, we found that the main bearing cap
is first produced by using the casting, and will be machining using CNC machines. [6]


For a Bronze made main bearing cap, we found that the die casting process will
be a good choice because it gives high production rate, good dimensional accuracy and
surface details, high-quality part. For bronze, the ultimate tensile stress of the cast
product can be as high as 380 MPa. In this process, the molten metal is forced in to the
die cavity at pressure ranging from 0.7 to 700MPa. It consists of two basic process which
are a hot-chamber process and a cold-chamber process. [1] In this process, the Die-
casting die maybe made single cavity, multiple cavity, combination cavity, or unit dies.

Die casting is a manufacturing process for producing accurately dimensioned,
sharply defined, smooth or textured-surface metal parts. It is accomplished by forcing
molten metal under high pressure into reusable metal dies. The process is often described
as the shortest distance between raw material and finished product. The term, "die
casting," is also used to describe the finished part. [7]

In the design of the die, it has taper that allow the removal of the casting. The
sprues and runners may be removed either manually or by using trim dies in a press. The
sprues can runner may be removed either manually or by using trim dies in a press. One
of the advantages of using this process to produce main bearing cap is that the entire die-
casting and finishing process can he highly automated. This is a very important issue in
the automobile industry. [1]


In the process of Die-casting, First, a steel mold capable of producing tens of
thousands of castings in rapid succession must be made in at least two sections to permit
removal of castings. These sections are mounted securely in a machine and are arranged
so that one is stationary (fixed die half) while the other is moveable (injector die half). To
begin the casting cycle, the two die halves are clamped tightly together by the die casting
machine. [7] Molten metal is injected into the die cavity where it solidifies quickly. The
die halves are drawn apart and the casting is ejected. Die casting dies can be simple or
complex, having moveable slides, cores, or other sections depending on the complexity
of the casting.

The complete cycle of the die casting process is by far the fastest known for
producing precise non-ferrous metal parts. This is in marked contrast to sand casting
which requires a new sand mold for each casting. While the permanent mold process uses
iron or steel molds instead of sand, it is considerably slower, and not as precise as die
casting. [13]

Here, we include the two Die-casting process and explained their differences. Hot
chamber machines, as shown in Figure 6-2 are used primarily for zinc, and low melting
point alloys which do not readily attack and erode metal pots, cylinders and plungers.
Advanced technology and development of new, higher temperature materials has
extended the use of this equipment for magnesium alloys [7].


Figure 6-2. Figure 1: Hot Chamber Machine. Diagram illustrates the plunger
mechanism which is submerged in molten metal.

In the hot chamber machine, the injection mechanism is immersed in molten
metal in a furnace attached to the machine. As the plunger is raised, a port opens allowing
molten metal to fill the cylinder. As the plunger moves downward sealing the port, it
forces molten metal through the gooseneck and nozzle into the die. [7]After the metal has
solidified, the plunger is withdrawn, the die opens, and the resulting casting is ejected.

Hot chamber machines are rapid in operation. Cycle times vary from less than one
second for small components weighing less than one ounce to thirty seconds for a casting
of several pounds. Dies are filled quickly (normally between five and forty milliseconds)
and metal is injected at high pressures (1,500 to over 4,500 psi). Nevertheless, modern
technology gives close control over these values, thus producing castings with fine detail,
close tolerances and high strength

Cold chamber machines, as shown in Figure 6-3 below, differ from hot chamber
machines primarily in one respect; the injection plunger and cylinder are not submerged
in molten metal. The molten metal is poured into a "cold chamber" through a port or
pouring slot by a hand or automatic ladle. A hydraulically operated plunger, advancing
forward, seals the port forcing metal into the locked die at high pressures. Injection

pressures range from 3,000 to over 10,000 psi for both aluminum and magnesium alloys,
and from 6,000 to over 15,000 psi for copper base alloys.

Figure 6-3: Cold Chamber Machine. Diagram illustrates die, cold chamber and
horizontal ram or plunger.

In a cold chamber machine, more molten metal is poured into the chamber than is
needed to fill the die cavity. This helps sustain sufficient pressure to pack the cavity
solidly with casting alloy. Excess metal is ejected along with the casting and is part of the
complete shot.

Operation of a "cold chamber" machine is a little slower than a "hot chamber"
machine because of the ladling operation. A cold chamber machine is used for high
melting point casting alloys because plunger and cylinder assemblies are less subject to
attack since they are not submerged in molten metal.

The quality in die casting is maintained through the use of process controls and
feedback between the process control computer and the die casting machine. Process
controllers may utilize microprocessors to access transducers mounted on the die casting
machine, to obtain velocity, position, hydraulic pressure and tie-bar strain data, etc. The
microprocessor then adjusts the die casting machine operation through special valves thus
assuring consistent castings shot after shot. The process controller also collects machine
performance data for statistical analysis in quality control.

Machining process: Sealing surface milled flat to 0.05 mm and perpendicular to
datum a side to 0.025 mm, and dowel pin holes drilled.

6.4. Cost Analysis.

The cost for producing is found from a company that producing the bearing cap
called Twin City Die Castings Co. [8] Permanent mold and sand casting considered but
rejected as not cost-effective. Tighter tolerances in die cast part enabled savings of $10 to
$20 per unit in machining costs compared to sand casting.
Design & Production Considerations: Early die caster involvement aided in
redesigning uniform wall thicknesses; generous radii to achieve good die fill and very
tight porosity requirements. Die design enabled two variations of the part to be cast from
one set of tooling, at a $90,000 saving in tooling costs. Part is produced with grey iron
insert cast-in-place. [19]

7. VIBRATION DAMPER.

Figure 7-1. A vibration Damper.

7-1. Descriptions:

A vibration damper is a device usually attached to the front end of the crankshaft
to reduce the torsional vibration, or twisting action, caused by the cylinder firing
impulses. Also call the harmonic balancer.[2]

When the power stroke tends to twist the crankshaft, each power stroke applies a
force that may exceed 4000 lb on the crankpin. This force tries to push the crankpin
ahead of the rest of the crankshaft. Then, as the force on the crankpin recedes, the
crankshaft untwists. This twist-untwist action repeats with every power stroke. The action
tends to create an oscillating motion in the crankshaft. This is the torsional vibration and
can break the crankshaft. The vibration damper helps control torsional vibration. The
damper mounts on the front end of the crankshaft. This form the hub to which the
crankshaft pulley attachs. The inertia rings is bonded through the rubber ring to the
pulley. The inertia ring has a damping effect that tends to hold the crankshaft to a
constant speed. This cancels the twist-untwist action. [2]

The power impulses of an engine result in torsional vibration in the crankshaft. A
vibration damper mounted on the front of the crankshaft controls this vibration as shown
in Figure 7-2. If this torsional vibration were not controlled, the crankshaft might actually
break at certain speeds.


Figure 7-2. A vibration damper descriptions.

Most types of vibration dampers resemble a miniature clutch. A friction facing is
mounted between the hub face and a small damper flywheel. The damper flywheel is
mounted on the hub face with bolts that go through rubber cones in the flywheel. These
cones permit limited circumferential movement between the crankshaft and damper
flywheel. That reduces the effects of the torsional vibration in the crankshaft. Several
other types of vibration dampers are used; however, they all operate in essentially the
same way.

There is more than one selection for the materials used in manufacturing the
damper. The Steel structure dampers are manufactured from AISI 5140 chrome moly
steel. These steel dampers are designed for high RPM applications and provide maximum
protection and performance.
Some harmonic balancers are manufactured from ductile iron to provide higher
strength and durability than OEM cast iron.

7-2. Production Requirements:

Replacement harmonic balancers / vibration damper are quickly becoming a hot
item for today's car owners. The reason is "Harmonic Vibrations" which can lead to a
variety of mechanical failures. "Harmonic vibrations" are specific and repeated vibration
patterns which pass through an object. In today's cars, such vibrations result from the
combustion of the air-fuel mixture. Each time a cylinder fires, the connecting rod pounds
the crankshaft journal as the force turns the crankshaft, causing energy to be dispersed
throughout the engine.
Thus, the vibration damper is designed to be manufactured such that it has high
strength. This is because it is used for the reduced the oscillating load, which will usually
cause a fatigue failure of the structure.


We know that the materials used to produce the harmonic balancer can be cast
iron. After our analysis, we found that this part is best produced by using the Vacuum
casting process. [1] This is because the Vacuum Casting process is an alternative to
investment, shell-mold, and green sand casting, and is particularly suitable for complex
shapes with uniform properties. This is an important aspect why this process is chosen. It
is important that a vibration damper have a uniform property throughout its shape. The
step in a Vacuum casting process is illustrated in the following Figure 7-3.[10]


Figure 7-3. Diagram illustrate the process of a Vacuum casting process.[10]

As shown in Figure 7-3, the steps in the Vacuum casting are as follow:

1. Pattern (with vent holes) is placed on hollow carrier plate.
2. A heater softens the .003" to .007" plastic film. Plastic has good elasticity and high
plastic deformation ratio.
3. Softened film drapes over the pattern with 300 to 600 mm Hg vacuum acting through
the pattern vents to draw it tightly around pattern.
4. Flask is placed on the film-coated pattern. Flask walls are also a vacuum chamber with
outlet shown.

5. Flask is filled with fine, dry unbonded sand. Slight vibration compacts sand to
maximum bulk density.
6. Sprue cup is formed and the mold surface leveled. The back of the mold is covered
with unheated plastic film.
7. Vacuum is applied to flask. Atmospheric pressure then hardens the sand. When the
vacuum is released on the pattern carrier plate, the mold strips easily.
8. Cope and drag assembly form a plastic-lined cavity. During pouring, molds are kept
under vacuum.
9. After cooling, the vacuum is a released and free-flowing sand drop away leaving a
clean casting, with no sand lumps. Sand is cooled for reuse.

The advantages of using this process are:

1. Very Smooth Surface Finish
-125-150 RMS is the norm. Cast surface of 200 or better, based on The Aluminum
Association of America STD AA-C5-E18.
2. Excellent Dimensional Accuracy
-Typically .010 up to 1 inch plus .002 per additional inch. Certain details can be held
closer.
3. Zero Draft
-Eliminates the need for machining off draft to provide clearance for mating parts and
assembly.
4. Thin Wall Sections
-Walls as low as .090 in some applications are possible.
5. Consistent Quality
-Very small features and lettering are possible.
6. Superior Machining
-All molding is semi-automatic. Variable "human factor" has been reduced.
7. Unlimited Pattern Life
-Patterns are protected by plastic film during each sand molding cycle.

8. Short-Run Production Capability
-Excellent for short-run production while waiting for hard tooling. The V-PROCESS
method can outproduce traditional prototype methods such as plaster or investment
castings

This process can be highly automotive, thus it is very suitable for automotives
industry. [11] This process is suitable for casting of high and low carbon alloy steel and
stainless steel parts.[10]

7-4. Cost Analysis.

A harmonic balancer cost around $90 dollars for a new part. However, we can see
that the manufacture cost will be less than this amount. [9]. The casting cost of using
Vacuum casting is considerably cost effective because the cost is almost the same as for
green sand casting.[1] For high production rate, the cost can be even reduced.

8. PISTON

Figure 8-1. A piston, in drawing and actual model.

8-1. Description:

The pistons primary function is sliding up and down in a cylinder compressing
an air fuel mixture. Starting at the bottom of this stroke, the piston compresses the air
fuel mixture to about 120 to 130 psi typically. Though in high performance engines, and
possible engine accessories this value could vary. With the air behaving according to the
ideal gas law and the fuel in a semi vapor form, for increased efficiency of explosion, the
sparkplug ignites the mixture forcing the piston to travel back down the cylinder. On the
very next stroke up the piston forces the burnt mixture out and then upon changing
direction the piston draws a clean air fuel mixture in for it to be compressed and fired all
over again. [19]

The work done by the piston in compressing the air is:

Upon doing an energy balance we could find the total work transferred to the
crankshaft, although we would also need to count the all-frictional forces acting the
piston as well.

Most pistons are cast aluminum alloy with secondary machining operations to cut
in piston ring groves, obtain a desired surface finish, and finish the piston pin-bearing
surface. However some high-end pistons are forged with secondary machining
operations. And other pistons may be made of an even higher quality aluminum alloy for
racing purposes. The desirable characteristics of a cast piston are that it has a lower
coefficient of thermal expansion than a forged piston. Thus the optimal clearance
between the piston and cylinder wall of .004 in can be attained with greater accuracy
[17]. For example, upon starting an engine in winter the expansion of the piston will be
less as the engine warms. In short, the piston needs less cold clearance compared to the
forged piston. [15]

The desirable characteristics of the forged piston is that it can withstand higher
pressures and to have higher yield strengths. With increased strengths, pressure can be
increased and therefore more work can be done by the piston making the engine more
powerful. Forged pistons are typically not used in high production vehicles, so not much
attention is given to them hereafter.
Typically pistons have three grooves for rings. All three are usually located in the
first 3/4 from the top of the piston. The first two are to provide for compression while
the third is to supply the cylinder walls with oil for ring and piston longevity. The rings
design and purposes are covered in a following section.[20]
Piston geometry also has a major influence on efficiency, power, and strength. A
piston with sunken tops of about 1/8 and rounded tops is also available. Pistons with
notches for valve clearances are also common. These factors are dependent on the
overall engine design. For example, they depend on the normal operating temperature
and pressure, length of the stroke and many other variables.
One of the most important variables as already point out, is the strength.
Knowing that a piston is repeatedly loaded with each cycle, this pressure must not exceed
the yield strength of the material. Up to the yield point small deformations can occur
within the piston to occur without causing permanent deformation. Hence the material is
in the elastic range of operation and as long as the fatigue strength is not achieved then
the life of the piston, in terms of failure/fracture, is not in jeopardy. [19]



Auto manufactures know about buying parts in large quantities and nonvalue-
added tooling costs. A nonvalue-added cost is associated with any activity that does not
directly add value to the product, ie) the tooling does not get sold to the buyer. So if one
style piston can be used in a 4, 6, and 8 cylinder engine with minimized shortcomings,
theyll do it. This cuts down on tooling costs and allow larger quantities of the part to be
bought.
Looking to GM Tonnawanda as an example, they produce multiple engine types.
Each day they may produce 2000 4 cylinder engines. So doing the elementary math, they
need 8000 pistons each day, just for this engine line. We have found that they at least, as
a whole produce 6000 engines a day of various designs, thats approximately 36000
pistons being used each day. Safe to say they get a quantity discount, and there is more
than one mold producing those pistons. Breaking it down over two 8 hour shifts, that is
roughly 690 pistons being installed every hour or 12 every minute. [21]

8-3. Process Description:

As pointed out pistons are typically cast. This process allows high production
quantities with an ability to vary desired characteristics. By varying the alloying content,
strengths and hardness may be varied according to desired outcomes. Chill plates could
be added to decrease solidification times and also obtain a specified columnar crystal
structure, thus maximizing strengths in a particular direction. Mold design also has
influence over the quality of the casting, porosity, molten fluid flow, cavities,
discontinuities, and inclusions are some of the biggest concerns associated with the
casting process.
Secondary machining operations are of critical importance as well. To achieve
such high production quantities, the piston manufacture probably employs automated
flexible or dedicated machining centers. For example, they have the pistons loaded into
machine automatically by some sort of feed conveyor. In the next step, this part is griped
by a hydraulic or pneumatic chuck, at which point the drilling and reaming operation
takes place on the piston pin-bearing surface. Then the lathe operations take place

cutting in the ring grooves. Finally, the OD grinding operation happens cleaning off any
burrs made by the previous operations. Aside from assembly of the rings the piston is
ready to be installed. We could view either machine as a rather large CNC screw
machine which could have up to 7 axes thus allowing machining of the top of the piston
as well. Sometimes it is desirable to take a second grip on the part so that machining of
multiple pistons can take place at the same time. There are numerous ways in machining
parts to save time even if only a couple of seconds. Added those seconds up over 10000
parts per day, thats a lot of time saved, driving down the cost of manufacturing.

8-4. Cost Analysis:

As hinted at earlier, economies of scale are a very real thing. A large buyer has
more bargaining power at the price counter. Buying in large quantities helps determine
their power. Specifically, the quantities were talking about mean that we are dealing with
a permanent mold casting process. Where multiple pistons are cast at once in one mold,
and there are probably dozens of the same mold. Making 1 to 5 molds using CNC
machining techniques there probably isnt much of a price difference based on quantity.
However price does start to decrease depending on the mold makers operating overhead,
and getting down the learning curve for a particular product. This savings is small
though. GM couldnt really care if it saves an extra $10.00 on the 33
rd
mold instead of
buying 32 molds.
The real savings comes in spreading out the cost of the mold over a million
pistons being cast. For example if we were to buy just 1 mold at $1000.00 and only make
one set of pistons for an 6 cylinder engine. Those are pretty expensive pistons at $170.00
each (with out casting and machining costs). Typically a standard piston should cost a
average person between $20.00 & $40.00 each. GM probably buys them for $3.00 each.
Associated with the $3.00 is the manufactures overhead: buildings, capital
equipment (machines), secretaries, and the manufacture has variable costs like the price
of material for castings. In short, the factors mentioned above really apply to any item
produced in mass quantities.

9. PISTON RING.

9-1. Description:

Piston rings are made from a medium to high quality spring type steel.
Thicknesses for the two compression on each piston are generally less than 1/8 and
greater than 1/32. The width or depth of the ring is approximately 50 to 75% greater
than the thickness dimension. Occasionally, the top ring is designed with a greater
thickness than the second ring. With the theory that the top ring does the majority of
compression and hence has the majority of the forces acting on it.

The oil retaining ring is composed of three individual parts. Two very thin rings,
made of spring steel as well, sandwich a corrugated ring made from such materials as a
aluminum alloy. The corrugation is similar to that found in the cross section of cardboard
whose purpose is to retain oil for lubricating the cylinder walls. The very thin rings only
purpose is to ensure that the oil retention ring is properly held in place.

All the rings are always designed with a split so that they can be mounted on the
piston. Design of the split can vary from piston to piston. One common design is a cut
straight through. Other designs may have the cut at an angle or following a s curve.
Still other designs could have a notch in the cut to match with a notch in the ring groove
to ensure proper installment and no rotation during the life of the engine.

Piston ring materials for automobile engines are being changed from current cast
iron to steels due to the severe operating conditions of engines, and cost saving for piston
ring production process. Hitachi Metals has developed and now is supplying high quality
steels, ASL42 and ASL81 for these applications. ASL42 and ASL81 that are C-Cr
martensitic stainless steels show excellent wear resistance, corrosion resistance and heat
resistance in comparison with Si-Cr steel and cast iron rings.


Following the example outlined for GM Buffalo, thats 64 thousand compression
rings and 36 thousand oil ring assemblies installed in engines each day at our local plant.
GM does not make the piston assemblies, but rather they buy the pistons from a vendor.

As with every machined component, tolerances and surface finishes are extremely
important to the intended purpose. An engineer trying to hold four decimal places on
diameters that are not integral in part design, cost the company they work for a great deal
of money. Parts and mold cavities requiring less tight tolerances cost a lot less to
manufacture and a higher production rate is guaranteed.

The importance related to rings, from the above discussion, is that the ring has
two very important dimensions. The OD when the split is compressed, and the thickness
which is a running fit in the piston. The third dimension which has less importance is
the width of the ring that recesses into the piston.


To meet the production requirements set from the GM example, multiple rings
must be made at once with the aid of automation. From a thin steel sheet multiple sets of
rings are stamped out of a multi cavity die. The newly formed rings are fed on to an
conveyer for heat treatment, and then on to an arbor. The arbor is loaded into an OD cnc
grinding machine and hydraulically compressed. The machine grinds the OD of 100
rings in a matter of seconds.
The oil retaining rings are produced in the same fashion as the compression rings.
However, the bronze corrugated part is probably formed using a continuous roll
forming/stamping method. Two mating wheels continuously corrugate and form the
metal followed by a shearing process to obtain the desired length. The amount of
pressure applied by the wheels does not have to be great because this metal is very thin
and ductile.

9-4. Cost Analysis:

The ease of which a part may be manufactured is directly related to the time of
manufacturing. A ring set is very simple to manufacture, which usually implies less time
and therefore less expensive. With increased dimensional accuracy the part becomes
more expensive to manufacture. With increased time of manufacturing, each part must
then carry a larger load of variable and fixed overhead.

The only other feasible alternative to this manufacturing would be to start the
process with a steel tube. Cutting the tube into thin slices followed by the processes
above could produce the rings. Although it is highly unlikely that tolerances will be the
same.

10. PISTON PIN:

10-1. Description:

The piston pin is the connection holding the piston on to the connecting rod.
They vary in size and material makeup according to the particular engine, but in general
they are made from medium to high quality harden steel tube. The tube is used because
the vast majority of the stresses associated with the firing of the piston are carried by the
infitesimal elements located near the outer surface. These include, rotating and shear
stresses caused by the rotation of the connecting rod and the moment caused by the firing
of the piston. Another reason for the use of a hollow pin is weight considerations. With
the pin located away from the crank shaft, a heavier pin would cause more moment hence
less work would be transferred to the crank. More work would have to be done moving
the heavier upper piston assembly back and forth.[15]

The surface of the pin is extremely smooth, almost mirror like. This is because it
is a bearing. A smoother finish causes less friction and less wear on the journals of both
the connecting rod and piston. The pin is lubricated with oil that is splashing around to
due the crank shaft rotation.


There are as many pins as there are pistons. Talking with a semi-retired GM
Power Train engineer, the Buffalo plant alone produces about 6-8 thousand engines per
day. They produce 4, 6 and 8 cylinder engines, and doing the simple math thats about
42 thousand pins, pistons, and connecting rods installed each day. [19]
It should be pointed out that every time a machine needs to re-grip a part or
change tooling, this adds a second or two the manufacture of the final product. This
adds up to 11000 seconds per day that could be used to make other parts.

10-3. Process Description

The pin tubing is form from molten metal using a continuous casting process
yielding long sections of tube. The tube is then cut to appropriate lengths and chamfered
in the same process. Next it loaded into an automated feeding machine to get ground on
the O.D. The grinding could be done by a centerless grinder, where the part is not really
gripped mechanically. But rather the part floats on a knife between one drive wheel
and one grinding wheel. The benefits of using a centerless grinder are that extremely
high tolerances and great surface finishes can be achieved, and very high production rate
is attained. The down side is that these grinders are very costly to buy and maintain. [18]

10-4. Cost Analysis:

To keep cost low the company providing the tubing also performs the necessary
machining and heat treating operations. This is due to the fact that the more times we
move the part with out performing operations the more money it costs a company to
produce a part. Moving and shipping the product are called non-value added activities,
which are pasted along to the end purchaser. [16] In short the less people or machines
have to move a part, the cheaper. The less machine time to produce a part, the cheaper it
becomes to manufacture. With GM Buffalo using 11 thousand a day, the price they pay
is probably no more than $.25 each. The retail prices can range from $2.00 to $10.00 a
piece

11 & 12. CONNECTING ROD AND ROD CAP.

Figure 11-1. A connecting Rod and Cap.

11.1 Description:

Connecting Rods are forged for high strength and toughness. They are hardened
and machined to close tolerances to ensure straightness, correct weight and alignment.
The connecting rod purpose is to link the piston and crank shaft together. Thus
the work done by the piston is transferred to the crank shaft, minus the frictional forces
acting on this subsystem. The rods are made of forged steel and have secondary
machining operations on critical diameters. [18] Due to the majority of work being done
by the piston, the connecting rod must have a strong compression strength. There are
very minimal tensile forces acting on the rod, and they only last for a fraction of a
second. The forged steel rods have been strain strengthen during their multiple step
formation process.


Rod compression strength is of the up most importance. Failure of a rod can
puncture a hole in the engine block. The forging process then is ideal for production
because of adding strain strengthening and allowing for high production quantities. The
type of forging process most likely utilizes a hot closed die followed by secondary
machining operations. There are the same amount of connecting rods in an engine as

pistons, and recalling our example of the GM Buffalo plant, thats about 40 thousand rods
installed a day. [20]

a. Forging process results in exceptionally high strength and durability.
b. Hardening and machining to close tolerances ensure straightness, correct weight and
alignment for smooth operation.
c. Tight piston pin and crankshaft bore tolerances provide an exact fit with other
components for top performance and long life.
d. Endurance testingup to four million cycles under normal loadsensures durability.

Power Engine Part's Chrome Nickel Moly Steel Racing Rods are manufactured
from the highest aircraft quality Chrome Moly Steel using precision engineering
techniques for Racing and High performance applications.

Rods and Caps are separately forged from Aircraft Quality Chrome Moley Steel
to obtain optimum grain flow. The AUTOCAD 14 blue print allows the super racing rods
to fit into any stroke. All big and small ends are finished with SUNNEN cross grind. All
cap screws are specially designed and manufactured for C.A.T. by ARP for stroker
application.
1. A18 aluminum bronze wrist pin bushings are made to withstand higher impact
force. A third hole drilled at end of the bushing releases any air pockets from the
bushing
2. Rods and caps are forged separately from the highest quality steel to obtain
optimum grain flow.
3. Surface hardness HRB 228-269 to ensure higher tensile strength.
4. All rods have been treated with magnaflux inspection, stress relieve, and shot
peening.
5. Weight control for each rod within five(5) gram tolerance, and balanced for every
set within eight(8) grams tolerance.
6. ARP bolts with tensile strength over 190,000 PSI.

7. Center to Center precision manufacturing with tolerances within 0.001" to obtain
the best possible performance.


The process used in manufacturing the connecting rod and caps are forging as we
have discussed before in the process of manufacturing the crankshaft. Starting with a
heated rod blank an initial form is given to the rod. After two to three more dies the final
shape of the rod is completed. However the flashing must be trimmed by yet another die
which shears off the rough edge and produces two holes in either end of the rod. One
large hole for connection to the crank shaft and a second smaller hole for connection to
the piston pin. The process of this forging process are shown in Figure 11-3.

Figure 11-3. Forging process for producing a connecting rod.

The final operations are done using machining procedures. First the large and
small holes are milled by a tool in a similar fashion to drilling but more precise. Then the
two raised edges surrounding the holes are milled flat and are perpendicular to the length
of the hole. Most likely a milling and drilling operation are happening at the same time
for the connecting rod bolts which are used to hold the next operation pieces together. In
order for assembly the larger of the two holes is cut in half. The cut is made
perpendicular to the length of the rod and must have a good surface finish so as not
having to need any more machining. Finally the small and large holes are ground leaving

a very smooth surface finish. However grinding the ID of large hole is some what more
complicated because there are two pieces. Using automation the two pieces are held
together while grinding takes place. [1]

Not mentioned in description of the rod is that when forming the part, the larger
hole must be elliptical. When the cutting of the large hole occurs some material is
removed and this needs to be compensated for. The amount of the larger diameter minus
the minor diameter is roughly the amount of material that can be allowed for cutting the
larger hole in half.

13. ROD BEARING.

Figure 13-1. A rod bearing in the connecting rod.

13-1. Descriptions:

Connecting rod bearings are inserts that fit into the connecting rod's lower end
and ride on the journals of the crankshaft. The rod bearings are what keep the pistons
smoothly turning the crankshaft. They fit between the piston rod and the crankshaft, and
are designed to work oil deep into the working faces. This mechanism is even deeper into
an engine than the rings (see previous installment), and a rod bearing failure is usually an
extremely awful event. The broken metal jams the piston, stopping crankshaft rotation
and causing the engine to seize. The piston rod bends or breaks, the cylinder faces are
damaged, and any numbers of other interrelated systems are trashed. The engine is then
thrown out. [13]


The bearing rod required being strong enough to sustain the load from the trust
and also radial load. Thus is must be strong. Also, because it is mounted on the
connecting rod, it must have high precision and also be manufacture such that it have
good surface finish. [12]

13-3. Process Used:

The process used to manufacture the Bearing rod is the same as the connecting
rod. That is using forging. By using forging, it can give the desired precision and also the
strength that we need in the application of the bearing rod.

13-4. Cost Analysis.

The Rod bearing is produce in a large quantity because it is use for every engines
and also it is replaceable. Thus, in mass production Company, the cost of producing a rod
bearing will be very low. Thus, by using forging process, the rod bearing can be produced
with a large amount and also low cost.

ASSEMBLY SEQUENCE, AUTOMATION PROCESS:

Each parts or component of a product must be designed so that it not only meets
design requirements and specifications, but also can be manufactured economically and
with relative ease. This board view is has now be recognized as the area of design of
manufacture. It is a comprehensive approach to production of goods and integrates the
design process with materials, manufacturing methods, process planning, assembly,
testing, and quality assurance. After each individual part has need manufactured, they are
assembled into a product. Assembly is am important phase of the overall manufacturing
operation and requires consideration of the ease, speed, and cost of putting parts together.
Also, many product must be designed such that disassemble is possible with relative ease
and less time consumption, enabling the products to be taken apart for maintenance,
servicing, or recycling of their components. [1]

Usually, a product that is easy to assemble is also easy to disassemble. The latest
trend now includes design for service, ensuring that individual parts in a product are
easier to reach and service. In this section, we will discuss how to assemble the parts in
Figure 1 that is provided. We assemble these parts according to the ease of manufacturing
and also consider the cost of assembly because the cost usually plays an important role in
determining the assembly process. [1] Today, most of the engine manufacturing uses
automation assembly to make the assembly process full automotive such that precision
position can be controlled and also decrease the error cause by human. The assembly
process for these thirteen parts will be discussed in the following paragraph.

Once all the components of the engine block have been properly manufactured,
they are then ready to be assembled. Due to the cost of automation, procedures requiring
high dexterity must be done by manual labor. For example the assembly of the piston to
the connecting rod, which is semi-automated. The typical steps would be:
1. Install one wrist pin into piston
2. Align small hole of the connecting rod with the hole in the piston.
3. Have assembler press the piston pin into the piston
4. Install second wrist pin.

The use of automation in this process would be that the piston and wrist pins are
transported to the assembler by conveyor. The second semi-automated step is the use of
puenewmatic tools to install the pins. This minimizes fatigue, and higher production
quantities.

A second example of a fully automated system is in relation to the machining of
the Engine block The Engine block comes in on a specially designed pallet racking
system. From there machines take the engine block and load it into a dedicated
machining center. A dedicated machine center is designed for machine only one
particular engine in mass quantities. These machining centers perform operations
relating to large machine surfaces first, then working there way down to smaller
machining operations. For example, the cylinder head surface is machined and the
cylinder to be sleeved is machined. The process that fallows is the machining of the
crankshaft bearing diameters as well as camshaft bearing diameters. This is then fallowed
by smaller process such as drilling, reaming and taping boltholes for mounting. The final
procedure preformed on the engine block in this area is to sleeve and hone the cylinder,
followed by loading it on to a conveyer system.

The crankshaft already pre-assembled with the flywheel and vibration dampener,
is aligned with a pneumatic or hydraulic machine. The assembler inserts the main
bearings and the proceeds to bolt on the main bearing caps with a pneumatic wrench
applies a specified torque to the bolts. The camshaft is inserted by an assembler and is
bolt down. The piston assembly, which includes the connecting rod and mated rod cap, is
inserted into the engine block by an assembler. To ease the inserting of the piston into
the cylinder a pneumatic sleeve is used to compress the rings. Once the piston is inserted
the rod and rod caps are bolted on to the crankshaft around the rod bearings. It is import
to remember that all these process are done using pneumatic wrench using an engineering
designed torque. Once these main components are installed smaller items are then
assembled to the block. These include the timing chain connected to the overhead
camshaft and head gasket and cylinder heads are added as well as an oil pump and
carburetion fixtures.


One advantage of automation is that it removes human error providing better
tolerances. The use of automation limits natural errors, because the design of the
machine is used for only one thing. It also limits random errors, such as thermal growth
of a tool. The primary use of automation is that it increases production quantity per unit
hour. It also saves the company valuable labor time and money. The problem with
automation is that it is engine specific and is hard to change an automated specific
system. For example in a dedicated machine that is designed to bore the cylinders on a
V6 cannot be used to manufacture a V8 engine without redesign. Another problem with
dedicated automation assembler process is the failure of one machine will hold up
production time.

CONCLUSION:

Many process are used to produce parts and shapes. There is usually more than
one method of manufacturing a part from a given material. The manufacturing process to
produce a particular part involves many considerations. Some of these considerations
include cost, appearance, volume of production, application of the material, and many
other issues. In this project, we try have try our best to find out the best method to
produce the parts in a engine. However, we need to know that the method of producing
these parts may differ for different manufacturer. Also, we need to know that
manufacturing process of parts keep changing because new technology showing up. And
a good method to produce one part today may not be a good method tomorrow since
technology keeps improving.

Manufacturing is a process of converting raw material into produce that is useful.
A key task for manufacturing engineering is to select an optimal manufacturing method
among multiple alternatives, given product design goals, process capabilities, and cost
considerations. Beside this, the selection of materials for different parts is also important
in determining a best manufacturing process.

In doing this project, we have learned the various possible process to produce a
part. It all depends on the manufacturer and also the material used. This project give us a
opportunity to experience the decision making on which process is more suitable to use
for manufacturing each part that have different quality requirements and usage.

APPENDICES:

Books:

1. Serope Kalpakjian, Manufacturing processes for Engineering materials. Third edition.
Addison Wesley Publishing Company. 1997.
2. Crouse, Anglin. Automotive Mechanics. 10
th
edition. McGraw-Hill International
Editions.

Website:
1. http://www.caterpillar.com/
2. http://www.catpep.com/Products.htm
3. http://www.forging.org/facts/wwhy2.htm
4. http://www.bishopcompanies.com/harmonic_balancers.htm
5. http://www.dalemfg.com/dale_009.htm
6. http://www.castingsdev.com/case_studies/allen.htm
7. http://www.diecasting.org/faq/introduction/whatis.htm
8. http://www.diecasting.org/ddc/castrs_7/castrs7f.htm#anchor86
9. http://www.ventureproducts.com/catalog1382.html
10. http://www.tpicast.com/vprocess.htm
11. http://www.denford.co.uk/metalcastprocess.htm
12. http://deltaforge.com/forging.html
13. www.members.tripod.com
14. www.members.tripod.com
15. www.britannica.com
16. www-personal.wccnet.org
17. www.peebles34.freeserve.co.uk
18. www.goldencasting.com
19. www.andrews-products.com
20. www.britannica.com
21. www.goldencasting.com

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State University of New York at Buffalo

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering.

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