Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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or other'ise, si$teen years later -y 4/ :/ (riffith, 'hose cinematic intention is recorded as: )The tas% I am tryin& to achieve is a-ove all to ma%e you see)/; (eor&e Bluestone)s all.-ut.pioneerin& 'or% in the film.literature field, Novels into Film, dra's attention to the similarity of the remar%s at the start of his study of )The T'o :ays of *eein&) , claimin& that )-et'een the percept of the visual ima&e and the concept of the mental ima&e lies the root difference -et'een the t'o media<)/9 In this 'ay he ac%no'led&es the connectin& lin% of )seein&) in his use of the 'ord )ima&e)/ At the same time, he points to the fundamental difference -et'een the 'ay ima&es are produced in the t'o media and ho' they are received/ Finally, thou&h, he claims that )conceptual ima&es evo%ed -y ver-al stimuli can scarcely -e distin&uished in the end from those evo%ed -y non.ver-al stimuli),6 and, in this respect, he shares common &round 'ith several other 'riters concerned to esta-lish lin%s -et'een the t'o media/ By this, I mean those commentaries 'hich address themselves to crucial chan&es in the 3mainly =n&lish8 novel to'ards the end of the nineteenth century; chan&es 'hich led to a stress on sho'in& rather than on tellin& and 'hich, as a result, reduced the element of authorial intervention in its more overt manifestations/ T'o of the most impressive of such accounts, -oth of them concerned 'ith on&oin& processes of transmutation amon& the arts, nota-ly -et'een literature and film, are Alan *pie&el Fiction and the Camera Eye7 and >eith Cohen Film and Fiction/" *pie&el)s avo'ed purpose is to investi&ate )the common -ody of thou&ht and feelin& that unites film form 'ith the modern novel),1 ta%in& as his startin&.point Flau-ert, 'hom he sees as the first &reat nineteenth. century e$emplar of )concreti?ed form), a form dependent on supplyin& a &reat deal of visual information/ @is line of en+uiry leads him to ,ames ,oyce 'ho, li%e Flau-ert, respects )the inte&rity of the seen o-Aect and / / / &ives it palpa-le presence apart from the presence of the o-server)/0 This line is pursued -y 'ay of @enry ,ames 'ho attempts )a -alanced distri-ution of emphasis in the renderin& of 'hat is loo%ed at, 'ho is loo%in&, and 'hat the loo%er ma%es of 'hat she Bi/e/ Maisie in What Maisie KnewC sees),! and -y 'ay of the Conrad..(riffith comparison/ *pie&el presses this comparison harder than Bluestone, stressin& that thou&h -oth may have aimed at the same point..a con&ruence of ima&e and concept..they did so from opposite directions/ :hereas (riffith used his ima&es to tell a story, as means to understandin&, Conrad 3*pie&el claims8 'anted the reader to 22222222222222222222
; 9 Duoted in 5e'is ,aco-s, The Rise of the American Film 3@arcourt, Brace: Ne' Eor%, !9!8, !/ (eor&e Bluestone/ Novels into Film 3Fniversity of California Press: Ber%eley and 5os An&eles, !718, / 6 I-id/ 61/ 7 Alan *pie&el, Fiction and the Camera Eye: isual Consciousness in Film and the Modern Novel 3Fniversity Press of Gir&inia: Charlottesville, !1"8/ " >eith Cohen, Film and Fiction: The !ynamics of E"change 3Eale Fniversity Press: Ne' @aven, !1!8/ 1 *pie&el, Fiction and the Camera Eye, p/ $iii/ 0 I-id/ "9/ ! I-id/ 77/
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)))seeH in and throu&h and finally past his lan&ua&e and his narrative concept to the hard, clear -edroc% of ima&es)/ I #ne effect of this stress on the physical surfaces and -ehaviours of o-Aects and fi&ures is to de. emphasi?e the author)s personal narratin& voice so that 'e learn to read the ostensi-ly unmediated visual lan&ua&e of the later nineteenth.century novel in a 'ay that anticipates the vie'er)s e$perience of film 'hich necessarily presents those physical surfaces/ Conrad and ,ames further anticipate the cinema in their capacity for )decomposin&) a scene, for alterin& point of vie' so as to focus more sharply on various aspects of an o-Aect, for e$plorin& a visual field -y fra&mentin& it rather than -y presentin& it sceno&raphically 3i/e/ as if it 'ere a scene from a sta&e presentation8/ Cohen, concerned 'ith the )process of conver&ence) -et'een art.forms, also sees Conrad and ,ames as si&nificant in a comparison of novels and film/ These authors he sees as -rea%in& 'ith the representational novels of the earlier nineteenth century and usherin& in a ne' emphasis on )sho'in& ho' the events unfold dramatically rather than recountin& them)/ The analo&y 'ith film)s narrative procedures 'ill -e clear and there seems no dou-t that film, in turn, has -een hi&hly influential on the modern novel/ Cohen uses passa&es from Proust and Gir&inia :oolf to su&&est ho' the modern novel, influenced -y techni+ues of =isensteinian monta&e cinema, dra's attention to its encodin& processes in 'ays that the Gictorian novel tends not to/
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Bluestone, for instance, states -oldly that: )(riffith found in 4ic%ens hints for every one of his maAor innovations), 9 and Cohen, &oin& further, points to )the more or less -latant appropriation of the themes and content of the nineteenth.century -our&eois novel)/ 6 @o'ever, in spite of the fre+uency of reference to the 4ic%ens..(riffith connection, and apart from the historical importance of parallel editin& in the development of film narrative, the influence of 4ic%ens has perhaps -een overestimated and under.scrutini?ed/ #ne &ets the impression that critics steeped in a literary culture have fallen on the 4ic%ens.(riffith comparison 'ith a certain relief, perhaps as a 'ay of ar&uin& the cinema)s respecta-ility/ They have tended to concentrate on the thematic interests and the lar&e, formal narrative patterns and strate&ies the t'o &reat narrative.ma%ers shared, rather than to address themselves, as a film.oriented 'riter mi&ht, to detailed +uestions of enunciation, of possi-le parallels and disparities -et'een the t'o different si&nifyin& systems, of the ran&e of )functional e+uivalents) 7 availa-le to each 'ithin the parameters of the classical style as evinced in each medium/ As film came to replace in popularity the representational novel of the earlier nineteenth century, it did so throu&h the application of techni+ues practised -y 'riters at the latter end of the century/ Conrad 'ith his insistence on ma%in& the reader )see) and ,ames 'ith his techni+ue of )restricted consciousness), -oth playin& do'n o-vious authorial mediation in favour of limitin& the point of vie' from 'hich actions and o-Aects are o-served, provide dear e$amples/ In this 'ay they may -e said to have -ro%en 'ith the tradition of )transparency) in relation to the novel)s referential 'orld so that the mode and an&le of vision 'ere as much a part of the novel)s content as 'hat 'as vie'ed/ The comparisons 'ith cinematic techni+ue are clear -ut, parado$ically, the modern novel has not sho'n itself very adapta-le to film/ @o'ever persuasively it may -e demonstrated that the li%es of ,oyce, Faul%ner, and @emin&'ay have dra'n on cinematic techni+ues, the fact is that the cinema has -een more at home 'ith novels from..or descended from..an earlier period/ *imilarly, certain modern plays, such as !eath of a #alesman, E$uus, or M% &utterfly, 'hich seem to o'e somethin& to cinematic techni+ues, have lost a &ood deal of their fluid representations of time and space 'hen transferred to the screen/
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more or less una-ated for ninety years/ Film.ma%ers) reasons for this continuin& phenomenon appear to move -et'een the poles of crass commercialism and hi&h.minded respect for literary 'or%s/ No dou-t there is the lure of a pre.sold title, the e$pectation that respecta-ility or popularity achieved in one medium mi&ht infect the 'or% created in another/ The notion of a potentially lucrative )property) has clearly -een at least one maAor influence in the filmin& of novels, and perhaps film.ma%ers, as Frederic Japhael scathin&ly claims, )li%e %no'n +uantities / / / they 'ould sooner -uy the ri&hts of an e$pensive -oo% than develop an ori&inal su-Aect)/ " Nevertheless most of the film.ma%ers on record profess loftier attitudes than these/ 4e:itt Bodeen, co.author of the screenplay for Peter Fstinov &illy &udd 3 !";8, claims that: )Adaptin& literary 'or%s to film is, 'ithout a dou-t, a creative underta%in&, -ut the tas% re+uires a %ind of selective interpretation, alon& 'ith the a-ility to recreate and sustain an esta-lished mood)/ 1 That is, the adaptor should see himself as o'in& alle&iance to the source 'or%/ 4espite Peter Bo&danovich)s disclaimer a-out filmin& @enry ,ames !aisy Miller 3)I don)t thin% it)s a &reat classic story/ I don)t treat it 'ith that %ind of reverence) 08, for much of the time the film is a conscientious visual transliteration of the ori&inal/ #ne does not find film.ma%ers assertin& a -old approach to their source material, any more than announcin& crude financial motives/ As to audiences, 'hatever their complaints a-out this or that violation of the ori&inal, they have continued to 'ant to see 'hat the -oo%s )loo% li%e)/ Constantly creatin& their o'n mental ima&es of the 'orld of a novel and its people, they are interested in comparin& their ima&es 'ith those created -y the film.ma%er/ But, as Christian Met? says, the reader )'ill not al'ays find his film, since 'hat he has -efore him in the actual film is no' some-ody else)s phantasy)/ ! 4espite the uncertainty of &ratification, of findin& audiovisual ima&es that 'ill coincide 'ith their conceptual ima&es, reader. vie'ers persist in providin& audiences for )some-ody else)s phantasy)/ There is also a curious sense that the ver-al account of the people, places, and ideas that ma%e up much of the appeal of novels is simply one renderin& of a set of e$istents 'hich mi&ht Aust as easily -e rendered in another/ In this re&ard, one is reminded of Anthony Bur&ess)s cynical vie' that )=very -est.sellin& novel has to -e turned into a film, the assumption -ein& that the -oo% itself 'hets an appetite for the true fulfilment..the ver-al shado' turned into li&ht, the 'ord made flesh/);I And perhaps there is a parallel 'ith that late 22222222222222222222
" Frederic Japhael, H)Introduction)H, Two for the Road 3,onathan Cape: 5ondon, !"18/ 1 4e:itt Bodeen, H)The Adaptin& Art)H, Films in Review, 6K" 3,une.,uly !"98, 96!/ 0 ,an 4a'son, H)The Continental 4ivide: Filmin& @enry ,ames)H, #ight and #ound, 69K 3:inter !19. 68, 6; repr/ in part as )An Intervie' 'ith Peter Bo&danovich) in (/ Peary and J/ *hat?%in 3eds/8, The Classic American Novel and the Movies 3Frederic% Fn&ar Pu-lishin&: Ne' Eor%, !118/ ! Christian Met?, The (maginary #ignifier 3Indiana Fniversity Press: Bloomin&dale, !118, ;/ ;I Anthony Bur&ess, H)#n the @opelessness of Turnin& (ood Boo%s into Films)H, New )or* Times, ;I Apr !17, p/ 7/
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nineteenth.century phenomenon, descri-ed -y Michael Chanan in The !ream that Kic*s, of illustrated editions of literary 'or%s and illustrated ma&a?ines in 'hich &reat novels first appeared as serials/ There is, it seems, an ur&e to have ver-al concepts -odied forth in perceptual concreteness/ :hatever it is that ma%es film.&oers 'ant to see adaptations of novels, and film.ma%ers to produce them, and 'hatever ha?ards lie in the path for -oth, there is no denyin& the facts/ For instance, Morris BeAa reports that, since the inception of the Academy A'ards in !;1.0, )more than threefourths of the a'ards for H-est pictureH have &one to adaptations / / / Band thatC the all.time -o$.office successes favour novels even more)/; (iven that the novel and the film have -een the most popular narrative modes of the nineteenth and t'entieth centuries respectively, it is perhaps not surprisin& that film.ma%ers have sou&ht to e$ploit the %inds of response e$cited -y the novel and have seen in it a source of ready.made material, in the crude sense of pre.tested stories and characters, 'ithout too much concern for ho' much of the ori&inal)s popularity is intransi&ently tied to its ver-al mode/
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approach 'hich the more sophisticated 'riter may su&&est is no 'ay to ensure a )successful) adaptation, and to the )spirit) or )essence) of the 'or%/ The latter is of course very much more difficult to determine since it involves not merely a parallelism -et'een novel and film -ut -et'een t'o or more readin&s of a novel, since any &iven film version is a-le only to aim at reproducin& the film.ma%er)s readin& of the ori&inal and to hope that it 'ill coincide 'ith that of many other readersKvie'ers/ *ince such coincidence is unli%ely, the fidelity approach seems a doomed enterprise and fidelity criticism unilluminatin&/ That is, the critic 'ho +ui--les at failures of fidelity is really sayin& no more than: )This readin& of the ori&inal does not tally 'ith mine in these and these 'ays/) Fe' 'riters on adaptation have specifically +uestioned the possi-ility of fidelity; thou&h some have claimed not to em-race it, they still re&ard it as a via-le choice for the film.ma%er and a criterion for the critic/ BeAa is one e$ception/ In as%in& 'hether there are )&uidin& principles) for film.ma%ers adaptin& literature, he as%s: ):hat relationship should a film have to the ori&inal source< *hould it -e HfaithfulH< Can it -e< To 'hat<);9 :hen BeAa as%s )To 'hat) should a film.ma%er -e faithful in adaptin& a novel, one is led to recall those efforts at fidelity to times and places remote from present.day life/ In )period) films, one often senses e$haustive attempts to create an impression of fidelity to, say 4ic%ens)s 5ondon or to ,ane Austen)s villa&e life, the result of 'hich, so far from ensurin& fidelity to the te$t, is to produce a distractin& +uaintness/ :hat 'as a contemporary 'or% for the author, 'ho could ta%e a &ood deal relatin& to time and place for &ranted, as re+uirin& little or no scene.settin& for his readers, has -ecome a period piece for the film.ma%er/ As early as !;0, M/ :illson 4isher pic%ed up the scent of this misplaced fidelity in 'ritin& a-out a version of Ro.inson Crusoe: )Mr :etherell Bdirector, producer, 'riter and starC 'ent all the 'ay to To-a&o to shoot the ri&ht %inds of cree%s and caves, -ut he should have travelled not 'est'ards, -ut -ac%'ards, to reach Hthe islandH, and then he 'ould have arrived 'ith the ri&ht sort of lu&&a&e/L;6 4isher is not spea%in& a&ainst fidelity to the ori&inal as such -ut a&ainst a misconstrued notion of ho' it mi&ht -e achieved/ A more recent e$ample is Peter Bo&danovich)s use of the thermal -aths se+uence in his film of !aisy Miller/ )The mi$ed -athin& is authentically of the period), he claims in an intervie' 'ith ,an 4a'son/;7 Authentically of the period, perhaps, -ut not so of @enry ,ames, so that it is only a tan&ential, possi-ly irrelevant fidelity that is arrived at/ The issue of fidelity is a comple$ one -ut it is not too &ross a simplification to su&&est that critics have encoura&ed film.ma%ers to see it as a desira-le &oal in the adaptation of literary 'or%s/ As Christopher #rr has noted: )The concern 22222222222222222222
;9 ;6 ;7 BeAa, Film and -iterature/ 0I/ M/ :illson 4isher, H)Classics into Films)H, Fortnightly Review, N* ;6 3 4ec !;08, 10!/ 4a'son, )The Continental 4ivide) , 6/
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'ith the fidelity of the adapted film in letter and spirit to its literary source has un+uestiona-ly dominated the discourse on adaptation/);" The issue is inevita-ly raised in each of the succeedin& Case.*tudies, and is the o-Aect of a *pecial Focus in the study of !aisy Miller, 'hich offers revealin& insi&hts into the limits of fidelity, especially from the film.ma%er)s point of vie'/ Obscuring other issues The insistence on fidelity has led to a suppression of potentially more re'ardin& approaches to the phenomenon of adaptation/ It tends to i&nore the idea of adaptation as an e$ample of conver&ence amon& the arts, perhaps a desira-le..even inevita-le..process in a rich culture; it fails to ta%e into serious account 'hat may -e transferred from novel to film as distinct from 'hat 'ill re+uire more comple$ processes of adaptation; and it mar&inali?es those production determinants 'hich have nothin& to do 'ith the novel -ut may -e po'erfully influential upon the film/ A'areness of such issues 'ould -e more useful than those many accounts of ho' films )reduce) &reat novels/ Modern critical notions of interte$tuality represent a more sophisticated approach, in relation to adaptation, to the idea of the ori&inal novel as a )resource)/ As Christopher #rr remar%s: ):ithin this critical conte$t Bi/e/ of interte$tualityC, the issue is not 'hether the adapted film is faithful to its source, -ut rather ho' the choice of a specific source and ho' the approach to that source serve the film)s ideolo&y/);1 :hen, for instance, M(M filmed ,ames @ilton !6 -estseller, Random 'arvest, in the follo'in& year, its ima&es of an unchan&in& =n&land had as much to do 'ith @olly'ood antiisolationism 'ith re&ard to :orld :ar II as 'ith findin& visual e+uivalents for anythin& in @ilton/ The film -elon&s to a rich conte$t created -y notions of @olly'ood)s =n&land, -y M(M)s reputation for presti&ious literary adaptation and for a &lossy )house style), -y the &enre of romantic melodrama 3cf/ Re.ecca, !6I, This A.ove All, !6;8, and -y the idea of the star vehicle/ @ilton)s popular -ut, in truth, undistin&uished romance is -ut one element of the film)s interte$tuality/ *ome 'riters have proposed strate&ies 'hich see% to cate&ori?e adaptations so that fidelity to the ori&inal loses some of its privile&ed position/ (eoffrey :a&ner su&&ests three possi-le cate&ories 'hich are open to the film.ma%er and to the critic assessin& his adaptation: he calls these 3 a 8 transposition, )in 'hich a novel is &iven directly on the screen 'ith a minimum of apparent interference);;0 3 - 8 commentary, )'here an ori&inal is ta%en and either purposely or inadvertently altered in some respect / / / 'hen there has 22222222222222222222
;" Christopher #rr, H)The 4iscourse on Adaptation)H, Wide Angle, "K; 3 !068, ;1 I-id/ ;0 (eoffrey :a&ner, The Novel and the Cinema 3Fairlei&h 4ic%inson Fniversity Press: Jutherford, N,, !178, ;;;/
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-een a different intention on the part of the film.ma%er, rather than infidelity or outri&ht violation);;! and 3 c 8 analo&y, 'hich must represent a fairly considera-le departure for the sa%e of ma%in& another 'or% of art)/9I The critic, he implies, 'ill need to understand 'hich %ind of adaptation he is dealin& 'ith if his commentary on an individual film is to -e valua-le/ 4udley Andre' also reduces the modes of relation -et'een the film and its source novel to three, 'hich correspond rou&hly 3-ut in reverse order of adherence to the ori&inal8 to :a&ner)s cate&ories: )Borro'in&, intersection, and fidelity of transformation)/9 And there is a third compara-le classification system put for'ard -y Michael >lein and (illian Par%er: first, )fidelity to the main thrust of the narrative); second, the approach 'hich )retains the core of the structure of the narrative 'hile si&nificantly reinterpretin& or, in some cases, deconstructin& the source te$t); and, third, re&ardin& )the source merely as ra' material, as simply the occasion for an ori&inal 'or%)/9; The parallel 'ith :a&ner)s cate&ories is clear/ There is nothin& definitive a-out these attempts at classification -ut at least they represent some heartenin& challen&es to the primacy of fidelity as a critical criterion/ Further, they imply that, unless the %ind of adaptation is identified, critical evaluation may 'ell -e 'ide of the mar%/ The faithful adaptation 3e/&/ !aisy Miller or ,ames Ivory 'oward/s End, !!;8 can certainly -e intelli&ent and attractive, -ut is not necessarily to -e preferred to the film 'hich sees the ori&inal as )ra' material) to -e re'or%ed, as @itchcoc% so persistently did, from, say, #a.otage 3 !9"8 to The &irds 3 !"98/ :ho, indeed, ever thin%s of @itchcoc% as primarily an adaptor of other people)s fictions< At a further e$treme, it is possi-le to thin% of a film as providin& a commentary on a literary te$t, as :elles does on three *ha%espearian plays in Chimes at Midnight 3 !""8, or as (us Gan *ant does in My 0wn 1rivate (daho 3 !!;8, dra'in& on -oth *ha%espeare and :elles/ There are many %inds of relations 'hich may e$ist -et'een film and literature, and fidelity is only one.. and rarely the most e$citin&/ REDEFINING ISSUES AND A NEW A ROAC!
narrative to -oth/ :hatever the cinema)s sources..as an invention, as a leisure pursuit, or as a means of e$pression..and 'hatever uncertainties a-out its development attend its earliest years, its hu&e and dura-le popularity is o'ed to 'hat it most o-viously shares 'ith the novel/ That is, its capacity for narrative/ By the time of =d'in Porter The +reat Train Ro..ery 3 !I98, in 'hich scenes set in different locations are spliced toðer to tell a story, the cinema)s future as a narrative art 'as settled, and no su-se+uent development of its techni+ues has threatened the supremacy of that function/ Christian Met?, discussin& film narrativity, 'rites: )Film tells us continuous stories; it HsaysH thin&s that could -e conveyed also in the lan&ua&e of 'ords; yet it says them differently/ There is a reason for the possi-ility as 'ell as for the necessity of adaptations/)99 @e &oes on to consider the )demand) for the feature.len&th fiction film, )'hich 'as only one of the many conceiva-le &enres),96 -ut 'hich has dominated film production/ )The -asic formula, 'hich has never chan&ed, is the one that consists in ma%in& a lar&e continuous unit that tells a story and callin& it a HmovieH/ H(oin& to the moviesH is &oin& to see this type of story/)97 :hatever other uses the cinema mi&ht have found, it is, as Met? su&&ests, as a story.teller that it found its &reatest po'er and its lar&est audience/ Its em-our&eoisement inevita-ly led it a'ay from tric% sho's, the recordin& of music halls acts and the li%e, to'ards that narrative representationalism 'hich had reached a pea% in the classic nineteenth. century novel/ If film did not &ro' out of the latter, it &re' to'ards it; and 'hat novels and films most stri%in&ly have in common is the potential and propensity for narrative/ And narrative, at certain levels, is undenia-ly not only the chief factor novels and the films -ased on them have in common -ut is the chief transfera-le element/ If one descri-es a narrative as a series of events, causally lin%ed, involvin& a continuin& set of characters 'hich influence and are influenced -y the course of events, one reali?es that such a description mi&ht apply e+ually to a narrative displayed in a literary te$t and to one in a filmic te$t/ Nevertheless, much of the dissatisfaction 'hich accompanies the 'ritin& a-out films adapted from novels tends to sprin& from perceptions of )tamperin&) 'ith the ori&inal narrative/ :ords li%e )tamperin&) and )interference), and even )violation), &ive the 'hole process an air of deeply sinister molestation, perhaps sprin&in& from the vie'er)s th'arted e$pectations relatin& to -oth character and event/ *uch dissatisfactions resonate 'ith a comple$ set of misapprehensions a-out the 'or%in&s of narrative in the t'o media, a-out the irreduci-le differences -et'een the t'o, and from a failure to distin&uish 'hat can from 'hat cannot -e transferred/ 22222222222222222222
99 Christian Met?, Film -anguage: A #emiotics of the Cinema , trans/ Michael Taylor 3 #$ford Fniversity Press: Ne' Eor%, !168, 66/ 96 I-id/ 97 I-id/ 67/
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To -e&in 'ith the last point: there is a distinction to -e made -et'een 'hat may -e transferred from one narrative medium to another and 'hat necessarily re+uires adaptation proper/ Throu&hout the rest of this study, )transfer) 'ill -e used to denote the process 'here-y certain narrative elements of novels are revealed as amena-le to display in film, 'hereas the 'idely used term )adaptation) 'ill refer to the processes -y 'hich other novelistic elements must find +uite different e+uivalences in the film medium, 'hen such e+uivalences are sou&ht or are availa-le at all/
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such alternative conse+uences/ The lin%in& toðer of cardinal functions provides the irreduci-le -are -ones of the narrative, and this lin%in&, this )tie -et'een t'o cardinal functions, is invested 'ith a dou-le functionality, at once chronolo&ical and lo&ical)/9! These cardinal functions, or, in *eymour Chatman)s terms, %ernels 3)narrative moments that &ive rise to cru$es in the direction ta%en -y events)6I8, are, as I shall sho', transfera-le: 'hen a maAor cardinal function is deleted or altered in the film version of a novel 3e/&/ to provide a happy rather than a som-re endin&8, this is apt to occasion critical outra&e and popular disaffection/ The film.ma%er -ent on )faithful) adaptation must, as a -asis for such an enterprise, see% to preserve the maAor cardinal functions/ @o'ever, even if the latter are preserved in the filmin& process, they can -e )deformed) -y varyin& the catalysers 'hich surround them/ Catalysers 3in Chatman)s term, satellites8 'or% in 'ays 'hich are complementary to and supportive of the cardinal functions/ They denote small actions 3e/&/ the layin& of the ta-le for a meal 'hich may in turn &ive rise to action of cardinal importance to the story8; their role is to root the cardinal functions in a particular %ind of reality, to enrich the te$ture of those functions: )their functionality is attenuated, unilateral, parasitic: it is a +uestion of a purely chronolo&ical functionality), 6 in Barthes)s 'ords/ Fnli%e the )ris%y moments) created -y cardinal functions, the catalysers )lay out areas of safety, rests, lu$uries);6; they account for the moment.to. moment minutiae of narrative/ In so far as these functions, 'hether cardinal or catalysin&, are not dependent on lan&ua&e, in the sense that they denote aspects of story content 3actions and happenin&s8 'hich may -e displayed ver-ally or audio.visually, they are directly transfera-le from one medium to the other/ Amon& the inte&rational functions, 'hich Barthes su-divides into indices proper and informants, only the latter may -e directly transferred/ :hereas the former relate to concepts such as character and atmosphere, are more diffuse than the functions proper, and are therefore more -roadly open to adaptation rather than to the comparative directness of transfer, informants )are pure data 'ith immediate si&nification)/69 They include )ready.made %no'led&e) such as the names, a&es, and professions of characters, certain details of the physical settin&, and, in these senses and in their o'n 'ays, share the authenticatin& and individuatin& functions performed in other respects -y catalysers, and they are often amena-le to transfer from one medium to another/ :hat Barthes desi&nates as cardinal functions and catalysers consti. 22222222222222222222
9! Barthes, )Introduction to the *tructural Analysis of Narratives) , !6/ 6I *eymour Chatman, #tory and !iscourse: Narrative #tructure in Fiction and Film 3 Cornell Fniversity Press: Ithaca, NE, !108, 79/ 6 Barthes, )Introduction to the *tructural Analysis of Narratives) , !6/ 6; I-id/ !7/ 69 I-id/ !"/
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tutes the formal content of narrative 'hich may -e considered independently of 'hat Chatman calls )its manifestin& su-stance) 3e/&/ novel or film8, and informants, in their o-Aective name.a-ility, help to em-ed this formal content in a reali?ed 'orld, &ivin& specificity to its a-straction/ Perhaps informants may -e seen as a first, small step to'ards mimesis in novel and film, the full mimetic process relyin& heavily on the functionin& of the indices proper, to 'hich I shall return shortly/ I should note at this point that Barthes has su-se+uently modified the structural ta$onomy set up here 'ith his desi&nation of the five narrative codes 'hich structure all classical narrative in *KM, his readin& of Bal?ac *arrasine/ For my purposes, the earlier distinction -et'een distri-utional and inte&rational functions, 'ith the metaphors implied in their characteri?ation, provides a more accessi-le and usa-le ta$onomy in esta-lishin& 'hat may -e transferred from a lon&, comple$ 'or% in one medium to a lon&, comple$ 'or% in another/ Barthes 'as not, of course, concerned 'ith cinematic narrative 'hen he 'rote his )*tructural Analysis) essay, -ut, in Jo-in :ood)s 'ords, )the critic has the ri&ht to appropriate 'hatever)sKhe needs from 'herever it can -e found, and use it for purposes some'hat different from the ori&inal ones)/66
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3a8 "he sub%ecti&e cine'a The su-Aective cinema on the scale of The -ady in the -a*e 3 !6"8 has scarcely -een tried since, in mainstream film.ma%in& at least, and has the status of a curiosity rather than of a maAor contri-ution to screen practice/ #f its more locali?ed manifestations 3e/&/ the point. of.vie' shot or succession of shots8, screen narration has clearly made much use, as in Alan Brid&es) film version of Je-ecca :est)s novella The Return of the #oldier 3 !0;8, in 'hich the first. person narration of the ori&inal is reduced to allo'in& the novel)s narrator a preponderance of point. of.vie' shots/ @o'ever, a )preponderance) is -y no means e+uivalent to the continuin& shapin&, analysin&, directin& consciousness of a first.person narrator/ Further, as Thomas =lsaesser has noted, )The su-Aective perception ..'hat the characters themselves see and ho' they e$perience it.. is inte&rated 'ith an o-Aective presentation of these individual points of vie' and 'hat they si&nify inside the same narrative movement and the continuous action/)67 :hile cinema may -e more a&ile and fle$i-le in chan&in& the physical point of vie' from 'hich an event or o-Aect is seen, it is much less amena-le to the presentation of a consistent psycholo&ical vie'point derived from one character/ 3-8 Oral narration or &oice#o&er The device of oral narration, or voice.over, may serve important narrative functions in film 3e/&/ reinforcin& a sense of past tense8 -ut, -y virtual necessity, it cannot -e more than intermittent as distinct from the continuin& nature of the novelistic first.person narration/ 3:oody Allen Radio !ays 3 !018 is one of the fe' films that 'ould -e incomprehensi-le 'ithout its voice.over/8 In usual film practice, the narratin& voice.over may -e dropped for se+uences at a time: in fact, a sustained, non.die&etic oral accompaniment to visually presented action is scarcely feasi-le in relation to the feature films 'ith 'hich this study 3li%e most cinema audiences8 is concerned/ Those 'ords spo%en in voice.over accompany ima&es 'hich necessarily ta%e on an o-Aective life of their o'n/ #ne no lon&er has the sense of everythin&)s -ein& filtered throu&h the consciousness of the prota&onist.spea%er: even in a film such as 4avid 5ean +reat E",ectations, 'hich &oes to unusual len&ths to retain the novel)s )first.person) approach, the &rotes+ues 'ho people Pip)s 'orld are no lon&er presented to the vie'er as an individual)s su-Aective impressions/ #ne no' sees everythin& the camera )sees), not Aust 'hat impressed itself on the hero.narrator)s ima&inative responsiveness/ In relation to those films 'hich employ the voice. over techni+ue, one)s sense of the character to 'hom it is attri-uted is more li%ely to -e the product of his involvement in the action directly presented than of his occasional comment upon it, 'hereas this is fre+uently not the case in the first.person novel/ 22222222222222222222
67 Thomas =lsaesser, )Film and the Novel: Jeality and Jealism of the Cinema) , Twentieth Century #tudies/ ! 3 *ept !198, " /
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"he o'niscient no&el The narrative in such a novel is conveyed throu&h t'o %inds of discourses: those attri-uted to various characters in direct speech 3Colin MacCa-e)s )o-Aect lan&ua&e)6"8 and that of the narrative 3I should prefer )narratin&)8 prose, the apparently authoritative )metalan&ua&e) 'hich surrounds them/ It is this latter 'hich &uides our readin& of the direct speech of the characters/ MacCa-e &oes on to construct an analo&y -et'een these t'o %inds of discourse as they appear in the novel and in the film: The narrative prose achieves its position of dominance -ecause it is in the position of %no'led&e and this function of %no'led&e is ta%en up in the cinema -y the narration of events/ Throu&h the %no'led&e 'e &ain from the narrative 'e can split the discourses of the various characters from their situation and compare 'hat is said in those discourses 'ith 'hat has -een revealed to us throu&h narration/ The camera sho's us 'hat happens..it tells the truth a&ainst 'hich 'e can measure the discourses/61 )The camera sho's us 'hat happens / / /)/ 4avid Bord'ell has ta%en issue 'ith MacCa-e)s hierarchy of discourses, -oth for its oversimplification of the classic realist novel and for the 'ay in 'hich it )reduceBsC the ran&e of filmic narration)/ @e particularly challen&es MacCa-e)s )privile&in& of camera 'or% / / / over other film techni+ues), claimin& that )all materials of cinema function narrationally..not only camera -ut speech, &esture, 'ritten lan&ua&e, music, color, optical processes, li&htin&, costume, even offscreen space and offscreen sound)/60 There is a certain captiousness in Bord'ell)s response since, it seems to me at least, MacCa-e)s use of )the camera) is a shorthand 'ay of referrin& to all those narrational materials 'hich the camera can sho' or imply: that is, all from Bord'ell)s list e$cept those 'hich relate to soundtrac%, 'hich can, of course, initiate a tension 'ith the visual ima&e/ Clearly, certain functions of the narratin& prose, such as esta-lishin& settin& and physical appearance of characters, can -e achieved throu&h the film)s mise. en.scNne/ #ther functions, such as those 'hich ena-le us, throu&h the 'riter)s tone, to evaluate a character)s speech, seem less immediately amena-le to the camera)s eye/ The camera in this sense -ecomes the narrator -y, for instance, focusin& on such aspects of mise.en.scNne as the 'ay actors loo%, move, &esture, or are costumed, or on the 'ays in 'hich they are positioned in a scene or on ho' they are photo&raphed: in these 'ays the camera may catch a )truth) 'hich comments on and +ualifies 'hat the characters actually say/ It is, ho'ever, too simple to su&&est that the mise.en.scNne, or its deployment -y the cinematic codes 3nota-ly that of monta&e8, can effortlessly 22222222222222222222
6" !168, 61 60 Colin MacCa-e, )Jealism and the Cinema: Notes on *ome Brechtian Theses) , #creen 7K; 3 *ummer I/ I-id/ 4avid Bord'ell, Narration in the Fiction Film 3 Methuen: 5ondon, !078, ;I/
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appropriate the role of the omniscient, inaudi-le narrator, or that the camera 3to interpret MacCa-e more narro'ly8, -y )sho'Bin&C 'hat happens), replaces such a narrator/ For one thin& 3and a very o-vious one8 the camera here used metonymically to denote its operator and 'hoever is tellin& him 'hat to aim it at, and ho'..is outside the total discourse of the film, 'hereas the omniscient narrator is ine$trica-ly a part of the novel)s/ #r perhaps it is truer to say that the omniscient narration is ine$trica-ly part of the novel)s total discourse, as much so as the spo%en 'ords of the characters/ 3@o'ever, 'hereas the latter..the spo%en 'ords..can, if a film.ma%er 'ants them to, -e rendered 'ord for 'ord -y the characters in the film, clearly no such possi-ility e$ists for the narration: for that narrational prose to 'hich, in most novels, 'e allo' a privile&ed position of %no'led&e a-out characters, periods, places; %no'led&e 'hich may in fact -e concealed from characters in the novel/8 By e$ercisin& control over the mise.en.scNne and soundtrac% or throu&h the manipulations of editin&, the film.ma%er can adapt some of the functions of this narrational prose/ The latter may indicate adver-ially the tone of voice in 'hich a remar% is made -y a character; the camera, on the other hand, may re&ister a similar effect throu&h attention to the actor)s facial e$pression or posture 3i/e/ aspects of the mise.en.scNne8, or -y cuttin& so as to reveal a response to such a remar% 3i/e/ throu&h monta&e8 'hich 'ill &uide the vie'er)s perception of the remar%, as 'ell as throu&h the actor)s vocal inflection 3i/e/ throu&h sound.trac%8/ In re&ard to renderin& on film the descriptive functions of narratin& prose, relatin& to places, o-Aects, activities, there is perhaps a stron&er possi-ility of the ne' 3cinematic8 reality at once displacin& the earlier 3ver-ally created8 reality; in matters relatin& to character and to the psycholo&ical action involvin& characters, the situation is more comple$/ There is, in film, no such instantly apparent, instantly availa-le commentary on the action unfoldin& as the novel)s narratin& prose ha-itually offers/ In the omniscient novel, in 'hich this prose is not )suspect) in the sense of -elon&in& to a first.person narrator, the continuin& mediation -et'een the reader and the action of the novel is, -y virtue of its privile&ed status as )%no'led&e), the reader)s &uarantee of the )truth) of the proceedin&s/ In a sense, all films are omniscient: even 'hen they employ a voice.over techni+ue as a means of simulatin& the first person novelistic approach, the vie'er is a'are, as indicated earlier, of a level of o-Aectivity in 'hat is sho'n, 'hich may include 'hat the prota&onist sees -ut cannot help includin& a &reat deal else as 'ell/ "he 'o(e of )restricte( consciousness) In -road terms, it appears that neither first.person nor omniscient narration is, of its nature, amena-le to cinematic narrative/ Both seem al'ays to %no' too much, or at least to %no' more than 'e feel is %no'n in advance -y the . 0.
more directly e$perienced film narrative; and this sense of fore%no'led&e is no dou-t intimately connected to the characteristic past.tense renderin& of the prose narrative as opposed to the perceptual immediacy of the film/ The novelistic form of the restricted consciousness 3as in !aisy Miller8 perhaps appro$imates most closely to the cinematic narrative mode/ Cohen, in discussin& the techni+ues of Conrad and ,ames, and ma%in& comparisons 'ith impressionist painters, 'rites: The indirect approach of these novelists BConrad and Ford Mado$ FordC is not fully comprehensi-le 'ithout reference to their unconventional handlin& of point of vie'/ / / / The reader, one mi&ht say, is constantly forced to pass throu&h several fore&rounds -efore he can ma%e out clearly 'hat is loomin& in the -ac%&round/ / / / The same -asic mechanism is operative 'ith ,ames)s )central reflectors) throu&h 'hom all or nearly all of the action ta%es place/6! *uch )central reflectors)..for e$ample, *trether in The Am.assadors, :inter-oume in !aisy Miller ..provide a point of identification for the reader, not necessarily in the affective sense -ut as a more or less consistently placed vanta&e.point from 'hich to o-serve the action of the narrative/ #ne is conscious al'ays that there is a more comprehensive point of vie' than that availa-le to such prota&onists; that there is, as it 'ere, a narrator loo%in& over their shoulder, in the 'ay that the camera may vie' an action over the shoulder of a character in the fore&round of a shot, &ivin& the vie'er -oth the character)s point of vie' and a sli&htly 'ider point of vie' 'hich includes the character/ The ,amesian concept of the )centre of consciousness), -y no means to -e confused 'ith narrational omniscience or the latter)s o-literation -y first.person narration, is perhaps the nearest that film may come in the direction of either first. or third.person narration/ Its use 'ill -e e$amined in more detail in the case.study of !aisy Miller/
A Note on Terminolo&y
The fore&oin& distinctions considered under the headin&s of )Narrative Functions) and )>inds of Narration) may -e summari?ed as those -et'een a series of events se+uentially and conse+uentially arran&ed and the modes 3more easily distin&uisha-le in literary terms8 of their presentation/ This distinction -et'een narrative and narration finds rou&h parallels in that -et'een story and discourse/ The latter pair.. histoire and discours in modern French poetic..derives from the Jussian Formalist distinction of the !;Is )-et'een fa-ula ..the story.material as pure chronolo&ical se+uence..and su?et, the plot as arran&ed and edited -y the shapin& of a story.teller, i/e/ the finished narrative 'or% as 'e e$perience it in a te$t; no lon&er pure story -ut 22222222222222222222
6! Cohen, Film and Fiction, 97/
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a selective narrative act),7I in Jo&er Fo'ler)s 'ords/ @istoire and discours he &oes on to define as )story.matter and its manner of delivery)/7 In the proliferatin& terminolo&y of film theory, a further parallel fre+uently su-sumes the cate&ories referred to a-ove in discussions of enunciated and enunciation/ #f these terms, ori&inatin& 'ith the lin&uist Omile Benveniste, the former desi&nates the )utterance) 3l)PnoncP8 as manifested in )a stretch of te$t)7; 34avid Bord'ell)s phrase8, as a coherent set of events enacted in a series of synta&matic units, as the sum of its narrative functions/ The latter, the enunciation 3l)Pnonciation8, characteri?es the process that creates, releases, shapes 3I am a'are of &ropin& for e$actly the ri&ht 'ord8 the )utterance)/ =nunciation, that is, refers to the 'ays in 'hich the utterance is mediated, and, as such, o-viously shares common &round 'ith narration, su?et, and discourse/ Neither film nor novel is )transparent), ho'ever much either see%s to suppress si&ns of its enunciation, such )suppression) -ein& much more mar%ed in the case of film/ Film may lac% those literary mar%s of enunciation such as person and tense, -ut in the 'ays in 'hich, for e$ample, shots are an&led and framed and related to each other 3i/e/ in matters relatin& to mise.en.scNne and monta&e8 the enunciatory processes are inscri-ed/ The institutional codes and their often hi&hly individual deployment -y different film.ma%ers can either minimi?e or fore&round the processes of cinematic enunciation -ut they cannot eradicate them, even 'hen, as Met? 'rites, )films &ive us the feelin& that 'e are 'itnessin& almost a real spectacle)/79 Film enunciation, in relation to the transposition of novels to the screen, is a matter of adaptation proper, not of transfer/ In the case.studies offered -elo', it 'ill -e considered in relation to ho' far the films concerned e$hi-it the interaction of cinema.specific and e$tra.cinematic codes, and to 'hat e$tent they provide..or see% to provide..e+uivalences for the enunciatory procedures of the novels on 'hich they are -ased/ An essential function of this study 'ill -e to distin&uish -et'een: i/ those elements of the ori&inal novel 'hich are transfera-le -ecause not tied to one or other semiotic system..that is, essentially, narrative ; and ii/ those 'hich involve intricate processes of adaptation -ecause their effects are closely tied to the semiotic system in 'hich they are manifested..that is, enunciation/ I have preferred )enunciation), finally, to )narration) -ecause the latter is too often attached, in a limitin& 'ay, to matters of person and tense/ By enunciation, I mean the 'hole e$pressive apparatus that &overns the presentation and reception..of the narrative/ 22222222222222222222
7I 7 7; 79 Jo&er Fo'ler, -inguistic and the Novel 3 Methuen: 5ondon, !118, 10.!/ I-id/ 1!/ Bord'ell, Narration in the Fiction Film, ; / Met?, (maginary #ignifier, 6/
.;I.
.; .
vailin& parameters of cinematic practice/ As to the latter 3i/e/ the climate of the times8 it is difficult to set up a re&ular methodolo&y for investi&atin& ho' far cultural conditions 3e/&/ the e$i&encies of 'artime or chan&in& se$ual mores8 mi&ht lead to a shift in emphasis in a film as compared 'ith the novel on 'hich it is -ased/ @o'ever, it is necessary to ma%e allo'ance in individual cases of adaptation for the nature of such influences, and this matter 'ill -e loo%ed at more closely in the *pecial Focus section of the chapter on Ca,e Fear/ Perhaps, indeed, it is Aust -ecause +uestions of narrativity can -e formali?ed that so much attention is paid to the ori&inal te$t)s contri-ution to the film/ And certainly, in raisin& the issue of interte$tuality, I am not denyin& ho' po'erfully formative the source 'or% is in shapin& the response of many people to the film version/ Conse+uently t'o lines of investi&ation seem 'orth'hile: 3 a 8 in the transposition process, Aust 'hat is it possi-le to transfer or adapt from novel to film; and 3 - 8 'hat %ey factors other than the source novel have e$ercised an influence on the film version of the novel< For those 'ho %no' andKor value the novel, the process of narrativity in re&ard to the film version 'ill necessarily differ from that of the spectator unfamiliar 'ith it: in either case, a true readin& of the film 'ill depend on a response to ho' the cinematic codes and aspects of the mise.en.scNne 'or% to create this particular version of the te$t/
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AGENDA FOR FUR"!ER S"UD* Nothin& is li%ely to stop the interest of the &eneral film.vie'er in comparin& films 'ith their source novels, usually to the film)s disadvanta&e/ The aim of the present study is to use such concepts and methods as permit the most o-Aective and systematic appraisal of 'hat has happened in the process of transposition from one te$t to another/ (iven the prevalence of the process, and &iven that interpretations and memories of the source novel are po'erful determinin& elements in the film)s interte$tuality, there is little value in merely sayin& that the film should stand autonomously/ *o it should, -ut it is also valua-le to consider the %inds of transmutation that have ta%en place, to distin&uish 'hat the film.ma%er has sou&ht to retain from the ori&inal and the %inds of use to 'hich he has put it/
Transfer
In considerin& 'hat can -e transferred from novel to film, one -e&ins to lay the theoretical -asis for a study of the phenomenon of turnin& novels into films as 'ell as a -asis for 'hat has -een transferred in any particular case 3i/e/ ho' far the film.ma%er has chosen to transfer 'hat is possi-le to do so8/ In -road terms, this involves a distinction -et'een narrative 3'hich can -e transferred8 and enunciation 3'hich cannot, involvin& as it does +uite separate systems of si&nification8/ *ome potentially valua-le strate&ies for considerin& the idea of transfer are outlined -elo'/ "he stor+,$lot (istinction Terence @a'%es, dra'in& on Gi%tor *h%lovs%y)s 'or% on the nature of narrative, ma%es the follo'in& distinction: )H*toryH is simply the -asic succession of events, the ra' material 'hich confronts the artist/ Plot represents the distinctive 'ay in 'hich the HstoryH is made stran&e, creatively deformed and defamiliari?ed/)7" Novel and film can share the same story, the same )ra' materials), -ut are distin&uished -y means of different plot strate&ies 'hich alter se+uence, hi&hli&ht different emphases, 'hich..in a 'ord.defamiliari?e the story/ In this respect, of course, the use of t'o separate systems of si&nification 'ill also play a crucial distin&uishin& role/ 22222222222222222222
7" Terence @a'%es, #tructuralism and #emiotics 3 Methuen: 5ondon, !118, "7.."/
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"he (istinction bet-een )(istributional) an( )integrational) functions As discussed earlier, Barthes)s )distri-utional functions), those 'hich he desi&nates as )functions proper), are those most directly suscepti-le to transfer to film/ This classification is further su-divided into cardinal functions, those narrative actions 'hich open up alternatives 'ith direct conse+uences for the su-se+uent development of the story 3)the ris%y moments of a narrative) in Barthes)s term8, supported, &iven a richer te$ture, -y elements characteri?ed -y a different order of functionality/ This )different order) may -e either )lesser) 3in the case of catalysers8 or )vertically functionin&) 3in the case of distri-utional functions8 as opposed to the essential hori?ontality of the cardinal functions/ The first level of )fidelity) in relation to the film version of a novel could -e determined -y the e$tent to 'hich the film.ma%er has chosen to transfer the cardinal functions of the precursor narrative/
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I am su&&estin& here that, in considerin& 'hat %ind of adaptation has -een made, one mi&ht isolate the chief character functions of the ori&inal and o-serve ho' far these are retained in the film version/ 3Peter :ollen)s Proppian analysis of @itchcoc% North .y Northwest"7 su&&ests that a sophisticated narrative is suscepti-le to procedures and cate&ori?ations derived from the study of much simpler modes/8 By o-servin& these functions, distri-uted amon& seven )spheres of action) 3named for their performers.)villain), )helper), etc/8, one could determine 'hether the film.ma%er has aimed to preserve the underlyin& structure of the ori&inal or radically to re'or% it/ *uch a study 'ould &ive a firmer -asis for comparison -y sortin& out 'hat functions are crucial to the narrative: i/e/ to the plot 'hich or&ani?es the ra' materials of the story/ I(entification of '+thic an(,or $s+chological $atterns In relation to those myths 'hich encapsulate in narrative form certain universal aspects of human e$perience, 5Pvi.*trauss has claimed that )the mythical value of the myth is preserved even throu&h the 'orst translation / / / BFnli%e poetry, itsC su-stance does not lie in its style, its ori&inal music, or its synta$, -ut in the story it tells)/"" By e$tension, then, it is not too much to e$pect that the mythic elements at 'or% in a novel seem li%ely to -e transfera-le to the screen since their life is independent of 'hatever manifestation they are found in, resistant as they are to even )the 'orst translation)/ Intimately connected 'ith the idea of myth, such Freudian concepts as the #edipus comple$ so profoundly underlie human e$perience, and, therefore, the narrative renderin&s of that e$perience, that their nature remains unchan&ed throu&h varyin& representations/ The denotative material 'hich provides the vehicle for these patterns may chan&e from novel to film 'ithout affectin& the connotations of the mythic and psycholo&ical motifs themselves/ It is clear that these patterns e$ercise a po'erfully or&ani?in& effect on narratives: one could propose, for e$ample, that the Freudian notion that: )An action -y the e&o is as it should -e if it satisfies simultaneously the demands of the id, of the super.e&o and of reality)"1 provides a 'ay of classifyin& the narrative elements and their motivations in a story..'hether on pa&e or screen/ :hat the approaches outlined a-ove have in common are: a/ they all refer to elements 'hich e$ist at )deep levels) of the te$t; -/ they address narrative elements 'hich are not tied to a particular mode of e$pression 3i/e/ those 'hich may -e found at 'or% in ver-al or other si&n systems8; and 22222222222222222222
"7 "" "1 Peter :ollen, H)North -y North.:est: A Morpholo&ical Analysis)H, Film Form, 3 !1"8, ;I.96/ Claude 5Pvi.*trauss, #tructural Anthro,ology 3 Pen&uin Boo%s: @armonds'orth, !1;8, ; I/ 4avid *tafford.Clar%, What Freud /Really/ #aid 3 Pen&uin Boo%s: @armonds'orth, !"18, ;/
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c/ all are suscepti-le to that more or less o-Aective treatment that eludes less sta-le elements 3e/&/ character motivation or atmosphere8/ They relate to the level of narrative, to areas in 'hich transfer from one medium to another is possi-le, and to isolate them is to clear the 'ay for e$amination of those elements that resist transfer and call for adaptation proper/
Adaptation Proper
Those elements of the novel 'hich re+uire adaptation proper may -e loosely &rouped as 3in Barthes)s term8 indices, as the si&nifiers of narrativity, and as the 'ritin&, or, more comprehensively, as enunciation, to use the term no' commonly employed in film theory/ The film version of a novel may retain all the maAor cardinal functions of a novel, all its chief character functions, its most important psycholo&ical patterns, and yet, at -oth micro. and macrolevels or articulation, set up in the vie'er ac+uainted 'ith the novel +uite different responses/ The e$tent to 'hich this is so can -e determined -y ho' far the film.ma%er has sou&ht to create his o'n 'or% in those areas 'here transfer is not possi-le/ @e can, of course, put his o'n stamp on the 'or% -y omittin& or reorderin& those narrative elements 'hich are transfera-le or -y inventin& ne' ones of his o'n: my point is that, even if he has chosen to adhere to the novel in these respects, he can still ma%e a film that offers a mar%edly different affective andKor intellectual e$perience/ *ome %ey differences 'hich need to -e considered in relation to areas of adaptation proper are summari?ed -elo'/ =ssentially they refer to distinctions -et'een enunciatory modes/ "-o signif+ing s+ste's The full treatment of such a topic is of course -eyond the scope of this study; at this point I 'ant merely to dra' attention to some matters centrally important here/ The novel dra's on a 'holly ver-al si&n system, the film variously, and sometimes simultaneously, on visual, aural, and ver-al si&nifiers/ =ven the apparently overlappin& ver-al si&ns 3the 'ords on the novel)s pa&e, the 'ritten or printed 'ords used in the film, e/&/ letters, street si&ns, ne'spaper headlines8, 'hile they may &ive the same information, function differently in each case/ In the e$amples &iven, the letter, the street si&n, and the ne'spaper headline 'ill each resem-le their real.life referents in 'ays that are customarily -eyond the novel)s capacity for iconic representation/ And this semi.e$ception to the rule of difference -et'een the t'o systems points to a maAor distinction -et'een them: the ver-al si&n, 'ith its .;".
lo' iconicity and hi&h sym-olic function, 'or%s conceptually, 'hereas the cinematic si&n, 'ith its hi&h iconicity and uncertain sym-olic function, 'or%s directly, sensuously, perceptually/ *uch a distinction is all -ut a$iomatic -ut failure to concede its pervasive importance leads to a &ood deal of impressionistic, dissatisfied, and unsatisfyin& comparison of novel and film/ Comparisons of this %ind &ro' out of a sense of the film.ma%er)s havin& failed to find satisfactory visual representations of %ey ver-al si&ns 3e/&/ those relatin& to places or persons8, and of a sense that, -ecause of its hi&h iconicity, the cinema has left no scope for that ima&inative activity necessary to the reader)s visuali?ation of 'hat he reads/ In the study of adaptation, one may consider to 'hat e$tent the film. ma%er has pic%ed up visual su&&estions from the novel in his representation of %ey ver-al si&ns.. and ho' the visual representation affects one)s )readin&) of the film te$t/ "he no&el)s linearit+ an( the fil')s s$atialit+ :e construct meanin& from a novel -y ta%in& in 'ords and &roups of 'ords se+uentially as they appear on the pa&e/ In order, say, to &rasp a scene, a physical settin&, 'e have no choice -ut to follo' linearly that arran&ement of ar-itrary sym-ols set out, for the most part, in hori?ontal ro's 'hich enAoin the linearity of the e$perience/ The relentless linearity associated 'ith the usual readin& of a novel favours the &radual accretion of information a-out action, characters, atmosphere, ideas, and this mode of presentation, of itself, contri-utes to the impression received/ At firstK&lance, it may seem that the relentless movement of film throu&h the proAector offers an analo&y to this situation/ 3And, of course, classic narrative cinema is posited on a po'erful, for'ard.thrustin& linearity, the product of causality and motivation/8 @o'ever, thou&h vie'in& time 3and, thus se+uentiality8 is controlled much more ri&orously than readin& time, frame.follo'in&. frame is not analo&ous to the 'ord.follo'in&.'ord e$perience of the novel/ There are at least t'o si&nificant differences to -e noted: 3i8 the frame instantly, and at any &iven moment, provides information of at least visual comple$ity 3sometimes increased -y the input of aural and ver-al si&nifiers8 -eyond that of any &iven 'ord -ecause of the spatial impact of the frame; and 3ii8 the frame is never re&istered as a discrete entity in the 'ay that a 'ord is/ :e do not ordinarily vie' a film frame -y frame as 'e read a novel 'ord -y 'ord/ The fact that 'e are al'ays -ein& e$posed to the multiplicity of si&nifiers contained 'ithin the space of a frame or series of frames has implication for the adaptation of ver-al material; for e$ample, as it relates to the representation of characters and settin&s/ :hat 'e receive as information from the mise.en.scNne may -e less suscepti-le to the film.ma%er)s control 3-ecause of the stron&ly spatial orientation of film and -ecause of the simultaneous .;1.
-om-ardment -y several %inds of claims on our attention8 than 'hat 'e receive from the linear presentation of 'ords on the pa&e/ 4ic%ens, for instance, may force us to )see) Miss @avisham in the interior of *atis @ouse in the order he has chosen in +reat E",ectations; as 'e 'atch her visual representation in 4avid 5ean)s film 'e may -e struc% first, not -y the yello'.'hiteness of her apparel, -ut -y the sense of her physical presence)s -ein& d'arfed -y the decayin& &randeur of the room/ In the form 'hich stresses spatiality rather than linearity, the eye may not al'ays choose to see ne$t 'hat, in any particular frame, the film.ma%er 'ants it to fasten on/ The challen&e to the film.ma%er)s control of the mise.en.scNne is o-vious/ Cinematic enunciation has t'o other approaches, specific to its medium, relatin& to the disposition of space and, hence, to the &eneration of aspects of narrative in 'ays closed to the novel/ They are: 3i8 Noel Burch)s theory of a dialectic -et'een on.screen and off.screen space 3he identifies si$ )se&ments) of off.screen space, four determined -y the -orders of the frame, the others )an off.screen space -ehind the camera) and )the space e$istin& -ehind the set or some o-Aect in it)"08; and 3ii8 Jaymond Bellour)s proposal of alternation"! 3e/&/ -et'een lon& shot and close.up, -et'een seein& and -ein& seen8 as a %ey cinematic practice, operatin& on levels of -oth code and die&esis/ Both of these concepts advert to enunciatory techni+ues peculiar to the unfoldin& of cinematic narrative, and -oth 'ill -e considered in relation to particular case.studies in this -oo%/ Neither has any real e+uivalent in the ver-al narrative, e$cept in the much -roader sense of alternation offered -y a novel)s movin& -et'een t'o maAor strands of narrative/ The )spacelessness) of the novel)s linear procedures precludes the settin& up of spatial tension achieved -y 3i8 and the spatial mo-ility re+uired -y 3ii8/ Co(es If film, unli%e ver-al lan&ua&e, has no voca-ulary 3its ima&es, unli%e 'ords, are non.finite8, it also lac%s a structurin& synta$, instead of 'hich it has conventions in relation to the operation of its codes/ In so far as these codes ena-le us to )read) film narratives, in so far as 'e learn to ascri-e meanin&s to them 3e/&/ to assume that )fade outKfade in), as an editin& procedure, denotes a maAor lapse of time8, it is throu&h fre+uent e$posure to their deployment in a particular 'ay, 'ithout there -ein& any &uarantee that they 'ill al'ays -e used in this 'ay/ There is, for instance, nothin& correspondin& to the comparatively fi$ed usa&e of full.stop and comma as punctuational si&ns denotin& the lon&est and shortest pauses respectively, or to those rules 'hich si&nify tenses, in the 'ritten 'or%/ 22222222222222222222
"0 Noel Burch, The Theory of Film 1ractice 3 Cinema T'oK *ec%er and :ar-ur&: 5ondon, !198, ;I/ "! ,anet Ber&strom/ H)Alternation, *e&mentation, @ypnosis: Intervie' 'ith Jaymond Bellour)H, Camera 0.scura, 9.6 3 !1!8, 1".0/
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Further, in )readin&) a film, 'e must understand other, e$tra.cinematic codes as 'ell/ These include: a/ lan&ua&e codes 3involvin& response to particular accents or tones of voice and 'hat these mi&ht mean socially or temperamentally8; -/ visual codes 3response to these &oes -eyond mere )seein&) to include the interpretative and the selective8; c/ non.lin&uistic sound codes 3comprisin& -oth musical and other aural codes8; d/ cultural codes 3involvin& all that information 'hich has to do 'ith ho' people live, or lived, at particular times and places8/ In a sense, the cinematic codes may -e seen as inte&ratin& the precedin& four in 'ays that no other art.form does/ :hen 'e 'itness a film, 'e share 'ith the film)s ma%er a -asic assumption that 'e %no' the codes: i/e/ a &eneral cinematic code 'hich, as Christian Met? has sho'n, can -e -ro%en do'n into su-codes, such as those to do 'ith editin&, or those to do 'ith particular &enres, and the e$tra.cinematic codes referred to a-ove/ Failure to reco&ni?e..or, at least, to pay ade+uate attention to..the differences -et'een the operation of these codes in film and the novel)s reliance on the 'ritten representation of lan&ua&e codes has -een a %ey element in accountin& for the fu??y impressionism of so much 'ritin& a-out adaptation/ Stories tol( an( stories $resente( In movin& from novel to film, 'e are movin& from a purely representational mode to )an order of the opera-le),1I to use Barthes)s distinction 3'hich has not, to my %no'led&e, -een pursued in film studies -ut 'hich offers a -road statement of intermedial disparity8/ This distinction relates partly to earlier points a-out: i/ differences -et'een t'o )lan&ua&e) systems, one of 'hich 'or%s 'holly sym-olically, the other throu&h an interaction of codes, includin& codes of e$ecution; ii/ tense: film cannot present action in the past as novels chiefly do; and iii/ film)s spatial 3as 'ell as temporal8 orientation 'hich &ives it a physical presence denied to the novel)s linearity/ Another aspect of the distinction -et'een tellin& and presentin& is located in the 'ay in 'hich the novel)s metalan&ua&e 3the vehicle of its tellin&8 is replaced, at least in part, -y the film)s mise.en. scNne/ In a sense, the film)s story does not have to -e told -ecause it is presented/ A&ainst the &ains in immediacy, the loss of the narrational voice may, ho'ever, -e felt as the chief casualty of the novel)s enunciation/ 22222222222222222222
1I Barthes, H)Introduction to the *tructural Analysis of Narratives)H, 0I/
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The enunciatory matters discussed a-ove refer to crucially important novelistic elements 'hich offer challen&es to the film.ma%er, especially if he does not 'ish the e$perience of his film to shatter a pre.e$istin& reality 3i/e/ of the novel8 -ut, rather, to displace it/ .9I.