Graphic Thinking

for Architects

& Designers

TH RD E ITION

Graphc Thinking

for Architects

& Designers

PAUL ASEAU

JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.

New Yor k

Chich ester

Weinheim

Brisb ane

Singapor e

Toron to

Thi s book is printed on acid-free paper.

Copyright

il'

2001 by John Wil ey & Sons . All rights re served .

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itative information in re gard to th e subject matter covered.
It is sold with th e under standing th at th e publish er is no t
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Librar y of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Lase au , Paul, 1937

Graphi c think in g for ar chitects & d esi gners I Paul
Laseau .-3rd. ed.
p.
em .

Includes bibliographical ref er en ces and ind ex.

ISBN 0-471-3529 2-6 (pap er)

1. Architectural dr awing .
2. Com m u nication in ar chi
tectural design . 3. Architecture-Sketch-book s.
I. Ti tle.
4. Graphic arts.
NA2705 .L38
2000
720 '.28 '4-dc21
Pr inted in th e United Stat es of America .
10 98 7

99- 086809

Contents

vi

Discovery

141

Preface to the Third Edition

vii

Verification

163

Preface to the First Edit ion

viii

Foreword

Acknowled gments
1

Int roduction

ix

BASICSKILLS

CO MMUNICATION
10 Process

179

11 Individual Design

189

12 Team Design

203

Drawi ng

17

13 Public Design

217

Conventions

39

14 Conclusion

231

Abst raction

55

Notes

237

Expression

67

Bibliography

239

Illustration Credits

242

Index

244

APPLIED SKILLS
6

Analysis

Exploration

81

115

Foreword

au l Las eau p roposes tw o re late d ideas: th e

first is th at of "graphic th inking"; th e second
is gra p hic thin king as a de vice for com m uni
cati on bet w een the de signe r and the designed
for. Th e follow ing brief remarks are addressed to the
relati onship betw een the two ideas.

d irect th e ac tions of others and wh o co m m un ica te

their de cision s to th ose w ho wo rk thro ugh dr aw ings
ma de by d raft sm en . Design ing, as a separate task ,
has co me in to being . Th e professional designer, th e
profession al draftsman, and the as sem bly lin e occ ur
simultan eously as related phen omena .

Histor ica lly, buildi ng d es ign was not so ind iffer

eh t to human w ell-being that "com m un ication with
the peopl e" becam e an issue until th e ac t of draw in g
wa s divided into tw o sp ec ialized activities. The first
wa s design drawi ng, in w hic h th e design er exp res sed
h is or h er ideas. Th e seco nd was d raft in g used to
in struct the builder.

This all occ urred some tim e ago, bu t the m om en

tum of the ch ange fr om craftsm an ship to draftsm an
sh ip , broug h t abou t by the pe culiar form of
in d ustrialization we have ch osen to adopt , persists. It
now exte nd s to the division of labor in th e design er 's
office. Th e build ing of gr eat bu ildings is no longer the
cre ation of m aster cr aftsmen led by a m as ter builder
but of archite ctural offi ces organized along the lines
of in dus tri al production . The task of th e ar ch itec t has
been divided and subdivided in to an as sembly line of
designer, con str u ct ion m anager, in ter ior desi gner,
decora tor , struc tural, elec tri cal, and m ech anical engi
neers, an d d raft sm en . Design dec isions onc e made by
th e designer on the drawing board ar e now made by
th e p rogram m er on comput er p rintou ts.

De sign d rawing began as and remains a m eans of

gen era tin g ideas, for ta ppi ng in itial con cepts to be
sorted out and developed , or simply as an enjoyable
ac tivi ty. Dra ftin g is an eigh t-h our ta sk p er forme d
dai ly, fill ing shee ts of paper w ith precise lines d ic
tated by ot hers.
Long ago, when the w ork of individual craftsme n
beca m e larger and m ore com plex, wh en a cathedr al
rather than a chair w as to be designed , dimension s
had to be esta blis he d so th at th e work of a single
cra ftsm an co u ld be coo rd ina te d with th e w ork of
m any. Drawing w as introdu ced as a cr eativ e device
for plan n ing wo rk.

Cr aft sm en ha ve a lways u sed drawings to hel p

th em visua lize the ir ideas as th ey made adj ustments
in th e continu ous p ro cess of fitt in g parts tog eth er.
Dr awing under these cond itions is in sep arabl e fr om
the w ork itself. Som e historian s say th at th e w orking
draw in gs for the gr eat church es of the tw elfth and
thirteenth centuries w er e d rawn on boards that w er e
later nai led int o the const ruct ion .
But drawing also has other purposes. Th e d ivisi on
of labor in cr eases product iv ity. Art ifacts requ iri ng
several wee ks of wo rk by a sing le sk illed cra ftsman
are d ivid ed in to sm all er st and ardi zed w ork tasks.
Pr oduc tion is increa sed as skill is elimina te d. The
cr aftsm an' s expression of m at eria l, design sen se , and
sket ches are bani sh ed fr om the wo rkplace . Drawings
an d specificatio ns pre de te rm ine a ll fac et s of t he
w ork.
Design decision s are give n to a new class of wo rk
m en who do not w ork w ith the mat er ial but in st ead

vi

There are those of us w ho believe that indu strial

ization cou ld have been ach ieved w ith out dest roy ing
the crafts m an 's skill, love, and respect for material
and the joy of building. We find it even less desirable
tha t the jo y of creativity a nd grap hic thi nking that
acco mpanies th at ac tivity should leave th e design er 's
offi ce for the m em ory ban k of a comp uter.
The built world and artifacts around us are ev i
den ce of the alm os t fat al erro r of basing design on the
mindl ess w ork of the ass embly line . To devel op pro
gr amming and operat ion al resea rc h based on m ind
less design would be to con tin ue a dis astrous hist oric
continu um .
Graphic th in king is of course necessa ry to help
rej uven ate a mo ri bund design sy stem. But com muni
ca tion "w ith th e pe ople " is n ot enough . Cr ea tiv ity
itself m ust be share d , and sha red wi th everyone from
do w el kn ock er to "Liebe r Meis ter." The nee d fo r
grap hic thinking is grea t, bu t it is greater on th e
w or kben ch es of the as sem bly lin es at Riv er Rouge
th an on the desks of the chi ef designers of Skid m ore,
Ow ings & Merrill.
- F ORREST W ILSON,

1980

Preface to the Third Edition

w enty years have passed since th e fir st pu bli
ca tion of th is book . Th e events of the inter
ve n ing ye ars have served to re in force m y
in itial assu mp ti on s and th e poin ts made by
For rest Wilson in th e Forew or d .

The ac celerated developmen ts in persona l com

p u ters and th eir app lica tion to arch itectural des ign
a nd co nstru cti on ha ve rai sed m or e for cefully t h e
question of th e role of ind ivid ual thought a nd creativ
ity wi th in p roce sse s tha t a re incr easingly com p lex
and special ized . W ill in d iv id ua ls exp erie nce m or e
opportunities for expression and co ntri buti on or w ill
t heir con tributions be devalued because of th e speed
and p recision of comp uter- dr iven processes?
Alt ho ug h th e In tern et /web ha s d ra ma tically
increased ind ividu al access, tw o major philosop hical
camps still guide comp uter deve lopmen t and app lica
ti ons. O ne cam p se es th e co m p ut er as a w ay to
exten d and im prove tradi tional bus in ess or ganizat ion ,
w ith it s se gm enta tion of tas ks and relia nc e on spe
cialists. The other ca m p see s th e comp uter as a w ay
to re vo lution ize busin ess by br oade nin g the sc op e
. and impact of th e in d ividual to th e benef it of bot h the

ind ividual and the org anization . O ne vie w is of ind i

vid ual s supporting inform ation ; th e ot he r is of info r
mation supporting in d ivid uals.
A pr emi se of the first edition of this book was that
in d ividu al , creative th inking has a vital role in a pres
,
ent and fu tur e society th at m ust cop e w ith complex,
interr elat ed p robl e m s. Add ressing such problems
d ep en ds up on a com p reh ensive u nde rs ta nd ing of
th eir nature ra ther th an shoehorn ing them in to con
venien t, si m p listic, th eoretica l mod els . And visua l
com muni cati on pr ovi des a n im por tan t tool for
describing and under standi ng co m plexity. Inc reased
com pre hensive, ra ther tha n spe cialized , kno w ledge
in the possession of ind ividu als shou ld benefit both
the orga nization and the indi vidual. In thei r book, In
Search of Excellence, I Peters and Wate rman illus trated
th at the effec tiveness of organizations depends up on
an understa nd ing of val ues, aspira tion s, an d m ean
ings th at is share d by all me m bers. We are als o
be com ing m ore aware that the m ental and ph ys ica l
health of in d ividual s is a valid as well as pra ctical
conc er n of orga ni zations .

vii

Preface to the First Edition

n the fall of 1976, while participating in a discus
sion group on design communication at the
U niversity of W isconsin-Milwaukee, I had the
occ asion to mention my book Graphic Problem
Solving. Essentially, that book was an attempt at con
vincing architects to apply their freehand concept
gath ering skills to nontraditional problems dealing
more with the processes than the products of archi
tecture. During the discussion , Fuller Moore stated
that the graphi c skills I had assumed to be part of
arch itectural training were being neglected in the
schools and that a more basic book on drawing in
support of thinking was needed. Soon after, I had th e
chance to talk to several architects about the sketches
th ey use to d evelop designs in con trast to the "fin
ished drawings th ey use in p resen tations." Most cre
ative architects had de veloped impressive freehand
sketching sk ills and felt comfortable sketching while
thinking . Some architects d r ew observations or
design ideas in sm all sketchbooks they carried with
them at all times. Both the architects and th e educa
tors I interviewed expressed concern over the appar
en t la ck of freehand graphic skills in pe op le now
entering the profession.

As I began to collect materials for this book , 1

wondered about the re levance of sketching in archi
tecture. Could sketching be better applied to design
ing as p racticed tod ay ? The answer to this qu estion
depends on an exami nation of the present challenges
to architectur al design :
1 . To be more respon sive to needs, a problem-solv
ing process.
2. To be m ore scientific, more reliable, or pr'>
dict able.
The response to these challenges was su ggest ed
by Heinz Von Foerster:
...the language of arch itecture is conn otative lan
guage because its in tent is to initiate interpretation .

v iii

The crea tive architectural space begets crea tivity,

new insights, new cho ices. It is a ca talyst for cogni
tion . This suggests an ethical imperative that applies
not only to architects but also to anyone who acts on
that imperative. A ct always so as to: inc rease,
enlarge, enhance the number of choices. I

Relating these ideas to the challenges en um erated

earl ier, I see two correspo nding imperatives:
1. Ar chitects sh ou ld solve p roblem s wi th peopl e
in st ea d of for them by helping them under stand
their ne eds and the choices of designs th at me et
those ne eds. This is d one by bringing th ose who
use the build ings int o the process of de sig ning
those bu ild ing s.
2. Archi tect s m us t better u n ders tand sc ience and
how mu ch it has in common with architec tur e.
Jacob Bronowski pointed out th at the crea tive sci
entist is more in teres ted in exploring and exp and
ing id eas th an in es tablishing fixed "truths." The
unique qu al ity of human beings lies in th e
increase rather than the decrease of diversity.
Within this context , sketches can contribu te to
de sign, first by facilitat ing the exploration and d iver
sity of ea ch designer's th in kin g. Second, sket che s can
help open up the desi gn process by developing com
m unicat ion with people instead of presentin g con clu
sions to people.
Th e not ion of graphic think ing gr ew out of the
recognition that sketchi ng or drawing can and should
support the de signe r 's thinking. I re ali ze that som e
readers w oul d be more comfo rtable w ith a bo ok
about either thi nkin g or drawi ng , but I felt it was cri t
ical to deal w ith th eir inte raction . Pu lling th em apart
se emed to be like tr ying to u nde rs tan d ho w a fish
swims by studying th e fish and the water sepa rately.
I hope you will be able to bear w ith the rough spots
in this book and find som e th in gs that wi ll help in
your work.

AcknowLedgments

h is book is ded icat ed to th ose ar chitects who

gen erou sly took time to discuss their use of
drawing s in de sign d uring m y or iginal an d
su bs eq uent rese arch . Man y of th em als o pro
vided sketches to illustrate th e text. Th eir ded ication
to creativity in arch itecture, enthusiasm for dr aw ing,
and co m me nts abou t their de sign p rocesses were a
gre at he lp and inspirat ion for my work. Among the se
architec ts, I am especiall y indeb ted to David Stieg litz,
T hom as Bee by, Mor se Pay ne , Thomas La rso n,
Mich ae l Ge b har t, Rom a ldo G iurgola , Jam es Tice ,
Nor m a n Crow e, Harry Egin k , Kir by Lock ard , and
Steven and Cathi H ouse.

Recognition is due th e following p eop le for the ir

p articu la rly important contribution s to this eff ort:
Full er Moore for first su ggesting the id ea.
Robert McKim for his ins ights to visual th in king and
his en cou rage m ent.
Jim An ders on for vital co mments on graph ic co mmu
nication.

Karl Brown for comments and other val uab le ass is

tan ce .
Mi ch ele Laseau for technical ass istanc e.
Jack Wyman , Ken Car penter, Juan Bonta , Ch arles
Sappen field , and oth er pr ese nt and past col
lea gues at the College of Architecture and
Planning, Ball State University for com me n ts an d
moral support.
A special thanks to Forrest Wilson for his enth usi
astic sup por t at th e humbling ou tset of thi s effort.
Fin all y, th anks must be given to my wife, Peggy,
and children , Mich ele , Kevi n, an d Made lein e, for
their grea t patience and sa cri fices whi le I struggled
with revision s.
Pr eviou sly p ublished draw in gs w ere pho
tographed by Jerry Hoffm an and Stev en Talley.

ix

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1 Introduction
rap hic thin king is a te rm I ha ve ad opted to
describe thin kin g assisted by ske tch ing. In
ar chitecture , t his type of thin king is usually
associate d w ith the concep tua l design stages
of a projec t in wh ich th inkin g and s ke tch ing w ork
closel y toge th er as st im ula n ts for develop ing ideas.
In terest in th is form of th inki ng is prom ot ed by a
reexam ination of the histor y of ar ch itectura l des ign ,
th e impact of visu al com mun ication in society, and
new concepts of th e role of design and design ers.

The re is actua lly a ve ry strong tradit ion of grap hic

th in king in archi tecture. Looking th ro ugh rep ro du c
tions of th e not ebo oks of Leon ardo da Vinci, w e are
str u ck by th e d yn am ic t hin kin g t hey re flect . It is
im possible to rea lly u nd erst and or app rec ia te da
Vin ci's thin king apa rt fro m his d rawi ngs because the
graphic images and th e thinking are one, a unity. A
close r look at the se ske tches reve als certain featur es
tha t are instr uc tive for anyone intereste d in grap hic
th in king.
1. There are m any d ifferent ideas on one page-his
attention is constantly sh ifting from one su bje ct to
another.
2 . The way da Vin ci looks a t prob lems is di ve rse
both in m ethod and in scale- there are oft en per
spect ives, sections, p lans, de ta ils, an d panoram ic
view s on the sam e page.
3 . T he thin king is exp lor a to ry, op en-end ed - the
sket ches are loose and fr agm ented w h ile sho w ing
how th ey were der iv ed . Ma ny alt erna tiv es for
extend ing th e id eas ar e sugges te d . The sp ecta tor is
invited to parti cipate.
Wh at a m arvelous exa mple! Here is a mi nd in fer
m ent, using draw ings as a m eans of discover y rath er
than as a w ay to imp ress other peop le.
Alt ho ug h it is oft en d iff icult to fi nd reco rds of
develop m en tal sketch es in hist or ica l documen ts ,
t her e is eno ug h sur v ivin g evide nce to in d ica te th a t
th e use of sk etches for th in king w as com m on to
ar ch itects thr oughout history. Depe nd ing on th e d ic
tat es of th e bui ld ing trades or customs, the dr aw ing
conven tions varied from plan to sec tion to ele vat ion .
For alm ost tw o centuries, th e Ecole des Beaux Art s in
Paris used the plan esquisse as th e found ation for its

Figure 1-2 By Edwin Lutyens. Castle Drago and British Pavilion

1911 Exposition, Rome.

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Figure 1-3 By Edwin Lutyens. Castle Drago and British Pavilion

1911 Exposition, Rome.

tr ain in g m e th od . W it h th e establis hme n t of la rge

arch itec tura l fir ms in the U ni ted States, th ree
dimension al scale models gradua lly rep laced d raw
ing for the purposes of design deve lopment. Th e use
of de sign ing sk etc h e s furt h er decl ined w ith th e
ad vent of professio na l m ode l makers an d profes
siona l rende rer s.

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Figure 1-4 By Alvar Aalto.

Th er e ha s, of cours e., been an int ense in te rest in

ar ch itec ts ' drawings re kindled by exhibits lik e the
Beaux-Arts and 200 Years of Am erican Architectural
Dr aw ings. But th e emphasis is mo stl y on com m uni
cation of the final fixed product , and these pres enta
tion drawin gs tell us p ractica lly nothing about the
w ay in w h ich the b uildin gs were designed. The
think in g sketches ar e necess ary to understand the
step -by -step proc es s. Yet ev en when the thinking
sketch es ar e avai la ble , as in the do cuments of the
work of LeCorbusier, they ar e usually overlooked in
favo r of th e renderin gs or photos of the finished
w ork. We ar e ju st beginnin g to appreciate th e impor
tance LeCorb usier pl aced on sketches. As Geoffrey
Broad bent no te s, "All the internal harmony of the
work is in th e drawin gs.. .. It is incredible that artists
today shoul d be in di ffer en t (even ho stile) to th is
prime m over, this' sca ffolding' of th e project. "l

Intr oduction

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Figure 1-5 By Th omas Larson. The Grandberg Residence.

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Figure 1-6 By Tho mas Beeby. House of Virgil.

Among mod ern arc hitects, Alvar Aalto has left us

proba bly one of th e best models of th e gra p h ic think
in g tradition. His sket ch es are rapid and divers e; they
def tly pr obe th e s ubject. Hand, eye , a nd mi nd are
int en sely concentra ted . The sketc hes record th e level
of develop men t , profi ciency, an d clari ty of Aalto ' s
ide as. There are m any other architect s w hose work
we can turn to , particul arly here in the United States,
whe re w e are exp eriencing a resurgen ce of ske tching.
Their draw ing s ar e inventive, diverse, and p rov oca
tive. Whethe r they are m akin g notes in a sketchbook
or turning over con ce pt s in th e design studio , th ese
cre ative design ers are looking for som et hing specia l
over and above solving the design pro bl em , like the
gourmet w ho is lookin g fo r somethin g more than
food . T hey e njoy the eure k a experience , and they
enjoy th e sea rch as w ell. Th is book is really a bo ut
find ing th ings, about se ein g new ideas, about di scov
ery, and abo ut sharing ideas a nd d iscove ries .
Figure 1-7 By Norman Jaffe.

Int rodu ction

Figure 1-8 Battl e of Cety I with the Chet a.

Figu re 1-9 Greek geometry

Figure 1-10 ExpLoration map.

VISUAL COMMUNICATION THROUGH TIME

Through out his tory, vi sion has h ad an important
imp act on th inki ng. Starting with th e cav em an , dr aw
ings we re a way of "freez ing" ideas and even ts out
side of hi m and cr eati ng a history. In m any ways, the
"second wo rld " man cr ea ted through his images w as
critical to the evo lution of thinking. Man was able to
separate th e he re an d now fr om what could be imag
ine d, the fu ture. Through im ages, the world of the
spirit , the ideal world of mythology, and compelling
ut op ias be came immedia te an d real. Th e ideals of an
entire cult ure could be contained in one pi cture; the
unsp eakable could be shared with others. Fro m earli
es t tim es, thi s vi su al expression of thinking ha s be en
commu na l. O n ce a concept , such as the notion of
m an be ing able to fly, wa s converte d to an im age, it
w as free to be rein ter preted again and again by others
un til the airplane was inven ted.
Ma n used signs and sym bols lon g before w ritten
la ng uages w ere ado p ted. Early w ritte n langua ges,

Int rodu ction

Figure 1-11 Constellation of sta rs

such as Egyptian hieroglyphics, were hi ghly sp ecial

ized set s of symbols derived fr om p ict ures. Th e devel
opmen t of geometry, combining mat hemati cs w ith
diagram s, m ade it pos sible to think of str ucture and
othe r abstractions of reality. This led"to the const r uc
tion of objects or buildings of monumental scal e fr om
desi gn s. In addit ion to tr ying to make se n se of hi s
immediat e surroundin gs, man used d rawings to
reach outnto the unknown. Ma ps rec ons tituted
from notes and sketches of ex p lore rs spar ked the
im aginati on and s ti m ula te d new d iscoveries about
our w orld and th e un ivers e.
In spite of the asc endance of writt en language,
vis ual co m m u nication con tin ue s to be an essenti al
part of the wa y w e think. This is re ve aled in th ese
phrases that liberally sp rinkle our everyday conversa
tion : "I see what you m ean ; take anothe r look at the
situation ; put this all in pe rspective." Alt h ough
research opinion varies , it seems gen erally acc ep ted
that 70 to 80 p ercent of what w e learn I S thro ugh
sigh t. ;:jight seems to be the m ost rapid an d compre-

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Figure 1-12

Figure 1-13

Figure 1-14

Figure 1-15

Figure 1-16

Figure 1-17

he nsiv e of ou r se nse s fo r rec eIv m g in formation.

T hr oug h cen turies of condi tion ing, w e rely on vision
for a n ea rly wa rn ing of dange r. Not only h av e w e
co m e to dep end on s ight as a pri m a ry m ea n s of
understandi ng th e w orl d , bu t we ha ve al so lea rn ed to
tran sla te in fo rm ati on pi c ked up b y th e senses in to
visual clu es so tha t , in ma ny w ays, sigh t is actu all y
us ed as a substi tu te for the oth er senses.
There is a m ple evidence that vi sual comm u n ica
tion is becomi ng an eve n m ore powerfu l force in our
lives. Th e m os t ob vi ous exa m p le is te le v is ion ,
thr ough wh ich we ca n exp lore th e sk ies, the oc ea ns,
a n d th e societ ie s of our sh ri n k in g p lan e t. We re ly
heavily on grap hics to ex p lain a n d p er suad e .
Cartoons have becom e a very sophisticated m ean s of
distilling an d reflecti ng our c ultur e. Bu t th e most sig
n ifica nt re volutio n is the sh ift of visual com m u n ica
tio n from th e realm of specialis ts to that of th e
gen eral p u bli c. In st an t ly d eveloping film a nd v id eo
recorders are just th e beg in n ing of th e visual tools that
w ill becom e as com m on as the PC an d the calc u lator.
The poten tia l of visu a l com m u n ica tion w ill be
tested as we be gin th e tw ent y-first ce n tury. Two over
riding features are the de luge of inf orma tion th a t w e
must absorb and th e increasingly in te rac tive na ture
of th e problems we m us t solve . As Edward Hami lto n
p u t it , "Up ...to the prese nt age we h av e ab sor b ed
inf ormation in a one -th ing-at-a-time , an a bs tract, lin -

ear, fragm ented bu t sequential way... . Now, the term

pattern ...w ill ap p ly in creasin gly in un dersta nd ing th e
w orld of total -en v ir on m en ta l stim ul i in to which we
are mo v ing.'? We se ek patte rn s, no t on ly to screen for
sign ifica n ce of in for ma tio n , b u t also to illus tr a te
p rocesses or stru ctures by w h ich our world ope ra tes.
Th e em ergin g tech n ology for collecting, storing, and
d isp layi ng d ifferen t m od els of reality h old s excit ing
p rom ise. Co mpu ter-co ns truc te d sa tellite m aps, video
ga mes, com p ut er gr aphics, and th e mi n iaturiza tion of
com p u ting and re cording eq u ipmen t will open up a
n ew e ra in v isual com m un ication .
Th e full use of this new capab ility w ill be directly
rel ated to the d evelop ment of our ow n vis ual think
in g. "Com p u te rs ca n no t see or drea m , nor can they
cr ea te : comp u ters are la n guage -bo u n d . Sim ilarly;
thinkers w h o ca nnot escape the st ruc ture of la n
guage , w ho are u naw a re tha t th in k ing ca n occur in
ways havin g littl e to do w ith la nguage, a re often ut i
lizing on ly a sma ll part of their bra in tha t is indeed
like a comp ut er." Th is observation by Robert McK im
p oints out the critic al issue of man-machi ne in ter ac
tion . T he n ew equ ip m e n t is of no va lue in itself; it is
on ly as good as our im agina tion can make it. If we are
to rea lize the potential of visual technology , we must
lea rn to th in k visua lly.

Visua l Comm unication Thro ugh Time

Figure 1-18 Conceptual sketches.

VISUALTHINKING
The study of visual thin king has developed in maj or
pa rt fr om the st udy of cr ea tivity wi thin the field of
p sycho logy. Th e w ork of Rudolp h Arn h eim in th e
psychology of art has been particularly signi fica nt . In
his book , Visual Think ing, he laid a basic fram ew ork
fo r r esearch by dis solv ing the artificial barrier
bet w een th in king an d the ac tion of the se nses. "By
cogn itive , I mean all m enta l op erations invo lve d in

re ce ivin g, sto ri n g, an d processing of in for m ation:

se n sory p erce ption , m em ory, th in king , learn in g.'"
T his w as a n ew w ay of und erstand ing p er cep tion ,
namely, an int egration of mi nd and sen ses ; th e focu s
of th e study of creativity sh ifts fr om the mi nd or th e
senses to the in terac tion of bo th. Vis ual th in kin g is
th erefore a form of th inking that uses the products of
vision -seeing, im agining, an d drawi ng. Wi thi n th e
context of de sign ing, th e focu s of this book is on th e
third p rod uct of vision, d raw ings or ske tches. When
th in k ing becom es ex ternalized in th e form of a
sketched im age , it can be sa id to have become
grap hic.
There ar e stro ng indications that thin kin g in any
fie ld is greatly enha nced by th e us e of more than on e
sense, as in doing w hile seeing. Although this book 's
foc u s is on arch itectu ra l design, it is my hope tha t
other readers w ill find the exp lanation s and exa mples
usef ul. T he long history of a rc hitec tura l design has
p rod uced a grea t w ealt h of graphic tech niqu es and
imagery in response to hi gh ly complex, com prehen
sive, quantita tive-qual itative prob lems. Tod ay, arc hi

te ct ura l desi gn attem pts to deal w ith our total

man -made environ m ent , a prob lem that is p ers onal
and pressing for everyone . The graphic thinking tools
used by archi tec ts to solve p rob lem s of intera ction,
conflict, efficie ncy, and aesthetic s in build ings have
now become im portant to all part s of society w ith its
own in cr easingly complex problem s.

Introduction

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Figure 1-19 Conceptual sketches.

Figure 1-20 Conceptual sketches using digital media.

Visual Thinking

I~

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Figure 1-21 Graphic thin king process.

GRAPHIC THINKING AS A COMMUNICATION

PROCESS
The proc ess of graphic th inking ca n be seen as a con
versa tion wi th ourse lves in w hich we comm unicate
w ith sketches. Th e com mun ication p ro cess involves
th e sketched image on th e paper, th e eye, the brain,
an d the hand. How can this ap parently closed ne t
w ork gen erate ideas th at ar e not already in the br ai n?
Part of the answer lies in th e def inition of an ide a .
Th e so-called new id eas are really a new way of look
ing at and com bi ning old ide as. All ide as can be said
to be co n n ected; the t h in king p rocess re shuffles
ideas, focu ses on pa rts, and re com bines th em . In th e
d iagra m of th e graph ic-th in ki ng p rocess , all four
pa rts-eye, brain , hand , a nd ske tch - ha ve the capa
bility to add, subtract, or mo dify the information tha t
is being passed th rou gh th e com m unica tion loop . The
eye, assisted by pe rc ep tion, can select a foca l p oint
and screen ou t oth er in form at ion . We can re ad ily
accep t th at the brain ca n add in formation . Bu t th e
oth er two parts, han d and sketch , are also important
to th e p roce ss. A differ en ce oft en exists betw een
w hat we in tend to draw and w ha t act uall y is draw n .
Draw ing ability, m aterials, and our m ood ca n all be
sources of change. And yes , even the image on pa p er
is su bjec t to change. Differences in ligh t in tensity and
angle, the size and d istance of th e image from the eye,
reflect ivity of pap er, an d transp are n cy of m edia all
op en up new possibilities.
The potential of graphic thinking lies in the con
tin uou s cycling of inform ati on- laden im ages from
pa pe r to eye to brain to hand and back to the pap er.
Th eoreticall y, t he m ore often the informa tio n is
pas sed aroun d the loop , th e m ore oppor tun ities for
change. In th e sequen ce of im ages opp osite, for exam
ple, I started with a sketc h of car toon-l ike bu bble s to

Introduction

rep re sent spaces in a hou se tha t is ye t to be designed.

Dep end ing on my exp erience, int er est s, and what I
am tr yin g to do , I w ill see ce rt ain th ings in the sketch
an d ign or e oth ers . T he resulting perce pt u al im age
seg r ega tes sp ec ial-u se sp aces, th e livi n g roo m an d
kitchen , fr om several other mo re pr iva te or support
spaces. Next, I form a m ental im age to further organ
ize th e spaces and give th em or ien ta tion bas ed on
what I already kn ow about th e site or a south ern
exp osur e for th e living room and ki tchen. Wh en this
m en ta l im age is tr a nsferred to pap er once mo re , it
goe s th rough yet another ch ange in which the special
sp aces begi n to ta ke on distinctive forms.
T his is, of cours e, an overs im p lification of th e
proce ss. Grap hic thi nkin g, like visu al com mu ni catio n
w ith th e rea l world, is a con ti n uous process.
In for m ation is sim ultan eously dar ting a ll over th e
ne tw ork. W hen graphic th inkin g is mo st active , it is
similar to wa tching a fantastic array of firew orks and
loo king for the one yo u rea lly enjoy. Not on ly is it
pro d uctive, it is fun . In Arnh eim 's w ords, "Far from
b ei n g a passive mech an is m of regis trati on li ke the
p ho togr ap hi c cam era , our vis ua l appa ra tu s co pes
w ith th e in coming im ages in ac tive str uggle;"
Visu al thin kin g an d visual per ception cannot be
se parated from ot her types of th inking or percept ion .
Ver bal thinking, for example, adds mo re to the idea of
a ki tchen or livin g roo m w ith su ch q ua lifiers as
brigh t, ope n , or co m fort able . Obvio u sly, grap h ic
thin king is n ot all yo u need to k now in or der to solve
p ro ble m s or thi n k crea tivel y, bu t it ca n be a ba sic
tool. Grap hic thinking ca n op en up chan nels of com
m uni ca tion w ith ou rse lve s and th ose p eople w ith
w hom we work. The sketches generated are im po r
tan t because they sh ow ho w we are th inking about a
problem, not ju st w ha t we th ink abo ut it.

Figure 1-23 Dialogue.

Grap h ic th in king takes advantage of the po w er of

v isual percep tion by making vis ual images exte rn al
a nd exp licit. By p u tti ng th em on paper, we give vis ua l
images objectivity outs id e our brain , an existen ce of
th ei r ow n over tim e. As Ro b er t M cKim p oi n ts out ,
gra phic th in king, as externalized th inkin g:
has several advantages over internalized thought.
First, direct sensory involvement wi th materials pro
vides sen sory nourishment-litera lly 'food for
thought.' Second, thin k ing by manipulating an actual
structure permits serendipity-the hap py accident,
the unexpected discovery . Third, thinking in the
direct context of sight, touch, an d mo tion engenders
a sense of im mediacy, actuality, and action. Finally,
the ex terna lized thoug ht structure provides an object
for critical contemplation as well as a visible form
tha t can be shared with a colleague."

To the person w ho m ust reg u larly se ek n ew solu

tion s to problems, who must th ink creatively, the se
q ua lities of im med ia cy, stimu la tio n, acci de n t , a nd
con templa tion are very importa nt. To th ese q ualities I
would add one more sp ecia l att r ib ute of graph ic
th in k in g, sim u lta neity. Ske tc hes a llow u s to see 'a
grea t amoun t of informa tion at the same time, expos
ing re lationsh ips and descr ibing a wid e range of su b
tleties. Ske tch es a re direct an d represen ta tive.
According to Arn he irn, "Th e power of visual la nguage
lies in its sp ont aneou s ev idence, its almost ch ild like
simpli ci ty.. .. Da r kn ess means d a r kn es s, thin gs tha t
be long togeth er are shown toget h er, and what is great
an d h igh app ear s in large size and in a high loca tion. "7

Figure 1-22 Evolution of images.

Gra phic Thinking As a Com m unication Process

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Figure 1-24 By David Stiegletz. Development sketches on back of a placemat, Siegler Residence.

Figure 1-25 Front of placemat , Hotel Mercur, Copenhagen.

10

In troduction

EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
A st a nd ard story th at m any archit ects del ight in
tell in g de scribes h ow the m ost ba sic co nc ept fo r a
multim illion -doll ar project was first scribbled on the
ba ck of a restauran t na p kin . I have wo nd er ed w hy
both th e telle r and th e listener alw ays se em to derive
a m use me nt from s uc h a sto ry. Perhaps the story
restores confidence in the strength of the ind ividual
de signe r, or m ay be it is the incongruity that de cision s
on suc h im por ta nt matters ar e being made in suc h a
re laxed , cas ua l m ann er. Viewing th is story in the con
text of gr aphic thinking, it is not at all sur prising th at
in spired , inven tiv e thi n kin g sho ul d ta ke place at a
resta ura nt tabl e. Not on ly are th e eyes, m inds, and
han ds of at leas t tw o person s interacting with th e
im ages on th e napk in , but als o they ar e further stim
ulated by con versat ion . Besi des , these pe rso ns a re
separa ted fr om th eir day-to-day wo rk prob lems ; th ey
are rel axing in a pleasant at m osphere, and with th e
co nsu mptio n of good food , th eir level of anxiety is
significan tly recfuced. They ar e op en , ready, prepared
for d iscovery ; ind eed , it would be surprising onl y if
the most cr eative ideas w ere n ot born in this setting.
To be effective commun ica tors, arc hitec ts m ust:
1. Un d ers ta nd the bas ic elem e nt s of co mmun ica

tion-th e com m unicator, th e receiver or aud ience ,

the m ed ium , and the context-e-and their ro le in
effect iven ess.
2. Develop a gra p hic language fr om w h ich to dr aw
the m ost effective sketch es for specifi c com m uni
cati on tasks.
1 . Never take for gra nte d th e process of comm un ica
tion and be w illing to tak e the time to examin e
their effe ctiveness.
Basic co m m unica tion th eo ry stresses th e com m u
nication loop betw een the com munica to r or sender
and the receiver in order to att ain maximum effec
tiveness. Response fr om th e audienc e is essential to a
speaker wh o wants to get his m es sa ge across. The
inform ation com ing from the receiver is as im porta nt
as what th e sender, th e archit ect , transmits. And so
we m ust p ay very clo se atte n tio n to th ose p ers ons
with whom we h op e to comm un ica te . The bes t
app ro ac h is to try to p la ce one se lf in th eir shoes .
What ar e th ey expecting? Wha t are th eir co nce rns?
Equ ally important , w e sho uld be awa re of our m ot i
vations and conce rns. Do w e h ave an unconscious or
hi dden agenda?

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Figure 1-26 The st ruct ure of comm unications.

As furth er chap ters r ev iew th e m any w ay s

gr aphi c thin ki ng is us ed in the practice of arch itec
ture, it is critical to remember that individ uals ca nnot
really be cut off from the ir environm ent or th eir soci
et y. The grap hic thinking of on e person thrives in the
presence of goo d com pa ny and a su pportive atmos
phere. See k both enthusias tically.
Altho ugh th e m edium with w hich this book dea ls
is principally fre ehand sketches, th e basic me thods are
ap pli cable to many graphic m ed ia. But each specific
m ed ium has so m e u niq ue characte ris tics th at have
sp ecia l effec ts on co m m un ication. Expe rim enta tion
wi th differ ent media is th e fast est route to using them
eff ect ively. Although there are books on th e us e of
th ese m ed ia, th ere is no su bstitute for practi ce,
becau se w e all have different n eeds and abiliti es.
The context for com m u n icatio n includes su ch
th ings as location , time, duration , weather, and type
of space, w ha t took place be fore the com mu nic ation,
w hat will ta ke place after. We may be able to con trol
some of the se context variables, but we ca nnot afford
to igno re th em .

E ffective Com m unica tion

11

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Figure 1-27 Gym, St. Mary's College, C. F. Murphy Associates,

architects .

Figure 1-28 Wall sectio n, Headquarters Building, Smith,

Hinchman & Grylls Associates, Inc.

THE ROLE OF GRAPHICTHINKING IN

ARCHITECTURE

their p ur pose is to exp lain to other pe opl e the prod

u ct s of o ur th in kin g, the co n cl us io n s. Tra in in g in
ar ch itectu ral sch ool s h as been primarily gear ed
tow ar d the at ta in ment of finished presen tation skills,
whil e in architectural offi ces, th e emphasis has been
on turning out working drawings that clearly pr es ent
the necessary di rectives for the contractors.

To realize the pot ential of gra phic th in king in ar chi

tecture, w e m ust unders tand to day 's prevailing atti
tu de s on th e design process and the use of d raw ings
in that pro cess. In th e ea rly 1960s, A. S. Levens w as
ab le to write w ith conf id ence tha t:
One source of confusion in thi nkin g ab out design is
the tendency to identify design wi th one of its lan
guages, drawing. T his fallacy is sim ilar to th e confu
sion w hich would result if musical composition were
to be identi fied w ith the w riting of not es on a sta ff of
five lines. Design, lik e m usical composition, is done
essentially in the m ind an d the making of drawings
or wri ting of no tes is a recording process. 8

Today, w e hav e broade r conc ep ts of h ow an d

wher e design takes place, bu t drawings are st ill nor
ma lly th ought of as sim ply representations of ideas;

12

Introduction

In response to Levens' ana logy, graphic th in king

treats drawings more like a piano than a score sheet.
Like com position, desig n is poss ib le witho ut an
instrum en t to provid e feedback, bu t for m ost des ign
ers this is not very produ ct ive. Design thi nking and
design comm u nica ti on sh ould be interactive; t his
implies n ew roles for graph ics. As w e anticipate th e
p oten tial of comp uters and other evol vi ng comm uni
cation te ch nol ogies , the con cept of feedbac k wi ll be
key to effective use of media .

I NDlVl DUAL

IEAM
Figure 1-29

ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK

bu ild ing could get designing started. Distortion of an

eleva tion might re veal a new approach to de tailing.
Rever sal of a process diagram m ight suggest a mo d ifi
ca tio n of the bu ilding program.

The first m ajor sec tion of th e book is devo ted to the

basic grap hic th inking ski lls of repre sen tation and con
ception . Th e section incl udes four chapters dealing
with drawi ng, the use of conventions, abstraction, and
expression . My aim is to pro mo te an awareness of the
rich variety of graph ic tools availab le for adding pro
ductivi ty and enjoy me n t to th in king activities.

Th e third section of the book considers grap hic

th inking as communi cat ion in three des ign cont exts:
individual, tea m, and public . The em p hasis is on better
communication so that ideas can be sha red.

Th e se cond sec tio n of th e boo k addresses the

applicat ion of grap hic thin ki ng to de sign processes.
Its four chapters discuss analysis, ex plora tion, discov
ery, and verificat ion . Although there are some obvious
applicat ions of thes e use s to a n u m ber of design
pr ocess m odels, I have purposely avo ided promoting
a spec ific design process. O ne of the problems wi th
design p roce ss models is th eir accept ance in too sim
plistic a way; types of th ink ing or behavior are cate
gor ized, and the int ermeshi ng of processe s and ide as
is ignored . Instead of cat egories, we ne ed flex ibility.
Ma nip u lat ion of gra p hic images, for examp le, might
be used at ma ny stages of de signi ng . I still wo uld not
attemp t to guess w here it wo uld be ha ndy for a spe
cific p roj ect . Man ip ulati on of the ste reotyp es for a

Th is boo k is a coll ection of im age s, id eas, and

de vices that I hop e a re he lp fu l a nd enjoyable. The
approach is eclectic ra ther than dis cr imi nating, inclu
sive no t excl usive, expectan t n ot co n clu sive. T he
intent is not simpl y to describ e examples bu t to con
vey th e excitem en t of grap hic th ink in g and even
m ake it contagi ou s. We all have sp ecial , uni qu e
ca p acities for th inkin g, w hich , if un locked , co u ld
make grea t contributions to th e solu tion of problems
we face. Arn heim emphas izes tha t "Every gre a t art ist
gives bi rth to a ne w un iverse, in w hi ch the fam iliar
things look th e w ay th ey have n ever before looked to
anyone. " 9 Th is book is writ ten in anticipati on of a
tim e when many of us w ill be ab le to give birth to our
own uni verses.
O rganiza tion of the B ook

13

BASIC SKILLS

2 Drawing

hiS chapte r's focus is on th e ba sic represen ta

tion skills help ful to graphic thinking m eth ods
as prese n te d in th e rem ainde r of thi s book .
De ve loping freeha nd draw ing skills is n eces
sary to th e att a in m en t of graphic thinking an d per
ceptual skills. Some might say, "I really admir e good
draw ings and those designers wh o have a qui ck
hand , but 1 hav e accepted th e fact tha t 1 w ill never be
th at good ." Bun k! It ju st is not SO l Anyone can learn
to d raw we ll. If you don 't believe m e, ta ke th e time to
tal k to people w ho draw very wel l. You w ill find that
their fir st drawi ngs w ere ten tative . Th ey probably
took every oppo rtunity to draw. With tim e and hard
w ork , th ey gr ad ua lly im p roved and n ever regretted
th e eff ort th ey made.

The re are tw o impo rtant co ndi ti on s to keep in

m ind wh en trying to develop any skill :
1 . Skill comes w ith re petition.

2. The surest w ay to p rac ti ce an y s kill is to enjo y

w hat you ar e doing.
Because of th e he av y em phas is on ra tionalization
in formal ed uca tio n, many people mis tak enly th ink
that th ey can master a ski ll, suc h as drawing, sim ply
by understanding concepts. Con cepts ar e helpful. but
pr actice is esse ntia l.
The orchestra conduc tor Artie Shaw on ce explai ned
w hy he refu sed all requ ests by parents to audition the ir
childr en. He felt that th e wo rst thing you can do to a
talented child is to tell him he has talent. Th e greats in
the m us ic bu siness, rega rdless of na tu ral talent,
became successful through hard work an d a com m it
m ent to their cr aft. They believed in themselv es but
knew the y would have to stru ggle to prove th emselves
to ot hers. The focus of energy, sense of comp etition ,
and year s of hard work are essential to becom ing a fine
m usicran .

The kn owled ge t ha t d raw ing a nd t hin king are

im p ort a n t to ar chitecture is not sufficien t. Nat ura l
draw in g talent is no t enoug h . To sus ta in th e n eces
sary lifeti m e effort of learn ing and p erfecting gra p hic
th in kin g, w e nee d to find p leasure in drawing an d
think in g. We must be challen ged to do it be tter than
those arc hitec ts w e ad m ire do. Morse Payne of Th e
Arch itec ts Collaborat ive once noted th e infl uence of
Ralp h Raps in on many talented designers: "To w at ch
Ralph kn ock out one of his beaut ifu l per sp ectives in
fifte en min utes w as tru ly ins piring. It set a goal for us
that was very challenging." 1 For tunately, t here is still
a lot of respect wit hin th e architec tura l profession for
high-quali ty d raw ing. Th e person who ca n expres s
hims elf b ot h graphicall y a nd verba lly on an
impromptu basis is highly ' valued . W hen hiri ng,
off ices oft en loo k for a bi li ty to commun icate ove r
ability to be origina l. They know that your ability to
develop ideas w ith th em is muc h m or e important in
the long run than the idea tha t yo u in itially bri ng to
them.
It is possi ble to be a n architec t w ithout having
w ell-developed grap hic thi nking skills. A barber or a
bartender ca n surely cut hair or serve d rinks withou t
being able to carry on a conversation . But th e job is a
lot ea sier if you enjoy tal king w ith people, an d you
will prob ably do more business. 1 believe that grap hic
thinking can m ak e design m or e enjoyable and more
eff ective.

Four types of basic ski lls sup po rt grap hic th in k

ing: observa tion , pe rc ep tion , d iscr im ina tion, and
imagin ation . Although these are considered to be pr i
marily th in king sk ills , in this ch apter 1 have tr ied to
show how gr aph ic mean s may be used to pro mo te
th ese sk ills an d att ain a funda m ental inte gra tion of
gra p hics a nd th in ki ng . The se q uen ce in w h ich the
skills are add ressed reflects my ass umption th at each
thi nking skill sup ports those th a t foll ow.

17

2 Drawing

his cha p ter' s focus is on the basic represe nta

tion skills helpful to gra p h ic th in king m etho ds
as p rese n ted in th e rema inder of th is bo ok .
Develop ing free hand d raw ing skills is ne ces
sary to th e atta inmen t of graphi c think ing and p er
cep tual skills. Some m igh t say, "I really adm ire goo d
d ra w ings a nd th ose desi gn er s wh o have a qui ck
han d, bu t I have acce pt ed the fact th at I wi ll ne ver be
th at good ." Bu n k! It jus t is not so! Anyone can learn
to d raw well . If you don 't believe m e, take the time to
ta lk to pe op le w ho dr aw very w ell. You w ill find that
th eir first draw ings w ere ten ta tive . They p roba bly
took every oppo rtu ni ty to draw. W ith time and hard
wo r k, th ey gradually imp roved and never re grette d
the effort th ey mad e.

T h er e a re tw o im por tan t con dition s to keep in

mi nd when trying to develop any sk ill:
1. Skill co mes w it h rep etition .
2. Th e surest w ay to prac tice any s kil . is to en joy
what you are d oi ng.
Beca use of th e heavy em p has is on rationa lizati on
in form al edu cati on, m any peop le mi staken ly think
th at th ey ca n ma ster a skill , such as draw ing, simply
by understandi ng co nc ep ts. Concepts are helpful, but
practice is esse ntial.
The orchestra conductor Artie Shaw on ce explained
why he refused all requests by parents to au dit ion th eir
child ren. He felt that th e wo rst thing you can do to a
talented child is to tell him he has talent. Th e grea ts in
the m usic bu siness, regardless of na tural talent ,
became successful th ro ugh hard work and a com m it
m en t to their craft. They believed in themselves but
knew the y would have to struggle to prove th em selves
to oth ers. Th e focus of en ergy, se nse of competiti on,
an d years of hard work are essential to becom ing a fine
musician.

Th e know ledge th at d raw ing and t hi nk ing are

imp or ta n t to a rchi tect ure is not sufficien t. Nat ura l
d rawing talen t is not enou gh . To susta in the neces
sary lifeti m e effort of learning and perfectin g grap hic
th inking, w e n eed to find p leasure in draw ing and
thin ki ng . We must be ch all enged to do it bett er than
those arch itects w e admire do . Morse Payne of The
Architects Colla bo rat ive once noted the in fluence of
Ralph Rapsin on m any tal en ted designers: "To w atch
Ralp h knoc k out one of his bea u tiful perspec tives in
fifteen minutes w as tr uly inspiring . It set a goal for us
that was ver y ch allenging.": For tu nate ly, th ere is st ill
a lot of resp ect w ithin th e architectura l profession for
high-q ua lity d raw ing. T he pe rso n who ca n ex press
h ims elf both gra ph ically and verba lly on an
im p ro mp tu basis is hig hly valued . W hen hir ing,
off ice s oft en loo k for abi lity to com m u n ica te ove r
ab ility to be original. The y know that your a bility to
develop ideas w ith th em is mu ch m ore im por tan t in
th e long run th an th e idea that you initially b ring to
th em .
It is possible to be a n arc hitect w itho u t hav ing
we ll-developed graphic th inkin g sk ills. A barber or a
bartender can su rely cut hair or serve drin ks wi tho ut
being a ble to car ry on a conversation . Bu t th e job is a
lot eas ier if you enjoy talking wit h people, and you
w ill pr ob ably do more b usines s. I be lieve that grap hic
thin kin g can ma ke d esign m ore en joya ble and mo re
effe ct ive .

Four ty pes of basic s kills support graphic th ink

ing: obs ervation, p ercep tion , d iscrim ina tio n , and
im agin ation. Alt hough th ese are considered to be p ri
marily th inking skills, in this chap ter I have tried to
sho w how grap h ic me ans may be used to promote
th ese sk ills and attain a fund amental int egrat ion of
graphics a nd th inki ng. T he se q uence in whic h the
sk ills a re addressed reflec ts my ass u mption tha t each
thi n king skill supports th ose that follow .

17

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THE SKETCH NOTEBOOK

Frederick Perls hel d that, "People who look at thin gs
withou t see ing th em w ill exp er ience the same defi
cien cy when call ing up me ntal pi ctures, while those
who .. .loo k at thi ngs sq ua rel y and wi th recognition
w ill have an eq u ally .a ler t in ternal ey e. " 2 Visual
im agery is cr itica l to the creati ve design er ; he must
rely on a very rich collection of visual memori es . The
rich ne ss of these memories depen ds on a w ell-deve l
oped and act ive visu al perception . The sk etch note
boo k is an excellen t way of coll ecting visua l im ages
and sha rpe n ing percep tio n , for it promotes see ing
rather th an just lookin g. Arc hitects who have gotte n
int o th e sketch not ebook ha bi t q u ick ly discover its
us efu lne ss. All I can say is to try it; you'll like it.
A sketch notebook should be sm all and portable,
able to fit in to a pocket so it can be carr ied an ywhere.
It sh ou ld ha ve a d u ra ble bind ing and cove rs so it
w on 't com e ap art. Car ry it w ith you at all times and
leave it next to your be d at nigh t (some of the best
id eas com e to pe op le ju st b efo r e going to sleep or
ri ght up on aw ak ening). As the nam e implies, it is a
book for notes as w ell as for sketches and for
remind ers, r ecipes, or anythi n g else you can think
about. Com bin ing ver ba l an d grap hi c not es h elps
unite verbal and visual thin king.

D rawing

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Figure 2-3 By Lawrence Halprin.

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Figure 2-4 By Karl Brown.

18

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Figure 2-2 By Lisa Ko lber.

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Figure 2-5 By Karl Mang .

Fig ure 2-6 By Ronald Margolis. Old Mai n Building,

Wayne University.

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Figure 2-7 By Patrick D. Nall.

Th e Sketch N otebook

19

Figure 2-8 Spanish Steps, Rome.

OBSE RVATION
The thousands of students who pass through archi
tectu ral schoo ls are us ua lly to ld th at they shou ld
learn to sk et ch fr eeha nd and , to a cer tain degr ee,
how . Rarely are they told w hat they sh ou ld ske tch or
w hy. Draw ing cu bes and othe r still-life exercises ar e
an att em p t to teach ske tching d ivorced from th in k
ing. Mo st st uden ts fin d it bori ng, and it drive s some
away from sketchi ng for the rest of th ei r lives. I pre
fer to sta rt students with th e sket ching of exis tin g
buildi ngs beca use :
1. The y ar e drawing subjects in wh ich th ey have a

basic in terest and are re ady to dis cuss.

2. T he eye an d m in d as well as the hand ar e
involved ; percep tion becomes fine-tuned , and we
begin to sor t out our vis ual experiences.
3. On e of th e best ways to learn about archi tectural
design is to look close ly at existin g buildi ngs and
spaces.

20

D rawing

The clearest way to dem on str ate the valu e of fr ee

hand sketchi ng for develop in g grap hic thinking skills
is to compa re sketchi ng wi th ph otogra phy. Although
a cam era is oft en a us eful or expedient too l, it lac ks
many of the attributes of ske tche s. SKetches have the
ab ility to rev eal our perc ept ion , th erefore giving
more im po rtan ce to certain pa rts, wh ereas a photo
shows everything wi th equal em phas is. In the sketch
of the Spanish Steps in Rom e , the focu s is on the
ch urc h , ell ipse, and step s as orga n izin g elem en ts for
th e e ntire ext erior space. Th e sign ifican t im pact of
the flowers in th e p hoto ha s been elim ina ted in the
sketch . The abstra ction can be pushed furt her until
there is on ly a pa ttern of light and dark, or we ca n
fo cus on ly on certain det a ils, suc h as lamp posts or
window s. This on e scen e alo ne is a d ict ion ary of
urban design . But you do not have to wa it until you
get to Rome to get s tarted ; th ere ar e lesso ns a ll
around us. Becom e a prospec tor of ar chitect ural
design ; build your ow n collec tion of good ideas whil e
you learn to sket ch . It is a lot of fun.

Figure 2-9 Spanish

. Steps r Rorne.

Figure 2-10 Wrn

' dow Det ail.

Figure 2-9a Spanish Steps, R_orne. :

Fig ure 2-11 Street lamp detai l.

Observation

21

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Figure 2-12a House drawing structure.

Figure 2-12b Tones.

BUILDING A SKETCH

corr ect p rop or tion s it makes n o d iffere nce w hat is

draw n from t he n on; th e sketch w ill alw ays look
w rong. So take your time; look ca refully at th e sub
ject ; continually compar e your sketch wi th w hat you
see. Now add the ton es. The se re presen t the sp ace
defini ng elemen ts of ligh t, shadow, and color. Again ,
look carefully at the subject. Where are th e lightest
ton es; where are th e da rkest? The sket ch is becoming
m ore re a listic. Th e d etail s are ad ded las t . At thi s
poin t everyth ing is in its place, a nd you can really
concen trat e on th e details one at a tim e. It is no
lon ger ove rw helming; you can re lax and enjoy it.

In his book D rawing Bu ildings, Richard Dow ner pre

sen ted the most effecti ve app roach to fr eeh an d
sketc hing I have ever com e across . "Th e fi rst an d
m ost importan t th ing ab ou t dra w ing buildi ngs is to
realize that what you intend to draw should inter est
you as a su bject .'? Nex t , it is im por tan t to select a
va ntage point th at be st descri bes your subject. Now
you ar e r eady to bu ild the sketch by a three-ste p
process of sketching basic structure, tones, an d th en
det ails. The basic st ructure sketch is most important.
If the p arts ar e not show n in their proper p lace and

Fi gure 2-13a Bowl drawing structure.

22

D rawing

Figure 2-13b Tones.

Figure 2-13c Finished bowl drawing.

Figure 2-12c Text ure and color.

Figure 2-12d Finished house drawing .

Building a Sk etch

23

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Figure 2-17

Structure Sketch

Figure 2-14

Fig ure 2-15

Fi gure 2-16

24

Dra wing

T he most im port an t part of a sketch , the basic lin e

draw ing, is also the mo st d ifficult skill to m as te r. It
re quires a lot of practice, but I have a few suggestions
th at sho uld help :
1. To help sha rp en th e se ns e of propo rtion need ed
for ske tching , practi ce dr aw ing squares and th en rec
tangles that are tw o or th ree times longer on one side
th an on th e other. Now try to find squares in a scene
yo u are ske tchi ng . (At th e beginn in g, th is co uld be
don e w ith tracing pap er over a photograp h.)
2. Use a cross or a fra m e to get th e parts of th e
sk etch in th eir prop er p lace, or maybe a p romi ne nt
fea tur e of the scene or subjec t can act as an organizer
for the ot her parts of the sketch .
3. Alth ough pen cil ca n certai n ly be us ed for
sk etchi ng, I pref er fe lt -tip or in k pens b eca use the
lines they prod uc e are simple and clear. If a line is in
th e wrong place, it is qu ite ev ide n t. Because the lin e
can not be eras ed , it m ust be redr aw n to get it right.
This proc ess of rep et ition and checking against t he
subjec t develops ski ll. Drawings th at are so light they
ca n be ign ored or erased den y the design er the feed
back essen tia l to his im pro vem ent.
4. To gai n mor e co nt r ol ov er line m a king, try
so me sim ple exercises sim ilar to our "id le m om ent "
doodl es . Th e sp irals, like tho se above , are d rawn
fr om the ou ts id e toward the cen te r, both clockw ise
and co unte rclockw ise . Try to m ake them as fas t as
p ossib le without let tin g the lines touc h each ot her ;
tr y to get th e lines close to each othe r. Stra ight hatch
in g can be done in several directi ons , always striv ing
for consistency.

Fi gure 2- 18

Figure 2-1 9

Figure 2- 20

Tones
Tones can be represen ted with differe nt den sities of
hatching or com binations of cross-ha tching . The lines
s ho u ld be p arallel and have eq ual spa ces between
them . Always re m em ber that th e ma in purpose of the
cross- ha tching is to ob tai n different levels of gray or
dar kne ss . Use straight strokes as if you were pa inting
the sur faces w ith a brush . Errati c or irreg ular lin es
d raw att ention to th em and di stract th e e ye fr om
m ore im po rtant thing s. There is no st r ict r ule for
ap ply ing tones on a sket ch, bu t I ha ve some prefer
enc es tha t se em to work well. Horizontal ha tch ing is
used on horizontal surfaces, di ago na l hatch ing on
vertical surfaces . Wh en two ve rti cal surfaces meet,
the h at ching on on e is at a slig htly di ff eren t an gle
from the hatching on the other surfac e.

App ly tones in a three-step process:

1 . Indicate any texture that appears in th e surface,
such as the vertical boards on a barn .
2. If th e textur e in d ication does not prov ide the level
of darkness of th e subject , add the necessary addi
tional hatching over th e entire surface.
3 . No w app ly m ore ha tch in g w here any s had ow s
fall. To show gradat ions of sha dow, add a su cces
sio n of hatches at different angl es.

The refinement of ton es in a d raw ing is ach ieved

by loo king carefully at th e su bjec t a nd by ge tt in g
m or e control over t he consistency of the lines.
Severa l alt ern ative techniqu es for ske tc hing in
tones are illustr ated throughout th is bo ok . The one
show n at t he ri ght ab ove is a ra pid me thod usin g ra n
dom strokes. De sign ers usua lly de ve lop tech niq ues
w ith w hi ch they feel m ost com for table.

Bu ilding a Sketch

25

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Fi gure 2-22

Details
Detai ls a re ofte n the most in terestin g or compe lling
as pe ct of buildings. T he window is an exce lle n t exam
p le. T her e, the de ta ils ca n be th e result of a tr an siti on
be tw een tw o m a ter ial s-brick and glass- or b etween
two b u ild ing elements-wall and op e ning. The w ood
w indow frame , brick arch , key stone, and w indowsi ll
ma ke t hese transi tio ns po ss ib le , an d each of th ese
de tai ls tells us more abou t th e b ui lding . O n a regular
basis, I have students sk etch window s, doors, or
other bu ild ing elemen ts so they ga in an unde rstand
ing a nd appre ciat ion of the con tribution of detai ls to
th e q uali ti es and func tions of the bui lding . Details
tell us so m e thi ng of need s a nd ma ter ia ls as w ell as
our in ge n uit y in re lating th em . Th e ske tc h of the
me ta l grating around th e b ase of t h e tree exp la ins
bot h the need s of the tr ee and the use of th e su rfa ce
under the tree where people w alk .
Figure 2-23

26

In m ost arc h it ectural sce nes, th ere a re d et a ils

close to us a n d othe rs fa rth er away. We can see m or e
of th e close det ail and sho u ld sho w in th e ske tc h suc h
things as sc re w s or fas te ne rs or fin e joints a n d tex
tur es. As d etai ls recede in th e sk et ch , few er a n d
few er of the pi eces ar e sho w n , unt il on ly th e ou tline
is v isib le.

Drawing

Figure 2-25 MO lltgomery, Alabama.

Combining Observations

Fi gure 2-24 Sail Francisco. Ca lifornia.

Wit h practice , struc ture , ton es, a nd d etai ls ca n be

effective ly combined to ca p ture th e com p le te se nse
of a subject. Old er houses of d ifferent sty les ar e suit
ab le su bj ects for practicin g a nd developing ob ser va
tion sk ills. T he y a re usua lly readi ly access ib le and
p ro v ide a varie ty o f v is u a l effect s th a t ca n sus ta in
yo ur in te rest. Try vis iting favorit e houses at d iffer ent
tim es of d ay in orde r to v iew the impact of di ffer ent
light ing co n d itions. Walk arou n d , approa ch , a nd
re tr ea t fr om th e su bj ect to captur e a va r ie ty o f
appearances .

Building a Sketch

27

TRACING
Trac ing ex isting graph ic mat erial is anoth er w ay to
bu ild sketching skills. Ma king an overlay of you r ow n
drawing s w ith tr acing paper is an ob vious but und er
used dev ice. Rath er th an overwork a d raw ing th at is
h ead ed in t he w rong directi on, make an ov er lay
sh owing th e ele men ts that need to be corrected and
then, in anothe r overlay, ma ke a w hol e new ske tc h
incorpor ating th e ch an ges. You w ill learn more from
yo ur mi stak es, and th e fina l sketc h w ill be better an d
fresher. Tracing can also be do ne by lay ing a tran s
pare n t s hee t with a grid ov er a draw ing or p ho to,
draw ing a larger gr id, and th en transferring the draw
in g square by sq uar e. A thi rd tec hniq ue uses a slide
projector a nd a sm a ll m irr or to p roject images of a
conveni ent size for tracing on your d rawi ng ta ble.
The large sketc h on page 3 1 w as don e in this w ay.

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Figure 2-26a Orig inal sketc h.

No m att er th e rea son you th ou gh t copy ing w as

im pr op er or illega l, forget it. Ma st er dr af tsm en su ch
a s Leon ardo da Vinc i cop ied oth er p eo pl e's wo r k
w hen th ey were learn ing to d raw. No tracing is ever
th e sa m e a s th e or igina l. You w ill pi ck out some
details and simplify other parts. Tracing forces you to
look closel y at th e or igina l sketc h or photo an d better
un der stand the su bject.

DOD
Figure 2-26b Overlay sketch.

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Fi gure 2-27 Projection table and projection box.

28

Dra wing

Fi gure 2-28a Original sketch.

Figure 2-28b Enlargement of sketch.

Figure 2-29 Tracing after Ray Evans.

Figure 2-30 Tracing after Ray Evans.

Tracing

29

Fig ure 2-31 Sketc h of Athens, Ohio.

(a)

Figu re 2-32 Sketch of Athens, Ohio.

Figure 2-33 Sketch of At hens, Oh io.

30

Drawing

Figure 2-34 a (opposite), b (above) Plan, section, and perspective of garden-court restaurant, Salzburg, Austria.

PERCEPTION
Many a rchitects have b ecome m et hodica l abo ut
sketch and note taki ng. Gordon Cullen , the British
illus trator and urban d es ign consult an t, had a m ajo r
influe nce on the use of ana lyti ca l sket ches. His book
Townscape' is a wond erful collec tion of visua l percep
t ions of th e urba n e n v iro n me n t. Th e sketc he s a re
clear and com p rehe nsive , im p ress ive ev ide nce of
w ha t can be dis covered wi th gra p hic thinking. Using
pl ans , sect io ns , and perspectives, th e sketches go
beyond th e obvio us to uncover n ew percep tio ns .
Tones ar e used to iden tify m ajor orga ni zers of sp ace.
(In the book , many of th ese tones are achieved
m ec hani cally, b u t th ey are easily rendered in
sket ches by hatch ing wi th grease pe nci l or large felt
tip markers.] The verba l ca tego ri zation of urban ph e
nom ena th rough shor t titles helps to fix the visual
p ercep t ions in our memori es; verbal and gra phic
communications are working together. And these are

not complica ted sketches; th ey ar e w ithin th e poten

tial of most designe rs , as show n in the ske tc hes oppo
site, w hich apply Cullen 's techn iq ues to th e ana lysis
of a small midweste rn town .
As Joh n Gund elfinger puts it :

A sk etchbook should be a personal diary of what

interests you and not a collection of finished draw
ings compiled to impress with weight and numb er. ..a
finished on-the-spot drawin g...shouldn't be the rea
son you go out, for the objective is drawing and not
the drawing. I often learn more from drawings that
don't work out, studying the unsuccessful attempts tc
see where and why I went off ..can learn more than
from a drawing where everything fell into place .
The draw ings that succeed do so in some measure
because of the failures I've learned from preceding it,
and so certain pitfalls were unconsciously ignored
while drawing. S

Perception

31

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Figure 2-35 Waterfront, Mobile, Alabama.

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Ea ch subject ma y re veal new w ays of seei ng if we

remain op en to its specia l ch aracteris tics. It m ay be
th e red undancy of form s or a pattern of shadows; it
may be an aw are ness of the sp ecial set of elemen ts
an d circu ms tances th at p ro du ces a p articularly in ter
estin g visual experience. A sketch of the interior of a
cathedra l can uncover th e exciting p lay of scale and
m at er ials. Th e ac t of dr aw ing can d rama tically
heigh ten your visu al sensitivity.

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Figure 2-36 Salzburg, Austria.

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Figure 2-37 Mobile, Alabama.

32

Drawing

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Figure 2-38 By Todd Calson. West minster Cat hedral.

Figure 2-39 Ohio Universit y Quad, Athens, Ohio.

Percep tion

33

Figure 2-40 Cartoon style sketch, after Rowland Wilson.

Fi gure 2-42 Afte r Saul Steinberg.

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Figure 2-41 After Saul Steinberg.

Figure 2-43 After Saul Steinberg.

DISCRIMINATION
Cartoons ar e a n im portan t source of sk et ch ing id eas.
My favo r ite sourc es are T he N ew Yor k er a nd Pu nch
m aga zin es, but th e re a re many oth e r sou rces.
Cartooni st s co nvey a co nv inc ing sense of reality w ith
an in c red ib le economy of m ean s. Simp le con tou r
lin es suggest d et ail inform ati on w h ile con cen tra ting
on ove ra ll shape s. Michael Folke s desc ribes some of
the d iscip line of cartoon drawings :
.. .simplicity refers to the need to ma k e the clearest
possible sta teme nt.... Avoid all unnecessary de tail.

34

Drawing

Ma k e th e focal point of your pictu re stand ali t .

Re frai n from filling every corne r with obj ects or
shading.. .. Tra in y our hand and eye to put down on
paper rapidly recogniza ble situ a tions: in the fewe st
possible strok es. One significant de tail is worth far
more tha n an un certain clu tter of lines tha t don 't
really describe any thing. M a k e dozens of sma ll pic
tures.. .draw ing directly in pen a nd ink so that the
pen becom es a natural drawi ng instrument and no t
som ething tha t can only be used to wor]: pain fully
over ca refu lly prepa red pencil lines.(,

T he ca rt oon is selective or d isc rim ina ting; it he lps

yo u seek out th e esse n ce of a n exper ie nce.

Figure 2-44 Sketc h exte nding a view derived from

t he painting, Giovanni Arnofini and Hi s Bride, by
Jan Va n Eyck.

Figure 2-45 Drawing from imagination.

Figure 2-46 Drawing from imagination.

IMAGINATION

tho se pa r ts of the roo m access ibl e only th rou gh

your imagina tion .
2 . Draw a se t o f objects and th e n draw w hat you
believe to be the view from the backsid e.
3. Sket ch a s im p le objec t su ch as a cube w ith d is
tinc tive m ar kin gs. T he n im agine that you a re cu t
tin g th e objec t and m ov ing the parts. Draw the
di ffe ren t new configura tions.

To m ove fr om gra p h ics in su p po r t o f obse rva tio n

towa rd gra phic thinking th at supports d esigning , you
must deve lop a nd stre tc h imagin ati on . Her e are so me
simp le exe rc ises to sta rt:
1. Find a d rawing, p hotogra p h , or painting of a ro om
th at show s a part of a space. O n a large sh eet of
pap e r, draw the sc ene d epic ted a nd th en ex te n d
th e drawing beyo nd it s or igin al fr am e to s ho w

Imagination

35

Visual-Mental Games
An en te rtaining way to im p rove ha nd - eye - mind
coord ination and promote an ability to visualize is to
play some simple games.
1. Show a few people four or five cuto uts of sim
ple shapes arranged on a pi ece of paper (above , left ).
Ou t of view of the ot hers, one p ers on m oves th e
cut outs while verbally desc ribing the move. The oth
ers attempt to d raw th e new ar ra nge me nt from the
description . Th is is repeated a few tim es to see w ho
can ke ep track of the pos ition of th e shape s. Aft er
m aster ing th is exercise, have the persons draw ing try
to form a men ta l picture of each new arrangem ent
and then try to draw only th e final arran gemen t. In a
sec ond version of this gam e, an object is su bstitu ted
for the cut outs, an d it is ma n ip u late d , op ened , or
taken apart.
2 . Form a circl e wi th a small gr ou p. Each pers on
m akes a sim pl e sket ch a nd pa sses it to hi s righ t.

36

D raw ing

Everyone tr ies to copy the sketch he has received an d

in turn pa sses th e copy to th e righ t. This contin ues
unti l the fin al copy is passed to the creator of the ori g
in al sketch . Then all sketches are ar ra nge d on a w all
or table in the order they were made. This ga m e illu s
trates th e distinctiven ess of individ ual visual p ercep
tion (above, cen ter).
3. Doodles, usin g an arch itectural or de sign
th eme, are another form of puzzle. He re, th e obj ec
tive is to provide just enough clues so the subj ect is
ob vious once the title is given (above, right) .
There are many visual p uzzles that exer cise our
visual per cept ion. Try some of those sh ow n opposite;
look for more puzzles , or invent some of your ow n . In
th e sketches opposite, an arbitrary diagram is given
and the cha llenge is to use it as a parti for di fferent
bu ild ings by seeing it as standing for a section or plan
view for starters.

Figure 2-50 Visual puzzles.

Figure 2-51 ExpLoring design based on a parti diagram.

Imagination

37

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.----1

nventions

Represent: Call up by description or portrayal or

imagination, figure, place, lik eness of be fore mind or
senses, serve or be meant as likeness of ..stand for,
be specimen 0(, fill place 0(, be subs titu te [or:

hroughout history, represen tation and design

have been closely lin ked . T he ac t of d esign in g
grew directly out of m a n 's desire to see w ha t
could or would be ach ieved b ef ore in vesti ng
too much time, energy, or money. To crea te a clay p ot
meant simply working directly with your han ds until
the desired resu lt was ach ieved. Bu t m a king a go ld
pot required expensive materia l, m uc h preparatio n ,
time, and energy. A representation , a design drawing,
of the gold bowl was necessary befor e s ta rting th e
project. Design became an important part of arch itec
tural projects simply because of th eir sca le.
Represen ting th e imag ined b u ild in g perm itted n ot
only a view of the final result bu t the planni ng for
labor and materials to assure completion of th e projec t.

Figure 3- 2

The rep rese n ta tion al capacity of sketches is lim

ited. We mus t recognize tha t eve n wi th th e m ost
sophisticated techniques drawings are not a full sub
stitute for the ac tua l experience of a n a rch it ec tural
e nv ironment. On the other hand, th e capac ity o f
sketches as thinking tools extends well beyond wh at
is act ually con ta in ed in the sketc hes. Draw ings, as
representations, should be seen as ex tensions of th e
persorus] who uses them to aid in thinking. As Ru do lf
Arnheim says:
The world of im ages does no t simply im prin t itse lf
upon a fai thfully sensitive organ. Rathel; in looking
at an object, we reach out for it. W ith an in visible
finger we move through space around us, go out to
distant places where things are foun d, touc h the m ,
catch them, scan their surfaces , trace their borders,
explore their texture. It is an eminently act ive occu
poti on.'

I find a great variation in the deg ree to whi ch

architects rely on drawings to v isua lize designs. One
probable explanation for this is experience in vis ua l
izing and w ith the bui lding of th ese desig ns. For
examp le, when architecture students look at a p la n
view of a room, they likely see just an abstract di a
gram, but some experienced arc hitects ca n vis ua lize a
perspective view of the same room without having to
draw it.

Figure 3-3

Some bas ic types of re p rese n ta tion ske tc hes,

which I feel a rch itects shou ld be a ble to understand,
a re di scussed in th is ch apter. I do not intend to pres
e n t a comprehensive exp lanation of the construction
of basic d rawing co nven tions . Th er e are already sev
era l good books on th at subject. Rather, th e emphasis
will be on freehand techn iq ues w ithou t th e use of tri
a n gles, sca les, a n d st raigh te dges, a llowing for rapid
repres entation .

39

',"/
Figure 3-4 Site plan.

Figure 3-5 Axonometric.

Figure 3-6 Partial elevation.

Figure 3-7 Detail section.

Ther e ar e a gr ea t n umber of th ings w e can repre

sen t ab out a space or a build ing and many ways to
represent them. Th e sketch ed subjects can ra nge in
scale from a building and its surrou nding proper ty to
a window or a light sw itch . We m ight be interest ed in
how it looks or h ow it works or h ow to p ut it
togeth er; we m ay be se arching for clarity or charac
ter. Variations in drawings ra nge from the concrete to
the abs tract , an d the convention s in clude sec tion or
cut, eleva tio n , persp ect iv e, axonom etric, isometric,
and projec tions . Med ia , techn iq ue, an d st yle acco unt
for m any of th e other variations. Ma ny of these va ria
tions are cove red in lat er chap ters.

Th e elementary for ms of repres enta tio n discussed

at this po int are :

40

Conventions

1. Comprehensive views- To st udy d esign s as com

plete sy st ems , w e must have m odels that repre

se n t the whole from some view point.
2. Concrete images- Dealing wit h th e m os t direct
experience. Abs traction is covere d in Cha pte r 4.
3. Perceptual focus- Trying to involve th e vi ewe r in
th e expe rien ce signi fied by th e draw ing.
4. Freehand sk etches-Decision -m ak in g in de sig n
should in clude the consi derati on of m an y altern a
tives. Represe n ta tion of altern atives is encouraged
by th e speed of freehand ske tch ing, w here as the
ted iou sn ess of "constr uc ted " hard-lin e d raw ings
d iscourages it.

BUI LDING A PERSPECTIVE.

Rdure

9 1ane

l1 otrzon L U1l

Figure 3-8a Setting the pict ure plane

and viewpoint.

Fi gure 3-8b Starting grids.

Figure 3-8c Setti ng cross-grids.

Figure 3-9a Settin g the pict ure plane and

viewpoint, plan view.

Figure 3-9b Setting one grid, plan view.

Figure 3-9c Setting t he cross-grids,

plan view.

PERSPECTIVE
Pers pect ive sket ches ha ve a n eq ual stand ing w ith
plan d raw ings, the starting poi n t of m ost d esign edu
cation. O ne-poin t persp ec tive is the easiest and there
fore , I fee l, th e mo st usefu l of pe rsp ect ive
co nvent ions. I have fou nd th e follow ing th re e-step
m ethod to be mo st succe ssful :
1 . Indicate th e pictur e plane in bot h elevation a nd
pl a n ; it is usuall y a w a ll or a not he r fea ture th a t
d efines the far li m its of th e immed ia te space to be
view ed . Loca te the p oin t from w h ich the space is to
be viewed, or view point (V P.). Vertically, th is po in t is
usu ally abo u t 5.5 feet from th e bottom of the pi ctur e
plan e. Horizon tally, it can be p laced just a bout any
w her e in the sp ace w ith the un der standin g that pa rts
of the sp ace outsi d e a 50 -d egree con e of v ision in
fr on t of the view er tend to be di s torted in the per
sp ect ive. T he horizon ta l line d raw n th rou gh th e V P.
is called th e horizon line.

2 . Establish a grid on th e floor of the space. Draw

th e sq ua re grid in p la n a nd co u n t th e n umbe r of
spaces the v iew er is away fr om the pi cture p lane.
Then , in th e perspec tive , loca te the d iago na l va nish
ing point (D .V P.) on the hori zon line at the same d is
ta nce from the vie w po int. Draw floor gr id lines in the
perspect ive in one d irection com ing from th e view
point; d raw a diagonal lin e fro m th e diagona l vanish
ing poi nt th ro ugh the bot tom corner o f t he p ic ture
p lane an d across the space. W here th e d iago nal int er
sec ts the floor grid lines running in th e on e direc tion,
hori zo n ta l lines can be d raw n to s how the other
d irection of the floo r gr id.
3 . In d icate th e str uc ture of the basic eleme nts of
the sp ace. Co n tinu e th e grid on the w alls and ceiling
(if a pp ropriate ). Using th e gr ids as qu ick refer ence,
place vertica l plan es an d openings as we ll as signifi
can t d iv isions of the pla nes.

Persp ec tive

41

Figure 3-10a Definition of space.

Sketching straigh t lin es freeh a nd is an im p orta n t

skill to ma st er for all ty pes of gra p h ic th in ki ng, an d
p rac tice ma kes perfect. Once you begin to rely on a
st raighted ge, the work slows dow n. Sta rt by con cen
trat ing on w h ere the line begin s an d end s ra ther th a n
on th e lin e itsel f. Place a d ot a t th e begin n ing a nd a
d ot w h e re th e lin e s h ou ld e n d . As yo u re pea t th is
exe rcise , let th e p en drag ac ross th e p ap e r be tw ee n
the tw o dot s. T his sou nd s pret ty ele men ta ry, b u t it is
su rprising how ma ny peop le have n ever bot he red to
lea rn ho w to sketch a straigh t lin e.
W ith th e ba sic p er sp ec ti ve a nd p la n com p le ted
th e values, or tones, ca n now be ad d ed . Th e actu al
col or of objec ts or p la n es, s h ad e, or s ha d ow s can
ca use d iffe re nces in values; ind ica ting th ese chan ging
valu es sh ow s th e in te raction of ligh t w ith th e sp ace,
p rovid ing spa tial defini tion . Conve nt ions for castin g
s hadow s a re presen ted w hen pla n draw in gs a re di s
cu ssed . For now, it is en ough to n ote tha t shadow s ar e
firs t cast in p lan and the n add ed to the perspect ive,

42

Conventions

using th e square gr id as a ref eren ce. Sha de appea rs

on objects on the side oppos ite to the su n or othe r
so urce of light w here no direct light fa lls ; shaded sur
fac es a re ge ne rally lighter in tone tl;an sha dows. As
in sketchi ng exis ting build ings, I prefer to use pa ra lle l
ha tch lin es to show tones (see Building a Sketch in
C hapte r 2).
Finally, de tai ls a nd objects ca n be add ed . Peop le
ar e m ost importa n t because th ey esta bli sh th e sca le
of the space an d in volve th e viewe r th roug h id entifi
ca tion w ith th ese sketched figur es. Sim p licity, real is
tic p roporti on s, and a sense of m ovemen t a re basic to
good hu m a n figures such as th ese. T he squ a re grid s
help in co ordi na tin g the p lacem e n t of hum an figures
and ot h er objects in p la n a nd pe rs pective . Be sure to
p lace p eo pl e a nd objects w he re th ey w ou ld really be ;
the p ur pose of th e ske tc h is to u nd er stand the sp ace,
n ot to ca mo u flage it.

Fi gure 3-11 Casti ng shadows in plan.

Fig ure 3-10b Adding ton es and shadows.

Figure 3-12 Practice drawing straight

lines.

Figure 3-13 Practice drawing people.

Figure 3-10c Completing details.

Perspective

43

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Figure 3-14 Modification of a one-point perspective.

Figure 3-15 Organization of a modified perspective. after

Lockard.

QUALITATIVE REPRESENTATION

spec t ive , p ara llel wit h the horizon lin e , are now
sligh tly slan ted in the di rect ion of th e imaginary sec
ond poi n t. To m ake th e transition fro m one -poin t per
spec tive , the top and bottom lin es of the pi cture pla ne
can be given a sligh t slan t an d a new plane is estab
lished ; by d rawing a new d iagona l, the new diagonal
va n ishin g poin t can be set. A grid ca n also be app lied
to this type of perspective to help in plac ing objects in
the spa ce.

At this p oin t w e are not in ter es ted in th e qualities of

dr aw ing expressi on , such as style or tech niq ues; this
is cover ed in Ch apt er 5. By q ua lita tive rep resen ta
tion , I mean the rep resenta tion of the qualities of a
space. I n hi s book Design D rawing W illia m Lock ard
ma kes a very co nvi ncing arg um en t for the supe riority
of p ersp ectives a s rep rese nt atio na l d raw ings.
"Pers p ec tive s ar e m or e qualitat ive than quan titative.
The ex per ien tial qua lities of an envi ro n m en t or
ob ject can be perceived d irect ly fro m a p er sp ec
tive.. .Th e q ua lities of th e space/tim e/ligh t con tin uum
are much better re p rese n ted and u nderstood in p er
spect ive (than by othe r co nven tions). " 3 Perspective s
have the adva ntage of showing the re lationsh ip of all
the elem en ts of a sp ac e in a way most sim ilar to how
w e w ou ld ex perie nce it whe n b u ilt. Alt hough it is
tr ue that bu ildings are not expe rie nc ed only through
persp ectives, it is th e best way of sho w ing a d ire ct
visua l experience of a specifi c space.
Lockar d 's ch apter on representation has probably
the best ex p lana tio n of th e use of p ersp ec tive
sketc he s for re presentat ion . Locka rd illustrat es a per
spective view that is close to one-p oin t perspective ; it
in volv es an imagin ary seco nd perspe ct ive po in t
added at som e dis ta nc e fr om the ske tc h (see Figur e 3
15). Lin es run n in g the wi dt h o f the one -po int pe r

44

Conventions

To rep res en t th e q ua lities of an im agined space,

w e have to know some thing abo u t th e q ua lit ies of
sp aces. Th ough th is seem s obv ious, it is of ten
ignored . As architect s, w e have to look for w hat gives
spaces th eir special charac ter , th e d ifferen t kinds of
ligh t, color , texture, pat tern , or sha pes possibl e and
how they are combin ed . Con tin ua l sket ch ing in a
sketch notebook is one sur e way of learn ing a bout the
q ualiti es of spaces. Wh en th is know led ge is ap p lied
to th e repres en ta tive pe rs pecti ve , w e must rem em ber
to con vey th e t h ree-d im e nsiona l exp erie n ce of th e
sp ace onto a tw o-di m ensional surface, the pa per. To
d o this, w e need to illus tra te the effect s of dep th or
d ist ance upon th os e thing s th at giv e th e sp ace its
q ualiti es. Wit h an increase in d epth , ligh t se ems to
p ro du ce few er grad at ion s of to ne ; d et ail is less ev i
d en t; text u re and co lor are less v iv id ; ou tli n es or
ed ges are less sha rp . Dep th can a lso be con veyed
through overlap of object or con tou r.

Figure 3-16a Set up of sketch perspective based on Lockard method.

Figure 3-16b Completed sketch perspective.

Qualita tive Representation

45

ii

Figure 3-17 Para lle l project ions.

PARALLEL PROJECTIONS
Cur re ntly in comm on use, the axono me tric sketch is
an importa nt alte rnative to th e persp ect ive, plan, and
section . The axonometri c is simp ly a projection fr om
a p lan or sect ion in wh ich all p a rallel lines in the
space are show n as para llel; t his is in con tra st to a
persp ective wh ere parallel lines are show n as exte nd
ing fr om a single point. The axonom etric techniq ue is
traditio nal in Chi ne se d raw ings. Instead of p lacin g
the viewer at a single poin t from w hich to view the
scene, it gives the view er th e feel ing of being every
w here in fr ont of the sc ene. The axonom etr ic has the

46

Conventions

additi on al ad va nta ge of rep res ent ing th ree -d imen

sional spa ce wh ile re taining the "tr ue" d im ensions of
a p lan and sec tion .
T h is las t ch aracterist ic makes a n axo n ome tric
easy to draw be caus e all th ree dimens ions are show n
at the sam e scale. Axo no metric p rojections forward
or bac kward fr om p lan s or sections are convent ion
ally ma de a t an gles of 30, 45, or 60 degrees, bu t in a
sketch th e exact angle is no t imp ort an t as lon g as the
proje cted lines rem ain p arallel.

1
r

VERTICAL SECTION
A vertical cut through a space is ca lled a sec tion.
What was said abou t the plan sketc h also ap plies to
the section sketch, excep t for the cas ting of shadow s.
With sec tions, we can show depth of space by apply
ing the one -poin t perspective co nventions explai ned
earlier. Imagine you are looking at a cut m odel of the
space; the point at which you loo k d irectly into the
mode l is where the viewpoi n t (V. P.) wi ll be p laced .
T he viewp oint is used to projec t th e pe rspect ive
be hind the section.

Figure 3-18 Section.

Human figures are als o imp or ta n t for sec tion

ske tches. Many designers ske tch in view lines for the
people; this seems to make it easier to imagine being
in the space a nd gives some se nse o f w hat can be
seen from a particular posit ion in the space. Shadows
can be ind icated to see the effect of sunlight within
the space.

Vertical Section

47

~
~

~..

Figure 3-19 Plan.

PLAN SECTION
Abs tract pl an d iagr ams suc h as th e one ab ove have
m an y uses in the ea rly concep tu a l s tages of design .
Th is is covered in d epth in Ch apt er 4 . However,
m any architecture s t ud~nt s make th e m istake of try
ing to use th ese plan d iagram s to rep resent th e m ore
concrete decisions a bout th e format ion of space. Plan
sketc hes of d esign ed sp aces mus t sho w w ha t is
enclosed and wh at is no t, including scale, height, pat
tern , and d etai l. A p lan is basicall y a horizontal cut or
section th ro ugh th e spa ce. Thin gs th at are cut , su ch
as w alls or columns , are ou tl ined in a heavy lin e
wei gh t. T hings that can be see n bel ow th e pl ace
w here the p lan w as cut are ind icated in a lighter line
weight. Things such as a skyligh t th at ca n not be see n
becau se they are abo ve the lev el of the cut ca n be
show n w ith a heavy dashed lin e if d esired.
The first stage of a r ep resent a tiv e pla n is the
heavy ou tlini ng of wa lls clearl y show ing ope n ings. In
th e secon d s tage, d oo rs, win d ow s, fu rn iture, an d
other d eta ils a re ad d ed . Th e thi rd- sta ge ske tc h

48

Conventions

inc lu des sha d ow s to sho w th e re lative he igh ts of

p la ne s and objects. Th e p re vail ing co n ven tion for
sha do ws casts th em on a 45-de gee angle, up and to
the right. Th e sha dow s need onl y be as long as neces
sary to clearly sho w th e relat ive heig h ts of the fu rn i
tur e, wall s, etc. Finally, co lor, texture, or pattern can
be ad d ed to exp la in fur ther the ch a racte r o f th e
space.

OTHER REPRESENTATIONS
A variety of sk etche s ba sed on th e con ven tions of
persp ective , pl a n , section , and axono me tric are
shown on the next page. By m ean s of ske tches, we
can cu t open, peel ba ck, p u ll apart, re constr uct, or
m a ke co ncre te objects transpa ren t to see how th ey
are arra nged or con structed . Th es e are jus t a few of
th e poss ibl e ex tens ions of repr esen tation . As we use
ske tches to v isu alize design s, w e sho uld al w ays be
ready to inven t new too ls as need ed .

Fi gure 3-20 Transparent sketch.

Figure 3-21 By Th omas Truax. Structural systems illustrations,

Boston City Ha ll, Kallman, McKinnell & Knowles, architects.

- -- + - -

I
I

-- --
Figure 3-22 Cut-away view, the Simon House, Barbara and J ulian
Neski, architects.

Figure 3-23 "Ex plodarnetric" drawing of a barn.

Other Representa tions

49

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Fi gure 3-24 By Helmut Jacoby. Boston Government Service

Cente r, Paul Rudolph, coordinating archit ects.

SKETCH TECHNIQUE

---1

11

Figure 3-25 By Helmut Jacoby. Ford Fo undation headquarters,

Dinkerloo and Roche, architects.

50

Conventions

Many arc hitects ha ve develop ed th eir ow n ske tc hing

s tyles in an att emp t to q uickly rep rese n t str ucture,
tones, and det ail with a mi nim u m of effor t. An espe
cia lly effe ctive tech niqu e is that of He lm u t Jacoby, an
ar chite ctur al d el in ea tor of int ern ational rep u tat ion ."
Th e qu ick p relim in a ry studie s he uses to p lan th e
fin al ren d erings p rovide remark able clari ty of spa tial
d efinitio n wi th an ec on omy of m eans. Not ice how,
w ith a range of tigh t an d loose squi ggly lines, he ca n
de fine surfaces and th e rap id way fha t he suggests
peo ple, tr ees, textur es, and ot her detail s. The under
lyi ng structur e of the sk etch is usually quite simple,
w it h w hi te areas u sed to hel p d efin e space an d
objects. Ja coby is very aware of va riat ions in tone and
th e effe cts of sha de and shadow w ith respect to the
sur rou nd ing trees as w ell as the build ing .
M ichael Ge b hard t sketches w it h an emp ha sis on
tones and textur es, defin ing spa ce m ore through con
trasts than line w or k . W ith a lo opi ng strok e, he is
abl e to establish a consistency th at pu lls the drawing
toget her and d irects att en tion to the su bj ect rat her
th a n the med ia . In esta blish ing your own sty le , be
sur e to exam in e closely the work of othe rs th at yo u
adm ire ; th ere is no need to star t fro m scratch . Also
kee p in m ind th at the objective in sket ching is speed
and ease.

Figure 3-26 By Brian Lee. Auto matic drawing done wit hout
looking at the paper. It encourages fluidity of line and
nat uralness of expression.

Figure 3-27 By Michael F. Gebhardt . Jo hns-Manville World

Headquarters, The Architects Collaborative.

Ske tch Technique

51

,A

,v~/'

",L.-...-i

__\.

/~l=0

-c

':
I'-l-LA.~
.. c::I " v,

I ~-= \~ r
l~
c~(~.

. \..I;/

1/

-:

"\

1"--'
-\. ~ '-"'1 ~
<: l_ . _

Fig ure 3-28 By Bret Dodd.

Design ing d epend s heav ily upon representation ;

to avoid d isappoin tm ent later, th e designer wa nts to
see the p hys ica l e ffects of h is d ec is ion s. It is
inevita ble that a student w ill tell m e that he is waitin g
u nt il h e has d ecid ed w ha t to do before he d raw s it
up . This is backward. In fact, he can no t dec ide wh at
to do until he has drawn it. N ine time s out of ten inde
cisiveness is the result otiack of evidence. Fur ther m ore,
a decision imp lies a choice ; recogn izing th at th ere is
m or e than on e possi ble d esign so luti on , it ma kes no
sense w hatsoever to try to de term ine if one iso la ted
solution is good . In stead , t he ques tion s hou ld b e
w heth er thi s is the best of the know n alternat ives. To
answe r this question , we must a lso be ab le to see the
oth er designs. The grap hic thin king approach empha
size s sketches tha t fe ed thin k ing and thoug h ts tha t
feed sk etc hes; one is co ntin ua lly inform ing the other.
For the begin ni ng d esign er , thes e po in ts can not be
ove remphasi zed .
There is no way to avoid the inten se, com pr ehen
sive job of representation or mode ling in design . The
only cho ice left is wh ether to m ak e t he j ob eas ie r
throughou t a profes sional career by bec om in g a com
pe tent illu strator now.
Havi ng sa id tha t, I wo u ld ad d the w arn ing th a t
draw ing an d thinki ng mu s t be alway s open to
gr owt h . Clic hes in drawing lead to cli ches in thi n k
ing. As John Gund elfing er says:

52

Conventions

1 never k now what a drawing will look lik e until it is

finished. O nce yo u do, that's security, and secu rity is
somet hing we ca n all do without in a drawing . It
comes from working in a particul ar way or styl e th at
enables you to control an y subjec t or situation you
enco unter, a nd once you're in control, you stop
learning The nervousne ss and a nxiety that precede a
drawing are importa nt to the end result.'

Architects who have been abl e to find adve n tur e

and excite m en t in d raw ing w ill readily attend to the
grea t boost it gives to th eir d esign' work and the ir
th inking.
Fina lly, I wan t to str ess tw o of my p r ej ud ices
r egard ing represent ati ve d ra w ing. First , fr eeh and
ab ility is v ital for effec tive use of rep resen tat ion in
arch itec tura l d esign . You m ust be ab le to tu rn over
idea s ra pid ly ; to do thi s req uires th e spo n ta n eous
graph ic d isp lay tha t rapid sk etc h ing provid es.
Second, a tte n tion sho u ld be p a id to m ak ing the
s ketches fa ith full y re p resen t d esign id eas. Avoid
ad d in g th in gs to a d raw ing s im p ly to im p rove the
ap pea ra nce of the draw ing. Chan ges shou ld refle ct
conscious chang es in the d esign . Kirb y Lockar d ca u
tions, "Rem ember, th e best , m ost d irect and hon est
per su asion for a d esign 's ac cep tance shou ld be th e
design itself , and all suc cessful persua sion sho uld be
based on com pe te n t a nd hon est r ep resenta tions of
the des ign .:"

Figure 3-29 Design development sketches.

Ske tch Technique

53

4 Abstraction

T he design process can be thou ght of as a series of

tran sformations going from un certainty towa rds
inform ation. The successive stages of the process are
usu ally registe red by some kind of graphic model. In
the final stages of the design process, designers use
highly form alized gra ph ic languages such. as those
provided by descriptive geometry. B ut this type of
representation is hardly suita ble for the first stages,
when designers lise quick ske tches and diagrams...It
has been accep ted for years that becau se of the high
level of abstraction of the ideas wh ich are ha ndled at
the beginn ing of the design process, they mu st be
expressed necessa rily by mean s of a rath er ambigu
ous, loose graphic languag e-a private language
w hich no one can properly understand excep t th e
des igner himself .. the high level of abstraction of the
inform ation which is handled mu st not prevent us
from using a clea rly defi ned graphic language. Such
a language would register the information exac tly at
the level of abstraction it has, and it would facilitate
com m unicat ion an d coopera tion among designe rs. I

Yl1lZlA

]V1Wff//A

:1

'Ii ?l12tZ~

-JUA N PABLO BONTA

y ow n vers ion of a grap h ic language is

based on experience w it h student s in th e
d esign studi o a nd r esearch in de sign
p ro ces s co mm u n icati on s. It is p rese nted
her e bec ause I am con vin ced th at a clearl y def ine d
graphic lang uage is importan t bo th to design th ink ing
and to communi cat ion betw een design ers.

waw~

Figure 4-2

As Robert McKim poin ted out, "A langu age con

sists of a set of rules by w hich sym bols can be related
to represent larger m eanin gs. " 2 The di ffere nc e
be tween verbal and grap hic languages is both in the
sy m bols used an d in the w ays in w hi ch th e symbols
are re lated . The sym bols for verbal languages are
large ly rest ricted to word s, whereas gr ap hic la n
guages incl ude im ages, signs, numbe rs , a nd w ords.
M uch more significant , ver bal language is se q u en
tial - it has a be ginn ing, a midd le, a nd a n end .
Graph ic langu age is sim u ltaneous -all symbols and
their rel ation sh ips are co ns idered at th e same tim e.
The sim ulta ne ity a nd co m p lex in terre la tion sh ip of
reali ty acc oun ts for th e specia l strength of grap hic
language in addressing comp lex pro blems .

55

rY1 0 dl + , e ~

, -,(

Figure 4-3a Sente nce diagram.

-:

./

.--- ---

-- ~

---- ---

(d)

",

5VI;\J.

1\

no.",e )
,

' d.,f,! ,,~

(c)

I
/
I
/- - -

,el"h01\ Sfl/p

\
/

,/ -----B

- I- ... ,
(e)

/tj v'?t ';

' h"" ' ( ~

"---j
~

Fi gure 4-3b Graphic diagram.

Figure 4-3c, d. e Graphic "sentences."

GRAMMAR

T he re are ot her ways of draw ing "graph ic se n

tenc es" ; three alter natives ar e show n here:

The grap hic language pr opose d here has gra m ma tical

ru les compar ab le to thos e of ve rbal langu age. Th e d ia
gram of the se ntence (Figur e 4-3a ) show s three basic
parts: nou ns, ver bs, an d m od ifiers such as adjec tives,
ad verbs, a nd p h rases. Nouns r epresent iden tities ,
verb s es ta blish re lations h ips betw een nouns, and the
modifiers qualify or q uan tify the iden tities or the re la
tionships betw een ident ities. In the grap h ic d iagram
(Figure 4-3b), identities are shown as circl es, rela tion
ships are show n as lin es, an d m od ifiers are show n by
cha nge s in the cir cles or lines (heavier lines ind icate
mor e importan t relation ship s and tones ind icat ing dif
fer ence s in id en tities ). In th e sen tenc e d iagram , the
verb shows a relat ionship that th e subject has to th e
object: the d og ca ugh t the bo n e. T he lin e in th e
graphic di agram is bi-directiona l; it says that the livin g
room is co n nected to the kitchen and that the k itchen
is con nec ted to the livi ng room .
Th us the gr aphic d iagr am conta in s m any se n
tences as :
1. Th e very im portan t liv ing room has a minor rela
tions hip to th e garage (Figure 4-3c) .
2. The dini ng room must be con nected to th e special
spaces , the kitchen and the deck (Figur e 4-3d ).
3. The fut ure gu esthouse w ill be related to the en try
and indirectly to the pool (Figure 4-3e).

56

Abstraction

1. Position- An implied gri d is used to establish rela

tion sh ips between id en tit ies; th e resulting orde r
som et im es m a kes the di agra m easie r to read
(Figur e 4-4a ).
2. Proximity- T he degree or in tensity of th e relation
sh ips of ide n tities is ind ica ted by the re lative d is
tan ces betw een th em. A sign ifica n t increase in
d ista nc e can im ply that no re la tio nsh ip exists.
Th is typ e of di agra m ha s m ore flex ibi lity than the
p rec ed ing type (Figure 4-4b).
3. Similarity- Iden tities are gr ou ped by com mon
character istics such as co lor or sha pe (Figure 4-4c ).

Th ese a lterna tives m ay also be comb ine d to form

other gram m atical var iat ions (Figur e 4-4d), but ca re
should be taken to retai n consistency. To com m u ni
cat e clearly, the gra m ma tica l r ules shoul d be im m edi
ately ev id ent. According to Jerom e Bru ne r, "The bind
in g fact of m en tal life in child and adu lt alike is that
there is a limi ted ca paci ty for p roces si ng infor m a
tion - o ur sp an , as it is ca lled , ca n comprise si x or
seven u nr elated items si m u lt an eously. G o beyond
that a nd there is ov erl oad , con fusion , forge tting ."
One of th e re as ons for ad op ting some basic gr amma t
ical rules in gr ap hic diagrams is to avoid con fusion by
red ucing the number of varia bles that have to be han
dled at on e tim e.

Building a diagram.
,--------,

,,

Figure 4-4a Structuring a graphic

"sente nce" by position.
Figure 4-5a Basic identities and
relationships.

Figure 4-5b Reduction to simple

ordering structure.

,... -------,

I
I
I
I

Fig ure 4-4b By proximity.

Figure 4-5c Second level of

information.

Figure 4-5d Tag-ons.

:, - - - - - - - -- -- --':
I
I

'_'\
.

Figure 4-4c By similarity.

-r-"

I
i

'L ._
. -j

Fig ure 4-5e Segmenting.

...

I
I
I

I
I
I

,
I

I
I
I

,
I

I
I

I
I

I
I

....

l ..

- ,

Figure 4-4d Combination of "sentence" structu res,

One of the m ost usef ul q ual ities of graph ic com

mu nica tion is tha t in for m a tion can be tra nsm itte d
and rece ive d on sever al leve ls simultaneously. Ar tists
rec ogn ized this long ago. Successfu l paintings us ually
appeal to the vie w er as ove ra ll compositions, rend er
ings of de ta il, and tech niq ue w ith m edi a , just to nam e
a few of t he le vels. These leve ls o f comm u ni cation
ca n also be used to good advan tage in a grap hic d ia
gram. T he ba s ic process for bu ild ing a d iagr a m
(show n above) is as follow s: '
1. Try to illust rat e the basic iden titi es and their re la
tionsh ips in a ro ug h diagram .
2. Red uce th e d iagram to its simples t structure by
ap plyin g ru les of graphic gram mar.
3. Mo d ify th e d iagram to indicate a second level of
information , using tones or heavy lines .
4. Add other levels of in formation as tags attached to
the basic d iag ram .
5. If the d iagram becomes too co mplica ted, br eak it
into seg men ts by group ing or placing a bo unda ry
arou nd id en tities.

Grammar

57

-$

?>

t:::I

--

-=s

c:::

z;:=.

c:::s

t:::3

t=:I

~-

CJ

c::r

- -

--=
e:::t

Figure 4-6 Graphic grammar conventions.

ALternate Grammars
Th e basic grap h ic grammar disc ussed so far is mo st
commonly exp resse d in what ar e known as b ubble
diagram s. It is p roba bly the most broad-based , ver sa
til e gramm a r. Ot h er conven tions may qua lify as
grammars, or r ul es for relating graph ic elemen ts so as

58

Abstra ction

to co mm un ica te . Two of the m or e p rom inen t gra m

m ars ar c th e n et w ork a nd th e m atrix. Th e ba sis for
th e gra m m a r of n etworks is t ime or seq u ence .
Alth ough it is n ormall y assu med th at th e se q ue nce
proceeds fr om left to right or top to bottom, arr ows
are often used to clar ify the order or subtleti es of th e
se q ue nce. T he m ost fa m ilia r type of n etwork us es

..
..

verb a l d escr ip ti on s of ta sks or eve n ts, but grap hi c

sy mbols could be used as wel l. The m at rix d iag ra m
incorpora tes the ot he r type of gra m m ar. Its co nven
tion as signs iden tities to rows and colum ns and rep
rese n ts the re lati ons hi ps of id en tities w ith gra ph ic
sym bols at th e in te rse ctions of the ro w s and columns.

VOCABULARY
The m eani ng of w ord s or sy mbols in any for m of lan
guage m ust be con sist en t and shared in order to su p
por t h u m an com m uni ca tion. This co nsistent set is
ca lled a voca bulary . Basic verb al vocabul ary wit hin
our na tive la nguage is norm a lly acq uired in chi ld
hood th rough associ ation , w h ile gram m ar is learn ed
formall y. Lite racy is achieve d ove r se ve ra l years of
edu cation . Th e acq uisit ion of grap hic language is not
a com m on comp one nt o f a general edu cation. In a
for m a l sense it is m ore often a part of ed uc at ion in
d es ign and a rt curr icul a . How ev e r, the re are som e
grap hic "la ng uages " to wh ic h the ge neral pub lic is
ex posed. Among th ose are in terna tional road sig ns ,
roa d map legend s, mu sic notat io n , and mathe matical
symbols.
Th e acc essib ility of gr ap hic la nguages is heav ily
d epe nde nt on associat ions with fa mi lia r obj ec ts or
expe riences . T he se ass oc ia tions can be ma de th rough
nam in g gra ph ic item s or by using symbo ls th at are
read ily re cogni zed as abstr action s of fa m iliar obje cts.

Identities
There a re a grea t n um ber of w ays to sy mbolize a n
ide nti ty. The more common symbols are repres en ted
here in ho rizontal rows. The iden tity of th ese d iffer
ent possible groups is achieved by contrast. Us ua lly
a ll varia bles are held con st ant exce p t for on e. Th e
n um ber in ea ch group is limi ted becau se m ost of us
are un ab le to de al with m or e th an five or six vari a
tions in on e grap hic di agram . Th e el ementary sy m
bols can be supplemented o r replac ed by numbers,
letters, or othe r sy m bols. By jud ici ou sly com bi n in g
differen t gro ups of sy m bols, it is po ssible to have sev
era l levels of infor mation in a grap hic d iagram w ith
out sacri ficing clarity. Someti me s ide n tities are best
show n w ith a more te n tative q uali ty using d ott ed and
irr egular lines. Later chap ter s further explain this less
d efinite need .

0 .6 <)

x*

t::::l

t{}~~

0 (De $ 0
EJ ill a ill 12I ~
0 () .. S f4i8
a (J~~ t1i8

t:::::::I

II

aD

D liD

c::::l t:::::J
t::::1 c::J
t:::::1

co

t1

-
- =-

a 00

,- - -.

000

(
\

v .; ,/

.
.

. .
'

000
000
Figure 4-7 Graphic grammar conventions.

Vocabulary

59

- - - - -- - - - -- - - ---0'

-j ~-) ~~

-t>-.++

D)D}D_
LI>r>D={>

t::::lc::lt==1r:=:Jt::::Jt==1t:=l ~

..

J:::Ic::::It=lc::lllI=Is::::IJ:::Iw=I

---~--

~~

...

00000000000000000000

IUlllllllllllll1 l1 llllll11IlIl\lllllllllllllllIIlIIlIlIHlllllIllllllIlIl

e@~

nilU OO DDUDDDDDOOD DDOD noo onnn

II11III1IIIII11111111111111

Figure 4-8

Relationshi ps
As w ith ide ntities, di ffe ren t rel ation sh ip s a re best
represent ed by se ts of lin e types. The se line typ es can
also be used as borders for gr oup in g id entities as a
m ean s of seg me nting a diagra m or of sh ow ing special
re lat ionship s.
The arr ow is a very sp ecial device for ind icating
re lation sh ip s. As a sy m bo l of m ovem en t, Arn heim
hold s th at it has co m pellin g qu alities: //...any mo ve
me nt in the env ironment autom ati call y att rac ts at ten
tion because mov em en t m eans cha nge of cond itions,
wh ich may call for a rea ct ion. :" Arrows com bin ed
wi th lines ca n in di ca te a one-way rela tio ns h ip , a
sequence of even ts, or a process. Separate ar rows can
be used to mark im po rta nt par ts of a d iagram or to
show dependenci es and th e fee d-in of suppleme n tar y
informa tion .

Modifiers
Identi ties and rel ationsh ips ar e mod ified according to
a hi erar chical sy ste m . In th is man ner, th e signifi
cance of part s and the d ifferent levels of intensity in
the relati on ship between parts ar e exp ressed .
Hi erarc hy ca n be s how n by d iffe ren t line w id th s,
mu lti pl e lines , or the re lat ive size of das hes a nd
sp ace s in dash ed lin es (Figure 4-9a) . G rad ed tone s
an d the acc umulation of parts are also usefu l de vices
(Figur e 4-9b).
Mo d ifier s ca n also crea te em p hasis, pr inci pa lly
through contras t in term s of size, ton e, con to u r, or
detail. Em phasis is used to signa l a spe cia l ide n tity or
relationship , segreg ate interw oven diagrams, or indi
cate sp ecial point s or steps in a p roc ess (Figur e 4-9c).

60

A bstraction

@)

.0
......

:....i

"
\..j

Figure 4-9a Modification by size.

.....0., .. Q: ....._..0'9
..
'. ~ ' ,
'
.

-,

....

Figure 4-9b Indicatin g emphasis.

D~

Figure 4-9c Modifi cation by tone.

-
-
-

eq()~ I -to

Ident lcall.!:)

e.qualto

not eG\ 4q! to

q p p ro x rm<rtt~

~ equcl! 10
~

proporfl oM I
to

>
<
-

lG1 rg er-+h~ n

SmGl l\er than

lar.0er t h ~n

.?h'\a lIer

e:.

A..

or etjLJal f o

thaYl
orE:ijual f o

corre6f'ond0

to

plus-or-mlY1US

or

Figure 4-10 Mat hematical language symbols.

}ouaooHIE

-3IE
~

-r'

-r'"

""'

~~

06)

theretor-e

I- \- r I- f-

""

pluG

'--/
/'"'0..

L-I

+
c1Y1 d so 0 1'1

H- H- t- H -1- H - H - H-+

Xl

,
[

I I I

I I I

I 1 i

fM VIlA wh! lim! ft?4

ti/41

WI

///////////////

Figu re 4-11 Graphic language elements from

cartography.

Other Graphic VocabuLary

Several d isciplin es have d evelop ed th eir own short
hand sy m bol s to facili ta te rapid communica tion.
Many of th ese sy m bo ls have a wide enough under
stan d ing to be useful in gra p hic think ing . Som e of th e
mo st usefu l sym bo ls, ta ken from the d isciplin es of
ma them atics, sy ste m s ana lys is, enginee ri ng, and car
tography, a re show n he re and on th e follow in g pages.
Operations research and th e an alysis of co m m un i
ca tion systems led to th e study of processes, which,
in tu rn , led to ma ny ap plicat ions of p rocess manage
ment. With th e study of m ore com p lica ted p ro cesses,
a d iagr ammat ic langu age was developed to properly
describe these p ro ce sses (Figure 4-12a). On the basis
of a few sy m bols a nd a set of ru les for us ing them,
ver y elabora te processe s can be read ily explai ned in
grap h ic term s. Some of the sy mbols sh ow n to the
righ t are useful in d escribing architecturally rel ated
pro cesses, su ch as pr oject pl ans, cons tru ction or ga ni
zation , an d p rogramm at ic fu nctions (Figure 4-12b).

Figure 4-12a Process diagram.

-D- --c:J- -1
f-0- -CJ- -{
l-0- -C)---c=J-

___ -0

T he b( 6 ,,' n l~5 a ~ d ffid

Ct ii ?C<j ueVl ce .

>- -c

-CJ-D DD O 0
Figu re 4-12b Process symbols.

Vocabulary

61

-I

-q-0=0=9

/11

,W

>

>

>

-I

\
II
III

J
II

-- \ \1

=1

\ I
J
\

0---H-- ~Tt-

,Sf

,~I

,
,W

G-

-f- ---41r.-

'). .

~cJCP

>
t-

11-

\\1

\\\lll~lll~

- - - - - - - - - -

---0
---0

0
0

-0

0"'-'"

It

-,0

)))))))))))))))))))))))J))))J)))))))))~

)(

A-

>~~

Figure 4-13 Graph ic language elements from other areas of the

building industry.

On th is pa ge are sever al symbols u sed in electri

cal, m echanical, and transport ation eng in eering that
can furthe r extend ou r grap hic voc abulary. Opposite
are sy m bo ls fr om ca rtogra phy and oth er symb ol
syste ms .

.iY"ff./"ff.L1.J5ffL1ffSL7fft'~

62

Abstraction

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Figure 4-14

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Vocabulary

63

QO DCJ O

.... OftO

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Figure 4-15 City image analysis, Quebec.

1------1

Jerom e Bru ner st resses the point: "Unless detai l is

placed int o a str uc tured pattern , it is rapidly for got
ten .... Det ai led m ater ial is cons erved in m emory by
use of sim p lified w ays of r epresen ting it. " 5 Th e
gra p hic "voca bu la ry " j ust p resented was se lected
bec ause the sy m bols are commonly acce pted , simp li
fied ways of representation . Since our gra ph ic vocab
ulary w ill contin ue to expan d graph ic co mm unica
ti on , w e m us t use co m m on ly und erst ood sy m bo ls
and a clear grammatical stru ctur e as a con text for the
vocabular y to be eff ec tive . The obvious co rollary is
our need to become grap hically "literate." We need to
becom e fam iliar wi th a ran ge of graphic languages.
"The th in ker w ho has a broad com m and of graph ic
langu age not only can find m or e complete expression
for his think ing but ca n also re-ce nter his thi n king by
m oving fr om on e graphi c lan gu age to anot he r. ..in
effect he uses la nguage to exp and the ra ng e of hi s
th in king . " 6 T his la st p oin t by McKim is extre mely
important to a fu ll use of the material presen ted in
thi s bo ok. Com m un ica tion an d thi n king are in ter
tw in ed processes ; we ne ed to foc us on ho w they
ass is t eac h ot h er rat h er th an as k w hic h is m or e
importan t.

t=

00

o C1 a Q

rJO

AppLying Graphic Language

Wh en the con venti ons of a gra phic lan gu age are
app lied to di ffe ren t com m un ication an d th in kin g con
texts, they can pr od uce a w ide variety of exp ressions.
In each case effe ctiveness depends upon an explicit
gra m m ar and a consistency in its use. For an exten
sive explanation of the uses of graphic language, con
sult th e second edition of my book Graphic Prob lem
Solving.

Figure 4-16 Neighborhood analysis.

~
o
~ ~Ld, ? ~<:

~~~ Ia~t~

4i1ra.?-tN0, ~t ~

~ '-:b 6~~ .

Fi gure 4-17 Hospital circulation analysis.

Grap hic langu age ca n also have pi tfalls, as identi

fied by Robert McKim :

3. Glamorizing an idea .

1 . Lack of sk ill or inapp rop riate choice of language,

4. Concealing what sh ould be revealed .

which ca n be dam aging to ten der new concepts.

2. Mistaking gr aph ic images for reality.

5. Habit ual use of a few languages, avoid ing som e

types of men tal operation.

64

Abstraction

Figure 4-18 Pedestrian traffic intensity.

~~~
Figure 4-19 Circulation choices, Place des Vosges, Paris.

~~~

~~J~
~~~~

Figure 4-20 Housing price analysis.

Vocabulary

65

1~4 T;}(;4 ~- ,
~ '-l,

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LAJ'11 Ve.t.t-t ..L.l't

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Figure 5-1 (top) By Lo uis Kahn. Concept sketch for central Philadelphia.

Figure 5-2 (bottom) By David Stieglitz . Buffalo Waterfront Redevelopment Proje ct.

Expression

he design er w ho wishes to ta ke advan ta ge of

ex p ress ion , th e se con d le vel of co m m u n ica
ti on (th e first level be in g th e content of th e
draw ing ), should become aware of the ra ng e
of q ua litie s tha t can be co m m u n ica te d and us efu l
techniques for doing so . The sk etches in thi s chap te r
a re of fer ed as examples of wha t ca n be di scov ered .
Eac h sketc h co nveys m ore th an o ne quality, but I
h ave tr ied to gro u p th e sk etch es accord ing to th eir
mos t sig n ifica n t qua lit ies.
T h is chap te r co nce n tra tes on some of th e a ttitud es
a nd prior itie s a rch itect s a nd d es ign er s co n vey by the
m an n er in wh ich th ey draw . It see m s obv io us th at
yo u can tell so met h ing ab out design e rs through th eir
draw ings . Care in drawing often ind ica tes care in
th ink ing. In m y experie nce, cli en ts, co ns u lta n ts, co n
tracto rs, a nd others w ith w ho m arc hi tects work a re
grea tly influ en ced b y draw ings, whi ch se t th e to ne
for the w ork . T he d rawings are a w ay of tell ing peo
ple what you d emand of yo urse lf a nd provide a clue
to w ha t you ex pec t of th e m .

IDENTITY
The draw ings on these firs t two pages are sig nifi can t
for the ir stro n g se nse of ident ity, a presence that says
they are importa n t a nd we ought to take time to look
a t the m mor e closely. How does the way th e ske tc hes
w e re drawn account for th is qual ity? Both th e sty le
and th e hig h contr as t ar e impor ta n t , bu t the flui dity
of th e sket ch es tell s us abou t the int ensi ty a nd confi
d en ce of th e a rc h itec t. We can alm ost see or feel the
a rc h itect 's hand mov ing over th e pap er.

CONSISTENCY
Disc ip line in draw ing is some times ass oc ia te d w it h
stiff or Spa rta n-looking drawings. Bu t , as you ca n see ,
qua li ty need n ot limit expressi on . T hese drawings
hav e their in te rn al co nsiste nc y in common . It mi ght
be com pa re d to th e diffe re nc es in ca r d esigns. Th e
Porsch e an d the Roll s Royce a re im med ia tely recog
n ized as two ve ry d iffer e nt ca rs, but bot h have a n
exp ression of high qua lity an d cra fts ma nsh ip. G ive n
th e bas ic co nc ep t of eac h ca r, th e d esi gner s ha ve
give n every pa r t of the car a feeling tha t it belong s to
th a t, a nd only that , ca r.

Figure 5-3 By Edwin F. Harri s, Jr. Assisi.

67

Figure 5-4 By Theodore J . Mu sho. Santa Costanza.

?'k

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Figure 5-5 By LeCorbusier. Baghdad Gymnasium.

STYLE AN D SELECTIVITY

desi gn er' s preference for deliberaten ess a nd q u ick

closure on decisions.

Arch itects often develop certain "trademarks" in th eir

drawings as th ei r car eer s develop . The resulting style
of the sket ches ca n be seen as a refle ction of the
designer 's per sonality : tentative lines mi gh t indicate
a willing ness to rem ain ope n to new ideas, whereas
m ore de liber a te d elineati on mig h t show the

Sty le is also form ed by the ar chitect 's consisten t

selection of w hat h e w an ts to show in his sketch es
and what he w ants to lea ve ou t. His cho ices are often
a reflection of w ha t he fe els are im p orta n t des ign
concerns in most projects.

68

Expression

Figure 5-6 By Oscar Niemeyer. Capanema Residence.

Figure 5-7 By Jim -Anderson. Country Side YMCA, Landplus West

Inc.. Landscape Architects.

.. ,.

Figure 5-8 By Lawrence Halp rin. Lovejoy Plaza and Cascade,

Portland, Oregon.

Style and Selectivity

69

..

. . ,
.
..... . . .

.,

-'

..

Figure 5-9 By Edwin F. Harris, Jr. Pisan Group.

ENERGY AND VITALITY

Ske tc hes su ch as th e ones sho w n here pr oject th e
en th u siasm and in tens ity of the ac t of p u tt ing th e
im ages on pap er. Th e d esi gn and rea liza tion of a
buil di ng can be a taxing experience, pa r ticula rly for
the clien t. We kn ow tha t th e arc hi tec t ca n help by
instilling conf iden ce an d a sense of op tim ism . Vitality
in sketc hes can do a lot to re in force what w e say to
clien ts or others w orki ng on a project.

CREATIVITY AND REFRESHMENT

If w e accep t the pre m ise th at arch itect s ar e creat ive
in solving p ro blems and ope n to new w ays of seei ng
en vironm en t, the im portance of a creative quality in
our dr aw ings shoul d be obvio us. As m uc h as people
strive to m a ke de cisions on a n in for m ed , rational
basis, inf orm ation is sometim es incom plet e and there
is usually a degree of risk-taking involved in desig n .
Risk s are taken on the basis of exp ecta tions par tially
conv eyed by the w ay the arch itect expresses hi m self
in h is sk etch es.

70

Expression

Wff4i

Fi gure 5-10 By Gera ld Exline.

a~'4"

JM:fli,

Figure 5-11 By Thomas Larson. Sout h Station, Boston.

Fi gure 5-13 By Romaldo Giurgola. City Council room, Boston City

Hall Co mpetition.

Figure 5-12 By Gerald Exline.

Figure 5-14 By Michael Gebhardt. Hockey Arena/ Auditorium,

Soldiers Field, Harvard.

DIRECTIO N AND FOCUS

A tea m of cr ea tive peop le wo rk ing on a design prob
lem needs to have a n understand in g of the general
dir ection a nd parameters of th eir efforts w hile be in g
give n a se nse of freedom and flex ibi lity to co n tribu te
fully to th e su ccess of th e proje ct. Som e a rc h ite cts are

able to meet th ese n eeds in prelim inary concep tual

sketc hes. Tom Larso n exp la ins it this w ay : "T h ese
dra w ings are not yet 'arch itecture ' inte n tion ally. I am
b eginn in g to ca rve ou t nega tive sp ac e, to b egin to
u nd e rst a n d th e orga n izin g spaces of th e p roject.
These a re q u ick d rawi ngs.":

D irection and Focus

71

UO .lSSeJ.l d x g

'lL

c:;=--..

' ,lJ u a p ~s a ~

5laq puel 9 ' uosle l seuiouj fiS

s"[-s al n5lj

I
I
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--:-'h*.' ,
.

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Figure 5-17 By Hug h Stubbins, Mount Holyoke College dormitories,

Figure 5-18 Paddack Residence study,

Figure 5-19 By Jim Anderson, Sidewalk zone development. Terre

Haute Urban Development Action Program, Landplus West Inc.,
Landscape Architects,

CHARACTER AND MOOD

pi es of a wi de range of mo ods communicated by way

of s ketch es. The skills tha t are de mon s trat ed here
and in the precedi ng pa ges are those of obse rvati on
as m uc h as m anual skills . Sketch ing is supp orted by
thi nking and em otion , and the sketches reflect thes e
experie nce s.

For many archit ects, one of th e m ost di fficu lt prob

lems in design is the rep res entat ion , th e "capturing "
of th e inte nded character of a space or obje ct. Her e
agai n , th e way sk etches are d raw n can be of gr eat
help . On these tw o pages , I have tried to gat her exam

Character and M ood

73

-----.

~-,
_-=:/

M~tu- 'IWUJJntlH eu~ , ~ ~ 1'16&

Figure 5-20 By Lisa Kolber. Byzantine church, Myst ra, Greece.

ECONOMY
As in verba l co m m u n ica tion, w e apprec ia te so meone
wh o can find j us t th e r ig h t m ea n s to conv ey th e
esse nce of a n ex perie n ce . T he sk e tch es on th ese
p ages a re by a rc h itec tura l stu de n ts wh o we re so
in sp ired by w ha t they e n co un te re d on their field tr ip s
th at th ey sp e n t m u ch tim e d rawi ng a n d develop in g
a n edu ca ted eye .

- .i

/ :' 1~/

Ll

~ ~/7 ~
Figure 5-21 By Lisa Ko lber. Byzantine church, Myst ra,
Greece.Fi gure 5-21 By Patrick D. Na ll. Ahmed Ibn To ulon Mosque,
Cairo.

Figure 5-22 By Lisa Kolber. Gateway at Mystra, Greece.

74

Exp ression

Figu re 5-23 By Lisa Kolber. Gateway at Mystra, Greece.

Figure 5-24 By Ja mes Walls. Trinity Church, Boston.

,.
ra .. "
tr l ,

t ,

s;:

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;,re.

Figure 5-25 By Thomas Cheesman. Sienna, Italy.

Economy

75

"

Figure 5-26 By Patrick Na ll. Roadside restaurant, Cairo.

Figure 5-27 By Patrick Na ll. Temple of Luxor, Egypt .

76

Expression

AESTHETIC ORDER
Both in build ing d esign a nd in draw ings, most of us
ar e se nsit ive to th e role of compositio n in ach iev ing a
se nse of u n ity or sy n thesis. U n ity in e nv iro nmen ts is
also ach ieve d th ro ugh aesthe tic or d er , ch a rac te risti c
s ha pes, p a tt erns, or d et ai ls sh ared by th e e lem e n ts
tha t cons ti tu te th ese e nv iron me n ts. Th rou gh ske tch
ing we can deve lop an awaren ess o f aesth e tic order
tha t ca r ri es ove r to o ur draw ings, e ndowing t he m
w ith a sim ila r se nse of orde r.

Figure 5-28 By Barry Ru ssell. Prague.

Figure 5-29 By Lisa Ko lber. Knossos Pavilion, Crete.

Aesth etic Order

77

APPLIED SKILLS

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6 Analysis

cco rd in g to Go rd on Best , th e an al ys is of
design p rob lems is fu n d a m e n ta l to d esign
p rocess. "Practica l d esign probl ems are va r i
ab le and idiosyncrat ic. Th ey ge ne ra te a vari
e ty so great t hat it is n early im p ossibl e to describe
suc h prob lems le t alone und e rstand th em . Despi te
th is, practicing design er s must in terpret th ese prob
lems if they ar e going to d eal with th em. ": Ar chitects
must simplify problems, reduce th em to th ei r esse n
tial elements. This is the process of abstraction , th e
exposure of the underly ing structure or pattern of a
whole system. As w e w ill see, gr ap h ic co m m u n ica
tion is w ell su ited to th e ta s k of abs tracti on . T h e
simu ltaneous view of th e ab stract ske tc hes keep s the
whole structure of a syst em up fro n t.

A discussion of a system and its a nalysis is h elpful

to u nd erstand the fun ct ion s of abstract s ke tches.
De sig n prob lems are gener all y ca used by poor func
tion or breakdown of a system. If I ca n' t ge t my ca r
started on a winter morn in g, I know th e ca use could
be a fro zen ga s lin e, a malfuncti on ing sta rte r, worn
ou t spark plugs, the d istributor, the battery, or ev e n
an empty gas tank. A car is a sys te m of parts, a ll of
wh ich must int eract properly for th e engine to start.
The syste m extends bey ond th e car pa rts to includ e
ro utin e maintenance, the manufacturer 's inspection
of parts, keeping moisture out of gas sta tion storage
tanks, an d m y check ing th e gas gauge regularly. To
so lve the problem wi th th e car that does n ot sta r t, we
must u nd erstand it as a n orga n ized sys te m . If the di s
tribu tor is no t the cause of th e problem , no degree of
inspection of the distributor can so lve the p robl em .

Figure 6-2 Automobile system.

In d es ign, th is understanding of th e w hole syste m

is re ferr ed to as holi sti c a na lys is. As Geo ffrey
Broadbent put it :
The whole must be subdivided if we are to analyze
it.... If we choose the wrong kin d of subdivision, then
the whole w ill be destroy ed, wh ereas other kinds of
subdivision may throw its struc ture int o relief
A ngya l con sid ers four way s of subdi viding a whole,
such as a plant, an animal or som e ina nimat e object .
On e cou ld cut it a t random , thu s produ cing a collec
tion of unrelated pa rts. O ne could divide it according
to some preconceived and fixed prin ciple that failed

to take its inheren t struc ture int o acc ount! which

wou ld repr esen t a rati onal ap proach. One could
abstract distinguishable properties from it, such as
size, shape, color; consistency and so on, which
would rep resent an empirical app roach. Or one
could divide the whole according to its st ructural
art iculation ,'

81

Abstract sketch es ca n express the structural artic

ulation of a system. Here are so me ways, usi ng th e
automobile as an exam ple:
1 . Distillation- Re m ov ing fr om th e draw ing all those

Figure 6-3a Abstracti on by distillation.

things that are not importan t to the an alysis of the

str ucture of th e system' s critical parts: highl ight
ing the electrical system.
2. Red uction- Representing group s of pa rts w ith a
sm alle r set of sym bols makes it easier for mos t of
us to und er stand th e dr aw ing and en ter tain
changes ; there can be several levels of red ucti on
yielding increasing generali zati on . T his d iag ram
represents only th e major a u tom ob ile syst em s
(electrical, m ech anic al, fu el, etc.).
3 . Extraction -Throu gh contrast or em p hasis, a part
can be given special att en tio n while rem aini ng
with in the con tex t of its system: p osition of th e
distributor in the electrical system is stressed .
4 . Compa rison - Cas ting d iff er en t systems in th e
sam e graphi c lan gua ge fa cilita te s com par ison of
structural ra th er than superficial cha racte ristics of
differ en t syste ms.

Figure 6-3b By reduction.

Figure 6-3c By extraction.

f V1 .:') W\ e

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f=-- i rt!Nl5 1"h I? ? (on

Figure 6-3d By comparison.

82

Analysis

In design or p robl em solvin g, products, proc esses ,

beliefs, or other syste ms need to be represented in
several ways, rangin g from concr ete to th e m ost
abstract. In M cKim 's words, "Op eration s often
r equir e im ag ery that is abstract a nd pa ttern -like.
Whi ch is not to say that abstract im agery is m ore
important than con cr ete. Rath er, abstract and con
crete imagery are complem entary. The flexible visual
thinker moves readily back and forth between the
two. " 3 He suggeste d , "A w ay to obtain lit eracy and at
th e same time to ac q uire la n guage flexib ility, is to
learn how to use graphi c language to m ove thinking
and exp res sion from abstract to concrete m eanings
and ba ck. ":'

Figure 6-4 Perspective of ent ry to Sunyats alo City Cente r, Alvar Aalt o, architect.

ABSTRACTION AND EXPERIENCE

T he powe r of abstract draw ings in desig n is d irec tly
relat ed to the de p th of experie n ce tha t the d esign er
can associate wi t h the ab st rac tion . For the expe ri
ence d d esig ne r, sim p le a bs trac t sy m bo ls ca n repre
se n t h igh ly com p lex concep ts o f for m or space .
W it hou t th e d esign er 's b ackgro u n d or associatio ns,
abstrac tio n is of lim ited use. T he d iagram a nd pl a n of
Aa lto's com m un ity ce n te r ta ke on several laye rs of
mea n ing when acc om pan ied by the pe rspec tive vi ew
o f th e bui lding . Deve lopi ng gr a ph ic th in ki n g a n d
desig n skills requires co nt in uin g exper ience of a var i
ety of successful e nv ironme n ts heigh ten ed by the use
of re prese nta tio na l a n d abst rac t ske tches of t h ose
e nviron m en ts.

Fi gure 6-5 Concept diagram and plan of center.

A bstraction and Expe rience

83

[ ve4J

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;':c

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B

~eV\ 16ev'Vld"\J

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Figure 6-6a Basic relationship bet ween functions.

Figure 6-6b Po sition and orienta tion.

TRANSFORMATION FROM PROGRAM TO

SCHEMATIC DESIGN

The first di agra m is an ab straction of th e program

of the ho us e. Th e fun ct ions an d the re lationsh ip s
between functions ar e ind icat ed , as w ell as the hier
archy of these functi ons and re lationships. Th e majo r
access points are clearl y visible. The "bubbles" have
no po sitio na l significa nce because th e program do es
not cont ain th at sort of information. If the relation
ship lin ks bet w een fun ctions ar e reta ined , th e bu b
bles can be m ove d to several di fferent p ositions w ith
out ch anging the bas ic in form atio n of the d iagram.
Th e second d iagra m respo nds to site and climate
inform ation , es tablishing both po sition and orien ta
tio n of fun ctions with respect to each oth er and the
si te. Na tural ligh t and heat , vi ew s, bu ild ing acces s,
a nd zoni ng of fu nct ions are also consid ered . T he
th ird d iagram reflects de cis ions on scale and shape of
the sp ac es requ ired to ac com mod at e the program m ed
functio ns. Here, consideration is given to function al
nee ds and a p lanning gr id. In the fourth diag ram , spe

Star ting w ith the most simplistic mo del of desi gn

process , w e can co nsider th e cha llenge of h and ling
information "exactly at th e level of abstractio n it has"
throughout the design process. In the exa mple show n
here, the drawings evolve toward levels of lesser
abstrac tion fr om the building program to a sche ma tic
des ign for a ho us e. (The t ra nsf or m ation s after t h e
schematic d esign th at lead to the fin al bu ildi ng
incl ude preliminary design , des ign development, con
struction documents, and shop dr aw ing s. These a re
not shown bec au se effe cti ve convent ion s already
exist for representation of those stages . There are sev
era l sour ces for examples of those dr aw ings, in clud
ing books and the d raw ing files of ar chi tectural
fi rm s.)

84

A nalysis

- -_. - -

Figure 6-6c Scale and shape of space.

Figure 6-6d Enclosure and const ruction.

cific structura l, co ns truc tion , and enclos ure decisions

come in to play. Sufficien t for m al def inition has bee n
indi ca ted for t he diag ra m to be ca lled a schem at ic
design .

tha t is w hy so many of us are so passio nate ly hooked

on d esigning.

Th is transforma tio n fr om pr ogra m to sche mati c

de sign is on ly on e of several pa th s th a t cou ld have
bee n ta ken . By u nde rstand ing th e in ten t of the d ia
grams at each stage, w e ens ure tha t opt ions re m ain
open , rather th an locked into on e for m too ea rly.
Most d esigners w ill agree tha t d es ign ing is n ot a
"clean " proces s; in other words , it is not a u toma tic,
eve n-pa ced, d ir ectional, ord erly, or tot all y rational.
We w oul d proba bly agree th at it is high ly persona l,
disc re te wh ile h olist ic, som et im es very cle ar and
so me times qu ite obscure, sometimes rapid and some
tim es pa infu lly slow, exci tin g and a lso ted ious. In
short , it is ve ry hu man rather than me cha nis tic. And

D raw in gs, the vis ua l languag e d esigne rs us e,

reflect all of the qua lities I have attached to design
ing . In the fo llowi ng chap ters I have tried to recog
n ize the varia bi lity and ind ivi d ua lity o f d esign
p rocesses by not asso cia tin g graphi c th in k ing w it h
one d esign process. Rather, I have presented the uses
of draw ings as d iscr ete eve nts to un cover the breadth
of richn ess that ex ists and leave ope n to each of us all
th e w ays and styles of grap hic th inking or designi ng
that w e pr efer, that we enjoy!

Transformation from Program to Schemat ic Des ign

85

1. Need/context-Prope rty val ues and th e tax rat e

in crea se rap id ly, even th ough th e bu ild in g still
mee ts the pr in ter 's needs.
2. N eed/form-The operation outgrows the building
or the build in g de teriorates and is no t ade q uate
for the need .

3. Form/context-A change in the zon ing res tr ict ions

makes a on e-story bu ild ing no longer a so un d
financ ial in vest m ent.

Fig ure 6-7a Structure of design problems.

ABSTRACTION APPLIED TOARCHITECTURAL

DESIGN

Figu re 6-7b Misfit between need and context.

The re st of this chapter is based upon a mo re sophis

ticat ed model of th e design process. The appli cation
of th e tool s of gr aph ic abstractio n to arc hitectura l
design is aide d by an und erst and ing of the structure
of ar chitect ural design problems. H ors t Ritte l has
identified three variables of th e typica l design prob
lem :
1. Performance var iables w h ich express d esired
characteristics of the object under design, and in
terms of which the object w ill be eva lua ted ("con
str uction cos t," "aesthe tic app eal ," "overall q ua l
ity," and th e like). .
2 . Desi gn variables, which desc rib e th e possibilities
of th e des ign er, his ranges of choice , his design
varia bles ("height of ceiling," "shape of d oor
kn ob," "type of heat ing ," and th e like ).
3. Context vari able s, which are th ose fac tors affec t
ing the object to be des ign ed but no t controll ed by
the design er ("land p rice, " "likel ih ood of ear th
quakes," "type of eating habits," and so forth]."

A problem can be said to exis t w he n th ere is som e

sor t of m isfit among these three variab les in an env i
ro nm ent. Th e desi gn pr oblem is solved w he n , as in di
cat ed in the diagram , there is a sati sfac tory relation
sh ip am ong n eed , co nt ext , and form . Con sider a
small pri nti ng co mpa ny as an exa mp le. Th e origina l
need w as to ac com mo date a pri nting ope ra tion in the
con text of the downtow n of a sm all city and the form
pr ovided was a sm all , one-sto ry building. Ove r time,
new probl ems co uld occur du e to different types of
m isfits :

86

Analysis

V'Sfahb

A. J

b~ rr tJ"l%i'1

~~ -PoY~
Figure 6-7c Misfit between need and form.

Figure 6-8 Sources of solutions to design problems.

Figu re 6-9 Design project information organized by major design variables.

Th e design problem can be caus ed by a change in

an yone or a combination of the variables. The solu
tion to th e proble m m ay lie in changing any on e of
the variables or a com binati on of t hem. The design
solution is not synony m ous w ith the designed build
ing; rather, the de sign draw ings ar e the em bod im ent
of a new ba lance betw een need , context, and for m .
The success of th e design solu tion is m eas ured by th e
wa y it responds to all three variables.

pr ojec t infor ma tio n . De sign concerns, issues, p riori

ties, or, as show n here, crite ria ca n be ga thered under
these va ria ble head ings. Th is p romotes a ba la nce d
vi ew of the design p roblem and a mo re complete
eval uat ion of design alte rnatives. (T he application of
evaluation criteria is dis cussed fur th er in Chapter 9.)
In th is section , we deal w ith the graphic abstraction
of th e a rchi tec t 's d esign prob le m a s descr ibed by
n eed , contex t, and form.

Th e ca tegories of nee d, con text, and form can also

provide a conveni ent struct u re for or ganizing de sign
A bstraction A pplied to A rchitectural Design

87

{3r~ k dowV1

o-fA Y1.a ~ ~

[lifE} Elr:t

III
o iii o
I

(a)

6k'MW1tWy

o-f Av t"-s ~

(b)

eJElElffi

OWVl ev-

Figure 6-10a, b Programmed area requirements:

breakdown of areas (a), and summary of areas (b).

I
I

{/ea0

~+- ~u5l

Figure 6-11 Activity intensity.

NEED
The build ing progra m or brief usu ally contains m ost
of the in formation ab out th e clie nt's needs . Pro grams
for the aver age-size proje ct , suc h as an educational or
in stitu tional building , can be quite co m p lex.
Alt hough th e program for our exampl e, a four-bed
room recreat ional re sid ence , is not ve ry comp lex , it
should ser ve to illustrate the basic typ es of d iagra m s
th at could be us ed to descri be fun ction al n eeds.
The fir st step is to get a good grasp of th e qu an tifi
able as pe cts of the p rogram . Using sq ua re s to show
th e area requ ir ement s fo r d iff er en t fu nction s, th e

88

Analysis

relat ion sh ips of size are q uick ly apparent (Figure 6

lOa ). A summary of basic p ro gram areas (Figure 6
l Ob) aids consideration of some of the ba sic zoning
alt erna tive s an d re la tion sh ip s to usable site area .
Anothe r qu antita tive d iagra m that ca n be q uite useful
show s intensi ty of activity or use. Th e int en sity of
functions is show n by th e relative sizes of the circles,
an d the volume of circulation betw een fun ct ion s by
the wid th of the con nec ting bars. Detailed estim ate s
of th e intensity of acti vity are not usua lly m ade, but
direc t obs erv atio n an d inform al analysis based on th e
d esign er's p ast exp erie nce shou ld be su ff ici e nt to
m ake th e d iagra m usefu l.

Figure 6-12 Bubble diagram of functional relations hips.

~1-r~

~ rt-~eV1

-------'1--4

L,u~ roo V'v1

~__1------4

~Y17D (tV\ 8

redt

Gv~ ~

~~ ~
~13t{,~

Fi gure 6-13 Matrix diagram of functional relationships.

Relationships
Th e b u bb le di agr am has be com e a fami liar tool to
architec tur al designers. It ca n a bs trac t th e b uildi ng
prog ra m to convenie n tly summarize the ac tivi ties to
be housed and their required relation sh ips. As w e
saw in Chap te r 5, bubble dia gr ams are also eas y to
manipulate as th e designer m oves from build in g pro
gram to building design . As lon g as th e basic rules of
th e gr aph ic language are foll ow ed , th ese d iag ra ms
pe rm it wide flexibility of thinkin g.
An other type of relationship di agr am is th e
m atrix. All th e functions are listed alon g tw o perpen
d icu lar axes a nd then th e relat ion sh ip of eac h fun c
j on to the other functions is cate gorized . The advan

tage of suc h a m atrix is in the w ay s it can be read by

the desi gn er. T h is exa m ple demonstrates that the
kitchen is a cr itical point of rela tionship for the w ho le
fa m ily an d th eir guests, th at th e sleep ing areas sho uld
be isolat ed fr om each other and from mo st of th e res t
of the house, and th at the access to th e guest areas
shoul d be controlled. Altho ugh it is tr ue that most of
t hese observa tions m igh t be m ade in tuitively for a
house, the m atrix prom ote s a res tr uct uri ng of th in k
ing th at can st im ulat e new insi gh ts regardi ng ne eds
such as sep aration or co m munication, particu larly in
mo re complex bu ildings. Fina lly, th e m atrix prov ides
a simple gr aphic rei nforcem en t of the design er' s
memory as h e con side rs th e b uilding context an d
form .
Nee d

89

10

~
r%
{2~

KrrcH~N

11

II

l-tVING~M

VEc{(

B~f<OOM

-.

f;A1H

~
~

~~

ourDoor<s

cP

~ W2

~~

~
~
J:;
~~

~~

Figure 6-14a Log of space use.

/f'
I

)flJJ-L-('-L9 --t~ ~
---I
l

rt>:

/
.-L -<"""'--/,-/,;;,-./--7 ~dUl
\
v'~<.
,

'

C
...-""
~__
,J

~ttwtJ(l)
'-~

(
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-:">

i:>

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l ~ M-

Fi gure 6-14b Ki nesthetic map.

Physical Behavior
Alt h oug h w e mi ght assu m e that mo st p eopl e use
hous es in p ret ty m uc h the same way (judgi n g from
new h ous ing de velop m en t d esign ), there a re di ffer
en ces. Th ese di fferen ces ca n have a lot to d o with th e
co m fort of a family in a pa r ticu la r house. One w ay to
illustrat e the use of a h ouse is to m ake a log of spa ces
occup ied by d iffer e n t fa m ily m embers d uri ng a typ i
cal d ay. T he res ult s may be su rp r ising a n d may
en courage the clien t to look a t h ousin g in a n ew way.
T here may al so be imp licat ions for de sign pr ior ities,
orie nta tion of spaces , a nd e nergy m anagement.

90

Analysis

Circ u la tio n is one of th e m ost u nde r-cons ide re d

fu n ct ions in he re nt in a b u ild in g program . M a n y of
th e expe riences of a ho use, its impac t on pe op le, ta ke
pla ce as th ey m ove th roug h a nd b e tw ee n spaces.
These ar e re ferred to as kin esthetic experiences; they
a re dy na mi c expe rie nces u n like silt in g or sta nd ing in
one space. Some a rch itec ts h av e sugges te d that sce
na rios of desi red kin es t het ic exp er ie nce s, in a grap hic
form , ca n be very usef ul to d esign. In its sim p le fo rm,
a ki n est h e tic m ap may use sy m bols for different
expe rie n ces , but it is als o p ossible to key p er spect ive
s ketche s to th e m ap and he lp cr eate a sen se of wh a t is
desi red . Again , suc h di ag ra ms help th e clien t and th e
design er d iscu ss a nd think abou t th e des ign problem .

-.\\

~
~

s:::

\.U.

s;

ii

~
Y

;::.

-=:1

C)

.:J

.s

\0

~ ~ ~

C3

WW1.q,rt
0Ld~ t+
C~cAu

Maltl1m~
f lJ\ er~~

f rex(btl t1:J

Figure 6-15a Matrix diagram of relationships betwee n design issues and spaces.

Design Priorities
To ma ke a successful hou se, an arch itect m us t help
th e cl ien t choose h is p riori ties , as h is de sires ofte n
exc eed w ha t is fin a nci all y p ossible. Bu t p riorities
remain a va gue notio n for mo st pe opl e un til they see
a spe cific bu ild ing d esi gn with a price tag. The n
come s th e prun ing and p ush ing and p ulling , end ing
wi th a des ign that loo ks as if it has been th rou gh a
str eet fight. A m atri x diagr am clarifies p ri orit ies so
the client can better un d ersta nd them before pro
ceeding to buildi n g-for m altern a tives. T he ma trix
starts w ith a list of d esig n issu es an d a list of fu nc
tions. At ea ch p oin t of relationship in the m atrix, w e
as k th e importance of thi s issue to this function . The
d egree of impor tance is ind icated by the size of th e
d ot. W hen th is process ha s been comple ted for each
issu e, the m ost imp ortant issues and functions (those
with the highes t cu m ulat ive deg rees of impor ta nce)
can be identified and a hier archical list of iss ues and
fu nctions for med. W he n th e mat rix is rec on stru cted
with issues a nd sp aces a r ra nge d in t hei r ord er of
impor tan ce, it is possible to ma ke so m e ob servat ions
ab out cr itica l areas of the d esign p rob lem .

Figure 6-15b Revised mat rix indicating priorities.

N eed

91

Figure 6-16 Ve rbal concepts map.

Design Objectives
Analysis of a design problem requires the explorat ion
of th e broad se t of issues, con tex ts, an d con cerns. To
initiate thin king abo ut the pro blem , we can ada pt a
te chn ique used in cr eati ve writing that builds a net
work of ve r bal as socia tion s. To brin g th e subcon
scious m ind in to action , the stan dard tabulated lists
are replaced by a loose, open-ended method of nota
ti on that le ts ideas develop in an organ ic p at tern
mu ch like the roots of a tr ee. As a comp lex netw ork
of ass ociations develops, we can begin to iden ti fy th e
mo st imp ort ant issues and re lationsh ips.

92

A nalys is

As analysis of needs pr ogr esses, it is oft en helpful

to specul ate on optimum re latio nsh ip s a m ong the
activi ties that m a ke up the bu ildin g p rogra m . By
illu strating alt ernative patt erns of rel at ionsh ips, th e
desi gner can become m ore attu n ed to th e issues of
syn thesis of a range of concern s. To avo id premature
as sum pti ons abo u t physical forms t hat would be
app ropriate to solving the de sign problem, activities
ar e purposely r ep re sen ted by nonspe cific shap es .
Some de si gners have r eferred to th ese sh ape s as
"potatoes. "

00

0
dlr. Darn,G
o

Fig ure 6-17 Comparative schematic layouts.

0000

~O 0 0

OUe

Fi gure 6-18 Compa rative schematic layouts.

N eed

93

Figure 6-19a Available land.

Figure 6-19b Zoning restrictions.

Figure 6-19c Geological conditions.

Figure 6-19d Composit e of the three criteria.

CONTEXT

Site Selection

The iden tifica tion of con text varia ble s h elps th e

designer to set pr oblem boundaries and p lac es con
straints on the numb er of design op tions available.
Th e experienced ar chitect welc omes th ese co n
strain ts because th ey help to focus h is atten tion on
th e reall y viable alt ern atives. Con text var iab les
in clud e site, clim ate, zoning or building ordinances ,
fina nces, time, and ava ilable cons tr uction technologies.

94

Analysis

A composite grap hi c d isplay of the eff ects of d iffe ren t

cr iter ia on site selection can assist bo th cli ent and
desi gn er in choos in g a site. T he m app ing sta rts by
groupi ng sever al criteria under a few basic head ings
su ch as land ava ilabili ty (wh ich might in cl ude th e
considerations of cost, opportunity, or se rvice s), geo
logical ch aracteristics, and zoning . Ma ps are m ade for
each ba sic heading, sh ow in g th e lan d th at m eets the
criter ia. The m aps can then be overlaid to form one
com pos ite map . Now the m ost favorable sites ca n be
ea sily identi fied and secon d-choice sites will also be
eviden t.

Figure 6-20a Direction arid force of winter winds.

Wtrtfer

Fi gure 6-20b Direction and force of summer winds.

Fall
OD

Figure 6-21 Annual temperat ure fluctuations.

RtM

V'ttjS
5~

t7~7 -----"""'"'~--

Figure 6-22 Sunlight and precipitation frequencies.

Ot he r usefu l abstract ske tches can p rese n t a mo re

refined v iew of the acti on of cl im a te ove r tim e.
Beca use ene rgy co ns erva tion is becomin g a ma jor
co ns id era tion in ho usin g d esi gn, w e need m ore
dyna mic mod els of th e act ion of climatic forc es su ch
as w ind and su n . It is becom ing eas ier to ob tain rea
sonably acc u rate sta tistical da ta on weath er, bu t the
grap h ic p r ese n tati on of th is data is w ha t m akes it
usable to the average de signer.
Alt hough cl im ate is onl y one of several co nte xt ual
elem en ts th at have an im p ac t up on a desi gn problem,
cl imate consid erat ions have tra dit ionally been a do m
inant factor in architec tural de sign. These diagra ms
ca n for m the basis of a point of v iew about th e prob
lem that may be a so urce of basic design concep ts .
Contex t

95

?:01J6S

PA-1110/

BNTR, 5

Fig ure 6-23a Ci rculation paths.

. ..

NOD ~ ~/
LANDM M-~ S

D()u WDA R\f6

Figure 6-23b Social interaction zones.

Activity Patterns
W h en inserting a new s tr uc ture within an exi sting
en viron m en tal con text, s uch as a college campus,
curr ent patte rns of pedestrian ac tivity sho uld be an
im p ort an t con sid era tion . T he upperm ost diagram
above tr aces the dom ina nt patterns of pedestrian
mo vement and reflects to so m e exten t their relative

96

Analysis

Figure 6-24 Ur ban image analysis.

intensity. The low er d iagram show s no des or zon es

that are th e mo st likely sites of so cial interaction .
Lan dmarks are indica ted be cause th ey oft en m ar k
sites of arranged meetin gs between individuals. To
th e right is a se rie s of site analysis dia grams based on
analytical ca tegor ies developed by Kevin Lyn ch. "

f1tEL.IMINARY DE5tG-N
PeSlG-}o{
~El.Of1>\ff1T

WO(~"'G

DFAWINtSS

11_~I D

I[

n 'STEE L]I~

1l4d fM,t reqlJlrat

tar ";+ttl

L--_ Il_

ISTee.L

I'"-

-J.

kTh1(~utd J

Figure 6-25 Co mparative construction processes.

l~ l lt;~l l~ I

~~l ~~Il~r~

Construction Processes
Arc hitects may overl ook at tim es th e im pac t of th e
cons truc tion p ro cess as a co n text for the de sign solu
tion . Construction m etho d is recogni zed as a strong
determinan t of for m in vern acula r arc hitect ur e, a nd
it is s till in fl ue nt ia l in con te mp ora ry architectura l
des ign . With the pr essur es of fin a nc ing and the varia
tions in th e cost of bor row ing fu nd s, in novations in
con str uct ion processes a re co n tinua lly e mergi ng.
When th ese p roce sses a re includ ed in th e set of
deter m in an ts of fo rm, th e d esigne r enhances th e
p ro ba bi lity o f d eve lopin g a s ucc ess fu l d es ign .
Abstra ct rep resent a tion of the a ltern a tive constr uc
tio n processes, a s wi th ot her d es ign d e te r m in an ts,
promotes the d esign er 's intuitive acce ss to these con
siderations .

_~d~ ~~ __ J

AreA

J f.0~II?(e

MJuitMt4"

Figure 6-26 Construction sequence analysis.

Context

97

Physical Site Analysis

Site featur es can incl ude mac ro- and m icr o-clim ates,
topograp hy, nat ur al circu latio n , view s, and land scap
ing elemen ts suc h as trees , b ushes, rocks, or w at er.
Th ese site features m ust be con si de red in ord er to
p lace and d esign a hou se . Abstrac t sketc hes can
un cover probl em s an d op port un ities by sho wing th e
site fea ture s sim u lta neous ly. T he illus tra tio n used
h ere focus es on genera l s ite ch aracte ristics ra th er
tha n on sp ecific de tai ls. Focu si ng on ge n era lities
helps th e de signe r to for m a vi sua l me m ory of th e
impor tan t sit e considera tions . W ith the aid of these
sk etc hes, other pe rceptions ca n be de rived , s uch as
w ind , p rivacy buffers, or th e best site for b ui ld ing.
For th is rec re ational house, th e sun p attern , the ridge
of the land , and the su mmer breeze suggest th e gen
era l orien tation of the bu ild ing. Th e ex isting site
ent ry, d isp osition of the trees, and the small river to
the south se t up th e p rominen t view s and basic site
circula tio n . Thi s site a na lys is ca n be fur the r
exte nde d, ta king int o accou n t p rogram ar ea needs to
ex p lore som e prel im ina ry a lte rna tives for b u ildin g
m assing, as show n at th e far right.

\~
.~
\

.6

lit::

Fig ure 6-27a

-ro?oGRAf~Y
Fi gure 6-27b

98

Analysis

Figure 6- 27c

Figure 6-28 a

Figure 6- 28b

Figure 6- 27d

Figure 6- 28c

Contex t

99

L[ ~ ked f'oxetS

GYOVvea 13oxe?

COV\ + ~Vl UCVt? W~ I I

Bv-f+ev Wo.l(

--

0fft/~ lI/t.g

EJeVldtJ

'B6Xt'&

W~1I 6

FORM
The third set of variables, form, is under the control
of the designe r. In th is area h e can help the clien t
m ake decisions after the need and context variables
hav e been ide ntified . But rem ember tha t th e soluti on
to th e d esign p rob lem ' is bas ically an ag reem en t
betw een need, context, and form . In a sense, all th ree
se ts of variab les are flexib le un til a fit is ac h iev ed .
Some designers expe ct th e client's progra m and the
context alone to d ict a te the so lu ti on , but for m is
eq ua lly im porta n t be ca use th ere a re a n umber of
viable forms th at m eet specific needs. The arc hitect
m ust be as fam iliar w ith form variables as w ith th ose
of need or context. The abstract sketches that follow
are used to bui ld a visua l memory of form variables.

.....

On~- W())j

&IC!

Space/Order
Variations of the spa tial or ga niza tion of a hou se ar e
n um erous. A few examp les ar e sh ow n here in plan
diagrams using a sim ilar d rawing style to facilitate an
easy comparison . The w all s ar e d raw n w ith h eavy
lines so the d iagrams can em phas ize space by clearly
defining solid and void . Furth ermore, titles are give n
to each organ izational ty pe as an importan t aid for
eas y recall.

100

A nalysis

Two--Wa3

Q r~d

Figure 6-29 Alternati ve spatial organizations shown in plan view.

lrfj~~== J
Q O'Gt4

Box

Figure 6-30 ALternative enclosure types.

Ab ove , a ra n ge of or ga ni zati onal types sh ow s

th ree-d im e nsiona l op tions for sp a tia l order an d t h e
im plications for ap p eara n ce . Structur e an d mat erials

are al so con sider ed . Note how di fferent app roaches

to e nclosure can lead to va rie ty in for m al exp ression
or aesthetic.

Form

101

Scale/Proportion

tf~ ~le

Although they can enjoy the qu alities of form, ar chi

tects do not automatically pe rce iv e how the form
variables ar e arranged to ac hieve a specific effect. In
add iti on to th eir for m al ed uca ti on, m os t arc h ite cts
spend a lifetim e gath er ing in sights or pe rcep tion s
about suc h qua lities.

Figure 6-31 Important human-related sizes.

~ ' t va rch:l

ot ~Ut le~

Figure 6-32 Dormitory building, New York University,

1. M. Pei and Associates, architects.

?t'lfOr1LoV1 ~G6

Figure 6-33 Entran ce facade, villa at Garche, LeCorbusier.

102

Analysis

O n e effe ctive w ay of incre asing perception is

th rough visua l analys is. T he em p hasis of a specific
va riable such as scale or rhythm in a sketch can be
abstracted fro m the co n text of the bu ildi ng. Sca le
implies a relati onsh ip of sizes. The size of p eop le is
th e handiest reference for oth er sizes; this is call ed
human scale. Alth ough it is obvious that all structures
ca n not be wi t hi n our scale, w e ca n feel m ore com
fortable w ith a large bui ldi ng if certain of its features
range in size fr om human scale to the overa ll build
in g. Throug h grap hic analysis, w e can begin to under
st and how scal e is ha ndled in different bui ld ings.
The effect of prop ortion s on the design of a bui ld
ing can be represented for analys is in a sim ilar way.
Propo rtion is th e relatio ns hip betw een di m ensi on s
(horizontal-vert ical). Through abstraction, the impact
of p rop ortions on ex ist in g build ings ca n be bett er
unde rstood .

I
Figure 6-34 Traditional brick const ruction.

I,

Figure 6-35 Cu rtain wall construction.

Figure 6-36 White Residence, Mitc heljGiurgola, architects.

Mass/BaLance
Anyone w ho has taken up joggin g is w ell aware of th e
im po r tan ce of mass a nd balan ce in hu m an experi
en ce. We all have a built-in se nse of thes e q uali ties,
cau sing us to r espond to t hem in bu ild ings.
Furtherm ore, m ass and balanc e are associa ted w ith
m any ot her feelings, such as sec ur ity and flexibili ty.
In a bu ild ing, a sense of ma ss can convey sec uri ty or
perman ence; a sen se of air iness can convey flexib ility
or fr eedom . Th roughout arc hitec tural history, many
met hods have been di scovered for varying the appar
en t m ass of build ings. By anal yzi ng b uild ings th at
hav e clear sensations of m ass, the use of su ch formal
devices as hor izonta lity, verticality, and em phasis ca n
be uncov ered .
Walking is a tremendous feat of ba la nce . M uch of
the enjoyment of w alking, rid ing a bike , skiing, and
th e like is derived fr om the ten sion betw een stability
and instability. We have a fin ely tuned sense of bal
ance that carries over into our visual pe rcep tion. The
d iffe ren t w ays of ar ticu latin g balan ce in b uild in g
design ca n be also h ighlighted t hrough abstract
ske tches. The sketc hes shown he re deal w it h sy m
m etrica l and asym me tr ica l ba lance in com po sit ion
and three-dim ensiona l ba lance, an im por tant part of
ar chite cture.

Figure 6-37 Grabbe platz at Dusselporf, Ja mes Stirling, architect.

Form

103

mmillm

Fi gure 6-38 Evenly spaced windows.

Figure 6-39 Casa Mila, Antonio Gaudi, archite ct.

Figure 6-40 Wolfsberg Center, Alver Aalto, architect .

Repetition/ Rhythm
One way of ac hieving unity in a build ing is throu gh
re pe tit ion of parts that are alike, suc h as w indow s or
column s. Simi larity of objects, even if on ly pa rtially
sim ilar, is a w ay of emp h a siz in g associa ti on .
Me m be rs of th e h um an race are recogn ized by a
numb er of sim ilar featu res in spite of th e gre at d iver
sity in their ind ividual appearance .
The importanc e of rhy th m in architecture is ba se d
upon its relationship to the h u man rhyth ms, w a lking
or bre athing, and the natur al rhythm s, the tide or the
sea so ns. Just as music pres en ts au d io rhyth m s, archi
tectur e displays visua l rhy thms In ar chitecture, th e
pr in cipa l m ean s of ach iev in g r hy th m is spacin g of
p ar ts; this is co m p arable to the in tervals bet w ee n
beats or notes. The chara cter of visu al rh ythms in a
bui lding dep ends on th e size of both the interv als and
th e parts. Two basic typ es of rh ythm can be identi
fied . Staccato rhythm is form ed by clear d istinction
between in terva ls and parts , such as mu llions on a
curtain wa ll. Legato rh ythm is softer, formed by mo re
su btle tra nsition s betw een inter val s and parts, as in
th e curvilinea r ar ch itec ture of Gaudi . There ar e also
rhyt hms d isting uishab le by p attern s of in te rva l or
part sizes, as in a facad e by Pallad ia . And ther e are
accelerat ing or decel era tin g rh yt hm s, as in the
Wolfsbe rg Ce nter by Aalto.

104

A nalysis

l[~ ~ti ~~
! ~fJ ~ l~~
~ ~ -- -----------------\(

~I
r; II

__

/'' ,l-'11
--i

.
. 1'; L~ igg~ UU L
-HJ.:..j ~ ' " ;' '\ a
1 Ir --~
r-------I m-1 ~ H rTTTr."n; r:f ,:, "I II fI

LC --fj

-
Figure 6-41 Boston City Hall.

_ .III

Figure 6-42 Sout h facade, Lit chfield High School

Gymnasium, Marcel Breuer and O'Connor & Kilham,
architects.

Unity/Diversity
The d egree of unity or d iversi ty exp ressed in a b u ild
ing con st itutes ano ther class of form variables. The
"other varia bles (scale, p ropor tion , m ass, ba lance, rep
et iti on , or rhy thm ) can be used to ach ieve unity or
diversity. Som e of the w ay s of increasi n g u n ity
incl ud e fr am ing or em p has izin g a bo rd er; using a
contin uous pattern , mod ula r grid , or a sing le shape,
w hich is at the sa m e scale as the bu ilding; and mai n
tain ing ind ep en de nce be tw ee n th e parts and t he
whole.
Div ersity can be ac hieved by p la nned violat ion of
the rules of unity: avoid ing fram ing or cons iste n t pat
tern ; va ry ing r h y th m s or mo d u les ; u sin g mult iple
grids ; and breaking up the domina ti ng geom etry.

Figure 6-43 Ohio Town Hall project , Vent uri and Ra uch.

U nity and d iversity are not m utua lly exclusiv e; it

is po ssible to overlay them and thereby in crease th e
intensity of bo th at trib ut es.

Fi gure 6-44 Assembly building at Chandigarh, LeCorbusier.

Form

105

~ ~S)~

1I11111 Ll lllllllll llllil

\--
D
\--
\--

!) P

1-

IIT fITfl l=rITITITll r

c:Jt::::J

I~

Figure 6-45 LaTou rett e monastery, LeCorbusier, architect.

In] lFU [flJ UlJ

b .
. d

[G

~ [1Jl ~ [1J]

2J

Figure 6-48 Kresge Co llege, University of Ca lifornia, Santa Cruz,

MT LW/Moore Turnbull, architects.

-$

Figure 6-46 Hurva Synagogue project. Louis Kahn, architect.

"t:::I

=J

..
c==J

Fig ure 6-47 Mt. Angel Library, Alva Aalto, archite ct.

Hierarchy
Con cep tual strength and clarity often play a n impor
tan t ro le in the experie nce and use of a b uild ing. A
sens e of hierarchy can co n tr ib ute m uch to th e con
cept ua l presence of ar chit ecture. W hether as analysis
o f ex is ting b uildi ngs or as sp ecula tio n a bou t an
eme rgin g design , int ent ions can be highligh ted by the

106

A nalysis

Figure 6-49 Am erika-Gedenkbibliothek, Berlin, Mo rphosis,

architects.

use of abstr act sk et ch es such as those show n here. In

corresp ond ing seq ue nce , sta r tin g a t the top , the
sketches in Figures 6-45 , 6-46, and 6-47 pres en t th ree
app roaches to h iera rc hy : dominant size, cen tra l loca
tion, and u niq ue shap e. As reflected in Figur es 6-48,
and 6-49 , app roa ches to h ierarchy a re oft en com
bin ed to ach ieve grea te r impact.

Fi gure 6-50

SOURCES OF SOLUTIONS
As w as poin ted out before, th e origin of a d esign solu
tion may be foun d in a nyone of the three typ es of
var ia bles : n eed , co n te xt , or fo rm. O n the following
page s are ca se studies based on th e recreat ional
house examp le. In ea ch study, an a bs trac t diagr am of
one of the va ria bles is used as the source of a basic
organ izing id ea for th e hou se ; th en con strain ts or
con siderat ion s from the other types of varia bles are

in t rod uced to mod ify th e concep t. These stud ies

shou ld m ake clear some of the follow ing ad vantages
of a bs tr ac t d iagrams:
1 . The vari et y of id eas vi sib le a t one tim e is ve ry

stim ula tin g for th in king.

2 . Th e differen ces in t he t h ree typ es of varia b les

p rom ote a va riety of solut ion alte rnatives .

3. Att ention is focused on general iss ues instead of
d etails.

Sources of Solut ions

107

I S-g

8 0 1

aJnfi ~j

~~f7Y

No. 12.

e~~s()Y"( V6 ~re

Figure 6-52

So urces of Solutions

109

S.ISr\[ rJUV

0 11

( "-9 am5 ~.:J

Figure 6-54

Sou rces 0 { Solutions

11 1

.(

)...

S ISr\ID U V

Z II

C; C; - g aj n 5 ~:J

J...

Figu re 6-56 Viewing conditions.

ABSTRACTION AND PROBLEM SOLVING

Th e ultim ate use of abstract diagrams is to h elp the
design er com m it to m em ory large amoun ts of project
in form ation . T hese diagrams can also be used
d irec tly as a record of d esign varia bles . T he ma in
advan tage of d iagrams as a graphic record is the ir
im m ed iatel y accessible inform ation when all the dia
grams are arranged in a large group . Creative design
ers fill sheets upon sheets of pa p er with diagrams and
sketche s of all types to record what they k now and
thin k about a design problem.
An ab st rac t diagram m ust be sim ple an d clear to
be effe ctive . If it conta ins more in for m ati on than can
be absorb ed at a q uick glance, it loses its effective
ness. Yet, it m ust p rovi de eno ugh inform ation to form
a di stinct idea . Lim iting th e size of the diag ram to a
por tion of our vi su al fie ld is a m et hod of par tia lly
con troll ing the amoun t of inform ation given . A stan
dard 8.5-by-ll sheet of pap er fits wi thin the vis ual
field of a single ind ividual, and th e drawn d iagrams
can be as small as a ha lf-dollar. W hen several design
ers work as a group, the vis ual field is expanded con
siderably. Th e fir m of Ca u dill Row lett Scott has
developed th e "ana lys is ca rd " techniq ue for group
wo rk . Diagra ms, each about the size of a ha n d, are
drawn on 5'/z-by-8'/4 card s (I have perso na lly tried 3
by-5 and 5-by -8 ca rd s with success) . During the pro b
lem ana lys is and desi gn process, diagrams are draw n
on the cards, w h ich are the n ta cked on the wall for
d isplay to t he gr ou p . Th is results in a con ti nua lly
updated d isp lay of the gro up 's thinking. As an added
benefit, the cards are easily m ove d to prov ide flexi
bility of ideas by association .
For legibility, ink or felt-tip pens are prefera ble to
pe ncil or other media . Line w eights should be geared
to the viewi ng situation : a fine -line pe n is good for
the individual b ut a heavi er mar ker is be tter for
group di splay. Som e architec ts make the translat ion
from individual to gr oup display by simp le en large
m en t of th e orig in al diagrams or ske tches.

Figure 6-57 Analysis cards.

Abstraction and Problem Solving

113

l:-L aJnfi~.:l

7 Exploration

h ile th e a rchi tectura l d es ign p rocess

involves d ecis ion-m a k in g aimed at the
re duc tion of a lte rn at ive s in se ar ch o f a
final solu tion , it also involves ela boration
aime d at expa nd ing t he range of po ssib ilities. Most
a rchi tects are not con te n t to solve p roble m s w ith
exis ting know le dge ; th ey wa n t to expand thei r knowl
edge ba se at th e sa me tim e. Ar ch itects are op po rtu
nity see ker s as w ell as p roblem solvers. The d raw ings
in this ch a pt e r are d ev oted to ela bo ra tio n in th e
des ign p rocess, d eviation from the nor m, expansion
of thi n king, and d evelop m ent of ima gination .

We are just beginn ing to und erstand the u n ta pped

po ten tia l of our im aginat io ns . In tuitio n , cr ea tivity,
and imagina tion have traditiona lly been consid ered
skills attrib u ta ble to a lim ited gr oup of pe ople : inven
tor s, ar tists, a nd ge niuse s. Many re searchers of cr e
ati v ity share Koe berg and Bagna ll's v iew t hat mo st
peo p le have the basi c ca pa city for im agina tion b u t
th at it re mains u nd erde ve loped or unu sed :

r:;LABoRNnON

"f'r:' rf"n Itl -~el'-l ':9

Figure 7- 2

It is simp le enough to list those "attributes of creativ

ity " whi ch are needed by the designer and to point
out the reaso ns for their inclusion. But actual devel
opment and refinement of such beha vioral charac ter
istics is di fficult since society ma ke s it a relentless
bat tle, an often thank less an d rarely positively rein
forced chore, to ma intain such behavior. The same
society which readily accepts the crea tive 'produc t'
will chastise or deny the creative 'activity ' required
for such produ ction because of its non-typical
natu re. I

Ma king creat ive behav ior acceptab le is th e first

step in p rom oting cr eat ivity in arc hitect ura l d esign ,
an d this ch ap t er tr ies to p rov id e m ore information
a bout cr ea tive th in king w ith sketc hes to sup port it. If
we can get thro ugh some of (he myst er y sur rou nd ing
the personal app roache s taken by ar chi tec ts, I be lieve
sp ecific techniq ues can be ident ified that ma ke up a
body of trainable ski lls.
Explora tion can be d efined as systemat ic investi
gati on or tra veling th ro ugh a n unfami liar region in
order to learn abou t it. The p ur po se of exp loration in
graph ic thi n king is the altering of grap hic images so
as to get a new look at them and thereby expand our
th ink ing. We w ill be looking at th ree app roa ches to
explora tion :
1 . Open-end ed images th at su ggest a n um ber of di f
ferent perce ptions or in terp retatio ns.
2 . Transfor ma tion of ima ges .
3. Str uct ur ing or or de ring im age s.
These ap p roaches are aime d at re-ce n te ri ng v isual
th in king. Accord ing to Robe rt Mc Kim , "Re-cente ri ng
v ision is fu ndam e n tally an expe rience in u nlearn ing.
For m ost peop le, breaking lazy, ca tegory-hard ened ,
fea r-inducing habits of seeing is an educatio na l task
o f considerabl e magni tud e. " 2 To m a ke full u se of
these draw ing s for grap hic thin king w e m ust be com
for ta b le w ith exploration that is n ot tightly foc use d ,
let th e mi nd w a nd er, a nd be op en to u nexpected
res ults.

115

r-

WfJ
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,r '/ '

f , -,

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:</

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~) <

()vt v 1 ~ .ff W\3

Figure 7-4a

r ','

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-rrttN1~a veV\ C3

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\VlftyfYCIlfllOh

Figu re 7-4b
( 1 7~""" \fiT -( r

I i ,

- l);

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Figure 7-3 By Alvar Aa lto.

~V0je~+" lN\
Figure 7-4c

OPEN-ENDED IMAGES
Terms like amb iguous, collage, and m ulti va lent have
be en used to descr ibe wo rk s of art and archite ct ur e
that can be "read," in terpreted , or appreciated simul
tan eo usly on sev eral lev els. These works a re ofte n
sai d to have severa l meani ngs. Design sketches ofte n
ha ve sim ilar q ua lit ies of a m big u ity, allow ing the
design er to thin k flexibly and in gene ral terms. I refer
to thi s as op en -ended . Open -ended ness can be
ac hi eved wit h transparen cy. Thi s ap proach is based
on the trad ition of show in g dept h location by over
lapping. Mod ern ar t introduced m ut ua l overlapping:
prod ucing a tran sparent effec t tha t a llow s tw o or
m or e figures to occupy th e sam e p lace. In co nce pt,
developing a tr ansparency allow s the designer to sus
pend decision s abo ut th e exac t loca tion of spaces or
th e boundaries betw een spaces .

116

Exploration

An other approac h to op en-e nde d nes s is th e

in com p lete, obscure ske tch . By provid ing min im a l
infor ma tion , the ske tches focus on th e mo st gener al
issues w hil e estab lishi ng the essential ch ar ac ter of
t he arc hite cture. T he te nta tive feeling of th e lin es
h elp s give som e sketch es a n add ed sen se of bei ng
tem po rary. To achieve a sim ilar effect , so m e design
ers use a soft pen cil to prod uce a w ide, fuz zy line.
Open-en d ed sk etche s oft en con vey a sens e of
im m edi acy and th e confiden ce of the d es igner.
No tice ho w a few lin es p rovid e impac t. Th e w hit e
sp aces help to p ull the eye back to th e key parts of the
d raw ing . To prod uce effe ctive sketches, the designe r
is req uired to work qui ckly and in a relaxed m anner ;
th e sk etc hes s ho uld be an enj oyab le process rath er
th an an end in them selve s.

.~

.'

~}
t--==--==- . . . ~ -----

Figure 7-5 By LeCorbusier. Strasbourg project.

Figure 7-6 By Lo uis Kahn . Co ncept study, Un iversity of Vi rginia

Chemistry Building.

Figure 7-7 By Gera ld Exline.

Open-Ended Images

117

J RAN5 f oR i\A ATION?

~Q r;] ~

uliJGl ~

C\-vIiA Wl ed~(

lC'~[03 I~r

II
1<'evev6al

o
t7 t~t'r-+tOtl

Figure 7-8 Fo ur types of t ransformation.

TRANSFORMATIONS
The p urpose of ope n -ended images is to invite
ch anges in the images. Transfor mations , however, are
specific ch an ges made in t he grap h ic im ages . Th e
possib ilities for change in graph ic im ages are practi
cally un lim ited , bu t we w ill look at a few basic types
of tran sform ation . They are topologi ca l con tinuity,
orname n tal gramma1; revers als, and distortion.
Graphic transforma tions ca n be very hel p fu l to
creativity in desig n . The stages of crea tiv ity have
bee n described by Hele n Rowan as "Prep a ration ,
In cu ba tio n , Ill u m ina tion , and Veri fica tion .... th e
period of in cubation fr ees the ind ivid ual fr om previ
ous fixations, he is then able to see the problem with
new eye s whe n he re turn s to it. " 3 Tra ns formations are
aim ed at changing perspective or p erceptions, m ak
ing the fa miliar se em strange. It is im po rta n t to
remember that a peri od of p re para tion m us t p recede
in cuba tion . The de signer prep ares by be comin g
im m ersed in th e p roblem , tr yin g to u nd erst a nd a ll
the var iables of need , contex t, and for m . O nce the
problem becom es imbedded in his m in d , he attempts
to overcom e preconceptions about the p oss ible solu
tions by changi ng the existing grap hic im ages.

Topological Continuity
In m at hem atics, the term topology is defined as "th e
stu dy of th ose p r ope rtie s of geom etr ic figures th a t

11 8

Explora tion

rem ain un changed even wh en under distortion, so

lon g as no surfaces are torn ." A practical example of
two objects topologica lly similar bu t d iffere nt in
ap pe ara nce is the doug hn ut and the cup . The trans
form ation fr om do ughnu t to cup shows how the same
basic surface re lat ionships are re ta ined w hi le t he
form is p us he d and pu lled.
A similar topologica l co nt in ui ty is impo rtan t to
the exploration of design im ages. Many arc hitectural
students mistake a specific ar rangeme nt of pa rts for a
topological or essential re lationship of parts. If the
tr ue topological characteristics of a diagram are iden
tifie d , many other arra ngements of the parts can be
exp lored.
March and Stead m an pointed out the poten tial of
topol ogical con tin uity in comparing three houses by
Fran k Lloyd Wrig ht:
I n them he uses a range of "grammars, " by w hich he
me ant, abo ve all, the controlling geometric un it
which ordered the plan and pervaded the det ai ls... .
Wh ilst they may lool: di fferent, they a re in fact topo
logically eq uivalent. I f each funct ional space is
mapped on to a point a nd if, whe n two spaces in ter
con nect, a line is dra wn bet ween their represen tative
points...we find tha t th ey (th e houses) are topologi
cally equivalent in plan. T herefore, one topol ogical
structu re was open to thr ee velY different ex pres
sions.'

Figure 7-9a Topological similarity

between a doughnut and a cup.

Figure 7-9b Evolution of topologically equivalent house plans.

Figure 7-10 Topological analysis of t hree houses designed by Frank Lloyd Wright.

Transformations

119

~uDDQDD~uuuuQ

II [

DDDDDDDDDDDD[Du~uuQu~QuD

J . T /U NS/.AT/ON

2 . ROTATION

2 . Or1J4mnflai Mosa ic pat

I . Ornarrunt from /fJ",b at

Gourna The"' .
Owenjones, PI. VII. o. 4.

non

tern a t Pompeii.
Ou-'enjo n(J, PI. x xv

4. IN VERSION

5OD~OuDDDDDUDDOd

,-'m
I

5. Translation and Rrfteetivt Imersion

d-f~

5 . String course

Ollt ,.

Po na tb ena i c

rht

Fri ez e,

Partbenon , A /Mm .

OU'V1 j 01U1,

PI. xx u, no. /8

DeP[J~DDDDDDDD9=J
6 . SliPI'd R,j/t et;on,

bTIITDooo o

'~
QWW\J\A

7. Orna ment from

mJlmmy (a u .

~ Ou..m j

kiY

ono . PI.

Ahrmat ion

[3

6 . Band ornam ent f rom

Gm lt

I laJt .

Owmj_,PI.XVlI, "". 58.

7. A ccderanon

Egyp" an

VI II ,

0'

no. 17.

o o

8 . Dtet/frorion

DDOCiill1

8 Oma.n"'" from Egyp' ,an

mJJmmy (au .

OwmjonfJ, PI. VIJI. no. J2 .

Ii
n
iliE
I

9 Plaited straw [rom ,Ix

S,.",.dwjeh islands

0""" j ont!. p. 15.

Figure 7-11 By Thomas Beeby. Basic manipulations of ornament.

Ornamental Grammar
Thomas Bee by, in h is art icle "Th e Gr amm ar of
Ornamen t/O rnam ent as Gram ma r," clearly illustrates
th e app licatio n of ornamental grammar to building
m as sing and design at many sca les by the m aster
a rch itec ts of the m odern m ovement. Spe cifically in
th e w ork of LeCor busi er, he show s th e impact of th e
trad itional tra ining in orna m entation principles. A
d irect me ans of achievin g a rich comp lexity in bu ild
ing forms is revealed. "LeCorbusiers early tr ain ing in
orn am en t pla ced a valuable method of working
with in his grasp. The principles found in Owen Jones

120

Explora tion

and transm itted to LeCorbusier through L'Eplatten ier

rem ained with him throu gh out his career."
As Beeby des cribes,

[The re are] four basic manipulations of a uni t to cre

at e orname nt: tra nslation, rota tion, reflection, and
inve rsion . The simplest type of band orn amen t,
tran slation (illus tration I] , is the repetition of the
unit, always in the sam e orientati on, along a hori
zontal axi s. Rotation (illust ra tion 2) is the repetition
of the un it around the point of in tersec tion of two
adj acent sides. It accounts for pin wheels and othe r
spiral configurations. With tran slation an d rotation,

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Figure 7-12 By Thomas Beeby. Applications of ornamental

grammar.

the unit merely slides along the surface of the pla ne,
in a straight line or a circle, but in both reflect ion
an d inve rsion the unit is flipped over in spac e to
presen t its under side. W ith refle ction (illustra tio n 3),
the unit is flipp ed over on one of its edges, producing
bilateral, or m irror, symmetry. W ith inve rsion (illus
trat ion 4), the un it is flipp ed over its centra l horizon
tal axis . More complex configuratio ns are derived
from a combination of these fou r basic operations.
Translation accompanied by reflection is probably
the most famili ar. Transla tion acc ompanied by reflec
tive invers ion is another typ ical opera tion (illustra
tion 5). Th e complexity increases through devices
suc h as shifts along the horizontal axis, or glid e line,
leav ing gaps between uni ts, to produce slipped reflec
tion or alterna tion (illustra tion 6}.. . . A lso, by accel
erating (illus tration 7) or decele rating (illustratio n 8),
the rhythm through decrea sing or increasing eith er
the size of the units or the distance between them,
one can tra nsform sca le,'

0 0 cJ
I
R1iu t;(}If

RtJ*aiw
1m-mUm

S"fJ'J RljI",;",

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Um t

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Rt~etir~ lrnrrsifm

Rotarioff

Transformations

121

UOljvJ.o/dxg

ZZ I

~_-===t=-_

~ Dd lIT o

The im p lications of ornamental gr a m m ar for

b ui ld ing d esign and planning are sig nifica n t, but
the re are ad di tio na l implica tio ns fo r th e d esign
p rocess. Orna me n ta l gr am ma r ca n be used to tran s
for m m or e abstract graph ic im ages, ro u tin ely uncov
er ing new thin king. For exa mpl e, we could take a pro
gra m b u bbl e d iagra m a nd through its rot a tion ,
refle ctio n, or invers ion cha nge th e s ta rting point in
proble m sol ving. An other ap p roach w ould start w ith
a sc hemat ic p lan ; from th is, an analysi s d ra w ing
wo uld be mad e to reduce th e concep t to basics, and
the a bstr act drawi ng would be r un thr ou gh so m e
ornam en ta l tr a nsformatio ns to un co ver alter na tive
co ncepts or insights in to the str uct ure of the origin al
design .
We might also freely exp erime n t with form , as
shown a bove, and th en seek a match bet w een for ms
and known design progra ms .

Figure 7-14 Applications of ornamental grammar.

Tran sformations

123

1tt0 tt+ .~~J:~ I

Gt-wr

r~W ld lJ tl l

[)r-~es

Wall

f ..IUI iJ

o~~s

,~'I.DlL
,~
fV\ crvtet'ttt I

JOLVI+S

Figure 7- 15

Reversals
Reve rsals are cha nges in an ima ge fr om its fir st char
act eristics to op posite cha ract eristics [ligh t to dark ,
object to space, open to closed , etc.). Th eir us efuln ess
derives fr om th e qualities of the contra sting comple
m ent. Th e Chi nese philosophe r Lao-Tzu held tha t th e
essen ce of everything we could see lies in what we
can not see; the esse nce of m an is not in his physical
appearance, and th e ess enc e of arch itecture is not in
the visible str ucture. The Taoist sym bol yin and ya ng
re p rese nts th e absenc e of ord er, chaos, as a bl ack
backgrou nd ; the tw o r evo lv ing for ms are yin and
yang, th e con trast in g com plemen ts th at m a ke up
or d er, n igh t a nd day, a m u si cal n ot e and a pau se,
active and passive. Th e ide al condition , pe rfec tion , is
symbolized as a dynami c balance between op posites:
gro ups of people are defined by ind ivid uals and indi
vid uals are defined by groups; th e color of an orange
change s in intensity w ith the changing background .

124

Exp lorati on

Archit ectur al examples of complemen ts are w alls

and openings , m aterials and the joirits betw een ma te
rials, vertica l and horizon tal , rectilin ear and curv ilin
ea r. To ch a nge our p ercep tions, w e ch a nge th e
em phasis of an im age to its com plem en t or contrast.
The simp les t for m of rever sal is called figur e-ground
drawing. Two sketches are m ade of a sub ject su ch as
the Piazza San Marc o (oppo site ). In one sketch, th e
build ings are shown in solid black an d in the oth er
ske tch , th e space between the bu ildings is sho w n in
bl ack . By look ing at the tw o s ketc he s at the same
time, it is po ssible to get a better under stand in g of
bo th space an d bu ildi ngs a n d the re lationsh ip
between th em . Figure-gro und sketches can be used to
study elevations of bui ldings, patterns, profiles, mass
ing, and m any other problem s.

-_
._ _.....y)

Figure 7-16 Figure/grou nd sketch, Piazza San Marco.

n -ans(ormat ions

125

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Vi ew

( e voj..!:$ v'W\~ 1Lt\ e:tt l-00

2;!]

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Bj [
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h f osed C6(UW\Y\

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Figure 7-17 Reversals of architectural experience.

Anot her type of reversal is experien ce reversal. If

the norm al kinest hetic exp eri enc e of a ch urch pro
gresses from small to lar ge scaled sp aces, a reversal of
scale can ev o lve a ne w form . If it is norm al for a
beachfron t hou se to be op en and be orien ted to the
view, in trod uce en closure and inward orientatio n .
Th e design of a Japanese teahou se em ploys a wall to
deny view s in order to intensify th e view seen
through a small window. Design ers som etimes hav e a
probl em try ing to h ide a bu ild ing element ; the solu
tion could in stead be to emphasize that very element.
Gra phic images can also be used to rev erse thi n k
in g process es. Instead of th in king of sp aces as bub

126

Exploration

bles glued to gether, conside r them as car ved out of a

so lid block .
1. If a circulation sequ ence ha s been see n as a series
of spaces , concen tra te in stead on the pas sages.
2. Wh en a studen t gets hung up on one design solu
tion or h as tro uble develo p in g an idea , I suggest
th at th e given bu ilding progr am be for ced into a
typical facility for a hi ghly contrasting program or
activity, fo r exampl e, ban kin g in a restauran t, a
hospital functi on in a cou ntry cl u b setting , or a
home in a fact ory.

Figure 7-18a Reversal of perception , positive vs. negative space.

Figure 7-18b Li nks vs. nodes.

Figure 7-18c Restaurant vs. bank.

Transformations

127

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~

,
--

,...

r--

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J

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Fi gure 7-19a After M. C. Escher Lithograph, Balcony, 1945.

(b)

Not'"rvYlt\ GYtd

(c)

tlkror--hoh

Fi gure 7-19b, c Analysis of lit hograph.

Distortion
The Du tch ar tis t M . C. Escher create d a wonderful
wo rld of fa n ta sy throu gh op tic al illusions based on
th e rep resen tational syste ms of th e Renaissance. He
ach iev ed di st ort ions th at dramat ica lly alter our view
of re ality through simple man ip ulat ion of these rep
resent ationa l systems, as in th e lit hograph Ba lcon y.
By w ay of an exaggeration of the projection m ethod
used for maps of the w orld , he imposes a simple grid
over th e co nventional drawin g and th en doubles the
size of the cen tral sec tion; th us the di storted gri d is
used as a referen ce sys te m to comp lete the dr aw ing .
The gr id-man ipu la tion m ethod can be used as a
simp le way of di storting oth er typ es of im ages. For
our p urpose , the gr ids should be kept quite simple to
rem ain in a sketc h sty le. Th e exa m ples of th e bubble
dia gra m on this page and the building pl an on th e fac
ing pag e sh ow just a few of th e possibilities for gr id
d istor tion. Simple magnificati on or red uction of the
scale of an image can produce a distorte d effect. In
addition , a n umber of special projec tion tech niq ues ,
su ch as 360 -degree view s, ar e poten tia l tools for d is
to rtion ske tches.

(a)

(b)

NOV'Yv\a1 Gv1d

DI~+Oy-ho \i)

Figure 7-20a, b Distortion of a bubble diagram.

12 8

Exploration

DO

DO

DO

0 0

DO

cJO
Figure 7-22 Variations on distortion.

I
_-r--;,._~~",;,-",;,-'

\-- --I

1- _

Figure 7-21 Distortions of a plan sketch.

Figure 7-23 Di storted projection.

Transformations

129

f-

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I I I I I I I II

V\{l~ crt

G-rfh age

Fig ure 7-24 Villa at Carthage, LeCorbusier.

Figure 7-27 Sundt House, F. L. Wright.

t?oqut

flam') ~ Gr~

Fi gure 7-25 Combinatory system of spatial elements, after

C. Norberg-S chulz.

:PIaVl h~"j "fIe ~

II

Figure 7-26 Field t heory space organization, Architecture and Art

Building, University of Illinois at Chicago, Walter Netsch of
Skidmore Owings & Merrill, architects .

Figure 7-28 Casa Papanice, P. Portoghesi, and V. Gig liotti ,

architects.

STRUCTURING OR ORDERING IMAGES

Of course, generatio n of space a nd form by the

use of geometrical pa tterns is not a new ap proach . In
the eighteen th century, K. 1. Dietze nhofer used a pat
te rn of in terlockin g ovals to develop his baroqu e
church plan . Frank Lloyd Wright u sed re ctilinear, tri
ang ul ar, a nd ci rcular gri d s as th e basis for house
design s. Mo re recen tly, Walt er N etsc h d esigned
buildi ngs based on two sq ua re grids rotat ed to a 45
deg ree relationship , and Portoghesi and Gigliott i have
developed ho uses wi t hin circ ular fie lds."

Peter Ca rl ma de an impor tant observat ion about the

pla n lib re de velop ed by LeCor bu sier, r ep resented

here by th e plan for the vi lla at Ca rt hag e : "Th e impo r

ta nce of this in ven tion is twofold: the us e of grid ded
and layer ed sp ace as a con tex tua l dev ice, and th e
nature of s u bseq uen t spa tial gestures on those
ter m s. " K This is the ba sis for another meth od of tr a ns
format io n of im ages, name ly, th e use of orde ring
devic es to cr eate an art ificial con text w ith in w hic h
new responses can be made.

130

Ex plora tion

Bl-noda/

- -JO Dt-J

r=uC?

DUIXI Axes

DO
000 ODD
"6 f li'l I S "
Figure 7-29 Basic ordering devices.

Poin ts and lines ca n be used in im age s for ord e r

ing fun ct io ns o r spaces, transfo rm ing the in fo rm a tio n
in to a new fo r m . Points p r ov ide a fo cu s for ra d ia l
co mposit io ns of a w ide va ri e ty. W h en two p oints are
p la ced in close p roxim ity, binod al con figura tio n s ca n
be deve loped , but as th e tw o p oin ts a re p ulled far the r
apart , a lin e is form ed , op en ing up a numbe r of a xia l
a rra ng ements. Axia l ord e rs incl ude d ua l a xes, majo r
wi th minor ax es , and p a ra llel axes. Line s can a lso be
used as "spi nes" for colle cting a nd o rga nizing a n um

ber of differe nt s paces. T h e se line s, referred t o as

datu ms, ca n be st ra ight o r curv ilin ear.
Above, the b a s ic o rd e rs of p o in t a n d li n e a r e
ex te n de d or combi ned to fo r m seve r a l ord e r ing
d ev ice s of varying d egre es o f comp lexity . T hey are
not incl ud ed as a kit of d evices so much as th ey a re
m ea nt to s uggest p ossible m a nipula tio n a lte rn a tives
by w h ich ea ch d esigne r m ay exp lore h is ow n tools.

S tructu ring or Ordering Images

13 1

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UO.1J DIOZdxg

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Matrix

T h e matrix provides still another way of applying

order to the transformat ion of images. The example
at right illustrates the basic application of a matrix.
Differen t concep ts of building placement on the site
are show n across the top, a nd differen t degrees of
ar ticu lation are indicated in th e vertical d irection . By
sh ow ing the combinations of th e two considerations,
a number of forms evolve. T he example below (from
a stud ent project) is a search for alternative configu
ra tio n s of an urb a n zo n e development. The basic
order s are shown in th e left vertical column and dif
fe rent combi na tion s of city bloc ks in the r igh t col
umn . Fr om these, different in terpretations are
formed .

Figure 7-31 Matrix diagram of building massing alternatives.

B ~

~EJ

-+

--+ --+

-+-

-t

D~

D~

8 -+-

~-

-+. 8

[j-: [l:

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fJ

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=
=

Figure 7-32 By Thomas P. Truax. Matrix of alternative groupings

of an urban complex.

Structuring or Ordering Images

133

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-

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Figure 7-33 By Alvar Aalt o.

A Pyramid of Possibilities
It is my hope that , as you begin to exp er iment w ith

some of the sk etch tech ni q ues in th is chap te r, the

loosening up an d fr eedom fro m rigid thin king will
op en up an exciting new persp ective about designing.
It ca n be a n energizing exp erien ce th at be comes
addictive . Relax and enjoy it!
Part of the p ote n tial of exploration derives from
th e fact that ide as breed id eas. As the graphic think
ing cycl e gets m oving with ease, the gr oup of ide as
ra pid ly expands in a very rough py rami dal p rogres
sio n. If only tw o new images are perceived for ea ch
one draw n, th e gr owth in id eas can be am azing , but
for many designer s this is a big "if." Th ey are afraid
of w a stin g tim e by fo llow ing their in stin cts or
indu lgin g in th e fa n ta sies of fr ee as so ciation.
Desi gn ers al so have d iff ic ulty in suspending judg

134

Exploration

m ent of ideas; they ce nsor th em be for e th ey ever get

them on paper, and so th ey never ge t a ch ance to
have a n ew look at th eir ideas, deta ched from them
sel ve s. Th e situation is com p ara bl e to an aspi rin g
son gw riter who never plays his m usic for other peo
pl e. In isola tion , he m ay be abl e to d ev elop it to a
point , but w ithout te sting it th rough the responses of
other people, he wi il be handicapped .
If w e look closely at th e no tes a nd sketch es of
so m e arch ite cts , th e rapid grow th of ideas be comes
obviou s. The gro wth is sporad ic and multidirectional.
Att ention shifts fro m th e scal e of a plan or site plan to
details of w indows or handrails. There ar e also shifts
in th e typ es of sketches. Som e architects rely hea vily
on plans as vehi cles for concept development ; others
work exclus ively in elevat ion s, w hile still othe rs are
most com fortable with perspective sketches .

?'"h~ '

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Figure 7-34 By Thomas Beeby.

In this short cha pt er, we have looke d at th e use of

exp loration in sketches as an aid to th e processes of
design in cubation and crea tivity, but we ha ve
to uched on on ly a po rti on of th e m a te ria l ava ila ble
th at conce rn s th e promot ion of creativity. For a Jist of
partic ularl y good sources on this su bject , check the
bi b liogra phy in t he ba ck of th e bo ok under
Creativity. In ad d ition to the case stud ies on the fol
lowi ng pages, a h elpfu l list of ma n ipula tive verb s
fr om D esign Yourself, by Kur t Ha n ks, Larry Belliston,
and Dave Ed wards," mi ght stim u late som e ide as of
your ow n :

Mu ltiply
Subdue
Transpose
Delay
Flatten
Su bm erge
Weigh
Flu ff-up
Subtract
Th icken
Relate
Protect
Symbolize

Divi de
Invert
Un ify
Distor t
Sq ueeze
Freeze
Destroy
Bypa ss
Lighten
Str etch
Extr ude
Segr egate
Abs tract

Eliminate

Separa te

Search

Rot ate

Compleme nt

Soften

Concentrate

Add

Repeat

Adap t

Repel

Integra te

Dissec t

St ructuring or Ordering Images

135

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Figure 7- 36

Structuring or Orde ring Im ages

137

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Figure 7- 38

Structu ring or O rde ring Images

139

Discovery

ost a rchitects recogn ize d iscovery or inve n

tion as a n impor ta nt foc us of their wor k. It
is th e sa tis fy ing p ayoff th a t beckons th e
creat ive m ind. The in tensity of con centra
tion in th in ki ng is ve ry excitin g. Look a t th e ske tch by
Davi d Sti eglitz on th e fa cing p age. It im m ed ia tely
shows us th e e ne rgy, the action , th e joy of dis co ve ry.
It also rev eals the s kill a n d con fid e n ce w it h wh ic h
the a rc h ite ct a ttac ks hi s proje ct.

Fi gure 8- 2

T he success o f di scov e r y in d e sign is gre a tl y

d ep e nd e nt on th e qu a lity a nd q u a n tity of the oth e r
typ es of grap h ic thin k in g. D iscover y can be com
par ed to pic king an d a rra nging a bouq ue t of flow er s,
w h ic h req u ir es a se nse of d es ign a nd pra cti ce.
Gra ph ic rep resenta tion , abst raction , exp lor a tion , ve r
ificati on , a nd s tim u la tio n are co mpa ra b le to th e
p repara tion of the ga rde n, the p la n ting an d ten d ing of
th e flow e rs, w ith ou t w h ich the re wo ul d b e no bo u

qu et. Di scovery b r in gs th e p ow e r of th e d iffe re nt

typ es of gra p h ic th in king to be a r on a p ro b lem a t a
mo me n t in time.
Before ge tt ing int o th e gr ap hics th a t exp res s d is
cove ry, I w ou ld like to digress for a m om en t a nd d is
cuss cr ea tiv ity in the profession of a rch itecture. The
fie ld of arc h itec ture is co mmon ly vi ew ed as be ing
crea tive, an d ce rta inly som e of the m ost cr ea tive ind i
v idua ls a re a rc hi tects. I believe tha t an a rch itectur al
ed uca tion is still one of the best cu rr icu lu ms for tr ain
ing c rea tiv ity, a lthough it is n ot a gua rant ee. He le n
Rowan 's rep or t on stud ies of creative peopl e id ent i
fies qua lities they all see m to sha re. Th es e incl ud e "a
ge n eral open n es s to exp eri en ce from bo th w itho u t
a nd w ithi n ; a to lera tion for am b iguity, conf usion a nd
d iso rd er ; th e stro ng d isposi tion to b e in d e p e n d e nt
ra the r tha n co n form in g; a nd th e te nd en cy to pe rceiv e
th roug h in tu itio n focu ses up on p oss ib ilities .. ." 1
Anyone who is or h as b ee n a n a rc hitecture stude n t
will recogn ize th ese q ualiti es; th ey pe rm ea te th e tr a
d it ion s of a rch itectural tra in ing from th e w id e va ri
e ty of p ro j ect typ es to cr itics a nd juri es, to s trong
con flic ts of op inio n, to h aving to d efen d one 's ideas,
to b e in g as ked to go furt he r tha n ju st sol v in g the
p ro ble m .
Still, th er e is a q uestion in p ract ice abou t th e ov er
a ll im pact of crea tivity o n th e des ign p rocess. Ou t of
expe d ie nc y or lac k of s u p p or t fro m cl ients or col
leag ues, w e may n eglec t th e de velop men t of our cre
a tive ab ilities. We can and shou ld foste r cr ea tiv ity in
a rchi tecture for our ow n sa ke as w ell as that of th e
p rofession . As Helen Rowan p u t it, n the exper ie nce
of th is ce nt ur y sugge sts th a t th e q uali ty of ind iv id ual
life, a nd pe rh aps t he surv iv al o f h um an life as a
w h ole, d epe nd s on th e a b ility a nd d isposit io n of
h u ma n be in gs to th in k or igina l thought s, to resh uffl e
fam iliar fa cts in to new pa tt e rn s of mea ning , to pe r
cei ve reality be hind illu sion , a nd to e ngage in da ring
leaps of the im agina tion. ":'

141

/'

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II.

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Figure 8-3 Leverage.

\1TfITriiffiiJi
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Figure 8-4 Fastening.

THE DISCOVERY PROCESS

For the ar chit ect or th e designer, the process of d is
covery consists of tw o parts: inv en tion an d concept for
mation. Invent ion seeks the basic discovery, th e origi
nal idea for th e project ; concep t form at ion co nverts
the discovery int o a graphic and ve rbal sta teme n t that
can give ba sic direction to the full development of the
project.

Invention
David Pye w rote tha t invention "can only be done
deliberatel y, if the inven tor can di scern simi larities
be tween the par ticu lar result which he is en visaging
an d some other actual result wh ich he has seen and
stored in his m emory.... An in ven tor 's power to
in vent de pends on his abi lity to see ana lo gie s
between resu lts and, secondarily, on h is abi lity to see
th em betwe en devices. " 3 The ana logies ar e easily rec
\ognized in our everyday inv ent ions. If we lack a ham
'fIler to drive te nt stakes in to the ground , we gain an
Insight
to th e solution by seeing a tent pole se ction or
\
a ro ck at arm 's length an alogous to a hammer. Burrs
caught in she ep wo ol were the inspiration for Velcro
fasten ers, and the cooling effect of th e evap oration of
perspiration from our skin is the basis of the idea of
using semiporous containers to keep water cool.

14 2

Disc overy

Figure 8- 5 Evap oratio n.

1
- 0

Again , using th e exam ple of the re crea tio na l

ho use, we can sketch out a ba sic approach to inven
tion in architect ur e. Th e starting poin t is the abstrac t
diagram of the program for the house. This leads to a
choice of one im age of a hou se, nam ely a conta iner
th a t ho lds peop le. Alm os t si m u lta neou s with t he
house image w e have a n ana logo u s im age , th e
pi tche r, as a container of liqu ids. In th e fourth sket ch ,
the ideagra m , the house program , and the image of
the pitcher ar e com bined to form a specific d iscovery
of how the re cr ea tional house m ight take sh ap e. In
this exa mple, the ho use is also see n as a conta iner of
energy, adm itting so lar en er gy th rough a hole in the
top simi lar to the hole in the top of the pitcher. The
concep t for the house co uld be form ed fr om thi s idea
gram or the a na logy could be extended f urt he r
throug h observations suc h as : the on ly entry in to the
pit ch er is thr ough the top, so perhap s the m ajor ent ry
into the ho use could be via a stair drop ping in to th e
cent ra l court. Because the p itcher is su pported as a
canti lever fr om its ha nd le when p icke d up , m ay be
th e house cou ld also be can tilevered fr om support s
on one side.

Figure 8-6 Analogy bet ween a house and a pit cher of water.

Pursuing an ot he r an a logy, house as ca mp si te,

might lead to the image s of camp fire , h ear th , an d
gatheri ng in a circle. Each of these im ages ca n be the
insp ira tion for an alternat ive concept for the ho us e
for m .
The D iscovery Process

14 3

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Analogies
In hi s bo ok Sy nectics: Th e Developm en t of Crea tive
Capacity, W illiam G ordo n described fo ur typ es of
analogy: sym bolic, dir ec t, personal, and fantasy.
The examp le of th e p itcher and the hou se as con
ta iners is a sym bolic analogy, a com parison between
general q ualit ies of the two objects. O ther sy m bo lic
an a logies m igh t be m ad e be tw een the sp read of a
han d and the extensions of a house or betwe en foot
prints and ca nopied pavi lions, w h ich loosely cons ti
tut e th e house. O ne of th e m ost pr om in ent examples
is the ana logy between the Latin cross an d the p lan s
of ma ny Got hic ch ur ches.
D ire ct analogy com pa res pa rallel facts or opera
tions . In the examples opp osite, the house is des igned
to have th e sam e co o ling chara cte ri stics as a tre e:
shade, eva pora tion , and air mo vem ent. And the roof
suppo rts for Nervi's ex hibition hall em ulate a hand
balan cing a tray.

C.V07 -:;'

Figure 8-7 Symbolic analogies.

144

D iscovery

In a personal an alogy, far right, the designer ide n

tifies h ims elf d irectly w ith the elem ents of th e prob
lem . Assum ing that th e p rim e consideration for this
house is wa rmt h and comfo rt on wi nter days w itho ut
large uses of no nr enew ab le energy sources, the
desig ner m igh t im agine h im self to be the house. To
ma ke h imself comf or table, he m ight lie clos e to the
gro und be low th e rid ge so th e cold w ind ca n pa ss
over his head. This can be trans lated in to a low -pro
file hou se below th e ridge w ith trays of space covered
by sloped glass skyl igh ts to ad m it th e war m rays of
the sun . W hen w e w ant to be hea rd at a d istance, w e
cup ou r hands to our mouth . The exte rior chape l at
LeCor b us ier 's pi lgrimage ch urch at Ron cha m p
adop ts sim ila r cuppe d sh apes to proje ct the p riest' s
voice toward the con gregat ion .

(a)

(b)

Figure 8-8a, b Direct analogies.

(b)

Figu re 8-ga, b Personal analogies.

The D iscovery Process

145

(a)

reV\

The fourth type , fantasy a nalogy, uses a descrip

tion of an ideal condition desired as a source fo r
ideas. In the case of our recreational hous e, the
designer might fantasi ze about a house that op ens
itself up when the client arrives on the weekend and
automatically closes up when the cli e nt leaves. It
could be compared to a tul ip that opens an d closes
with the action of sunlight, an automatic garage door,
or a puppet that com es aliv e wh en you pick up the
strings. The de cks and the roofs over the de ck s could
be like the leaves of the tulip . But how do they op en
and close? A motor is a noth er en ergy cons um er ; is
there another way? How can the puppet strings help?
The fin al solution uses ropes and pulleys to raise an d
lower the flaps. The sy stem is balanced so that the
weight of a person on the de cks can pull up the roofs ,
and the dropping of the roofs cou ld pull th e de cks
back up . The de ck s and roofs would be held in both
open and clo sed positions by spring lat ches.

CLoSed

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Figure 8-l0a, b Fantasy analogies.

14 6

D iscovery

61Yvdura.\

ORG-AN\C

ANALOGIES

C ULTURAL

ANAlO G-IE6

Figure 8-11 Eight different types of analogy based on a hierarchy of syste ms.

Sources of Analogy
Th e possibl e mode ls fro m wh ic h to d raw ana log ies
can be classified by categories as p hysical, org an ic, or
cu ltu ral, and th e su bc a tegories include:
1. Structural- Referring to shape or rela tionship .

2. Mechanical- T he way something operates.

3. Control-Maintain ing a cond ition .
4 . Plant- Goal orientation and di ffer en tiat ion.

5. A nimal- Behavior.
6. Ma n- Imagination and choice .
7 . Society-Inter action , comp etition , organization .
8 . Symbolic-Conventions, references , suggesti on .

Of ten architects or design ers lim it their th in k ing

to stru ctural or me ch anical ana logies . The sa mp les of
the ran ge of an alogy types, show n above, should sug
gest som e altern atives.

Increasing Effectiveness
We have a ll exp er ie nced times w he n our m ind s
ap p eare d fr oze n with a single thou ght that doe sn't
seem goo d eno ug h or is una ble to solve a cr itica l
problem . A few spe cific app roach es that might help
thinking get moving again ar e shown on th e follow
ing pages.

The Discovery Process

147

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Figure 8-12 Examples of eolit hic design.

Eo lith ic Design Some times designe rs suc cumb to

what Rober t McK im ca lls "func tional fixedness," the
"te ndenc y to sort objects into in de libly labeled con
tai ner s."" As a resu lt , th ey a re unab le to see their
pr ob lem in any other ligh t; kit ch ens or bed room s, for
example, are seen as having a single use. One cu re for
th is di fficulty is eolithic, or found-object d esign ; the
norma l use of an object is d isregar d ed in fav or of a
new use. Examples incl ude barr els of water used for
heat stora ge, trees used as scul pt ur e insid e a house,
do ors used as cou n ters. The co un te r a nd storage
set up of the ki tch en could be used as a mo de l for a
stud io or othe r workspace, an d the bed room mi ght be
converted int o a d ining or loungin g space. The fou nd
obj ect ap proach can also be used w ith id eagram s; the
b inoda l or gan iza tio n of a typi ca l sh op p ing cen ter
mi gh t be used in a hou se to genera te more m ovem en t
and in teraction .
Escape Sometimes j ust getting away from the
probl em is enoug h to loosen the m ind and open fresh
view s of t he projec t. Escape can ta ke the form of
d iver sion s suc h as en ter tai n men t, sp or ts, or games ; it
can also be simply rest ' and relaxation , or "sleeping"
on the problem .
Random Thoughts Even when not actua lly wo rk
ing on a problem, our subconscious minds are often
still try ing to solve the problem . Then sudden ly we
get an idea or an answer to the design pr ob lem. Some
design ers have these insights just as th ey are going to
sleep or upon wak ing. It is im port a n t to wr ite or
sketch the se id eas before th ey are lost. For this rea
son , many architects carry small notebooks with
th em or keep paper and pe n han dy near their bed s or
othe r places of relaxation .
Sense Awareness Work ing in a predo m inan tly
vi su a l m ed iu m ca n sometim es lead to igno ring t he
othe r senses and may cu t a designer off from a large
n u m ber of sources for analogies. If we thi nk o f a
house as bei ng soft as a p illow in a box, it m igh t lead
to the use of curvi linear par ti tio ns . Comparing a
hou se to a m us ica l in strument co uld resu lt in a me ta l
roof to catch the sound of th e ra in or some w ay to
am p lify th e so u nd of a breeze.

148

Discovery

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box

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Avvtf lttiWttlOYl

Figure 8-13 Con cepts based on senses ot her than vision.

If th is d iscuss ion of th e use of ana logie s seems too

simplistic, rem em ber the gr eat architects of this cen
tury. Wrig h t, LeCorb u sier, a nd Aa lt o used simp le
a nal ogies as a sou rce for many of their in ven tion s:
Geoffrey Broa dben t co m m en ts :
M ost architect s-a nd ar tists- are ex tremely reluctan t
to adm it th e sources of their analogies. They think
that su ch adm issions would some how dim inish one 's
respect for their crea tivity; bu t far from it-they will
merely confirm that they ha ve brains and me n tal
processes, which every oth er huma n being possesses .
O ur respect {or them , in fact , m ight increase if they
adm itted tha t, given the same me ntal processes, they
are ab le to mak e bett er use o] them. " 5

Broa dbent goes on to des cribe a n um be r of analo

gies that LeCorbusier used in h is work, an d ob serves
that he spe n t
.. ,a lifetim e bu ilding up a store of analogies (his
years of sk etching being pa rticularly fru itful). T he
ana logies had become fundame nta l to his experience,
a bsorbed, compared, contrasted, com bine d, overlaid
by la ter exper ience, and cha nged by new percep tions;
but they were th ere to be called on, an d faced with a
difficu lt design problem, LeC orbusier could draw on
them . We too have our stores of an alogies, no t per
haps as rich as Letlorb usier's, but valuable neve rthe
less, because they are personal. Yet we fail to draw
on them . It never occurs to us; they do not seem rele
van t and ins tead of tha t, we content ours elves by
draw ing analogies with ot her people 's work . "6

Concept Formation
Th e basic concept, some t im~s referred to as the patti,
is an enduri ng mechanism used by architectural
design ers to es tablish th e fundamenta l organization
of a building and guide the enti re p rocess of design
d ev elopment. T h e parti, at its best, p rovid es:
1. T h e first synthesis of the designer 's re sponse to
th e determinant s of for m (p rogram, obj ectives,
context, site, economy, e tc.).

2 . A bounda ry arou nd the set of decisions tha t will

be the focus of th e d esign er 's responsibility.
3. A m ap for fut ure de sign activities in the form of a
h ierar chy of valu es and responding forms.
4 . An image tha t arouses expectations and provides
mo tivat ion for all persons in volve d in the design
p r oces s. This is often done through the use of
a bs tr act ions. ("My buildi n g is a sp in e " or "O ur
building bridges this gap .")
The typica l parti sketch, lik e the one on th e left by
a fifth-year th esis st udent , shows both the d et er m i
na n ts and t h e b asic resolution of the form . In this
exa m p le , the sk e tc h of a floa ting resea rch sta tion in
the Atl a n tic O ce a n ill us tra tes the ve rtical pontoons
secured by ca bles, supp orting a mu lt ilevel pl atform.
T h e b asic in te rac tion w ith w a ter, wind , and s un is
also ind ica ted .

Figure 8-14 By Mark Sowatsky. Parti sket ch. Atlantis 2.

The Ideagram
T h e sket ches t ha t have alread y b ee n described as
flowing from an alogies, kn own as ideogram s, ar e the
starting p oin t for concept forma tion. Ideagrams are
extensions of an alysis d iagrams that can be used as:

1. An aid to investigat ion a nd sy nt hesis in the d es ign

process.
2 . A fra m ew or k in the de sign thin kin g process that
lead s to the fin al de sign product.
3. A lite ral m odel of the fina l p roduc t. In architec
tur e th is is referred to as conce p tual clarity in th e
build in g.
4 . An exp la nation of a design con cept after the build
ing d esign has been completed .
To show some of the p oten tials of the id eagram
for d ev elop in g design concepts, I hav e drawn three
st ages of ev olu tion of a n ideagra m in th e fir st column
to the right. For ea ch stage, th ere is a sch ematic
de sign for a b u ild in g in th e n ex t column. Shown in
Ideagram 1 an d Design 1 is a literal tr an slation of the
ideagra m in to a bu ilding for m . T h is approach has a
clear and fo rcefu l impact on the us er ; the effect is
sim p le an d dramati c. In Ideagra m 3 and Des ign 3, a
build in g form is be in g de rive d from a mo re complex
ideagra m . The resulting b u ild in g m ay la ck the sim
p licity or in itial im pact of the first build in g , but in
tu rn it may offer a greater va riet y of exp er iences.

Figure 8-15 (left) Three levels of development of an ideagram.

Figure 8-16 (right) Corresponding schematic plans for the
ideagrams.

Th e Discovery Process

149

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Figure 8-17a Willitts House 1902, Wright archite ct.

Prototypes
As with oth er des ign ski lls, concept formation need
not be a mysteriou s process developed solely thro ugh
trial and erro r. There is a lot to be learn ed from archi
tects who are hig hly skilled at molding conc epts, and
here again ske tches can be an im porta nt aid . On the
next pages ar e exa m p les of a nalytica l sk etches and
ab stract con cept-getti ng tec hniqu es fro m the w ork of
several architects.
The first exam p le s are fro m th e wor k of Fran k
Lloyd Wrigh t. In the hou ses know n as the Prairi e
Style, h e us ed a bas ic p lan of in terl ock ing spa ces
domi nated by a cent ra l hear th with an elab orate,
indirect ro ute of entry. Alth ough the basic organ iza
ti on al pa rti rem ai n ed constan t , Wrigh t 's carefu l
response to th e un iqu e constraints of each site pro
duced a w ide variety of building form s. As designers
of houses, w e can try to us e Wright' s basic parti or
de velop our ow n prototyp e p lan and m anipu late it in
res ponse to specific sit e con ditions.

~?ad ?\"+l
Figure 8-17b Che ney Ho use 1904, Wright architect .

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Figure 8-l7c Hardy House 1905, Wright archite ct.

150

D iscovery

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Figure 8-18a Prototype concepts developed by Alvar Aalto.

In th e course of his ca reer , Alva r Aa lto de velop ed

a n um be r of archetypes for build ings noted for their
incorporat ion of multiple gr ids or geometries. Som e
of the se arche types are show n here in abs tra ct form .
The ti tles are on e way of sim plifying and rem em ber
ing th e di fferent partis. You can use your ow n m ethod
of categor ization , but it does seem help ful to be abl e
to attach a one- or tw o-w ord label. Many of Aalt o's
concepts seem to be d erived from th e accep tance of
tw o contrastin g con texts w ithi n one bu ilding , as in
th e comb ina tion of urb an a nd ru ra l se tt ings in the
town center at Sayn at salo.
One of these archetypes could provide a starting
point for th e design of the recreat ional house, or w e
could follow Aalto's approach to developing partis by
look ing for th e doub le co ntex t in our p rojec t a nd
evo lving our own multiple geom etries. Beyond this, a
n um ber of oth er va riations shoul d show up as more
sket ches are generat ed.

Figure 8-18b Some applications of the prototypes.

The D iscovery Process

151

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Fi gure 8-19a Four house concepts by LeCorbusier.

I.

: II

r.

LeC or busier w as p robably the m ost p rod u ctive

archite ctura l inven tor of th e tw en tieth cen tury. His
inv en tions ha ve filled many books , which I re com
m end yo u read . Rough ly be twee n 1922 a nd 1932 ,
LeCor busier design ed four ho uses, each based on a
different concept of a bui ld ing. T he se w ere Ma ison
La Roche (add itive ), Villa Savoye (su btractiv e), Villa
at Gar ches (clos ed cu be ), an d th e Villa at Carthag e
(op en skeleton ). Wh en LeCor busie r illustra ted and
wrote about thes e fo ur app roaches to a building, he
had built houses as examples. Bu t this way of gene r
ating a buildin g parti exte nds beyond ho using in its
potential utility.

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Also shown opposite are app licat ions of these par

tis to our sa m p le h ouse so you ca n see how to
in cr ease the n umber of conc epts form ed with in th e
lim its of a single projec t.

o
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Figure 8-19b Ap plications of t he concepts.

152

D iscovery

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Figure 8-19c Applications of the concept s.

The D iscovery Process

153

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Figure 8-20 Mat rix of 24 alte rnative house organizations based

on concepts developed by Moore, Allen, and Lyndon

In th eir bo ok T he Place of H ouses, Charles Moore,

Do n lyn Lyndo n, a nd Ge ral d Allen explai n six d iffer
ent wa ys to orga n ize room s in a ho use and fou r d if
fer e nt w ays to incorpora te m achi n es (by w hi ch they
m ean w et an d se rv ice cores ) int o houses. In th e cha rt
a bov e, I have constructed a matr ix rela ting th eir tw o
lists of a lte rna tives to p rod uce 24 al terna tive p rot o

154

D iscovery

typ es. Th ere are a n um ber of other lists that ca tego

rize ways of orga n izing bu ild ings; these co u ld a lso be
p la ced in a m a trix to ge nera te ad d ition al alt erna tives .
On the facing page, some of th e p rototyp es are devel
op ed in to co n cep ts for a house on our site , w ith in the
constrain ts of th e specific bu ildi ng progra m .

Fi gure 8-21a Three organizations of t he recreational house derived from t he matrix.

Fi gure 8-21b Spatial implications of one of the house

organizations.

Th e Dis covery Process

155

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Fi gure 8- 22

Pattern Language
For several years, a group at th e University of
Califo rn ia/Berkeley, headed by Christopher Alexander,
has been wo rking w ith a m et hod of generating build
ing des igns, called patte rn lan guage. Basically, it is an
approach that const r ucts con cep ts for a building by
com bining pr ototypes for sm aller pa rts of th e bu ilding.
The work ing tool is a hierarchy of prototypes: areas
th at com bine to make roo ms, that combine to make
build ing s, that com bine. to m a ke co mm u ni ties, th at
combine to mak e urban complexes, an d so on. Pattern
language appears to be less a prescription for the per
fectly designed environment th an a convenient format
for form ulating design conc epts. Any designer is free
to supply his own prototyp es, alth ough there is cer
tainly m erit in sharing wo rkab le prototypes.
Application of the pattern lan gu age approach, on
th e simp lest leve l, to our ho use proje ct mi ght take the
follow ing form :
1. Based on past experience, we wou ld start w ith an

array of p rototyp es for di ffe re n t spaces fr om

w h ic h w ould be se le cte d th ose th a t seem m ost
app ro pria te for th is proj ect . The prototype d ia
grams are q uite sim p le, with short verbal identifi
cations fo r ea se of ident ification an d m an ipula
tion .
2. The diagr am s ar e combin ed into a p att ern that
re prese n ts a sum m a ry of th e building ele me nts
and show s an over all idea of th e building.

1 56

D iscovery

3. The patte rn is now manipulated to respond to the

sp eci fic site con text a nd specia l n eeds of the
client.
At a m ore sop histica ted level of app lication, ~: 3
ill us t ra ted on th e fac ing p age , sp ace p roto ty pes or
pa tt erns are more speci fic and ori ented toward three
dim ens ion al experience. Th e chara cter of th e space
be comes a foc al po in t for the ide n tity of the pr oto
typ e. Represe ntation al skills, di scu ssed in Chapter 3,
ar e obviously a he lp here.
I ha ve fo un d tw o useful ways of coll ectin g pa t
terns an d us ing th em in design :
Th e B uilding Type N otebook- An idea for a sp ace is
illu stra ted on an S'/z-by- l l she et of pape r. Th ese
sheets are kept in a thr ee-rin g binder and us ed as
a referen ce book for future projects.
A nalysis Ca rds- Patt ern s ar e recor ded on sm all ca rds
sim ilar to the on es described in Chapter 4 . Thes e
can be filed by su bject , re ady to be pulled ou t for
a sp ec ific design task.

Wh ether using cards or standard-size sheets, it is

hel pful to have a com m on format. Th e basic informa
tion include s a simple statem en t of the programmati c
n eed and context ("dining sp ac e in a tow nho use
ap artm ent "); a concise verba l an d graphic stateme nt
of a p rot o typ ical resp on se to t he ne ed ; a mo re
det ailed de scription of the prototype or di scussion of
the pa ttern th at is re corde d on th e back of th e ca rd or
sheet.

, -- - - - -

Plnl"3 ~
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Fi gure 8- 23

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H'\

Icrf; ~ Cl""h-fbd

~St2 e>-P exp:wc\ ~ "'S~.

Whe n the desig ner is formu lat ing concepts for the
bu ildi ng design , he sp reads the collec tion of releva nt
cards or sh eet s on a table or wa ll. Patterns or mini
concep ts are then grouped as possible combina tions
an d observed, but the designer m ust go beyond a sim
pl y add itive pr ocess, In describing "pa ttern lan
guag e, " Ch ris top her Alexa nder exp lain ed that "It is
possi ble to put pattern s togeth er in such a w ay that
man y, many pa tte rn s ov erlap in the sam e physical
space : the buildi ng is ve ry dense ; it has many me an
ings captured in a small space; an d through this den
sity, it becomes pr ofo und . "7 To ac hi eve this sort of
synthesis, or "compression ," of pa tt erns, the graphic
think ing process can be applied, using cards or a clip
boa rd to turn ove r ideas as one scans th e disp lay of
patterns.

The D iscovery Process

157

'1 2-8 a Jn 6 ~:J

Figure 8-2 6

CASESTUDIES
Examples of id eagram s develo ped in to conc ept s for
the rec reationa l house ca se s tud y ar e shown her e.
Th e ideagrams, as you w ill re cognize, are taken from
th e ana lyses of need , context, and for m in Cha pter 6
(a na lysis), fr om Ch ap te r 7 (expl ora tio n ), and fr om

this ch ap ter. In for ming the concep ts, ideas derived

fr om on e source are reworked to respond to othe r
conc erns. Prototypes, for examp le, are adju ste d to fit
th e site, or site-generat ed ideas ar e made to resp ond
to th e buil d ing p rogram. Variations on th is ap proach
ar e illustrated in ad di tion al ca se stu d ies on t he fol
low ing pages.

Case Studies

15 9

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Fi gure 8-29 By Leonardo da Vinci . Studies of a tempo raty structure for festivals.

The grap hic t hinking sketches th at archi tects ha ve

use d pro vide evid ence of the appl ication of ana logy
in th eir design process. Often th ese sketc hes are ve ry
small in order to pursue ma ny di fferen t ana logies on
th e same piece of pa per. Th is permi ts the designer to
work loosely and entertai n all sor ts of ideas; orig inal
trains of thought a re re corded and ca n be returned to
at wil l. Combining im ages derived from sketc he s can
also generate fur th er var iation s.

Figure 8-30 By LeCorbusier. Images for the Philips' Ele ct ronic

Poem.

Case Studies

161

9 Verification

it h in t he rea lm of a rc hi te ctura l d esign ,

verification re fers to t h e us e fu ln es s o f a
d esign conce p t for a spe cific p rob le m. T h e
u ltim a te m ea ns of veri fying the u tili ty of a
b u ild in g d e sign is a fir sth a n d ev al u a tion afte r th e
b u ild in g h as been con st r u c ted a n d occupied .
How ev er, p ostoccu pa ncy evalu a tion w oul d be of n o
h elp to th e many d eci sion s m ad e in th e pro cess o f
design ing an d b u ild ing . T herefore, a rc hitec ts us ua lly
go thr ough a sor t of p rever ifica tion p roce ss. W it h in
th is con tex t of pret estin g design con cep ts, th e u tilit y
of the ve r ifica tio n m od e of grap h ic th in king lies in
moving from a bstract im ages to the more com p le te,
concre te im ages of th e design concept.

tha t rep rese n ts a d esira b le perfor ma nce.

Evalua tions of the alte rn a tives a re then com pared.
3. Consolidation- T he eva lua tio n p rocess usu a lly
ge n e ra tes a great a mou n t of us ef u l in for ma tion in
ad d itio n to th e de cis io n a b out alt ern at ives. Th e
p urpose of consolid a tion is to try to inco rpora te as
m any good ideas as possi b le in to th e ch osen
sc he m e.
4. Elaboration-Hav in g mad e a d es ign decision a t a
n ew lev e l of d e ta il, t h e im ages n ow sh ow th e
designer a w h ole n ew se t of con cerns fro m wh ich
h e m ust form new d es ign co nce pts. At th is p oin t,
th e recycl in g process is read y to sta rt again w ith
art icul ati on of the new co n cep ts.

Verifica tion can be describ ed as a cycl ical process

p rodu cing im ages th at are in creasin gly spec ific or
con cr et e. For exa m p le , the im age of a she lte ring roo f
is con ver ted in to a low, long-spa n hi p roof , la te r h av
ing exp ose d w ood trusses, an d then to a spe cific color
w ith wood sh ingles. The oth e r p rog ress io n of im ages
is from la rge r to sma ller pa rts of a bu ild ing. O ne o f
the keys to q uality d esign is th e a m oun t of a tte n tion
given to th e relati ons hip of p a rt s, from th e b u ildi ng as
. a w ho le to th e most de ta iled leve l. Elie l an d Ee ro
Saar ine n w e re said to beli ev e tha t the su ccess of a ny
pa rt of a b u ild ing d esign lay in th e stu dy of t he next
sma lle r a nd next la rge r b uil d ing elemen ts ; design of a
good ro om requ ired the study of the fu rniture and of
the bui lding as a w hol e.

Th rougho u t the ver ificat ion process, th e ch oice of

im ages m ust be deli be rat e if th e design er is to ma in
tain cont rol ov e r d es ign d ev e lop m e n t. Simp ly p u t,
you can 't j u d ge th e p e r fo r ma n ce of somet hi ng yo u
ca n' t see. As Kirby Lock a rd pu t it, "If the co ncept is
to p rov id e a ny p art ic u la r ki nd of spa tial or kin es
th eti c experie nce , th e n th e re p rese n ta tive draw in gs
mu s t b e eye -leve l p e rsp ec tives. Co n ce p ts th at are
ba sed o n som e d esired rel a tion sh ip to the p hys ica l
con tex t m us t be re p rese n ted in pe rsp ectives of that
co n text if th eir success or fai lure is to be evaluated .
Conc epts that are base d on pa rticu lar rela tionships to
th e hu m an figur e m igh t be be s t represe nt ed in sec
tions th a t sh ow th ose rel at ion sh ips. Any design solu
tion is best stud ied a nd evalua ted with those draw
in gs w h ic h b es t s h ow th e su cc ess or fa ilure of its
con ce pt ual bas is. " I An d , the refo re, it is n ecessar y for
th e d esigne r to have a w id e ra nge of sketch ing sk ills ,
from abst ra ct to con crete , from loose to m eticu lous,
a nd to understa n d th e spec ial pot enti al s of the d iffe r
e n t im ages those ski lls pr od uce .

T he m od el I use to exp lain th e cycl ica l process of

ve r ifica tion is s how n on th e facing page. T h ere a re
four bas ic stages:

1. Articulation-The d es ign im age is exte n d ed

th roug h represe ntatio na l ske tc hes of alte rna tiv e
express ions of the concep t.
2 . Evaluation-The altern ati ve ex pressions of th e
design con cept a re test ed again st a se t of cr ite ria

16 3

far+tO
Figure 9-3a Three alternative expressions of the perspective.

4;-- Vltl.{}?

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1.:

Figure 9-3b Three alternat ive expressions of t he plan.

I

~nd

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Fig ure 9-2 A parti and three different forms of its articulation.

164

2M 1100\'"

Verification

Fi gure 9-3c Th ree alternative expressions of the section.

ARTICU LATION
To get a feel for the range of im ages that a re used to
a r ti culat e a con ce p t , the three sket ches sh ow n in
Figure 9-2 ad d ress some fea ture of the design co n
cept. Th e qualiti es or ch a rac teristics illus tra ted a re
noted for eac h ske tc h . In Figur es 9-3a, b, and c, th ree
alt ern ative exp re ss ion s a re develope d for ea ch
ske tc h .

A number of other im p licatio ns of th e design con

cept are arti culated in Figur e 9-4. The y include such
concerns as m assin g, scale, imagery, color, constru c
tion , flexi b ility, m ainten a nce, te rritor iality, and co m
for t. Alth ough th e experie nced d esign er may n ot
need to look at a ll of these co nce rn s w ith in a given
projec t, creat ive arc h itects ofte n use a sp ecific p rojec t
context to reexa mine accepted de sign norms.

Articulation

165

-"

III_

Need

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Figure 9-5a

Figure 9-5c

Figure 9-5b

-.J

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Figure 9-5d

Figure 9-5e

EVALUATION

re cogni zed by the w eighti ng of the cr iteria .

Differe nces in va lue s still have to be ne gotiated , but
th e de sign er can at least illu stra te the relationshi p
betw een va lu es a nd the eva luation of a specific
de sign .

The definition of evaluation , p lacing a value on som e

th ing, im plie s that th e re exists a set of va lu es to
w hi ch the eva lu a tor refe rs. W h en evaluat ing a
de sign , we use design cr iteria to represe nt these val
ue s. Th e first con cern of des ign cr iteria s hould be
comp re hensive, cove ring a ll as p ects of th e design
pro blem . For conven ienc e, I have us ed as a m odel the
hou se design problem described earlier. Criteria are
de lib erat ely developed under ea ch of the three ca te
gorie s of need, co ntext , and form , and a chart, su ch
as the one in Figure 9-6, is co nstruct ed to assure that
we look at the de sign co nc ep t from every angle.
The second conc ern of design criteria is how and
w hose values th ey re presen t. W he n desig ning a
build ing, de cisions are usuall y made on the basis of
comp e ting sets of va lue s h eld by the client, th e
desi gn er , the in tended user, and even society (in the
form of custom s or reg u lations). In addition to sh ow
in g a n arr ay of cr iteria, a balan ce of va lu es ca n be

The third concern of design criteria re lat es to the

d ifferences in the way w e look at des ign ideas. Som e
ar chitec ts ca n be said to be m ore con ceptua lly or i
ented ; that is, the ir evaluati on is heavi ly influen ced
by su ch thi ngs as organization , consistency, and hier
ar chy as they ar e reflected in plans and axonomet rics.
Percep tually oriented ar chitects are m ore in terested
in the d ire ct exp er ience of a person ou tside or in side
the buil d ing. In m y opinion , both concepti on and per
ception are imp ortant to the exp erien ce of a building
and, th erefor e, im porta nt to the eva luation of design
co ncepts. Th e de signer m ust be aw are of these two
orien tat ions of de sign and try to ta ke a ba la nced
ap proac h to eva luat ion .

Evalua tion

167

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ACCiWlO detfWh "p~lLb~ S

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(a)

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Figure 9-7a Evaluation of th ree perspective alternatives.

Figu re 9-7b Evaluation of t hree plan alternatives.

Fig ure 9-7c Evaluation of t hree section alternatives.

Figure 9-6 Eva luation mat rix.

16 8

Verification

i~S

~""",---'-+"-~; ~f

:',r\\

~.,....,.......,.,-,""......,,..,. ' \

A chart, such as the on e opp osite, is used to com

pare evaluations pf the al te rna tive s (see the followi ng
pag e) . It lists d esign ev a lua tion crite r ia und er th e
headings of need , cont ext , and for m . For ea ch head
in g, the criteria are listed in or d er of im p or ta nce,
starting from th e left, therefore ac cou n tin g for prio ri
ties. Alte rnatives I , 2, and 3 are rated as p rovidi ng a
superior or average re spo nse to ea ch cri terion; blan k
ar eas in d icate no specific response. This chart allows
an over all view of the success of each alternative.

Mak ing notes d uring the processes of eva luat ing

and comparing th e a lternatives is usefu l to furt her
und erstan d th e st ren gt hs a nd wea k nesses of these
al ternatives. In th is m ann er, th e d esign er ca n often
id entify th e best ideas and expa nd on them with the
inform ation d iscovered thro ugh the d isplay.

Evaluation

169

Cost Benefit
O the r exa mp les of grap h ic im a ge s us ed to as sis t
eval uation appear on these two pages. The dia gra m
sh own to the r ight is a n ex tension of analysis te ch
n iq ue s de ve lope d by the a r ch ite ctu ra l firm of
Ca udi ll Row lett Scott ." T he relati ve size of building
areas and their approxim a te co sts are shown s ide by
sid e , p rov id in g a n ov e rv iew of th e rel ati on ship
be tw e en p rogram n eed s and co s ts useful to bo th
cli ent and design er.

C~

. 11

Aof(17o,

ill ~

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Figure 9-8 Di splay of cost -benefit analysis.

~~.
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Figure 9-9 The perspective as an evaluation
tool.

./

Figure 9-10 Concept ual sket ches as evaluation too ls.

Drawing Evaluation
Persp ect ives are so co m mo nly used as sellin g to ols
th at an exam ination of the p ersp ective ab ove might
help to emphasize its pote n tial as an evaluation tool.
Here, the perspect ive is fir st rend ered w itho u t co n
scious att en tion to the design of spa ce. The d raw ing is
now exa m in ed for cl u es to s hor tcom ings. Th is

1 70

Verificati on

app roach is also appl ica ble to finishe d d raw in gs by

p ro fessiona l rend erers or even p ictures of bu ild ings
by professional ph otograp hers. Concep tual dr aw ings
can also be evaluated by red ucin g th em to ide agram s
that poin t up th e clarity or consisten cy of th e design
con cep t.

CONSOLIDATION
As the evalu ation of alte rn atives helps us decide on
the be st rou te, a range of good ideas an: un cover ed ,
w hich the d es ign er t hen a tt em p ts to in corporate in
his final scheme. Ma n y com bina tions ar e s ketched as
the design is pull ed together, and even at the stage of
the comp let ed d es ign , so m e refin em en ts a re st ill
in corporated . The d es ign er se eks consist enc y in a ll
par ts of th e d esi gn . The end re sul t is sketches that ar e
m ore spec ific as to d im ensio n , sha pe , an d position .

r-----II)!

Figure 9-11 Selecting useful ideas and combining them.

Consolidation

171

~~? rMill
I

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Figure 9-13 Identifying parts for further developemt.

ElABORATION
W ith the basic d esign d ecisions made an d cla rified,
pr eparation is under way for the next cycles of ver ifi
cat ion . Dec isions at one level of des ign op en up ma ny
p r oblems at ot her level s. For exam p le , fix ing th e
de sign of a room ma kes it pos sible to study w indows,
floo ri ng , m ech ani cal sys te m s, sto rage un it s, and a
num ber of sp ecial it ems such as fir ep lace or so la r
iu m . Conce p ts fo r each of the parts are devel op ed
wi th in the context of th e design of the w ho le ro om .
Bu t ea ch concep t in tu rn can be verified by repe at ing
th e me thods de scribed earl ier in thi s chapter.

Figure 9-14 Developing det ails.

Elaboration

17 3

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11 1 1

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"II "!I!! II, \

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11

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Details
At som e p oint in designing, the archite ct m us t ass ur e
h imself that the design concepts are realist ic by as k
ing wheth er the pa rts can be constru cted . W ill they
fit togeth er? Detail sketches p lace the design under a
sort of mi crosco p e. The sample sketches on th ese two
pages show, through th e different vi ews, the im por
ta nce of h ow som e thi ng is put toget her a nd how it
sh oul d look. Addi tionally, the up -close d raw ings or
sketches m ust show the context for th e deta il.

~J

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Figure 9-15 Developing details.

17 4

Verification

VERIFICATION AND EXPERIENCE

em bod ies littl e of th e rationa le of th e origina l con

cep t. Sim ilar cl ic h es ca n be fo u nd w ith in both th e
Mod ern and Post-Mo d ern mo vemen ts. Typ ical com
m ercia l faca d e restorations seem the most suscep ti
ble to th e use of these cliches.

One of the advantages of expe rience in d esign is th e

opportu nity to ve rify d esign co nc ep ts when th e b uild
ing is constr ucted . The designer accu m ulates a men
ta l st ore of th e concep ts he has verified firsthand ; he
k now s wh at wor ks a nd w ha t d oes n ' t. In ad d itio n ,
w it h a certain am ou n t of con fiden ce, he can gen eral
ize new concep ts fr om w ha t h e has lea rn ed and
j ud ged . As a resu lt , m a n y d ecis ion s ca n be m ad e
m ore q uickly, facilita t ing the de sign p roc ess.
Ho w ever, an a bility to judge ca n som eti m es d ete
riorat e to th e level of ha bit , and the des ign er ma kes
decisions be fore looking at the d esign pr oblem . The
re peated use of spec ific co ncep ts, techn ol ogies, or
m ate ria ls may lead to in approp riate p reconcep tions
for the given p ro ble m . Ma ny creative arch itects regu
larly re test acc epted d esign co nc ep ts; th ey are con
sta nt ly looking at their ideas, testing th em , and evo lv
ing new co nc epts.
More seriou s is the use of concep ts d eve lop ed by
other s wi thout a thoroug h u nderstanding of the ir ori
gin and d erivation . This may often be a su bc on scious
effect of a d esigner 's exposure to existing p ro totyp es
an d in fluences. The large ove r ha ngi ng eaves of Fra n k
Lloyd Wrigh t's Pra irie sc ho olhouses have bee n im i
tated w idely to the poin t of be co m ing a cl iche. T he
typical app lication of these eaves to sub ur ban houses

I I II

UlJ.
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Figure 9-16

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Figure 9-17a Mo dern movement cliches.

Figure 9-17b Post-Modern movement cliches.

Verification an d Exp erience

175

COMMUNICATION

BUILD
CLIENT
--~~

CONTRACTOR
-~

- - -- ----,

c---

-~~----

--

USERS

PLANNER

MANUFACTURERS

MANAGEMENT

LANDSCAPE
ARCHITECT

SUPPLIERS

FINANCE
LEGALAFFAIRS
PUBLIC AFFAIRS
SALES

CONTRACTOR

INDUSTRIAL
DESIGNER

SUBCONTRACTORS

COST SURVEYOR

CONSTRUCTION
MANAGER

ARCHITECT

CONSTRUCTION
SUPERVISOR

MECHANICAL
ENGINEER
ELECTRICAL
ENGINEER
STRUCTURAL
ENGINEER
CONSULTANT
l-..

~~

__ .

,_

_~

-~ ~ - ~ ~~~ ~ ~

LAND DEVELOPER
REALTOR
BUILDING MANAGER

BUILDING SYSTEM
DEVELOPER

CONSTRUCTION
FINANCE
CODE ENFORCEMENT

ANTHROPOLOGIST
SOCIOLOGIST

Figure 10-1 Participants in architectural design and building processes.

10 Process

n th is sec tion , w e cons ide r th e curre n t and

fu ture im pa ct of com muni ca tion on d esign activ
ities. O ur goal is a b e tt er u nde rstan d in g of th e
pro cesses of d esign com m u nica tion a nd the inte
gra l role of gra p h ic thi n k in g sk ills in indiv id u a l,
team , a nd p ub lic d es ign con texts.

It is clear th a t our p ro fession is und ergoing a rev

olut ion involv ing fu nd am en ta l c ha n ge and fund a
me n tal continuity. Ar ch itect ur e has tradi tion al m eth
od s tha t a re impor ta nt to e nvi ron m e n ta l p roblem
so lvin g, b u t th e sc ope of recogn ized e nv ironme ntal
p roblems is expa nd ing rap idl y. T h e re a re two ev id e n t
c hoices : exp a n d th e co n ce pt of th e p ro fessi on to
e nco m pa ss th e fu ll scop e of e m e rgin g need s, or
ac h ieve a n ew unity o f pr ofe ss ion a l ac ti vi ty u nde r
a no the r la bel like en v ironm e ntal d esign . Either way,
th ese c ha nges ca ll for the re assessmen t of com m u ni
ca tion in de sign processes.

Changes in th e processes of design ing a nd build

ing are im m ed ia tel y ev id e n t. More ac to rs are
involved at all sta ges and these actors a re pa rt of, and
the ref ore in flue n ced by, oth e r p rofess ion a l or busi
n es s con texts. T h e ma nu fac tu re r mu st look beyo nd
a ny single b u ildi n g or de velop m e n t for his on goi ng
conc ern s ab out m ar ke ting, p rodu ction , a nd su ppl ies.
T he zo n ing board mus t consi d er a bui ld ing p roje c t
w ith in th e co n text of an on going process of med iating
publ ic a nd pr ivate interests in the use of land .

1 . Cha nge in the co ncep t of clie nts to incl ud e build

in g users a nd/ or the pub lic.
2. Exp an sion of t he de sign tea m to in cl ud e cli e n ts,
con tr actor s, man ufa cturer s, res ea rchers, a nd oth
ers as the p roject req u ires.
3. Incr eas e in th e n u m ber a n d comp lexity of th e
co n ce rns that s ha pe th e d esign a n d bu ilding
p rocesses.

Th is p resen ts a new set of foreseea ble chall enges

in three differen t d esi gn co n tex ts.
1. Individual- Th e cha lle nge of develop in g an a bility
to commun ica te ra p id ly w it h o ur sel ves on
in cr eas in gly com p lex p rob lems in a way tha t
accep ts their comp lexit y while tryi ng to see the m
in co mp rehensive, syste mi c te rm s.
2. Team-The ch a lle nge of co m m u n ica tin g to mo ti
va te, to sha re goa ls, a nd to b ring the fu llest im pa ct
of each tea m m e m ber 's expe rtise an d co ncern s on
the prob lems.
3. Public- T he chall enge of de velop ing comm un ica
tion methods t ha t cro ss th e boundaries of trad i
ti ona l prof essi on al la n gu age to allow the p ub lic
equ a l ac cess to th e d esign ing a nd bu ild in g
process. It is m y b elief tha t grap hic thinkin g w ill
be a major asset in m ee ting th ese com m unica tion
ch allen ges, if we ar e w illing to de ve lop the neces
sa ry sk ills.

T h ree im p orta n t cond ition s for des ign a re overly

ing th is com p lex n etwork of ac tors a nd acti vi ties .

Fig ure 10-2 Interaction of the design team members.

179

fY~jVaM

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Figure 10-3 Design project and problem-solving processes.

A DESIGN PROCESS
Regardless of wh at is being d esi gn ed or w ho is
involved in d esign ing it, th ere is a co m m on objective:
translat ing the clien t's p rog ram in to a spec ific bu ild
ing or ano ther resp onse to his needs. In architec tura l
pr act ice thi s nor m a lly invo lves the follow ing st eps :
b uild ing p ro gr am , sche m a tic d esign , p relimin ar y
d esign , d esign de velop men t, con tract d ocume nt s,
shop d raw ings , co nstructio n . At each of these st eps,
the probl em s tha t mu st be solved requ ire of th e
designer an effect ive pro blem -solving p rocess. Th ere
ar e m any good m od els for p roble m-so lving p ro cesse s.
I pr efer the follow in g five-s te p m od el:
1. Problem defini tion- Identifyi ng the specific lim its

of th e p ro ble m to be solved . T hen the vario u s

p ar ts of the p rob lem are a na lyze d to d et er mi ne
need s, cons tra in ts, a nd reso ur ces. Finally, th e
design er se ts up specific design obje ctives .
2 . De veloping al tern a tives- Th e d esig ner exam in es
ex is ting and new so lu tions a nd d ev elops severa l
viabl e alt ernati ves.
3 . Evaluation-Design eva luat ion cr ite ria are adopted
on the bas is of the de si gn objecti ves. Then the
a lte rna tive so lut io ns are ra ted usi ng th e d es ign
criteria .
4. Selection- Based on th e results of th e eva lua tion ,
on e alte rna tive is selec ted. If no on e alte rn ative is
clear ly supe rior, two or m ore soluti on s may be
com bine d. In eithe r case, the chosen alte rn ative is
usually further mod ified w ith so me of the m ore
successfu l pa rts of the ot he r solu tions.
5. Com munication- The fin al so lu tion to the p rob lem
mu s t be des crib ed in such a way as to m ake it
usable for the next sta ge of d esign .

180

Process

This m ode l is not as com p lex as it might se em ini

tially. Take an exa mp le fro m th e p relim inary design
stage:

1 . The spe cific prob lem is the enclosur e of a living

sp ace for a hou se. Nee ds includ e v iew s, air circ u
lation , su n con trol , an d access to the exterior.
Constrain ts includ e the overall pla n and orien ta
tion of the ho use, the position of elem en ts in the '
liv ing space , and the cl imati c cond itions im pa ct
in g on the spa ce. Amo ng the resour ce s ar e th e
construction tech niq ue, m aterials, and encl osure
p rototype s. Th e sp ecific d es ign objectives ar e:
p rovide a panora m ic view of the sou thw est w hil e
se ated by the fireplac e ; shield the ro om from the
in tense s u mme r su n, es p ecially from the w est ,
but allow th e w in ter su n to p e net rate and heat
m ost of the area; p rovi d e for ea sy acc ess to the
exte rior d eck; assure security of th e area at ni gh t.
2. T h e a lternatives d ev e lop ed a re a con ven tiona l
arrange men t of w indow s and a door ; sliding d oors
w it h a roll -d ow n p rot ective d oor ; a glazed w all
w ith a su n scr een .
3. Com paring the al terna tive s, the su n screen pro
v id es t he best co n tr ol of ligh t b u t obsc ure s th e
vi ew ; the co nve n tional arr angemen t allow s a view
bu t do es not cont rol the sun or p rovid e nigh ttim e
sec ur ity. The roll -d ow n d oor prov id es security b ut
do es not con tr ol the su n .
4. T he ro ll-down d oor is selec ted bu t w itho u t floo r
to-cei ling glazing , an d a part ial scr een is used to
control the sun.
5. To m a ke a final d ecision befor e the desi gn can
pro ceed to th e n ext s tag e, all th e impo rt a n t
sk etches of th e enclo sure m ust be completed .

 processes.
Figure 10-4 An application of the pro blern -solvinq

A De sign Process

181

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Communicati on in the Design Process

Each step in a design process is essentially a com mu
nication tas k w her eby one type of de scription is con
verted to another type ap propriat e to the next stage of
th e process. In schematic design , di agrams and text
describing th e design problem are conve rted to
sketches th at describe possible designs in a m anner
th at p romotes de cision-m aking by the cli en t ; a t
another stage, cont rac to rs convert th e arch ite ct' s
detail design d raw ing s in to sh op draw ings that
de scribe bui ld ing com po nents and m eth ods of as se m
bl y. In th e process of conve rti n g de scr ip tion s, t he
de signer ha ndles considerable amou nts of inform a
tion that su ppor t thinking and deci sion-ma king .
In on e vi ew of these de sign pro cesses, designers
m anag e th e m ulti ple tas ks of in formation m anage

18 2

Process

Fig ure 10-6 Process drawings.

m e nt th rough th e use of grap h ic com m u n ication .

Inc om ing in for mat io n is en coded in a short ha nd
grap hic language that perm its th e design er to pr ocess
a w ide ra ng e of va riables a nd develop a con cep tual
resolution of th e various issues. Afte r processing th e
in formation , it is decod ed in a graphic and verba l lan
guage ap propriate to com m unication to the next step
in the design process.
Another way to view design comm unications is to
con side r desig n p roc ess as es se ntially a re ite ra tive
proces s of exp erimen tation and obs ervation . In th e
experime n tal mod e , the des igner use s grap h ic la n
gua ge that su pp or ts t he op en ing of new ar ea s for
exp loration . In th e obse rvationa l mo de, th e designer
uses draw ings or d iagr ams that suppor t understand
in g and evaluating the re sult s of exp erimentation .

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Figure 10-7 Matrix diagram of relationships between stages of

the design project and different modes of graphic thinking.

Figure 10-8 Examples of sket ches at different stages of a design

project.

APPLYING GRAPHIC THINKI NG

The following ch apt ers con sider some of the prac

ti cal p rob lems of creati ve th inking e ncoun te red by
p eople w it hin th eir d esig n co n texts. I try to show
how som e of the grap hic th inking too ls h ave bee n
help ful to architects and desi gn ers, but the real te st of
the usefu lness of th ese tools has to be m ade w ithin
the context of the sp ec ial des ign pro cesses ea ch of us
develops.

Although th e draw ings that sum up each stage in the

de sign pr ocess vary from abst ra ct sk etches a t th e
begin ni ng to the most spec ific hard -line drawings at
the end, th e thi n king process can be supported
throug hout by the d iffer ent types of ske tches pre
sen ted in the p revi ous chapters. T he m atrix ab ove
shows where the mo de s of grap hic thinkin g ar e pri
m ari ly us efu l. To th e ri gh t ar e some examp les of
sketches that co uld be used at ea ch of the stages in
th e design process.

A pp lying Graphic Think ing

183

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Figure 10-9 Functions of graphics.

Fi gure 10-10 Two-dimensional diagram.

Graphic Thinking Options

In th is book w e ha ve disc ussed a va riet y of graphic
thinking sk ills a nd tools . T h e wor ld of visual com m u
n ication offers th ese a nd other , yet to be di scovered ,
di ve rse oppor tu ni ties to s up p or t d esign processe s.
Pau l Steve nson O les has ill u stra ted the scope of
visu al co m m u n ica tion as a field who se bound a r ies
ar e id entified by th e op posing extrem es of four di ffe r
e n ti als : abstrac t -concre te, pr iva te-p ubl ic, concep
tual - represen ta tion al, a nd di agram ma tic- perce p tu al.
A va riatio n of O les ' diagra m show s types of gra ph ics
th at ar e most co mmo n , used to so m e ex te n t , or
und er u tilized. Con ceptual an d a bs trac t grap h ics are
found m ostl y in th e p riva te real m of the de sign er's
th in kin g p rocess; these for m a gra p hic shor thand tha t
suppor ts the ra p id pa ce of d esign sp eculation a n d
enables the juggling of a n ex te ns ive se t of variables ,
Conc re te a nd rep rese n ta tiona l gr aph ics ar e fou nd
m ost ly in the public real m , w h er e the spe cific res u lts
of design de cision s m ust b e clea rly illu st rat ed . Th er e
has been so m e use of d iag rammat ic grap hics in the
abstract , conc ep tual processes and th e ap p lica tio n of
percep tua l gr ap h ics s uc h as per spectives to concrete,
represent ation al tas ks. Bu t we a re on ly be ginning to
exp lore th e p oten tial use of pe rcep tual grap h ics in th e
m or e p r iva te d esign p r oc esses a n d th e use of dia
gr a mma ti c lan gu ag e for th e m ore pub lic task s. T he
rapid growt h of com p u ter graphics sh ould sp rea d th e
use of both p erce p tual a nd di agra m matic graph ics ;
on th e on e h an d , concr e te , perceptual draw ings wi ll
be p ro d u ced in a fra ction of th e ti m e they now take ;
on th e o the r h an d , d iagramm ati c com m u nic at io n
wi ll be so ac cessibl e that it w ill be co mmo nplace.

184

Process

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Figu re 10-12 By Raymond Gaetan. Computer

model view.

Figure 10-13 By Raymond Gaetan. Computer

model view.

Figure 10-14 By Raymond Gaetan. Computer

model view.

A pplying Gra phic Thi nking

185

SSC)JO.ld

981

Figure 10-16 By Ti m Treman. Exterior view, library project, Mu ncie, Indiana.

Figure 10-17 By Raymo nd Gaetan. Com puter

model view.

Applying Graphic T hink ing

187

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Figure 11-2 (bottom) By David Stieglitz. Buffalo Wate rfront Redevelopment Proje ct.

11 Individual Design

he d evelopment and support of ind iv id ual

design th in kin g is best promoted by the indi
vidual des ign er. Som e ar chitect s p refer to
work in a man ner sim ilar to Alvar Aalto, us ing
a loos e, mu ltip le- line drawing tha t gives th em an
a lm os t ta cti le expe rience of their p rocess. T he spe
cific ch aracte ristics of the chosen me d ia of express ion
p lay an im po rtan t rol e. Choic es of d ra w ing in stru
m en t or surface are del ibera te, usu all y p rov id ing a
lev el of comfort th at sup po rt s the flow of id eas . The
di scovery of a s im ila r degree of comfo rt wi th the
m ed iu m of comp u ter gra p hics is one of th e chal
lenges of ac hiev ing its eff ec tive use.

Ot her archite cts ma y use a mo re sys tem a tic,

de lib erat e, or economi cal approach to their work .
They apply orde r ing de vi ces based on theoret ical
constr ucts disc ussed in ea rl ier chapters. Th ese m ight
incl ude m odu lar grids, va riatio ns on a the me , or for
mal man ipulatio ns of compone nt-based sy st ems.
To be effective , desig n ers mu s t be comfor ta bl e
w ith th eir own m et ho d of th inking . This means that
they mu st carefully se lec t the m et h od s, tools, a nd
en vironment best su ited to their style of th in k ing .
Th is chapter loo ks at al te rn ative styles and so m e of
the means for supporting effective th in k ing w ithi n
ind ivid ual design processes.
Figure 11-3 Variations on a theme.

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Figure 11-4 Ordering devices.

189

~
Figure 11-5 Drawing instruments.

PREPARATION FOR DESIGNING

Although thoughts can be represented graphically by
using a great number of me d ia (and there are whole
books devot ed to these di ffere n t m ed ia ), eac h
designer must find m a terials and instr umen ts wi th
which he w ill be most com fortable. It is w orthwhi le
to experim en t w ith the se di fferent tools. They should
be eas y to use and m ai n ta in, and th ey shou ld be
portable . Per sonally, I prefer pens to p encils because
the y produce a high-con tra st im age, mak ing consis
ten t lin e qu ality easy. T hey are p erma n en t , whi ch
d iscourages th e tim e-consuming habits of erasing or
redraw ing. I ha ve found four types of pen that meet
my needs:
Liquid-ink ca rtridge pen-Using perm an ent, jet blac k

ink; it prod uces a sm oot h, q uick line. Most po ints

w ear ou t even tually, so I use cheap p ens w ith fine
rounded points and ke ep sever al handy in case
one w ears out.
Pointed felt -tip pen-T h is us ed to be the m ost com m on
type of felt- tip . It has the ad vantage of provid ing a
second line w eigh t by using the side of the point,
but th e ink oft en th in s out, resulting in less shar p
images.
Fin e-point felt-tip pen-Many of these p ens have a th in
m etal tube that greatly reduces the wear and

190

Individual D esign

defor m ing of the point. Look for the pens wi th the

darkest bla ck in k.
Extra-fine-po int rollerball- These us ed to p roduce an
un ev en or unreliable line , but have been great ly
improved and have a longer-last ing supp ly of ink.
For good res ults, the d rawing instr um ent m ust be
mat ched wi th the ri gh t p ap er. Alt ho ugh th e liq uid
cartrid ge pen works on mos t pap ers, no np orou s,
sm ooth-fi n ish pape r is th e m ost adap ta ble fo r all
pen s. I buy cheap , wh ite 8 1h -by-ll ph otocopy pape r
in SOO-sh eet pac kages. My test for a n a cce p ta b le
m a tch of pen and paper is w hether th e pe n can be
m ove d qui ckly in an y d irection without ca tchin g or
sk ipp ing.
Many architects get good resu lts wi th soft pe nci ls
or colored p en cil s, a nd so m e co m bine m ed ia .
Everyone's in terest s and thin king di ffer, so eac h per
son shou ld tr y to find a sim p le bu t eff ec tive m ed iu m
for th eir personal gr aphic think ing .

ENVIRONM ENT
It is cur ious th at ar ch itects, whose p rofession is con
cern ed with suiting environments to needs, spend lit
tle tim e stud y ing the environm ent in w h ich they

------

Figure 11-6 Studio environment set up.

w or k. Robert McKim provi des us wit h a good

descr iption :
A visual-thinking environment for one person should
be as well-designed as a contempora ry hi tchen.
Work areas should be well illum inated, preferably
w ith natural north light and with out shadow or
glare. The drawi ng surface sho uld be large and
adj ustable in height and angle. A n additional stand
up table should be ava ilab le for three-dim ensional
work; spilled glue and knife ma rks soon spoil a
drawi ng surfa ce. Organized storage should be pro
vided close to each work area to diminish distracting
clutter. Chairs an d stools should provide back sup
port in a wo rk ing position. To alleviate back tension
and also to provide for the importa nt element of
change, a stand-up, verti ca l draw ing su rface should
be available: a black board, ease l, or wall- m ounted
roll of paper. A large tack- space is needed for dis
playing current idea ske tches . A lthough admittedly
an affront to those who associate productive work
with open eyes and erect position, the visua l thinker
should also ha ve access to a qui et place wh ere he
can relax and tum his thoughts inw ard- or stop
think ing entirely: a reclining chair, a couch- even a
relaxing bathl'

p lem ent th eir ow n s ty le of thin kin g. I find th at my

ow n de velopm ent m ak es m e res ponsive to eve rything
visible. I support concentra tion by using a clea r desk
wi th a blank w hite vertical sur face direc tly in front of
m e. O the r de signers may need a very s tim u la ting
envi ronm ent for thi n king.

MENTAL/PHYSICAL CONDITION
Th e right materials and environme nt m ust be accom
panied by a good m ental and p hysical state for th e
indi v id ua l to th ink or solve problem s effecti ve ly.
Eve ryone is su bje ct to tension and stress in th eir
work, and this is esp ecially tru e of p racticing arch i
tects. Experienced architects try to pace th emselves
because th ey know that m istakes are m ade under
excessiv e pressu re. Freq ue nt exe rcise and re creation
are a bas is for a good m ental state , bu t designers can
also take specific m ea sures to improve th eir prepara
tion fo r w or k . Relax eyes by closing, the n ro ta ting
the m ; ease neck tension by sitting up right w ith bac k
suppo rted and slow ly bend t he head forw ard , ba ck
wa rd, and to ea ch side in a cir cular mo tion; relax the
w hole bod y by stretching and deep breath in g.

Arc hitects and designe rs sho uld consciously sel ect

the visua l environm ent in w hi ch they work to com
M enta l/Physical Condition

19 1

ABSTRACTTO CONCRETETHINKING

G rap hic thi n king is m ost effecti ve w hen it respec ts

ba sic thinking processes. Law rence Ku bie asserts that
"Thinking processes actua lly are automatic, sw ift and
spon taneou s w hen all ow ed to proceed u nd isturbed
by other influenc es. Therefore what w e need is to be
ed ucated in how not to interfere w it h the inh eren t
capa city of the h uma n m ind to thin k . " 2 For th is rea
son, th e media and typ e of drawin gs used by archi
tects for graphic th inking di ffer significantly fro m th e
drafted, "hard-line " dr awings usually ass ociat ed w ith
ar chitectural design . G rap hic thinking sketche s must
be rapid , flexi ble, and unr estri ct ing to th in ki ng
processes .

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Figure 11-7a Abstract sketch.

Within the range of these sketches, th er e ar e tw o

ba si c tenden cies : exp loratory abs tract sketc hes an d
defin itive conc re te ske tches. Accor d ing to M cKim ,
th ese respond to tw o typ es of thin king. "The first is
fast , cru de, holistic, and par allel, while the second is
d eliberate, a tte n tive , detailed and seq ue n tial. ",
Designers gene rally lean toward one or the other of
thes e types of think in g and pro bably use a lit tle of
both . To in cre ase effectiveness, each designer should
be aw are of his basic typ e of th inking an d be abl e to
re cogn ize wh en the other type is appropriate.

CONCEPTUAL TO PERCEPTUAL THINKING

Figure 11-7c Hardline drawing.

Concep tu al thin kin g se eks out the un derlyi ng struc

ture, order, or m eaning of experience; it attempts tak
in g possession of the exper ienc e, comp aring it w ith
other experiences, and interpreting it in the light of
our kn owl edge of reality. Perceptua l thinking tries to
take in the d irec t experience of an environm ent, not
ing th e ele m en ts from w hich it is composed and the
personal reactions th e environm ent evokes . Often
these two modes of thinking are thought of as sepa
rate or eve n in opposition . Cre a tive, dynam ic thi nk
ing depends upon full integra tion of conception and
per ception because they inform and give m eaning to
each other. Know ing that there are about four hun
dred variet ies of goa t' s-m ilk che eses produce d in
Fran ce adds somethin g to th e ex pe rien ce of eati ng
one of th em ; neverthel ess , knowledge of these vari
et ies does n ot ha ve much me ani ng until you have
tasted on e of th em . The history of Gothic church con
stru cti on , incl udi ng prin cipl es and vari ations, w hen
com bined with th e overwhelm ing sensations of mo v
ing through the darkness an d light of a Go th ic church
nav e, provides a complete, integrated aw areness that
could no t be achieved should either th e conceptua l or
perceptual el em ent be missing.

192

The de sign er must be able to move fre ely between

concep tual an d perceptual thinking and shou ld avail
himself of a variety of grap hic me ans to achieve th eir
int egration .

Figure 11-7b Concret e sketc h.

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Leicester Square, London.

Conceptua l to Perceptua l Thi nk ing

19 3

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PRIVATE TO PUBLIC THINKING

Thin king and th e communica tion it m ay req u ire ha ve
tw o mode s. In th e p ublic m od e, the individ ua l devel
op s hi s id eas by com m u ni ca tin g wi th oth er p eop le,
Co lin C he rry p o in ts ou t th a t "Co m m u ni ca tion is
essen tia lly a soc ia l affair.,.. The ve ry word comm uni
cate m eans share, an d in asmu ch as you a nd I a re com
m un ica tin g a t th is mo m e nt , w e a re one.... W h at we
sh a re , w e can n ot eac h have a s our own po sses
sian .. .. " I In thi s se nse, the re is a p ublic aspect to all
ideas beca use non e of us lives in a vacuum. Wha t we
hol d in our m inds com es fr om in teracti ons w ith th e
peopl e and environ men t tha t su rr ound s us ,
In the p riva te m od e of t hinking , th e in di vid u al
develops ideas in isola tion from othe rs; com m un ica
tion in th is for m is d irect ed bac k tow a rd on ese lf.
Many arch itec ts ar e re lu c tant to sh ow th e ske tch es
th ey use to d eve lop id eas, a nd some even have d iffi
cu lty d iscussin g th e m , Th ese ske tc he s a re te n ta tive
and cr ud e com pare d to p rese ntat io n d ra w in gs, an d

they of te n represen t incom p let e tho ugh ts. Bu t these

sketch es also re veal the str uggle of a m ind tha t does n' t
have all th e answ ers. For som e design ers, this m ight be
embarrassin g beca use of a n illusion tha t th e gre a t
design concepts flow instan tly a nd com p le tely from
th e crea tive m ind . Bu t p e rh ap s t h e re is m ore to it.
Co n cep tu al ske tc h es ar e ve ry p e rson a l s ta te m e n ts,
almost a d ia ry. We are intuit ively aw a re th a t th ey can
reveal ve ry p r iva te feel in gs, concerns, or fan tasies.
They are no one else 's b usi ne ss.
Although indiv idual design activity re quires both
pu b lic an d private co m m un ica ti ons, the cho ice of
mode is pe rson al. Ea ch d esign e r develo ps h is ow n
style of sketchin g as an aid to thin king, Some m ay
choose to develop a clarity th at can comm u nicate to
other p eop le , while ot h e rs may d evelop a p r iva te
graph ic lan guage. Eith e r w ay, yo u h ave to be comfor t
a ble with it. If yo u can enjoy sket chi ng, ch an ces ar e
thinking w ill a lso b e m ore enjoyab le.

Private to Public Th ink ing

195

OVERCOMING OBSTACLES
Eve n the best preparation does not assur e success in
d esi gn . Arch itec ture st ude nts and some tim es even
practit ione rs ru n in to think ing an d p roblem-solving
obs tac les . The fo llowin g lis t describes some of the
m ore com m on obsta cles an d so me possib le
responses.

1. Can't get started-If you try to tackle proble ms

tha t ar e too big, you be com e ove rwh elm ed . Try to
br eak dow n the prob lem into d ifferen t parts. In st ead
of design ing the w hole school, analy ze its pa rts: class
rooms, r ecr ea tion , ad m in istra tion , etc . W hen th ese
pro ble ms are under control, look at how th e pa rt s can
fit toget her to form a school.

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Figure ll-l1a

2. Can't get any good ideas-Sometimes we have a

fear of fai lur e; w e are afraid th at our solution will be
judged to be very p oor py others and that th ey w ill
lose confide nce in us. Thi s req uires separ ating one 's
se lf from the design problem . If failures in life mea nt
that one's life was a fail ure, we wo uld all be in de ep
trou ble. Fortuna tely, life goes on, and thi s problem
w ill soon be forgotten . T he fu ture hold s d ifficult
problems as we ll as ea sier ones. It may help to tr eat
the probl em as a cha llenge in a game. Try your best
and use a ll of the reso ur ces ava ila ble. Use some of
the techn iq u es of ma n ipu la ti on already disc ussed
and take a new look at the p ro ble m . If you ca nn ot
m ove ahead on the basis of your ass umptions, then
arb itrarily cha nge the m . If there doesn 't seem to be a
su itab le so lu tion for the kitch en, consid e r a ho use
w ithout a formal ki tch en . It may not be a solu tion ,
but it m ight lead to a solution .

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196

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3 . Can't make a decision-Some tim es d esigners

can not progress on a p roject because th ey find it dif
ficu lt to come to co nc lusio ns or de cide on a course of
a ct ion. Spelling ou t the av ai la ble altern a tives an d
the n comp aring th em in ligh t of a few bas ic cr ite ria
can fac ilita te choices. Rep resent ing crite ri a and t he
ra tings of alternatives in graphic image s makes it p os
sible to nave a picture of the inf orm ation need ed to
decide .

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4 . Can't finish- Once a des ign ins tr uctor advi sed

that if we w ere working un d er p ress ure and heard a
tappin g so un d , we should stop and see if it w as we
w ho w ere dotting in th e grass on ou r draw ing. He
sa id th is was a s ure sign tha t we were avoiding a crit
ica l probl em in the d esign . If yo u find t hat you are
filling up tim e or just going through the mo tio ns, it
may help to go back to the original program or p rob
lem statem en t and ask what the ba sic design objec
tives are and what the design must achieve mi ni ma lly
no t to be a failure. The ch ances ar e you w ill find the
de ficien cy and save yo ur self a lot of trouble later on .

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Overcoming Obstacles

197

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Figu re 11-12 The lifetime context of the individual design project process.

DESIGN AS A LIFETIME PROCESS

Des ign me thodo logy has some di fficult ies, such as its
focus on the single p roject and p resen ting a rather
m ech ani cal m odel of design w or k . It gives th e
im pression that the inform ation is poured in at the
beginning and at stra tegic p oin ts along th e w ay ; then
the machine , call ed logical tho ught, grinds an d ch ew s
the inform atio n , expe lling an ap propr iate product at
the end . The ac tual co mplexity of the design process
mi ght be better u nd ers tood if we ima gin e the
machine as hav ing several sw itche s to m ake the ind i
v id ua l par ts stop a nd go , sp eed u p , or slow do w n.
Fur therm ore , each sw itch has a control that flips th e
sw itch ba ck an d forth at ra nd om . Th ese controls rep
resen t the action of the h um an m ind w ithin a design
p rocess, fo r o ur m in ds are co ns tan tly active and
reacting to a w hole environ m ent surroundin g a spe
cific projec t. In many cases, the design pro cess of a
su ccessful arc hi te ct becom es unde rstandable w hen
seen as one sma ll part of the ar ch itect 's life. His
de sign p ro cess is gov ern ed by p att e rn s of tho ught ,
in terests, and values that are con stantly evolving.
G ra phic thinking can be a significant aid to such
de velop m ent. Cha rles Je ncks n oted of LeCorbusier,
"He st ar ted kee p ing a sketch boo k, a pocket-si zed

19 8

Individual De sign

writing pad , to jot down ideas, visual impre ssions and

an ecdotes. T hese sketchbooks, of w h ich th ere are
m ore than sev enty covering th e wh ole of
LeCorbusier 's life, w er e in themselves a significant
ad d itio n to Jea nneret's developm ent, for they became
a ne w me d ium of exp ression and a source-book for
later id ea s." Je n cks goes on to qu ote LeCorbu sier:
"W hen one travel s a nd wor ks w it h visu al th ings
architecture, pa inting, sculpture- one use s one' s eyes
and dr aws , so as to fix de ep down in one 's experience
what is see n . O nce th e im pression has been recorded
by th e p en cil, it stays for goo d , en tered , re gistered,
inscribed . " 5
Creative ar chitects oft en bec om e fascinated with
a particul ar pr oblem or form that they mull over for
many years , drawn tow ard w hat they feel are funda
mental ideas or concerns. For exam ple, Wright p ur
sued many notion s in h is lifetim e re garding su ch
things as plan or ganization , str ucture , and materials,
which he could pull together in a single desi gn such
as the Kaufm an House at FaIling Wat er. In effect, the
success of thi s house is the result of ve ry th orough
re se ar ch over a good portion of his career.

Fi gure 11-13 The accumulation of design concepts in buildings

by Frank Lloyd Wright.

Fi gure 11-13b Bin odal organization wit h indirect pat h entry.

Figure 11-13a Cro ss plan wit h interlocking spaces.

Figure 11-13c Three-part horizontal organization of the facade.

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Figure 11-14 Combination of the previous elements using new materials in a new context .

Design as a Lifetime Process

19 9

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Figure 11-15 Elevati on sket ch. Guggenheim Museum.

The careers of cur re n t and fu tu re d esign ers w ill

be signific ant ly infl uen ced by d igi ta l m ed ia. If w e
keep in mind the impli cations of d esign as a life time
proc ess- the pe rsiste nce of ideas and the stim ula tion
of a kn ow led ge bas e - d igita l me d ia p romise a
tre me nd o us op portun ity. Sign ifi can t n ew tool s
in clude:
1. An imp ressive array of illu stra tion tool s in obje ct
and pixel-based comp uter grap hic ap plica tions.

200

Individual D esign

2. An exp anding variety of document al-on choices in

p rint, vi deo , and projection form ats.
3. U n p reced en te d resources for achievi ng and
retrieval of a full range of visual im ages.

Th e imp act of th ese new ca pa bili ties is d ir ectl y

propor tional to our ability to co n nect graphic im ages
w ith th ou ght p rocesses.

Figure 11-16 Elevation sketch. Guggenheim Museum.

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Figure 11-17 Plan sketch. Guggenheim Museum.

Design as a Lifetime Process

20 1

12 Team Design

lt hough a gr eat port ion o f this bo ok d ea ls

wi th in d ivid ual d esig n thi nking , in our world,
d esi gn rar e ly ta kes pla ce in isola ti on.
Geoffr ey Broad ben t stresses the po in t: "In the
natur e of architec tura l de sign , it is not poss ible fo r
any arc hitect to wield pow er w ithout the full co lla bo
ration of other s. W ith very few exce p tions, the arch i
tec t in evita bly wo r ks as a m em ber of a gro up;
howe ver stron g h is per sonal ity, he still need s a gr eat
ma ny other peopl e-a rch itec ts, techni cians, co nsult
an ts , co n tract o rs, a nd so on - to tra ns la te his id eas
in to reali ty."

Th e proje ct-base d design tea m has been one of th e

major featur es of the modern Am erican architectur al
fir m . O ffices suc h as Skid m or e , Ow in gs & Merr ill ,
T he Archi te cts Co lla bora tive , and Ca ud ill Row let t
Scott co nt ribu ted significantly to th e develop m ent of
the team co ncep t. They d emon stra ted that p robl em
or iented team s have several ad va n tages:
1. Much mo r e expe rtise th an th a t po ss esse d by a n
ind ivid ual arch itect can be brough t to bear on the
pr ojec t.
2. A wid er range of b uildi ng typ es can be tack led .
3. More cr eative thi nk ing ca n be stim ulated th ro ugh
teamwork .
4. A fir m has a be tter chance of sur vival w hen it is
based upo n a pr inciple of or ganiza tion rat her tha n
the persona lity of a single arc hite ct.
The team co nc ep t has expa nde d w ell beyond th e
limi ts of the tr ad itional ar chit ectural d es ign team .
Teams no w incl ud e clien ts, use rs o f th e intended
b uild ing, co n tractors , fin ancie rs, socia l sci e n tist s,
man ufactur ers , and sp ecialists. We have learn ed that
the su ccess of a design often de pend s on all of th eir
inp u ts. Tea mw or k has als o overcom e the constrain ts
of time and space. Through th e use of the In tern et,
tea m s ma y be compose d of arch itects, cons ulta n ts,
a nd cli en ts d isp ers ed aroun d th e globe in di ffer ent
time zon es .

m e m be rs m u st cons ta n tl y sha re infor m at ion a nd

ide as. W ith th e use of grap hic th in ki ng sk ills , th ese
co n tr ib utions can be quickly pr esen ted to the gro up
and rem ain alw ays availa ble for retrieval and m anip
ulat ion. In addition , draw ings help kn ock dow n the
ba rrie rs built by p rofessional jargon , thereby aIlO\N
in g persons fr om d ifferen t discipl in es to co m m u ni
ca te, as exe m plified on th e facing pa ge w ith a p roje ct
team th at incl ude s a n architect, a p lan ner, a sys tems
engi neer, and a tran sport at ion spe cia list.
Scient ific researc h has recognized the im po rta nc e
of a research community shar ing th ou gh ts as the sci
en t is ts p urs ue th e sam e probl e m . Che m is tr y, for
example, has evo lved a grap hic langu age th at shares a
b roa d range of ideas a bou t .complex p rob le m s. The
gra p hic d escriptio n of the DNA mo lecu le is a dra
ma tic example of the importa nce of th e in tegra tion of
gra p hics and think ing. The di scovery of the dou ble
hel ix struc ture of the DNA molecule was ha iled as a
major br eakth ro ugh , ope ning up a w hole new era of
resea rch in or gani c chem istry. Graphic thin k ing has
aid ed th e DNA res earch in severa l way s:
1. A m od el of the ce ntra l object of resea rch th at is
usef ul and acc ep ta ble to a ll of the research com
m u nity.
2 . A m odel that p rese n ts new cha llenges and pr ob
lems to be solved .
3. A m od el that p rovid es a d ir ection for individu al
resear chers to cont in ue work in th ei r di fferent
areas of sp ecialization .

TEAMCOMMUNICATION
Gr ap h ic co m m u n ica tio n can playa very im po rta n t
part in the success of tea mwork . To be effe ctive, team

Figure 12-2 Dia gram of double helix model of the DNA molecule.

203

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Figure 12-3 By Wi lliam Caudill. Evaluation diagrams for projects.

Cu rrently, se veral arc hitectural firms are develop

ing grap hic tec h niqu es to assist des ign tea ms . The
firm of Ca ud ill Row lett Scott (CRS) was a lea der in
team co mmunication. In Architecture by Team ,
W ill iam Caud ill exp lain ed th e grap hic techniques
used by CRS te a m s to ana lyze proble m s, generate
so lutio ns, and eval uate res ults. H e stressed : "Once
there are empathy and communica tion among mem
bers, the team w ill m ove an d every me mbe r wi ll be n
efit. Wit hou t the two , p eople can no t wo rk togeth er.
Wi thou t the two , there is no team .:"
Sharing des ign objectives is an important par t of
su cce ssf ul te amwork . In the ea rly stages of a project
objectives m ay no t be en tire ly clear. However, t he
team ca n oft en identify those in fluences or "design
determ inan ts" that they agree should have im pact on
th e final resolu tion of th e design . Diagrams like those
show n opposi te se rve as v isual reminders of th ose
de term ina nts throu gh out the de sign process.

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Figure 12-4 By William Caudill. Project process diagram s.

204

Team Design

Figure 12-5 Analysis diagrams.

Team Communication

205

APPLYING GRAPHICS
Grap hic no tati on can contrib u te to team d esign by
ill us tr ating tw o im por tan t needs : informa ti on an d
processes of w orkin g tow ard a so lution of th e de sign
pro blem . T he de sign br ief (d isting uishable fro m th e
build ing program , w hich normally refer s to the pro
gram of bu ild ing fun ction s) contains most of t he
inform ati on ne eded to comple te a b ui ld ing design .
The design brief incl udes:

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Descrip tion of users
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Site ana lys is
Site access
Macro climat e
Micro clim ate
Buildi ng prot oty pes
Special plannin g considera tions
Construction syste m
The d iag ram s a nd ske tch es on th ese tw o pages
ill ust rate so m e of the w ays in fo rm ation fr om the
design brief can be presented to the whole tea m .

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206

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A pplying Graphics

207

Figure 12-8 Evolution of the process network

diagram .

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Figure 12-9a A simplified network.

Fi gure 12-9b Attachment of information to the network.

TEAM DESIGN PROCESS-M AKING A NETWORK

W hen many p eople must work toge ther, it is often
helpful to make a flowc hart of all th e task s and where
the y fit in the context of the enti re project. These net
works evol ved from sim ple ba r cha rts , which s how a
sim ple sched ule of ta sks. By sh ow in g th e necessary
seq uenc e of tas ks , the basi s is laid for an elementary
netw ork .

Networks ca n become qui te el a bor ate if th ey

include the m ost minute tasks, but I prefer to keep
them sim p le in or d er to concen trat e on the most
basic activitie s. This sim ple netw ork bec om es a sort
of rack on wh ich to hang descriptio ns of inf ormation
need ed for d ifferent task s. Since complex bu ildings or
complex desi gn p roce sses requ ire ch anges in tea m
composition at di fferent project stage s, a ne twork is
also a h andy w ay to ident ify points at which sp ecial
exp ertise is needed .

Team Design Process- Mak ing a Network

209

Figure 12-10 No tes from a concept generation meeting.

TEAM CREATIVITY
Becau se grap hic thi n kin g increa ses the o u tp ut of
ideas for the ind ivid ual, the possibilities for a grou p
are geometrically in creased, assuming that the w ay is
op ene d for everyone to co m m unicate. Alex Osb orn '
deve loped a method calle d br ain storm ing that helps
to kee p th e chann els of thi nkin g ope n . He identified
four rul es th a t m ust be follow ed to gen era te id eas
w ith in a group during bra insto rm in g:
1 . Susp end j udgment on anyone's idea.
2. Freew heel; let yo ur im agination roam.

210

Team Design

3. Strive for qu an tity of ideas.

4. Build on ea ch oth er's ideas.
If on e m em ber of the bra inst orming group conc en
trates on prod u cin g sketches of the ideas generat ed ,
th e already fertile sit uat ion is even m or e int ensified as
he fee d s bac k in formation to all m em bers of th e
gro up. Th e n um be r of po ssible new associat ions is at
least do u bled . The sketch es should be as q uick an d
loose as the one s show n here. Remem ber tha t on ly a
sim ple recognizable symbol for the idea is requ ired; in
som e instances, this m ight be a word or ph rase.

------- --

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Figure 12-11 Notes from a brainstorming session.

EVOLVING TEAM TECHNIQUES

Tea m thi n king is a n evolv ing area of resea rch a nd
cr eati vit y. New approa ches are con tin ua lly tested ,
a nd v is ual co m m u n ica tio n co u ld play an impor ta n t
role in realizing the poten tial of teams. As tech nologi
ca l advances (gra p h ic sim u la tio n a nd reprod uctio n )
a re made , th e spe ed of grap h ic m ani pu la tio n and
feedba ck is great ly in creased . Real- time , la rge-screen
v ide o projectio n , pract ical th re e-d im ensiona l com
p ut e r grap h ic m ode lin g , and la se r-d is k v is u a l
libra ries will p rov ide unpreced e n ted vi sual tools. T he
possibilities are in d eed exci ting .

Ma k ing u sefu l and p ra ctica l adva nce s in team

th ink in g de pends on the qu al ity of rela tion sh ip s
amo ng the team m em b e rs. A few su gges tion s may
help:
1. Accept eac h oth e r 's co n tr ibu tion to the sit ua tion
as h av in g eq ual p ot en t ial.
2. Place pe rso nal goals bel ow team goals .
3 . H e lp each othe r by conce n trating on each me m

ber 's inpu t.

4. Have your se nse of h umor ready a nd use it.

Evolving Team Techniques

211

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Evolving Team Techniques

213

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Figure 12-14 Computer-generated t eam notes.

214

Team De sign

( RELAXATION)

( ENTERTAINMENT )

CONTEXT
OBJECT IVES
PROCESS
RESULT S

~ENmY

ANAL YSIS
PROGRAMMATIC
CONTEXT

FORM

FEASIBIUT Y

ANALYSI S
COMPARISONS
CONCLUSIONS
RECOMMENDATIONS

Figure 12-15 Computer-generated team notes.

Evolving Team Tech niques

215

13 PubLic Design

he gen eral public is takin g a m ore active role

in the p la n n ing an d desi gn of com m un it ies,
and p eople are work ing m ore clo sel y w it h
d es ign professi onals. Grap h ic thin ki ng has
cha nged to accom m oda te this n ew de vel op m ent. This
chap ter dis cusses th e fun dam ental shifts in the pu b
lic 's a ttitud e and shows how th es e shifts su p port
design an d p ro blem-so lv ing processes.

Explor ers of th e fifteent h and sixteenth cent uri es

veri fied the newly in tro d uce d co n ce p t ab ou t the
sha pe of th e ear th , and th is ch anged forever ma n 's
sense o f rel atio ns hi p to his world. In our century,
exp lore rs of th e un iverse ad d ed anoth e r dimen si on
w ith th e con cep t of the eart h as a "space ship," a w on
drously b rillia nt island floati ng in the va st black ness
of space. O nce again , th e imp act of our conce p t of
re lations hip to our en vironmen t, th e ear th , has a nd
wi ll have fu nd am ental conseq uenc es. Ot her dramatic
cha nge s have altere d our view of the wo rl d : ho rse
and buggy to spaceships; musket to atom ic an ni hila

tion ; te lecom m u nica tio ns ; m ini com pute rs ; ene rgy

crisis; large-scale pollu tion of air and wa ter; elec tric
p ow er failur es; and so on .
Books su ch as T he A ge of D isco ntinuity, Futur e
Shock, and The Tempo rary Society' have at temp ted to
de scribe these shifts in values. In the ar ea of archite c
tur e and env iron me nta l de sign , the shift in values is
mo st d ramatically expressed in the histori c p reserva
tion mo vemen t. Now th at change has becom e a ce n
tral featur e in our lives, peop le are begin nin g to exer
cise th eir judgm ent over which changes are d esira ble
and wh ich are no t. They are developing new percep
tions a bout histo rica l bui ld ings as so u rces of con tin u
ity in comm u nitie s. They seem to seek sta bility in an
atm osp here of over whe lm ing cha nge.
I bel ieve that w e are see king a new sense of iden
tity for ourse lves and our co m m u n ities . Th e
increased va lu e placed on th e en vironment is alre ady
hav ing importan t effects on our econ om ic sy stem ;
co mp an ies are sea rch in g for loca tio ns wi th a gr ea t
inf lux of pe ople rather than moving peop le to w here
the jobs ar e. Early succe ssful design res pon ses to the
preservation m ovem ent as in Gh irarde lli Sq ua re and
the Canner y- in San Francisco ha ve been follow ed by
a wave of red iscov ery and p reserv ation mo vements
in th e m a in streets of tow n s acro ss the cou n try .
Co mm unity develop m en t associa tions ar e sp ring ing
up everywh er e as co nsu m er movem en ts con vince an
incr ea sing n u m be r of people tha t they can per son
a lly d o som e thi ng to improve t he ir lives an d the ir
env ironm en t.

Figure 13-2

2 17

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(a)

vs

-r

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(b)

Figure 13-3a. b Co ntrast in approaches to design communication.

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Figure 13-4 Freehand drawing done over a drafted version.

2 18

Public D esign

Figu re 13-6 By Harry Eggink . East Cambridge residential

neighborhood.

Figure 13-5 By Harry Eggink. Local reta il street East Cambridge

st udy.

COMMUNITY DESIGN
Jim Burns cla imed that archi tects must w ork more
di rec tly w ith the p ubli c to avo id the mista kes of th e
past.
"Some of the envi ronmenta l changes... have had neg
ative imp acts that were not easily discern ible at first.
They seemed to be good things to do-to relocate a
museu m or provide new housing or put a spo rts
are na in a pa rk . What happen ed eventually was that
the m useum lost part icipants, the housing was dis
lik ed, the park patrons shu nned the spo rts facilities.
Th e reason for these kin ds of failures is usually that
the change s broke con nections between people and
the opp ortunities their com munity offered. "3

Th e best way to ass ur e th a t p eo p le ar e not cu t off

fro m commu nit y opportunities is to involv e them in
th e design of th eir communities .

If th e arc hitec ts are to prom ote the involvemen t of

the publ ic in the de si gn p rocess, th ey must ta ke a
look at th e way ideas are comm un icat ed . Some archi
tects ar e acc us tom ed to m aking h igh ly polished p re
se n ta tio ns to cl ie n ts or boards of d irect ors. The ir
dra wings a re s lic k, wi th an a ir of final it y and ce r
tainty. W hen such draw ings are us ed in a p ublic par
ticipa tion design p roject , the com m un iti es have th e
feeling th ey are bei ng talked at an d not talked wit h ;
they ar e int im idated and di scouraged from con tribu t
ing their idea s, no matter how much to the con tra ry
th e design er pl eads.
Inviting co m m u nication sta r ts w it h the character
of the sketch es.
1 . Ske tches sho u ld a lw ays have a loose , fr eehand

quality, a sort of in compl eten ess suggesting that

they can be cha nged and wi ll be improved w ith
addition al th in king. Eve n if a per sp ective h as
been mech ani cally co ns tru cted, it can be traced
over freehand to ach ieve a more ten tative fee ling.
2 . Keep ske tc hes si mple and avoid abs tractions that
require interpretation . The exam ples a bove fro m
a Cambridge urban des ign study" are quite effec
tive. Many people fin d it easier to rel ate to ae rial
vie ws.
3 . Use m an y la bels to easily ide nt ify th e parts of th e
draw ings. Th e car toon cap tion bu bble is a us ef ul
device for labelin g or co nveying th e possibilities
of an en viron ment.
Com m unity De sign

219

~ L S T,.!.[E 7
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Figure 13-7 By Steve Levine.

Figure 13-8 By Steve Levine.

TAKE-PART WORKSHOPS

1 . Awaren ess -Com m un it y m emb er s ge t a better '

Seve ral arch ite cts and plan ners have worked vigor
ously to develop gr ap hic comm uni cation m e tho ds,
making it possible for the pu blic to understand and
enter in to the design process. O ne of the innov ators
in th is tr end w as Law rence H alpri n:
I am concentrating on the issue of people's int erac
tions with their environment both as individua ls an d
in grou pe.: both aspects are important. We hav e
been searching for archetypal relationships... in
wor kshops which tak e place primarily out in the
field T hese taki ng par t work sh ops allow people the
opp ortunity to disco ver and articulate their own
needs and desires for themselves and for their com
m unities... . They discover ways of com munica ting
with each oth er an d arri ving at crea tive decisions
based on mu ltipl e input.'

Jim Burns, pl anning consulta nt and former

Ha lprin associate w ith w ide exp er ience in or gani zing
wo rksho ps, described the workshop process as hav
ing four basic steps:

220

Publi c D esign

expe rience of th ose thin gs that form the co m m u

nity environme nt and how those things are inte r
conn ec ted . Aw areness is achieved pr incipally by
go ing ou t in to th e co m m unity and lookin g and
taking notes.
2. Percep tion- Citizens be gin to un d erstand th eir
comm uni ty a nd their p er sonal rela tion sh ip to it
by m od elin g th e coll ect ive experi ence of wh a t
exists and th ei r hop es for w ha t cou ld exist.
3. Decision-ma k ing- Based on awareness and percep
tions , the co m munity describe s what th ey wo uld
like done a nd w he n it sh ou ld be do ne.
4. I mplementation stra tegies-D ev ise d to as sure that
the projects ad opt ed by th e comm un ity are real
ized ."
To compl ete th ese four st ep s, work shops have
develo pe d a nu mb er of gra p h ic aids (see Figures 13-7
through 13-11) to involve th e commu nit y me m be rs in
the design process.

54Y eli/w eEN L7S 7 /'1K E

J./t'lu Slz'l2!MP -IM IN SHUrTZE

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Figure 13-9 By Steve Levin e.

Figure 13-10 By Steve Levi ne.

Figure 13- 11 By Steve Levin e.

Take-Part Works hops

221

:-P)..~~

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7
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Figure 13- 12 By John J. Desmond. Phoeni x st udy.

AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS

REGIONAL/URBAN DESIGN ASSISTANCE TEAM

it'1~~ ~
.......'~~~(_
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Fi gure 13-13 By Peter Hasselman. Atlanti c City st udy.

222

Public Design

For decades, th e Am erican In stitute of Architects has

be en se nd ing team s of professionals int o com m u n i
ti es to con du ct u r ban desig n stu d ies. Thes e tea m s,
w hi ch incl ude arc h itec ts, eco no m ists, urban d esi gn
ers, soc iologists, m anagers, a nd law yers, work w ith
res ou rce perso ns from t he com mu nity to ana lyze
problems and d evel op st ra tegies. An import a n t par t
of the Region a l Ur ban Design Assistan ce Team (R/U
OAT )? p rocess is the re por t they give to t he w h ole
co m m u nity on th e fin d ings of the joi n t profess ional
citi zen team . It is critic al to the fu ture progres s of
co m mu ni ty d evelop m en t th at the p u blic u nde rst and s
th at th e report is on ly a suggestion for an approach to
de ve lop men t and not the descrip tion of a final p ro d
uct. The ske tc he s u sed in the re port to th e commu
ni ty attempt to give ge neral images of enviro n me n ta l
objectives wi thout p rop osing specific d esig n so lu
tions. They p rov ide us wi th mod els for p u blic design
co m m un ica tion .

Figure 13-14 By William Durkee and Roy Man n. Portsmout h

st udy.

Figure 13-15 By William Durkee and Roy Ma nn. Portsmouth

st udy.

Fig ure 13-16 By Charles A. Blessing. Phoenix study.

A merican Insti tute of Architects Regional/Urban Design Assistance Team

223

l__J

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Fi gure 13-17 By Harry Eggink. Spatial zoning st udy.

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Figu re 13-18 By Harry Eggink. Site form investigation.

224

"J

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Public Design

Figure 13-19 By Harry Eggink. Site study.

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WORKING SKETCHES

Figure 13-20 By Harry Eggink . Elkh art, Indiana, urban design

study.

In an attemp t to involve community m em bers in the

de sign pr ocess, design er s of ten deve lop id eas an d
d raw in gs in a p u blic, accessib le space. Exp lor ator y
d raw ings can b e an effective means of in formally
e liciting the p arti cipa tion of the co m m un ity . These
sketches may u se fam iliar d raw ing con ven tions w hi le
staying loose in style.

Working Sketches

225

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Re gional Se Uing

Cl tma ttc Facto rs

Fi gure 13-21 By Harry Eg gink. Climate and solar site studies.

Dr aw in gs pu bl is hed in reports or com m unity

n ewspap er s usu all y ne ed to be m ore carefull y
planned . To avoid th e bore dom or in ti m id at ion of
confro nting the public with too many d raw in gs, ea ch
drawi ng mu st clea rly and economically com m unica te
the relation sh ips am ong many design con cerns.
Axon ometric or birds-eye p erspective views, such as
those sho w n on th ese tw o pa ge s, appe ar to be the
mo st easily understood by the publi c. Although oft en
ba sed on carefully co nstr ucted underlay drawings,
these illus trations are rendered in fr eehand so th at
they ap pear less form al and invite p ublic di scussion .

Figure 13-22 By Harry Eggink. Programming diagrams.

226

Public D esign

Figure 13-23

By Harry Eggink . Program devel opment st udies.

Working Sketc hes

227

Figure 13-25 Urban analysis, Athens, Ohio.

Work ing Ske tches

229

14 Conclusion

rch itectu re and the ot he r art s h old a vital

p lace in the future of our cult ur e, cr eativity
be ing one of th e m ost im porta nt fact ors.
Looking ove r th is boo k, it occurs to m e th at
mo st of w hat I have written dea ls w ith how or what
could be don e an d not so m uch w ith why.

T he im p or tan ce of th e a r ts to n ational survi val

was p ointed out clearly in th e 195 1 Massey Report
comm issioned by the Canad ian governm en t:
W hen M r. Churchill in 1940 called the British peo
ple to their sup reme effort, he invoked the traditions
of his coun try, and based his appeal on the comm on
backg round from whi ch had grov-m the character
and the way of life of his fellow coun trymen. In the
spiritual heritage of Great Br itain was found the
qu icken ing force to meet the menacing facts of that
perilous hour. No thing could ha ve been more "practi
cal" than tha t appeal to thought and emo tion.. ..
Can ada became a na tional entity becaus e of certain
habits of mind and convictions wh ich its people
shared and wou ld not surrender. O ur country was
sustained th rough difficult times by the powe r of this
spir itua l legacy. It will flourish in the future in pro
portion as we believe in ou rselves. It is the intangi
bles wh ich give a nat ion no t only its essential charac
ter but its vitality as well. What may seem
unimpor tan t or even irrelevant un der the pressu re of
daily life may well be the thi ng that endures, which
may give a comm unity its power to survive. B ut tra
dition is always in the making and from this fact we
draw a second assum ption: the inn umerable institu
tions, m oveme nts, and individuals interested in the
arts, letters and scien ces throughou t our country are
now form ing the na tional tradition of the futur e. l

Architects are pro blem solvers , but the p ro blems

of architectur e, like th e problems of our society, run
muc h d eeper tha n the so -called p rac tica l level. A
building shou ld reinforce the spirit as we ll as provide
sa fety and security. Architecture m ust still be an art
as w ell as a scie nce.

Visual com m unicat ion is in the midst of sw eeping

changes in both m ethodology and scope. Comp uter
and vi deo technologies are obvio usly p rovi d ing the
designer w ith new graphic tools of a mazing power
and speed : computer-aided dr aw ing systems that cut
prod uction tim e to a third of conven tional draft ing;
expert or semi-expert system s th at bring to bear the
power fu l me m ory of the com puter; vide o sim ulation
of th e experience of m oving th rough an environment
pro po sed by th e designer. Th ese sam e technologies
are revolut ionizing th e role of visual com m unication
in the public dom ain ; graph ic techniq ues once held
as s kills of th e spec ia list are beco mi ng availa ble to
anyone with a com p uter ; early exp osure to com puter
graph ics and tel ev ision w ill prov ide fu ture gene ra
tions w ith unp recede nte d vis ual liter acy.
In these earl y sta ges of ad opti ng n ew tech nolo
gie s, it is co m m on to foc us on how we can accom
p lish va rious tas ks w ith these machi nes. We becom e
fasc inated with de velop ing har dw are an d software
that can do more and do it faster. As I suggest ed at
the ope nin g of this con cl usion , in or der to gain for
o urselve s th e full be nefits of science, w e m u st be
eq ua lly focused on w hy we ar e using th ese technolo
gies. A deeper u nd ers tand ing of the purposes of
de sign is the key to de veloping n ew capabiliti es th at
are truly supp ortive of our asp ira tions. As Lew is
M um for d w ro te:
N o matter how completely techn ics relies upon the
objective procedures of the sciences, it does not form
an independent system like the universe: it exists as
an eleme nt in human culture and it prom ises well or
ill as the social gro ups tha t exploit it promise well or
ill. The machine itself makes no demands and holds
ou t no prom ises: it is the human spirit that makes
dema nds and k eeps pro mises.2

231

UOIs n[:JlIO:J

zz

"Mil!,' ]ilPOW rainduioj 'ilJOOW U e lj ~ e N '\ 8 E-'7I ilm6~::l

Fi gure 14-4 By Nath an Moore. Computer model vi ew.

THE CHALLENGES
In ar chitect ur al ed ucation th e temp ta tio n to focus on
the con tr asts betw een trad itiona l an d d igital m edia
see m s irresis tible. On the one ha nd is the belief that
dig ital m ed ia will no t only prov ide new opport u nities
b ut re nde r other media obso lete. On th e othe r sid e is
an equally strong commi tm en t to th e impo rtan ce of
th e q ua li tat ive impacts of trad itional media . The res o
lu tion of these con tras ting po sitions lies in tw o cr iti
ca l persp ec ti ves- the q ues tio n of app ropriat ene ss of
media and the concep t of m edia int egrati on .

Fig ure 14-5 Devel opment sket ches, Hammonds Resid ence, House

+ House, archi t ect s.

The Chall enges

233

Fi gure 14- 6 Comput er-rendered view, Hammond s Resi dence, House + House, architect s.

Appropriateness

Int egration

W hen Ludw ig von Ber ta lanfy, a p ioneer in gene ra l

sy stems theory, w as asked w hether sys te m s p hi loso
p hy rendered sc ie n tific p h ilo sop h y obs ole te, he
offe red an ana logy that w ou ld apply eq ually w ell to
the eva luation of com m un icatio n m edi a . He poin ted
o u t tha t sail -pow e red sh ips had lon g si n ce bee n
replaced by d iesel- and at omi c-pow ered ocea n liner s
for in tercon tin en ta l caq~ o tra nsp or t. However, th is
d id not invalidate the pr inc iples of sailing. Sailboa ts
con tin ue to play an import an t role in spor t and recre
atio n , w hile fu el-pow ered ships con tinu e to be devel
oped to meet a range of com m ercial tasks.

Th e m ore prom ising perspec tive exploits th e co mple

m en ta ry fu n ct ion ali tics of tra d itional a nd d igit al
m ed ia . If w e focus on the lin k betw een th e media
hu m a n though t- sign ifica nt possi b ili ties begin to
e m erge . Rev isiting th e process of grap hic th in k in g
di scussed at the ou tset of this book, we ca n see the
im age on the com pu ter sc reen as on ly one compo
nen t of th at pr ocess. In itse lf th e d igital perspect ive
vi ew is m eaningless. It is th e me aning th e d esigne r
attaches to the ima ge th at ma tters, a nd the rich ne ss
of th a t m eani ng va ries d epe nd ing o n the d ep th or
br ead th of the d esign er 's percep tion . Powers of per
cep tion , in tu rn , are re la ted to th e b read th of th e
d esign er 's expe rience with re lating a va riety of expe
ri enc es of a rchitect ur e with v isua l re p resent a tion .
Th is tra in of d ep en d en cies b rings u s to fr ee hand
s ketc hing an d its rol e as a tool for ga inin g u nd er
stand ing of the ro les of arch itec ture a nd en v iron
m en t.

In grap hic com mu nication, fr eeha nd d raw ing con

tinues to be an evoca tive, com for table, and effec tive
su p p or t for id eat ion for ind ivid ua l d esi gn ers or
d esign tea m s. Ske tc hing h el ps one to ta kc in and
"digest" enviro n me n tal exp erien ces. T he differences
betw een media such as charcoal , paper , clay, or pa in t
promote di ffer ent pe rcep tions of the d evelopm en t of
a de sign and afford a tactile, kines thetic stim ulus for
tho ugh t.

Bu t com p u te r grap hics have a d ecid ed ed ge for

ease and speed in the app lica tion of co nv en tio ns suc h
as ortho grap h ic, paraline, or perspective p rojection .
Th ree-di mensional m od eling app lications ha ve devel
op ed to a point w he re m od els of spaces can be
defined , illu mi na ted and virtually traversed concur
ren t w ith desig n studies.

234

Conclusion

U ltim ately, graphic thin king is a bout the m arvel

of h um an thou gh t. Media come to life and reveal pos
sibilities for design to the exten t th ey refl ect and pro
voke thought and im aginat ion .

Figure 14-7 Comp uter model view.

Figure 14-8 Sketched interpretati ons.

The Challenges

235

Notes

Preface to the Thi rd Edition

Chapter 3

1. Pe te rs, Thomas J., a nd Wa terma n, Rob ert H ., Jr . In Search

of Excellence. New York : Ha rp er & Row , 1982.

1. Webster 's New World Dictionary, 2d ed. New York : William

Collin s & Wor ld Publishing Co., Inc., 1976.

Preface to the First Edition

2. Arnh eim , Art an d Visual Percept ion. A Psychology of th e

Creative Eye, p . 33 .

1. Fro m "T h e Nee d of Percep tio n fo r th e Percep tion of

Needs, " keynote sp eech by Dr. H e in z Von Foers te r deli v
e re d at th e 197 5 Na tio n a l Co n ve n tion o f th e Am erican
Ins titu te of Ar chi tects, At lan ta , Ge orgia.

3. Loc kard , Wi lli am Kir by . D esign Drawing. Tu cs o n , AZ:

Pep pe r Publishing, 197 4 , p . 124 .
4 . Ja coby, He lmut. Architectura l Drawings. New York: Pra ege r
Pu b lishe rs, Inc., 1965.
5 . G u nde lfinge r, O n-the-spot D rawing, p p. 6 1- 62 .

Chapter 1

6. Lockard , Design D rawing, p . 26 2.

Broadbent , G e off rey ,. D esign in Arch itectu re. New York :
Joh n Wil ey & Sons, Inc., 1973, p . 34 3.

Chapter 4
2 . Ha m ilton , Edward A. Graph ic Design for the Com puter Age.
Ne w Yor k: Van Nostra nd Reinho ld Company, 1970 , p . 16.
3. M c Kim , Rob e r t H . Experi en ces in Visual
Monterey, CA: Brooks/C ole, 1972 , p . 22.

T hink ing.

4 . Arnheim , Ru do lf. Visual Th inki ng. Ber keley : Un iversit y o f

Californ ia Pre ss, 1969, p . 13,
5. Arn heim , Rudo lf "G esta lt Psyc ho logy and Artistic Form ."
I n A spect s of Form , e d ite d by La n cc lo t Law Wh yt e .
Bloomi ngto n : Ind ia na U n ive rsity Press, 1966 , p . 20 3.

1. Bonta, J ua n Pablo . "Notes for 11 Semiot ic Theory of G rap h ic

La ngua ges. " Pap e r p re se n te d to th e Int e rn a ti o na l
Conf er ence on Semioti cs, Ulm , Ge rm an y, 1972.

2. McKim , Experiences in Visual Thin hing, p . 12'1.

3. Bruner, Jerome. On Kn ow ing, Essays for th e Left [fu nd.
Camb rid ge , M A: Be lk n a p Pre ss o f 1Jd( vard Un ive rs . t y
Press, 1962, p . 123.
4. Arnh eim , "Ges ta lt Psyc ho logy and Arti stic Fo r. u . . p . 20'1.

6. McKim , Exp eriences in Visual Think ing, p . 40 .

5. Brun er , On Kn ow ing: Essays for the Left l Iand, p. 182 .

7. Arn heim, "Gesta lt Psy ch ology a nd Ar tistic For m ," p . 206.

6. McKi m , Experiences in Visual Think ing, pp. 1-2 1 1-26 ,

8. Leven s, A . S. Graph ics in Engin eer ing D esign. Ne w York :

John W ile y & So ns, Inc., 1962 , p . 4 15.

Chapter 5

9, Arnh eim, Rud olf. Art an d Visual Perception: A Psychology of

the Crea tive by e. Be rkel ey : Un ive rsi ty of Ca lifor n ia lrccs
1954 , p. 46.

1. All of the su ccessf u l ar chitectura l d e si gn ers t hn t I h uv .:

interview ed stressed th e im po rtan ce o f s ke tc hing a b ility in
their work .

2 . Ped s, Fred e r ick . Ego , H unger, and A ggression . New York :

Ran do m House, 1969 .
York :

4. Cu llen, G o rd on . Townscape. Lo nd o n . The Ar c hite c t u ral

Press, 1961.
5. G un d e lfi nge r, John . As quo ted in On -the-spot D rawing, by
Nick M egli n . New York : Watson Gu p tiII Publications, Inc.,
1969 , p . 62 .
Drawing Ca rtoons, N ew
6 . Fo lke s, Mich a el.
Wa tsonGup till Pu b lica tions, Inc., 1963, p . 19 .

Chapter 6
1. Bes t, G ord o n. "Me t hod and Intention in Arc hit e ct ura l

Chapter 2

3. Dow ner, Richard. D ra w ing Buildi ngs, N ew

Watson Gupti ll P ub licat ion s, Inc. , 1962 , p . 9 .

1. La rson , Tom . Per sonal com munic ati on.

Des ig n." In Desig n M eth ods in A rchitectu re, edi ted b y

Geoffre y Broad be n t an d Anthony Ward. New York: Ge orge
Wit tenborn, Inc., 1969, p . 15 5.
2. Broad ben t, Design in A rchitecture, p . 365 .
3 . M c Kim , Experiences in Visua l Thi nk ing; p. 105.
4 . Mc Kim , Expe riences in Visua l Thin k ing, p . 127
5 . Ritte l, Ho r s t. "Som e Prin ciple s for t h e Des ign of an
Ed u ca tio na l Syst e m fo r Design ." Pa r i I, D!vIG N ewsletter.
Be r ke ley, CA: Design Me tho d s Group , De c. 1970 .
6. Pc na , W ill ia m M . Problem See k ing: An Archi tect ural
Program ming Primer. Bos ton : Cahnc rs Books Inte rn at io na l,
In c., 1977 , p p 170-179 .

Yo rk :

237

Chapter 7

3.

1. Koeb erg , Don, and Bagna ll, J im . Th e Universal Traveler. Los

Altos , CA : Wi lliam Kau fm ann , Inc., 1976 . p . 9 .

4 . Cherr y, Colin. On H um an Com m unication. Ca m b rid ge, MA:

M IT Pr ess, 1966, p . 4 .

2 . McKim , Exp eriences in Visual T hinking, p . 45.

5. J e n c ks, C ha rles. LeCo rb usi er and the Tra gic V ie w o f

A rchitectur e. C a mbr idge, MA: H arva rd U n iversity Pres s ,
1973.

3. Row an , H elen . "T h e Creat ive Peo p le : H ow to Spo t Them ."

THIN K. New Yor k : IBM Corp. , N ov.- Dec. 1962 , vo l. 28 ,
no 10, p . 15.

Chapter 12

4 . Webst er 's New Wo rld D icti ona ry .

5. March , Lionel , and Stea dman, Ph ilip . T he Geom etry of

En vironment. Lon d on: RIBA Pu bli cation s Limited , 1971, p .
28 .
6. Bee by, T ho mas H. "T he Gra m m ar of Orna m en t/O rn am ent
as Gram m a r." VI A II1, T he Jo u rn al of the Grad ua te School
of Fine Ar ts, Un iversity of Pennsy lva n ia , 1978, p. 11.
7. Bee by,

"T h e Gra mm a r
G r am mar," p p . 11 -1 2 .

of

M cKim , Experien ces in V isual Th inking, p. 127 .

Orn am ent/Orn am en t

1. Broa d be n t, D esign in A rchi tectur e, p . 358 .

2. Caud ill , Will ia m W. A rchitecture by Tea m . Ne w Yor k: Van

Nostrand Re in h old Co m p an y, 197 1.
3. For a d escr ip tio n of brai n sto r m in g m e thod s, see G or d on ,
W illi am J. Synetics: Th e Developme nt of Creative Cap acity.

New York : Macm illa n Pu bli sh ing Co ., In c., 1968.

as

8. Carl , Peter. "Towa rds A Plura list Ar ch itectur e ." Progressiv e

A rch itectu re. Feb. 1973, p . 84 .
9. Nor berg-Sch u lz, C. Existence, Space a nd A rchitectu re. N ew
York: Pra eger Publish ers, In c. , 1971, p . 109.
10. H anks, Kurt , Be lliston , La rry, and Ed w ards, D ave . D esign
Yoursel f. Los Altos, CA : Wi lliam Ka ufma nn , Inc ., 1977, p .
112 .

Chapter 8
1. Row an , "T he Creat ive Peo p le: How to Spo t T hem, " p. 11.
2 . Rowan, "T he Cr eati ve People : H ow to Sp o t Them ," p . 13.
3. Pye , D avid. Th e N a ture of Design. New Yor k : Re in ho ld
Publish in g Cor po r at ion, 1964 , pp . 65- 66.
4 . M cKim , Experiences in Visu al Th in k ing, p. 4 7.
5. Bro ad be nt , De sign in Architectu re, p. 34 1.
6 . Broad bent, D esign in Archit ecture, p. 34 3.
7. Alexa n d e r, C h ri sto p h er, Is h ikawa , Sa ra, an d Silve rste in ,
Mu rray. A Pal/em Language. New Yor k : Ox fo rd U n ivers ity
Pr ess , 1977, pp . xliii-xliv.

Chapter 9
1. Lockard, D esign D rawing. p . 119.
2 . Pena , Problem See k ing.' An Architect ura l Progra mming
Pri mer, p. 165.

Chapter 13
1. Dr u c ke r, Pe te r F. Th e Age of D isco nt inuity. New Yor k :
H a r p e r & Row , 1968. Toffl er, Alv in . Fut u re Shock . New
York : Ra nd om Ho u se, 1970 . Ben n is, Wa r ren G ., a nd Sla ter ,
Philip F. T he Temporary Society. Ne w Yo r k: Ha rp e r & Row ,
1968.
2 . T h es e tw o renova tio n p roj ec ts ad ap ted large old er struc

tur es fo r use as sh op p ing co m p lexes in th e w aterfr on t are a

of Sa n Fr a ncis co. T h ey h ave bot h be e n v er y success fu l
socia lly, aes th etically, a nd econ o m ica lly.
3. Bur n s , J im . Co nnec tions: Ways to D iscove r a nd Re a liz e
Co m mu nity Pot ential s. Stro u ds b ur g , PA: D ow de n, '
Hutch inson & Ross, 1979 . p. 13 .
4. D ow ling, M. I. , Eggin k , H. A ., Lei sh , 8., an d O 'Rio rda n , J.
East Cam bridge St udy. Ca m b r id ge , MA: G rad ua te Sch ool of
D es ign, H a rvard U n iversity, 1976.
5. H a lprin , Lawr en ce . From Process : A rchi tecture No . 4
La w re nce Halp rin . Ed ite d b y C h in g-Yu C ha n g. Tok yo :
Pr ocess Arch itects P u b lish in g Co m p a ny Ltd ., 1978.
6 . Bu rn s, Co nn ections : Ways to D iscover and Realize Community
Poten tials, pp . 2 1- 30 .

7. T h e Am e r ican In sti tute of A r ch ite cts est a b lish ed t h e

Region a l/U r b an Design Ass ista nc e Tea m Pr ogra m sever a l
yea rs ago as a se rv ice p rovided by th e profes sio n for th e
p u b lic. In its sh or t h istory, th e p r og ra m h as se rv ed cities
th rou g h o u t ou r co u n try w it h a co m b in ed p o p ul a tio n o f
over 10 milli on peopl e.

Chapter 14
Chapter 11
1. M c Kim , Experiences in Visu al Think ing, p . 31.
2 . Kub ie , Law r enc e. Ne u rotic D ist orti on of the Creat ive Process.
G ar d en C ity, NY. Fa rr a r, Strau s & G iro ux , In c. (Noo nday
Press), 1961.

238

Not es

1. Report o f th e Royal Com m ission on N ational Developm ent in

the A rts, Le tters an d Scien ces. O tt aw a , Canada : Kin g' s
Prin te r, 1951.
2 . M u m for d , Lew is . Technics a nd Ci vil iz at io n. N ew York:
Harcour t, Brace & Wo rld , In c., 196 2. p . 6 .

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reprint ed by Benjam in Blom , In c., 1969. Distributed by Arno
Press, Inc.

3-27, 5-14 : Courtesy of M ichael F. Gebh a r t , T he Arch itects

Colla bor ati ve.
5-5, 7-5, 8-30 : Rep r in ted from atelie r rue d e Sev res 35, by
Gu ille rm o Jullian de la Fue n te a nd An th ony Ea rd ley, a cat a
logu e from a n exhibition of p roject s ketc he s a nd no tes from
LeCorbu sier to G uille rmo Jullian de la Fuente p ublished by the
Co lleg e of Architecture in colla bora tion with th e U niversity
Art Galler y, Uni ver sit y of Ken tucky, Lexington.
7-6: Fr om Rich a rd Sa u l Wur m an a n d Euge n e Feldman . The
N otebc ok s and Drawings of Louis I. Kahn. Ca m bridge, MA : MIT
Press, 1962.
5-1' By cour tesy of Archi tectur al Pub lishers Art e m is, Zur ich .
Published in Louis I. Kahn . Copyright 1975 .
5-3, 5-9: Cour tesy of Edw in F. Harris, Jr., ' 59. From Th e St uden t
Publica tion of the School of D esign, vol. 10, n um ber 2 , North
Car olina Sta te University, Raleigh , NC .
5-6: From Papadaki , Sta mo . The Worh of Oscar Nie meyer. New '
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1950 .

1-17: From Cybernetic Serendipity: Th e Com puter and the A rts.

New York: Praeger Publishe rs, Inc., 1968 .

5-7, 5-19: Cour tes y of Ja mes W. Anderson and Lan dplus West ,
lnc., Lan d Pla nne rs/Landscape Arc hitects.

1-24, 5-2, 11-2 : Co ur tesy of Da vid T. Stieglitz, Stieglitz Stieglitz

Tries, Architects, Buf falo , NY.

5-8: Reprinted with th e permi ssion of Law re nce Halprin . From

The RS VP Cycles: Creative Processes in the Human Envi ron ment .
New York: George Braziller, Inc ., 1969.

1-27: Rep r in ted fr om th e Jul y 1978 issu e of Progr essive

A rchitecture, copy righ t 1978, Rein hold Publishing Compa ny.
2-2, 5-20, 5-22, 5-23 , 7-29: Rep rod uced by perm ission of Lisa
Kolber.

5-10, 5-12,7-7: Courtesy of Gera ld Exline. From Williams, A.

Richa rd . T he Urban Stage (Stu d y Dra ft ). Champagne-Urb an a,
IL, 11:1976 .

2-3, 7-18: Reprin ted w ith the perm ission of Pr oces s Arc hitects
Pub lish ing Com pa ny Ltd ., Tokyo , and Law r en ce Ha lpr in.
Copyr ight 1978. From Process: A rchit ect ur e N o. 4 Lawre nce
Halprin.

5-13: Reprin ted wi th th e p erm ission of Pro cess Ar chit ec ts

Publishing Co m pa ny Ltd ., Tok yo, a nd Roma ld o Giurgola ,
Copy righ t 1977 . Fro m Process: Arch itectu re No. 2 Mitchell
Giurgola Architects.

2-4: Rep rod uce d by perm issio n of Ka rl Brown .

5-17: Drawing by a rch ite ct Hu gh Stu b bins , from his book

Archit ecture: The D esign Experience. New Yor k: John Wil ey a nd
Son s, 1976.

2-5: Reprinte d w ith th e perm ission of Des ign Pub lica tion s, In c.
From the Ma rc h 1975 issue of Indu strial Design M agaz ine.
2-7, 5-2 1, 5-26, 5-27: Repr odu ced by pe rmi ssion of Patrick P.
Na Il.

5-25: Reproduced by per m ission of Thom as A. Ch eesm an .

2-38: Rep rod uced by permission of Todd Ca rlson .

7-11, 7-12: Fr om "T he G ram ma r of Orn a m ent /Orn am e n t as

Gra m m a r " by T ho m as H . Beeb y, publi sh ed in VI A II I, The
jo urn al of th e G rad ua te Schoo l of Fine Arts, Un ive rsity of
Pen n sy lvan ia . Re p rin ted w ith th e p ermission of Th om as H.
Beeby.

3- 1: Rende ring of the Studen t Un ion Hou sing, University of

Albe rta a t Ed m on ton , Ar c hitects: A. J . Dia m ond a nd Barton
Myer s in as soc iation with R. 1. Wilkin , Arc hitect, a nd Bart on
Myers, Pa rtn er-in-Cha rge. Rende ring by A. J. Diamo nd .

5-24 Reprodu ce d by pe rm ission of Jam es A. Walls.

3-2 1: Cour tesy of T homa s P. Tr uax . From a resear c h s tu d y,

O hio Univers ity Schoo l of Arc hitectur e a nd Planning, 1974 .

7-28: Reprin ted fr om N orbe rg-Schulz . C . Ex is tence, Spa ce &

Architecture. New Yor k: Praeger Publishe rs, In c., 197 1.

3-24, 3-25: Reprint ed fr om H el m u t Ja coby Architectural

D raw ings. New Yor k: Pr aeger Publis hers, Inc., 1965.

7-32: Cour tesy of Th omas P. Tru ax. From m aster 's thesis proj
ec t, O hio Un ive rsity, 1975.

242

8-14 : Co ur tesy of Mar k S. Sowa ts ky. Fro m Atla n tis 2, the s is

proj ect , Co llege of Arch itec tur e a nd Pla n n ing , Ball Sta te
Uni ver sity, In d ian a , 1977.
10- 12, 10- 13 , 10-14, 10-1 7 : Re pr od uced by pe rm issio n of
Raymond Ga et a n.
1015 , 10-16 : Rep roduced by permi ssio n of T im Treman .
12-3, 12-4 : Reprin ted w ith the perm issio n of W illiam W.
Ca ud ill, FAIA, Ca ud ill Row le tt Sco tt , fro m hi s boo k
A rch itecture by Team . Ne w York: Van Nos tra n d Rei nh old
Compa ny, 197 1.
13-5, 13-6 : D ra w n by Harry A. Egg ink. From the East
Cam bridge Study, by M icha el Ju sti n Dow ling, Ha rry A. Eggink,
Br uce Leish , and Joan O ' Riord an , Urba n Design Prog ra m ,
Grad uate Sch ool of Design, Ha rva rd U nive rsity, 1976 .
13-7,1 3-8,1 3-9, 13-10,1 3- 11. Reprin ted w ith the permission of
the p u blishers and Steve Levi ne fro m Connections: Way s to
D iscover and Rea lize Com m unity Potential by Jim Burns.
Co py r ight 19 79 by Do w den , Hu tchin so n & Ross, In c.,
Publish er, Str ou dsburg, PA.
13-13: Repri nt ed w ith th e pe rm ission of Pet er Ha sse lm a n, AlA,
from th e Atla ntic City Stud y. Ame rican Ins titute of Archi tect s,
Regiona l/Urban Design Assista nce Tea m .
13-12: Rep r in ted with the pe rm ission of Joh n De smond , FAIA,
fro m Phoenix Study. Ameri ca n In s titute of Ar c hitects,
Regio nal/Urba n Des ign Assis ta nce Team .

13-1 4 , 13-15: Rep r inted by th e pe rm iss io n of W. P_ D ur ke e,

U rba n Design As socia tes, Pittsb urg h , a nd Roy Ma n n , Roy
Man n Asso ci a tes , Ca mb rid ge, MA , from Portsmou th Study.
Ame ri ca n In s ti tute of Arch itec ts, Regio na l/ U rba n Des ign
Assistance Tea m.
13-16: Repr in ted wi th th e pe rm ission of C ha rle s A. Blessi ng,
FAIA , fr o m Phoenix Study. Ame rican In s titute o f Ar c h ite c ts,
Regional/Urban Design Assistan ce Tea m .
13-17, 13-18: Draw n by H ar ry Eggin k. Pre lim ina ry ske tch es for
Baske tba ll Hall of Fame a t New Castle, IN.
13-19: Draw n by Ha rry Eggink . Roga n Hou se, Elkhar t, IN.
13-20 : Drawn by Ha r ry Eggink . Ea st Ba n k Dev e lop me nt for
Elkh a rt, IN .
13-21 , 13-22, 13-23: Reprin ted w it h th e pe rm iss ion of Harr y
Eggin k fro m Aleph Park , a co m p ute r-based, high -tech , indu s
trial si te pla n ni ng ca se stud y (Ha rry A. Eggink a nd Robe rt J.
Koes te r, p roject di rec to rs ; Mi chel e Mou nayar, p rin cipa l con
s u lta n t]. M u nc ie , IN : Ba ll Sta te U n iver si ty, Co llege of
Arc hitec tu re a nd Pla n n ing a n d Ce n te r for Ene rgy
Resea rch/Ed ucati o n/Se rvice, 1984 .
14- 1, 14-2, 14-3, 14-4: Rep rod uced by pe rmi ssio n of Na tha n
Moo re.
14-5: By David Th om pson Design . Reproduc ed by perm ission
of Hou se + Ho use Arc hitect s.
14-6: Co m puter ren d e rin g by Shaw n Brown . Rep roduced by
pe rm iss io n of House + H ou se Arch itects.

Illustration Credits

243

Index
Aalto, Alva r, 3, 15 1

Abstraction :

ap plied, 86

and experi ence, 83

and pro blem so lving , 113

Da Vin ci, Leonardo ,

Des ign :

br eif. 212-2 13

com m un ication , 14-15

Activity pa tte rn s, 96

as life tim e process, 198

Aestheti c orde r, 77

objectives, 80

Alexander, Ch ristop he r, 156-157

p roble m s, 87

Ana logies , 144-147

process, 180-18 1

Ana lysi s cards, 20 6-207

Arti cu lation , 165-166

De ta ils, 174

Directio n , 7 1

D iscove ry, 14 1

Balance, 103

Di scr im ina tion , 34

Beh av ior, 78

Dis tilla tio n , 70

Book or gani zati on , 13

Distortion, 128-129

Bra ins torm ing, 210

Div er sity, 105

Building program , 87

Doodles, 36

Cartoons, 34

Drawi ng ev alua tion, 170

Dr awing, 17

Cha rac te r, 73

Cha llenges, 233 -23 4

Econo my of express ion , 74

Climate, 95

Effec tive Com m u nicatio n , 11

Commun ica tion in the design process, 182

Ela bo ra tion , 173

Communit y design , 2 19-22 1

Ene rgy, 70

Communit y workshop process, 220

Env iro nm en ta l p rob lem -so lvi ng , 187

Comparison, 82

Env ironment for think ing/desig ning, 190

Co mp rehensive views, 40

Eq u ipme nt, 190

Co ncept for m ation , 149

Escape, 147

Co ncep tua l/pe rcep tua l th in kin g, 200

Eva luatio n , 167-169

Concrete :

Eva lua tio n crite ria , 168

im ages, 40 , 171

Exp erien ce reversa l, 124

thin king, 200

Exp lo ra tion, 115

Cond itioni ng, m enta l/p hysica l, 19 1

Extraction , 82

Cons iste ncy, 67

Con soli dation , 17 1-172

Fantasy a nalogy, 146

Cons truc tion process, 97

Fig ur e-ground d raw ings, 125

Con tex t variab les, 82

Focus , 71

Cost-be nefit a na lys is, 170

For m , 100

Crea tiv ity, 70

Fre e hand draw ing , 20-26

244

O rnamen ta l gra mmar, 120-123

Ga mes, v isu al -m e nta l, 37

O ve rcom ing obs tacles , 196-197

G rap hic:

gra m ma r,

~ 6 - 5 8

Para llel projections, 46

gra m m ars, a ltern ate, 58

Pa r ti, 149

lan gu age : 56

Patte rn la ngua ge, 156-157

app ly ing, 64 , 206 -20 7

Per ce p tion , 3 1-32

pi tfa lls of, 64

Perc ep tua l im age, 8-9

G ra phic Th inking:

applied to design , 183

Persona l a na logy, 144-145

Perspective , 41 -43

co m m unica tio n process, 8-9

Phy si ca l be ha vio r, 90

op tion s, 184

Phys ica l site ana lys is, 98

role in archit ecture, 12

Plan sec tio n , 48

tra d ition , 1

Plan ske tches, 48

G ra p hic vocab ula ry, 59-63

Prepara tio n for d esign ing, 190-191

G row th of ideas, 134

Pr iorities, d esign , 9 1

Hiera rchy, 106

Process, 179

Pro blem-s olv ing p ro cess, 180

Progra m , b uilding, 76

Ideagra m , 149

Pro porti on, 102

Ide ntities , 59

Pro to types, 150-153

Ide nt ity, 67

Pu blic de sign , 2 17

Im ages, s tru ct ur in g, 130

Puzzles, visu a l, 36-37

Im agin ati on , 35

Py ra m id of possi bilities, 134

Inc reasing effec tive ness, 147-148

In d ivid ua l d es ign , 189

Q ua lita tive rep resen ta tion , 44

Inve nti on , 142-143

In viti ng co m munication, 2 19

Ran d om thoughts, 148

Rece nteri ng, 103

LeCorb usier , 2 , 116, 152 , 159 ,206

Red uctio n , 70

Linew ork , 24

Refres hme n t, 70

Rela tions h ips, 89

Manipu lati on ve rb s, 135

Repetition , 104

Ma ss, 103

Repres e nta tion:

Matrix, 154

e le me n ta ry fo rms, 40

Mod ifie rs, 60

qualit a tive, 44

Mood ,73

Reversals, 124-127

Ne ed,88

Rhy thm , 104

Ne tw or k diagra m s, 20 8-209

Note books, 1

Sca le, 102

Obj ec tiv es, d esign , 92

Se lec tivit y, 68

O bserva tion , 20

Sen se aw ar e ness , 148

Ob servatio ns, co m bin ing, 27

Sim ulta neity, 13

O pe n-end ed im ages, 116-1 17

Site a na lys is, 98

O ppor tu nity-seek ing, 115

Site se lection, 94

Sec tion s ke tches, 47

O rder ing images, 130- 131

Index

245

Sketch:

Ton es, 25

brsic elem ent s, 24-26

Top ological con tinu ity, 118-119

building a , 22

Tracing, 28

details, 26

Tra nsform ation , 118

structu re , 24

program to sch emat ic desi gn , 82-83

tech nique, 50

tones, 25

Sket ches, ab stract, 82

U ni ty, 105

Urban design, 222 -223

Ske tch-no te book, 18

Skill develop m e nt, 17

Va ribl es in design, 86-87

Sourc es of solution s, 107

Verificat ion, 163

Spac e/order, 100-10 1

a nd exper ie nce, 175

Stim u lat ion , 131

Ver tical se ction , 47

Style, 68

Vision , 5-6

Symbolic analogy, 148

Visual:

Synectics, 148

com mu nication , 4

percep tion, 13

Team :

th inki ng, 6

design , 203

tech niq ues , 2 11-215

Visual -me nta l ga m es , 36

Vitality, 70

Thinking:

abstract , 192-193

Wright, Fran k Lloyd, 118, 150, 199

concrete, 192- 193

pr iva te, 194-195

public , 194-195

reve rsals, 117

24 6

Index

Yin and yang, 124