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A Text Book of Classical Algebra and Calculus: Contents Lesson Unit I
A Text Book of Classical Algebra and Calculus: Contents Lesson Unit I
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1.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES Our Aim is to learn about the expansion of a Binomial Theorem for a rational index using vandermondes theorem. Further we aim at learning problems to be solved using the different types in Binomial series.
1.1 BINOMIAL THEOREM 1.1.1 Vandermondes theorem If n is a positive integer, then (p+q)n=pn+nc1pnq1+nc2 pn-2q2+nc3pn-3q3 +-------+ qr for all values of p and q. Proof. If p and q are positive integers, we have
2 2 (1+x)p = 1 + . 1 x . +. .+ x. . +. x. n + .n . . . (1)
p 1
p !
p n!
2 (1+x)q = 1 + . 1 x . +2 . .+ x. . +. x .n + .n . . . (2)
q 1
q !
q n!
1) Where pr = p(p-1)(p-2). ( p - r -
1) qr = q(q-1)(q-2). ( q - r -
and
!
is
1 n ! p pn + n ! 1 ( ! -n )1
n -1
+q
! n! n q 1 p n+ - 2 2n ( ! )2 ! n- 32
(! n- 3 3)
+p
q + ..... n . . .q
.q .......
1 ( n 1 n) ( npn + p + -1 n q 1 n! 1 ! 2
1n ) n( n 2 ) p - 2p n + 2 q - 3n + ! 3 !
q n +. . . . q .....
\ (p+q)n=pn+nc1pn-1q1+nc2pn-2q2+..+qn Book Work 2 1.1.2 Binomial Theorem for a rational Index Statement If n is a rational number and -1 < x < 1 (i.e) x < 1, the sum of the series 1+nx+
n( 1n )2 (n 1 )n 2( 2 n ) -( n 1 n ) - ( n 2 -) n. . -r ( 1 )r x + + x . + . . . x+ . . . . 2 ! 3 ! ! r . is the
n 1
n ! r!
nr r x ur +1 r! = nr -1 r -1 ur x (r 1 ) !
= =
nr (r 1 ) n !r \ n!=n(n-1)! r -1 r! n 1r x
nr 1 . x . nr -1 r n- r+ 1 .x r
nr =n- r+ 1 nr -1
ur +1 n - r + 1 = .x ur r
ur +1 n= ur r
r 1+ n+ 1 r = x - x r r
=
u ur n +1
n +1 -1 n n r
1 i r +m = l i -m 1x \l x x
= -1 x Qr 0 = x
\r u + r1 a x= u r
1 r
.+
. .
.+
f( +
( p + )q + p ( q ) n ( p + )q + p ( q ) )p = 1 + q1 . + 2 .x + 2 . x +. 3 3 + .x . + x .+ 1 ! 2 ! 3 ! !n
are also absolutely convergent if |x|<1 \ f(p) +f(q) can be multiplied term by term and the resulting series is also absolutely convergent \ The coefficient of xn in the product of f(p) and f(q) is
pn p p p q -1 n q1 2n n 3q n q 2 + + + 3- + + . . . . n ! ( 1- ) n! 1 ! - ( n2 ) ! 2n ! ( 3 )n ! 3 ! ! 1 = [ pn +n 1 c p 1q2 +2 c2 p+ .n . q . . .q] n 1+ - n n n!
By vandermondes theorem this expression is coefficient of f(p+q) \ The coefficient of any power of x in f(p+q)
= The coefficient of the same power of x in the product f(b)xf(q) \f(p)+(q)=f(p+q) for all values of p and q, provides |x|<1. \ f(p)f(q)f(r)=f(p+q+r) \f(p)f(q)f(r).. s factors = f(p+q+r+ case (1): n is a positive fraction Let n =
u where u and v are positive integers. v
s factors)
u u u u f f v+ f a c . = t. o . r . + s. f . c. t . o r s . v. +f . a v v v v
u u f v f= v x v
= f(u)
u f v =x(1 +
u f v
x + 1 u) v = (
\f(x)=(1+x)u This is the proof for when is a positive fraction. Case(ii) let n be a negative rational number Let n=-u where u is a +ve rational number \n+u=0
f ( n ) f (u = ) f + n ( u)
= f( \ 0 f ) n(= ) 1 f ( u)
1 ( +1x u )
\ The theorem for any negative index Important Formulas 1. (1-x)-1=1+x+x2+x3+.. 2. (1+x)-1=1-x+x2-x3+.. 3. (1-x)-2=1+2x+3x2+4x3+.... 4. (1+x)-2=1-2x+3x2 -4x3+.. 1.1.3. Applications of Binomial series More Formulas (1) If n is a rational member, and -1<x<1 ie |x|<1, then
( +x 1n )= n1 n( 1 n ) 2n (- 1n ) -n ( 2 ) +. x . + . x. + . 3 x. + . 1 . 2 1 . 2 . 3 n( 1 n ) n (- 1n ) -n ( 2 ) 1 . 2 1 . 2 . 3 . . . . . .
2 2. ( - x1 n )= n1 -. x . + . x. - . 3 x. + .
3. ( + x1 - n )= n1 -. x . +2. x. - . 3 x. + .
n( + 1 n ) n (+ 1n ) +n ( 2 ) 1 . 2 1 . 2 . 3
4. ( - x1 - n )= n1 +. x . +2 . x. + . 3 x. + . 5. ( - x 1 - p )q 1 = x ( 6. ((1+x) -x 1 - p )q 1 = x ( Model 1 1.2. Examples 1. Find the sum to infinity of the series
1 1 . 4 1 . 4 . 7 1+ . . + . . . +. . + . . . . . 66.126.12.18 1 1 . 4 1 . 4 . 7 s = 1 .+ . .+ . .+ . .+ . . . 66.126.12.18 =1 1 1 . 4 1 . 4 . 7 . + . . + . .+ . .+ . 61.6.2.61.6.2.3.6 . . p 1 p 1
n( + 1 n ) n (+ 1n ) +n ( 2 ) 1 . 2 1 . 2 . 3
. . . . . . . .
p p( +q) p( + q( + p2 q ) 2 p) / q+ ) ( x / +) ( q / + ) x . 3 .+ .q . ! 2 ! 3 ! p p( +q) p( + p) q( + p2 3 q) / q) ( x/ + ) 2 (q / + ) x . .+ .q . ! 2 ! 3 !
=1
1 1 . 4 1 1 . 4 . 7 1 . + . . + .2 .+ . 3 .+ . 6 1 . 2 1 f . 2 .f 3
2 3
. .
1 1 . 4 1 1 . 4 . 7 1 = 1 .+ . +. . + + . . . +. 6 2 ! 6 3 ! 6
2 3
..
1 1 1 . 4 1 1 . 4 . 7 1 = 1 . + . +. . + . .+ . + . 1! 6 6 2 ! 6 3 !
..
\ p=1
x 1 = q 6
x=
-1/3
3 1 = 6 2
-1 / 3
\ s= (1-x)
-p/q
=(1-1/2 )
1 = 2
1 2
-1 / 3
= 21
/ 3
=3
2 2 . 5 2 . 5 . 8 + + + . . . . . . ......... 61.6.2.61.6.2.6.3.6
2 3
2 2 . 5 1 2 . 5 . 8 1 = + ......... + + . . . . . . 6 1 . 2 6 1 . 2 . 3 6 = 2 2 . 5 1 2 . 5 . 8 1 + ......... + + . . . . . . 6 2 ! 6 3 ! 6
2 3 2 3
2 1 2 . 5 1 2 . 5 . 8 1 = + + .......... + . . . . . 1 ! 6 2! 6 3 ! 6
\p=2
x 1 = q 6
x 1 = 3 6
x=
3 1 = 6 2
\ 1+s = (1-x)-p/q = (1- )-2/3=(1/2)-2/3=22/3 \ 1+s = 2 2/3 \s=22/3-1 3. Sum the series
3.513.5.71 3+ . . . + . . + .2 . . . a . 1.231.2.3 3
3.513.5.71 s = 3 . +. . + . . .+ . . . a. 2 1.231.2.3 3 =3 3 . 5 1 3 . 5 . 7 1 . + . .+ . . .+ . 2 ! 3 1 . 2 . 3 3
2
. a.
. 5 . + 3
. 7 1 . .+ . ! 3
. a .
\ p=3 q=2
p+q=5
x 1 = 2 3
x 1 = q 3
2 3
1 3
1 = 3
-3 / 2
=3
let S =
=
3 3 . 4 3 . 4 . 5 + + . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.2.21.2.2.2.3.21.2.2.2.3.2.4.2
2 3 4
3 1 3 . 4 1 3 . 4 . 5 1 s= + + . . . . . . . . . . 1 . 2 2 1 . 2 .3 2 1 . 3 . 4 . 2 2
Inserting the missing factors in the numerator Multiply both sides by 2 [3,4,5 . are in Ap the proceeding term is 2]
2 . 3 1 2 . 3 . 4 1 2 . 4 . 5 . 3 1 2 s = . . +. . + . . +. . . 2 ! 2 3 ! 2 2 4 !
Add
2 1 to both sides 1 ! 2 2 . 3 1 2 =. .+ ! 2 2 ! . 3 . 4 1 . + . + . 2 2 3 !
3 3
2 11 2 1 +2 s 1! 2 1
- p/ q
\ p=2 q=1
p+q=3
x 1 = 2 2 1 x= 2
x 1 = q 2
= (1- )-2
1 2 = =2 2
-2
1 2
(1 + x )1
- p/ q
= p/
1 -x
!+ q ) .
p( p + )q x . .( q .) 2 !
.a
s =1 =1
1 1 . 3 1 . 3 . 5 . . + . .- . +. . a . 66.126.12.18 1 1 . 3 1 . 3 . 5 .- . +. . - . + . . 61.6.2.61.6.2.6.3.6
2 3
a .
=1 =1
1 1 . 3 1 1 . 3 . 5 1 .- . + . . - . .+ . 6 1 . 6 . 2 .6 6 1 . 6 . 2 . 6 . 3 . 6 6 1 1 1 . 3 1 1 . 3 . 5 1 .- . +. . - . .+ . 1 ! 6 2! 6 3 ! 6 p p p( + q .( x .) +q. x . 1 ! 2 !
2 3
.a .a
=1
( .q ) .
. a
\ p=1 q=2
p+q=3
x 1 = 2 6 2 x= 6 1 x= 3
x 1 = q 6
\ s =(1 x +
- p/ q
1 1 / 32 1 / 2 = 1 ( +4 / 3= ) -( = 3 / 4 =) 4 3
-1 / 2
Solution
1 1 . 3 1 . 3 . 5 l e t=s + . . . . .a .... 2424.3224.32.40 = 1 1 . 3 1 . 3 . 5 + . . . . .a .... 3.83.8.4.83.8.4.8.5.8
2 3
1 1 1 . 3 1 1 . 3 . 5 1 s= ... + ..a 3 8 3 . 4 8 3 . 4 . 5 8
1 2
1 1 1 1 . 3 1 1 . 3 . 5 1 s= ... - + ..a 2 2 . 3 8 2 . 3 . 4 8 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 8 1 1 1 1 . 3 1 1 . 3 . 5 s = - + 2 3 ! 8 4 ! 8 5 !
2 3
1 ... ..a 8
1 1 1 1 1 . 3 1 1 . 3 . 5 1 s = - ... + ..a 2 6 4 3 8 ! 8 4 ! 8 5 !
Nr. 1,3,5,.is an AP common different = 2 the proceeding factor of 1=1-2=-1 proceeding factor of -1=-1-2= -3 \ Multiply both sides by (-1)
\ 1 s = (-1 ) 1 1- ( 1 ) 1 . 3 1 = + .... . . . . .a 2 8 3 ! 8 8 4 !
3 4
3 ) (- 1 ) 1 . 3 1 .... . . . . .a 8 4 ! 8
.a
-3 3 +4 8 p + 1 p2 s+ x = 1q ( -. )x 1 2 8 1 2 8 1 -3 1 3 +1 4 8 p s+ = x (+ 1 -) 1 2 8 1 2 8 -3 1 7 9 +3 / 2 s+ = ( 1 +1 / 4 ) 1 2 8 1 2 8
q
p8 + q( . + q .( ! 2
p )2+ p ( q ) 3 x . q( + . ) .! 2 !
. a
= 5 =
( 4)
5 5 5 5 = ( 32 2 ) 8
1/4
-3 5 5 1 7 9 s= 1 2 8 8 1 2 8 -3 8 0 -5 1 7 9 s= 1 2 8 1 2 8
3S 1 = 7 9 - 8 0 5
s= 1 1 7 9 8 0 5 3
1.3 Let us sum up We have seen the expansions of (1+x)-n, (1-x)-n, (1+x)n, (1-x)n, (1-x)p/q
, (1+x)-p/q and the sum to infinity of a given Binominal series in any one of
the above form. 1.4. Check you progress (1) Write down the expansions of the following (1) (2x-y)1/2 (2) (1-2y)-3/2 (3) (1+5x)7/2 1.5 Lesson End Activities Binominal Series Exercise Find the sum of the infinite series.
3 1 . 3 32 1 . 3 . 5 33 + + . . .a ... 1) 1 + 3 + 2 1 . 2 2 6 1 . 2 . 32 2
(A 2 n s)
2) 1 + . + .
4 4 . 5 4 . 5 . 6 .+ . + . 66.96.9.12
a .
1 9 s A n 8
3 3 . 5 3 . 5 . 7 3) 1 - . + . .-. + . . a . 44.84.8.12
3 Ans 2
-3 2
4) 1 + 5) 1 +
( 4)
3
(4x21/3-2)
7) Prove that
2n ( n 1 + n) 2 n 1+ n . + . . + . 1 + n1 . + 2 n 1
2
. a
2
2n ( n 1 - n) 2 n = 1+ n . + . . + . 1 - n1 . 2 n 1
.a
.a . .
2.0. Aims and Objectives Our aim is to study use expansions of ex, e-x, and problems to find the sum to infinity of a given series.
Exponential Series 2.1. The Exponential Theorem or Exponential series for all real values of x
x2 3 x x n e =1 x .+ . . + . . + . . .+. . + . . . + . .a . . ( 1 ) 2 ! 3 ! n!
x
n (n 1 x) n 1 n ) -( n 2 )x x (1 . =n . + . + . + . + n 2 !n 3 ! n
to (n+1) terms.
=1 x +
3 x2 x x n . +p + . p + . + p 1 1 2 n2 ! 3 ! n!
(- 1
n-
<
<
x12 E ( 1x ) 2x
3 x2 x + + . .a. . 2 ! 3 !
x m+ ( 1 n / =n )e
but
l i m n a n + 1
= E(x)
2) e 3) 4)
-x
2 3 x x x = 1 - . + . -. + . 1 ! 2 ! 3 !
a .
5) e = 1 + . + . .+ . + . a. 6) e-1 = 1 - . + . .- . + . a. 7)
-1 e+ e 1 1 =1 + . .+ . + . .a. 2 2 ! 4 !
1 1 1 1 ! 2 ! 3 !
8)
-1 e- e 1 1 1 = + + +. . . a ... 2 1 ! 3 ! 5 !
1 1 1 + . .+ . + . . .a . 2 4 R H= S 1 1 1 + + +. . . .a ... 1 3 5
-1 e+ e = 2 -1 e- e 2
1 2 e+ e + e e = = = -1 2 1 ee e - -e e
-1
e+
1 = 1
L H S
Put log2=x
3 x2 x s = x - + . . . .a ... 2 ! 3 !
3 x2 x = - x- + - + . . .a ... 2 ! 3 ! 3 x x2 x = 1 - .- . + . . . -1 .+ a 2 ! 2 ! 3 !
= (e -- x 1- )
-l o g 2 l o =1 e- x = 1 e1 = e-
g 2 1
=1 e
1 l o g 2
=1 1 -/ 2 =1 / 2
(m + 1 2 ) m 1 + ( 4 1 ) 1 = e -2 1 + . .+ . +. 2 1 m ! 2 m
.a
Solution :
1 1 1 1 2 m m2 L H= S 1 +. . + .a+ . 1 + .a . + . . + 1 ! m 2 m ! 1 ! 2 !
m / m1 + m = e m . 1e . = . e. ./ ( 1 )
1 R H =S e1 + 1
-2
(m + 1 2) . + . !m 2
m 1 + (2 1 ) + . .+ !m
. a
=e .e =e =e =e =e =e
-2
-2
( m+ 1 2) m
( m+ 1 2) m
-2 m + ( m1 + 2) m -2 m + m2 + 2 m +1 2 ) m m2 +1 m 1 m
m+
.....(2)
Numerator Consider the first factors 3,4,5,6,. This is an Arithmetic Progression a=3, d=1, nth term = a+(n-1)d = 3+(n-1) = n+2 Consider the second factors 4,5,6,7,.. This is an AP with a=4, d=1 nth term = 4+(n-1)=n+3 Denominator Consider 2,3,4,5,.. This is an AP with a=2, d=1 nth term = 0+n-1=n+1 Let tn denote the nth term of the given series
\ tn = (n + 2 )n + ( 3 ) (n + 1 ) !
n 2 + 5n + 6 (n + 1 ) !
Put n = 0 in (1)
=2
=2
tn = 2
1 1 1 t1 = 2 .+ 4 + . 2 ! 1 ! 0 ! 1 1 1 t2 = 2 .+ 4 .+ 3 ! 2 ! 1 ! 1 1 1 t3 = 2 .+ 4 .+ 4 ! 3 ! 2 !
1 1 + + + 0 ! 1
1 +. .a. . 2
1 s = 2 +1 + . 1
1 .+ . 2
1 + 1 . 3
1 1 1 4 1 + . + . +. 1 2 1
. + .-1
= 2 (e-1-1)+4(e-1)+e = 2(e-2)+4e-4+e
.a
s=
1 1
3 1 + 3 +1 3 + 23 + 1 2 + 3 3 + 3 + + + + . . . .a ... ! 2 ! 3 ! 4 !
tn =
1 n 3 1 - 2 n ! n !
1 3 2 1 ! 1 1 !
t1 =
t2 =
1 2 3 2 2 ! 1 3 3 2 3 !
1 2 ! 1 3 !
t3 =
Adding
S= 1 3 2 3 33 1 1 1 + + + . .a. .- + + . .a. . 2 1 ! 2 ! 3 1 ! 2 ! 3 ! !
2 3 n n n = + + +. a . - . ( e.- ) 1 1 ! 2 ! 3 !
= =
1 1 n en 1) e+ 1 =e -1 ( 2 2 1 3 1 2 e- e =e ( e- 1 2 2 )
e 1 +
3) Show that
5 7 9 1 1 5 e 3 + + + + . .a. = . 1 3 5 7 2 2e
Solution : Numerator Consider the numbers 5,7,9,11, This is an AP with a=5, d=2 nth term = a+(n-1)d = 5+(n-1)2 = 5+2n-2 = 2n+3 Denominator Consider the numbers 1,3,5,.. This is an AP with a=1, d=2 nth tern = a+(n-1)d = 1+(n-1)2 = 1+2n-2 = 2n-1 Let tn denote the nth term of the given series
\ tn = ( n 2+ 3 ) ( n 2 -1 ) !
Let 2n+3=A+B(2n-1) put n=1; 5=A+B Put n=1/2, 4=A \ B=1 A=4, B=1
\ tn = = A + B( 2 n 1 ) ( n 2 -1 ) !
4 +( n 2- 1 ) ( n 2 -1 ) !
1 1 =4 . + ( 2 n1 ) ! ( -2 1 ) !
( n 2- 1 ) 1 =4 . + ( n 2 -1 ) ! ( n 2- 1 ( ) n 2 -2 ) !
1 1 tn = 4 . + ( 2 n -1 ) !n ( 2 2 ) !
1 1 t1 = 4 .+ 1 ! 0 ! 1 1 t2 = 4 .+ 3 ! 2 ! 1 1 t3 = 4 .+ 5 ! 4 !
+ e -1 e 2
= = = =
1 -1 4 e 4e + e +-1 e 2 1 -1 5e - 3e 2 1 5 - 3 3 e 2 5e 3 2e 2
(n +2
tn =
n2 + 3 x x n )
n2 + 3 x n x (n +2 n ) !
(n 23+ ) n (+ 1 ) n = x (n + 2 )n + ( 2n ) ! tn = (n + 1 )n 2+ ( 3 )n x (n + 2 ) !
let (n+1) (n2+3)=A+B(n+2)+C(n+2)(n+1)+D(n+2)(n+1)n---(1) Put n = -2 in (1), A=-7 Put n =-1in(1) 0 = A+B 0 = -7+B \B=7 Put n = 0 in (1) 3 = A+2B+2C C = -2 Compare the coefficient of n3 on both side of (1) 1=D A=-7; B=7; C=-2; D=1 Step 2
\ tn = tn = A+ B ( + 2 n) ( + C2 ) n +( n 1 + ) D( + 2n ) + n ( 1 n) (n + 2 ) !
= 7
1 1 1 1 tn = 7 7+ 2 + (n + 2 ) n ! ( +1 n) ! ! -n ( 1 ) !
1 1 1 1 t1 = 7 - 7 + 2 + 3 ! 2 ! 1 ! 0 ! 1 1 1 1 t2 = 7 - 7+ 2 - + 4 ! 3 ! 2 ! 1 ! 1 1 1 1 t3 = 7 - 7+ 2 + 5 ! 4 ! 3 ! 2 !
Add S=t1+t2+t3+a
1 1 1 1 1 1 = 7 - . +. . + . +a. +7 + . .+ a . +. ! 3 ! 4 ! 3 ! 4 ! 5 ! 2 .
1 1 1 1 1 1 -2 + . .+ . + . a+. .+ . + a . + . ! 1 ! 2 ! 1 ! 2 ! 3 ! 0 = 7 e1 1 7 e + (1 - ) e -2) ( - 1 2 1 e )+
1 1 1 \ e =1 + . .+ . + . + . . a. 1 ! 2 ! 3 !
=-e-3/2
2.3. Let us sum up We have studied so far the series ex and hence e-x. Also the results related to ex and e-x we have also studied about the sum to infinity of a given series in this lesson. 2.4. Check your progress (1) What is the value of 1 + . + . . +. . a . (2) Write down the value of the series
3 5 3 3 3 + + . . .a ... 1 ! 3 ! 3 !
1 1 3 ! 5 !
2) Prove that
2 4 6 8 1 + + + + . .a. = . 3 ! 5 ! 7 ! 9 ! e
3) Prove that
4 x2 x 1 1+ . . + . + . a. = ( e x+ ex2 ! 4 ! 2
4) Prove that
2 4 6 + + + . .a. = . e -1 3 ! 5 ! 7 !
5) Prove that
2 2 12 2 3 + + + . .a . =. . e 2 1 ! 2 ! 3 !
6) Prove that
1+ ( + 1 2 +) (+ 1 2 + 3 + ) ( + 1 2 3 4 ) e 3 . + . + . +. .= a 2 ! 3 ! 4 ! 2
8) Prove that
2 2 ( 2+ 1 22 + )2 ( 2+ 1 2 + 32 ) + ( 12 + 2 23 4 ) 4 e 7 1 + + . + . + . = a 1 ! 2 ! 3 ! 6 3
9) Prove that
2 1 ( 1 + 2 )2+ ( 1 +23 2 ) 2 x+ x+ x + = e . .a. . -e x 1 ! 2 ! 3 ! x
+ 2 !
3 3 +3 1+ 2 3 + 33 + + 3 ! 4
4 2 7 . =. a ... e ! 4
( n5 + 1e ) 2 = + n 2 +1 ) !e 2
Lesson-3 LOGARITHMIC SERIES Contents 3.0 Aims and Objectives 3.1. Logarithmic Theorem or logarithmic series 3.2. Examples 3.3. Let us sum up 3.4. Check your progress 3.5. Lesson End Activities 3.6. Points for Discussion 3.7. References 3.0 Aims and Objectives Our Aim is to study the series of log(1+x), log(1-x) etc Logarithmic Series 3.1. Logarithmic Theorem or logarithmic series If -1<x<1, then
3 4 x2 x x ... log (1+x) x - + + + . . . .a 2 3 4
put a =1+x
y2 2 \ ( 1 x+ )y 1 l = oy g+ ( 1 + x ) l + . . [ g x(+ 1 )] +. . a e e o 2 !
x 2 1 . 23 1 . 24 . 3 = 1 y+ x . +x . - x . + . . 2! 3 ! 4 !
y2 \1 l yo g ( x1 ) + e[ g +( 1 x ) 2 + (+ )l o ] . . . a. . 2 !
3 4 x2 x =1 y + . x .-. x + . . . + . 3 4 2
.+ .
.a
x . +. .3 4
a .
2) When -1<-x<1
1 =x ) -. loge ( - x x2 2
3 x .-
x . -. .3 4
a .
3) l
1+ x x 3 x5 o g=x . +. . + . + . a. e 1- x 3 5
1 2 1 3 1 4
n + 1 2n 1 n 2 1 n 2 = g . 2 . + 2 . + + . 2 1+ 3 n +1 n n 5 + 1
. a
\R = A
1 1 S+ y 3 +y 5 y+ . . a ... 3 5
1 1+ y = l o g 2 1- y
2n 1 + n 2 + 1 1 = l o g 2n 2 1 - 2 n + 1
2 2 1 ( n 1 + 2n + ) n | +1 = l o g 2 n 1e - 2n 2 2 n +1
1 = l 2
( n +1 2 ) n +1 o = g l o g e ( n -1 2 ) n -2
1 1
\ n l om g = l om gn
1 ) (n + = l o g n - 1
2n 1 n 2 1 - + 1- n 2 1n 3
n 2 . .a. . -n 1
Pf : LHS
5 x3 x a. . . = 2 x + + + . . . . . 3 5
1+ x = l oe g 1- x
(by formula(3)(1)
RHS put
\R = H
2 -y 1- n
3
1 1 S - y 2+ y 2 3
y. .a. .
= log (1+y)
2n = l o g + 1 n 1 - 2 n 1 - n + = l o g 1 - n 1 + n = l o g . . . ( 2 ) 1 - n
solution
LHS =
=
3 1 1 1
1 1 3 g + 7 1 + 0 e l0 o 2 2 12
1 32 . + . . + . . a. 4 2 1 3 2
3 1 3 1 32 3 + l o g + 1 0 + . . + .1 . . a . 0 e 2 27 12 4 3 2 2
3 2 1 3 1 3 1 3 = l + o g 1 + 0 7 0+ . . a. 0 7 . + 7 1 0 2 2 2 3 2
1 1
1 1 2 3 l + o g +1x 0 + 0 x 0 x + . . .a. 0 2 3
where x =
3 27
1 g1000 - l o gx( ]1 ) [l o 1 0
3 x2 x \l o g x = ( -x 1 ) .- . . a . 2 3
= =
1 1 1 1
=
=
1 1 0 0 x 0 72 l oe g 1 0 1 2 5
1 l o eg 2 ( 23 . 7 ) 1 0
1 1 0 2 l o e= g1 2 . 1 e0 l o g 1 0 1 0
RHS = 1 + . .2 + . 4. + . 6 . + . . a.
7 1 1 1 3 1 51 1 1 = 2 + . .+ . + . . 2 3 2 5 2 7 2
1 3
1 1 1 1 1 2 5 2 7 2
.a
1 5 1 = 2 x + . x3+ . x .+ 3 5
.a
where x=1/2
1 + n = l o g 1 - n 1+ 1 2 = l o g 1- 1 2
3 = l o g 2 1 2
3 = l o g 2 2 . 1
=g
1 1 + 2
1 1 1 1 2 1 + .+ + 3 4 4 5 1 + . 5
2
1 1 1 1 .+ . +. . + 3 4 6 7 4
.a
1 1 1 1 R H= S1 + . + . + 2 3 4 4 =1
1 1 1 1 + + . + . a . 3 4 6 7 4 .a 1 1 .+ . a . 3 6 4
2 3 1 1 1 + + ... + . . a 4 4 3
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 + . .+ . + . + . . + . + .3 + . 2 4 3 4 4 2 4 5 2 4 63 4 7 4
1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 = 1 +. . + . 2 + . 3 . + . a . + . +. . 2 +. 3 4 5 4 7 4 2 4 4 4
1 12 1 41 1 6 1 = 1 + . . + . . + . + 3 2 5 2 7 2 1 1 13 1 51 1 7 1 = 2 + . + . + . + . 2 3 2 5 2 7 2
1 5 1 1 = 2 x + .x3 + x .+ 7x +. 3 5 7 1+ n 1 = l o g- . l o -g ( y1 ) 1- n 2 a
1 1 1 .a + + 2 4 2
1 1 1 a + y+ y 2+ 2 2 3 +
3 y . . + . a
where y=1/4
1 1 - (y 1 ( -l o g ) ) ; where x = 2 2
1+ 1 1 g-2 =l o . l o -g 1 1 4 1- 1 2 2
1 3 = l o3g l o g 4 2 4
= l o 3g l o3 g 4 4 3 43 =l o g = l o g 3 3 4
= l o g =1 2 L H S
1)Prove that
l 4 o e 1 1 1 g .- . + . . a . = 1.22.33.4 1 1 1 + . .a. . 1.22.33.4
1 (- 1 n +) n( n + 1 )
R H= S
1 A ( B 1 A n+ ) B+ n = + = n( +n1 n ) +n 1 n ( + 1 n )
\1 = A ( + 1 n ) B + n
\ tn
1 (- 1 n +1 ) ( n +1 ) n n +1
t1 =
( - 12 ) 1 1 2
1 1 t2 = - 2 3 1 1 t2 = - 2 3 1 1 t3 = - 3 4 1 1 t4 = - 4 5
S = t1+t2+t3+.
1 1 1 1 1 = 1 - . + .- . +a . + . -. + . 4 2 3 2 3 .
1. .-. 1 = l o+ g 2 - 11 .+ 2 3
\ 1 = A( 2 n) ( + 2 n 1 )B +( 2 n1- ) n ( 2 +1 C) ( +n2 ) n ( -2 1 ) by putting n=0, n=1/2; n=-1/2 we get A=1/2, B=-1, C=1/2
1 1 1 1 1 \t n = . .2 n 2 - 1 n2 2 +n 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 = . - . - . + . 2 2 n- 1 2 n 2 2 n+2 2 n 2 1 tn = t1 = t2 = 1 1 1 1 1 1 - 2 n 2 - 1 n 2 2 n+ 2 n 2 1 1 1 1 1 12 2 2 2 1 3
1 1 1 1 1 1 - - - 2 3 4 2 4 5
S = t1+t2+t3+.
= 1 1 1 1 . + .2 2 3 1 . +. 4 1 1 .- 2 2 1 . + . 4 . 1 1 - + ..... 3 4
1 1 1 1 l + o - g + 2 .2 2 2 3
1 1 l o+ g 2 (l o - g 2) 1 2 2
S = log2-1/2 3.3. Let us sum up So far we have studied the expansion of log(1+x), log(1-x), l o g , log2 and problems solved related to these series. 3.4. Check your progress (1) Find the sum of the series
1 1 1 1 1 - - + . . . . .a. . 4 2 42 3 3 4 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1+ x 1- x
(2) Find the sum of the series - - - + . . . a ... 3.5. Lesson End Activities Logarithmic series : Exercise 1) Prove that, if m and n are positive, show that
3 m- n 1 m - n 1 2 + . + . n 3 + 1 m m +
m 5 m +
n + . 1
=log (m/n)
+b o + x
2 2 2 3 x g c = a x + 1 b x a . + b . a( 3+ b . ) ( ) ( ) 2+
)x
. 3
4) Show that
1 1 1 1 + + 3 + 4 + . . .a ... 2 3 2 . 3 3 . 3 4 . 3 = 1 1 1 1 - 2 + 3 - 4 + . .a. . 2 2 . 2 3 . 2 4 . 2
1 n + 1 6) Show that l o =g 2 + n
. . . . .
1 1 1+ 1 + . + 2 3
1 1 1 1 1 . + . + . + l 4 4 5 4 6
1 1 + o + g 7 4
a =1
1 1 1 + + . . .a ..log2 1.23.45.6
14. PT
1 1 1 1 + + .a . . 2 =l og 2 1 1.22.33.44.5
Contents 4.0. Aims and Objectives 4.1. Convergence and divergence of series 4.2. Example 4.3. Comparison test 4.4. D Alemberts Ratio test 4.5. Examples on Comparison Test 4.6. Problems on DAlemert & Ratio test 4.7. Cauchys Root test 4.8. Examples on Cauchys Root Test 4.9. Let us sum up 4.10. Check your progress 4.11. Lesson End Activities 4.12. Points for discussion 4.13. References 4.0 Aims and Objectives
The Aim is to learn a new concept known as convergency and divergency of series in Algebra. Also we are going to learn about oscillating series finitely and infinitely. Comparison test is a test to know whether the given series is convergent or divergent. Also Candeys Root test, DAlemberts ratio test also helps us in finding a series whether Convergent or divergent. 4.1 Convergence and divergence of series Definition 1: Sequence : If to the integers 1,2,3,.n there correspond definite number u1,u2,u3.un then the set u1,u2un is called a sequence and is denoted by un. Definition 2: Limit of a sequence A sequence un is said to tend towards a finite limit if the successive terms of the sequence approach a definite number l in a way that the difference |un -l | becomes less than any positive quantity.
Definition 3: A sequence which tends to a finite limit is said to converge and is called a convergent sequence. Eg: (1) Consider the sequence (un) where
un = n -1 1 u =i m n; l n a 2n + 3 2
This sequence is convergent Note : A sequence [un] cannot converge to two distinct limits l and l1. Definition 4: A sequence which converges to zero is called a null sequence Definition 5: Series : An expression of the form u1+u2+u3+.+un+ where for every positive integral value of n, there is a definite value for un is called a series. Definition 6: If each term of the series is followed by another, it is called an infinite series. Definition 7: If the series terminates after a finite number of terms, it is called a finite series. Definition 8: u1+u2+u3++un is called the sum to n terms of the series. This is denoted by sn. Definition 9: If sn tends to a finite limit & as n tends to a then the series is said to be a convergent series. Definition 10: If
l i m n a n
Definition 11: If a series does not converge to any finite limit nor diverge to plus infinite or minus infinity, then the series is said to oscilate. 4.2. Example Convergent Series Consider the series
1 1 1 1 + . + .2 + . +. 2 2 3 2 a .
1 n 2 sn = = 1 12 1-
2-
2 2n -1
As n a ,
i m \ln s= 2 a n
1 0 2n -1
u
n =1
where un=n
l i m l i m n a n na
s =
n( n + 1 ) = a n
(- 1
1
n +1
(- 1
1
n +1
) .n
s n=1-2+3-4+5-6+. n terms s n=-1/2 n if n is even s n=1/2(n+1) if n is odd Asn a, sn-a if n is even and s n a if n is odd
1 \ (- 1 n +) n oscillates infinitely
Elementary Results The Geometric series 1+x+x2+.+xn-1+.. is convergent if |x|<1 and diverges if x <-1/ The Geometric series 1+x+x2+x3+..+xn+a
sn = 1 - xn x : 1- n 1
s =
1 1- n
x
n =0
x
n =0
oscillates infinitely
The series if
x
n =0
(2) If u1+u2+u3+.+un+. is convergent and has the sum s, then um+1+um+2+.+. is convergent and has the sum s -(u1+u2+..+un) where m n. (3) The u1+u2+.+un+.. is convergent and has the sums, there ku1+ku2+ku3+..+kun+ converge to ks
(4) If un converges to s, S vn converges to l, then S (un+vn) converges to s+l (5) A series of positive terms cannot oscillate. It is either convergent or divergent (6) The series S un is convergent, then The converse is not true. Consider the series
1 1 1 S n = 1 +. .+ . + . + . 2 3 n
l i m n a n
s =0
Sn as n \ S Un is divergent
m \ when lx i sn = 0 does not imply
S Un is convergent. 4.3 Comparison test Form I: Let S an be a series of positive terms. Let an R Then the series S an is convergent if S bn is convergent. (ii) Let an divergent. Proof: Given an a1 a2 a3 k bn kbn , V n vn, then the series S a n is divergent if S a n is bn for all n.
k b1 k b2 k b3
. .. an
\
k bn k (b1+b2++bn)
a1+a2++an
\ \
k B
Sn
where x is a constant
Sn is bounded and
an is convergent if bn
bn is convergent
Step 2: Given an k
\
a1 a2 a3
k b1 k b2 k b3
an
\
k bn
a1+a2+..+an Sn
(b1+b2+.+bn)
N where n m
m where m is a constant
an is divergent.
FIRM II then
an and
Proof
an M bn
an Mbn
an is convergent if L
an bn
bn is convergent.
Lbn an
\
an is divergent if
bn is divergent.
FORM III If
l i m
x
U n = V n
un is convergent if un is divergent if
Vn is convergent Vn is divergent.
u l i mn = x v n
un < k+ vn
As k >0, can be so chosen that k- >k1>0 where k1 is a finite number. \ un is divergent if un is divergent 4.4 D Alemberts Ratio test let an be a series of positive terms
a i) If n +1 < k <1 , for all n, an is convergent an a ii) If n +1 1 , for all n, an is divergent. an a an +1 Proof : By data n +1 < k <1 , V n an
a3<k2a1 a4<k2a1 an+1<kna1 ie. an<kn-1a1 \an<kn-1a1 But kn-1=a1(1+k+k2++kn-1) This is a Geometric series with common Ratio=k<1 \ By Comparison test, an is convergent.
a + n1 1, V n a n \ an+1 an
(ii)
N if n m
m Hence if lx i
divergent if k > 1.
Proof :
1 1 1 1 1 = p + p+ + . + .p . + . . . . p p n 1 2 3 n
V2 = V3 =
V4 = V5 = V6 = V7 = \ Vn =
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 + r + r + + + . . .... r r+ r + r r 1 2 2 4 4 4 4
1 1 1 + r -1+ r -1 + . . . . r 1 2 4
. . . .
>1
1 >
1 2
r -1
<1
1
2 r -1
is convergent
p=1
1 3 1 4 1 5
V3=V4=
V5=V6=V7=V8= .. ..
1 1 1 1 + + + + 2 4 4 8 Vn = 1+ 1 1 1 = 1 + . + . + .+ 2 2 2
1 1 1 . . + + + . . 8 8 8 .
\ Sn = 1+(n-1)x
n 2
1 2
+ p + . . . ... p un = 1 p + 2 3
(1)
We shall assume for this series, p = 1 \ Vn = 1+ + + +. . . . . . Comparing (1) and (2) We see that except the first term all other terms are > Vn But (2) is divergent \ By comparison test, un is divergent. 4.5 Examples on Comparison Test
a
1 2
1 3
1 4
....(2)
1+
1
1 3 n4
un =
Choose Vn =
4 n4 n \ un = = 1+ 3 n4 n4 ( 1 3 + ) n4 1 = 1 +3 n4
l i m un =
n a
But Vn =
2.
n 4 + n 2 -n
un = n 4 + n 2- n
n x = n 4 +n 2n4 + n 2 +n n4 + n 2 +n
n4 + n 4 -n n4 + n 2 +n
n n +n 2 +n 1 n
4
Choose Vn =
u n n n = x v n n4 + n 2 +n 1
n2 n4 + n 2 +n
n2 1 n 2 1 + 3 + 1 n
1 1 1+ 3 + 1 n 1 1 l= i m 0 2 1 1+ 3 + 1 n
1 is divergent n
u n i =m nn v
But Vn =
\ By comparison test,
un is divergent
n +1 n 1 r n
n +1 n 1 r n n +1 n 1 n +1 + n 1 x p n n +1 + n 1 -
un =
n +1 n 1 + 1 n n+ 1 +n r
2 1 nr n+ 1 +n 1 n
r+ 1 2
Choose Vn =
u n 2 \ n= r vn n n+ 1 + 1 n r+ 1 2
r+
1 1 nr n 1 + + 1 n n 1 1+ 1 1 + 1 n n
un 1 i =m 0 vn 2
But
= n
1
1 p+ 2
1 2
1 2
v =
n
1 n
1 p+ 2
is divergent if p +
1 1 1 i.e., p 2 2
\ By comparison test,
is convergent if p >
1 2
1 2
and is divergent if p
ns
un =
1 i n n
1 1 s i n n n 1 n2 n n/2
Choose un =
un 1 = s vn n 1 i n
n2 s n
1 i n n
1 n
= n sin
1 s i n n = 1 n
Put
1 =y n un s i y n = vn y u in = m y vn s yi n 1 l i Am s {n 0i y n e . y . 0 un
i m = 1 } = 1 (formula l q 0 q 0
s i qn
But
1 which is convergent n2
\ By comparison test
is convergent.
4.6 Problems on DAlemert & Ratio test 1. Examine the convergence of the series
22.32.3.42.3.4.5 + + + + . .... 33.53.5.73.5.7.9
Solution: Consider 2, 3, 4, 5,. nth term = n+1 Consider 3, 5, 7, 9, nth term = 2n+1 un =
2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . .n .+ ...(1) 3 . 5 . 7 . . . .n. + .(21) 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . .n. + ...n . (+1 ) ( 2 ) 3.5.7..... n.+ ..(2 n1 +) ( 2 3 )
un+1 =
un n+2 = u n+1 2 n +3
un n+2 l i m = l i m n u n n2 +3 n+1
2 n 1 + n i m =l n 3 n2 + n
1 <1 2
\ By ratio test,
is convergent.
un =
nn n( n + 1 )
n n +1 un+1 = (n + 1 )n + ( 2 )
un n = .n un +1 n + 2 u n i nm = l i m n . n un +1 n +2
=l i m n
2 n 1 + n
\ l i m =n n
u n+1
un
Choose Vn =
un
n2 = v n n ( n+ 1 )
1
2
un l i m = 1 0But n v n
v = n
n
is convergent.
\ By comparison test,
is convergent.
i un n m = l ,the If l n
1
l i m un n = l
Pf:
un- l< n ,
1 n
1 n
Case 1 If l < 1, choose a number k & t l < k < 1 Then be chosen that l + < k<l
1
\ un n < k
un < k n , n m
But \
k
n
is convergent if k < 1
is convergent.
\ un n > 1 \ un > 1, n m
i un m 0 \l n
n is divergent
4.8 Examples on Cauchys Root Test 1. Test the convergence of the series
1
3
1 1 + n
n2
an =
1
3
1 1 + n
n2
an
3 1 = n 1 1 + n
1 n
1 1 1 + n
3 n2
=
/n
= 1 1 + n
1
n
< 1 e
{ FORMULA USED :
1 l i m + ( n1 = e ) } n n
1 1 1 + n
n2
Solution : an =
1+ 1
n2
1 1 n \a n = n 2 1+ 1 n
1
n2
(1 + 1n )
= 1
(1 + 1n )
lim
lim n \ n n aa = n a
1
n
(1 + 1n )
= 1 <1 e
( l o g )
n
an
=
1 n = n g) ( l o 1
n
n (log ) 1 = l on g l i m n \ n aa n = n a 1 l i m
1 l o ng
= 0<1 \ By Cauchys root test an is convergent. 4) Test the convergence of the series solution
an =
1
xn nn
xn nn
1
xn n x \ an n = n = n n lim 1 lim n x \ n x = aa n = n na n a
lim
=0<1 \ By Cauchys root test, an is convergent. 4.9 Let us sum up We have so far learnt in how to test the convergence or divergence of the series using geometric series, comparison test, DAlemberts ration test, Cauchys root test. 4.10. Check your progress (1) Test the convergence of
1 +1
(n + 1
1 )n + ( 2 )
2.
(n1 +) ( n2 + )n ( 3 + )n . .+ .n. ( ) n n n =1
n
(
n =1
n -1
(Convergent)
3.
n! nn
(Convergent)
4.
2n (n ! ) nn
(Convergent)
Problems on Comparison test I. Examine the convergency or divergency of the following series. a) b)
1 1 1 + + + . . . .a ... 1.32.53.7 1 2 3 + 2 + 2 + . . . ... 22 3 4
(convergent) (divergent)
c)
n2 + 3 n3 + 2
(divergent)
d)
2n 2 +3 5n 3 + 7 n +1 n+2 n + 3 -n np
(divergent)
e)
(divergent)
f)
g)
n
3
3 +3 n - 3
(convergent)
4.12 Points for discussion Problems on Ratio test Examine the convergency and divergency of the following series. a)
44.74.7.10 + + + .. . . . 55.85.8.11 3 1 3 . 5 1 3 . 5 . 7 1 .+ . + . . . 5 2 5 . 6 22 5 . 63 . 7 2
(divergent) (convergent)
b) . + .
nn c) n)+ 2 ) 0 ( n +1 (
4 5n5 1 + n 1 n .n d) 1 2 6n 1 + 4
e)
( n + 2 ) n(+
3 )n .n n( n + 1 )
Lesson - 5 CONDITIONALLY CONVERGENT SERIES Contents 5.0. Aims and Objectives 5.1. Definition 5.2. Examples discuss the convergent of the following: 5.2.1 Absolute Convergence 5.3. Examples 5.4. Let us sum up 5.5. Check your progress 5.6. Lesson and activities 5.7. Points for discussion 5.8. References 5.0 Aims and Objectives Our Aim is to learn on Absolute convergence Alternating series and conditionally convergent. 5.1. Definition Alternating series is a series in which the terms are alternatively positive and negative. Theorem: An alternating series a1-a2+a3-a4+ converges if each term is numerically less than the proceeding term and the nth term tends to zero as
n
Proof
Let the series be u1-u2+u3-u4+ where u1,u2,. are all >0 and
u1>u2>u3>.un>un+1>. Let sn denote the sum to n terms of this series \ S2n=(u1- u2)+ (u3- u4)+ (u5- u6)+.+ (u2n-1- u2n) As u1> u2> u3>. un> un+1. We have \ s2n >0 S2n+2=s2n+(u2n+1-u2n+2)>s2n \ S2n is a monotonic increasing sequence (1)
Also s2n=u1-(u2-u3)-(u4 -u5)-(u2n-2-u2n-1)-u2n As u2>u3, u4>u5,-u2n-2>u2n-1 We have s2n < u1 (2) From (1) and (2) We get {s2n} is a monatomic increasing sequence bounded above. \ As n , S2n a finite limit l(say)
\l i m s2= l n
n a
s 2n+1=s2n+u2n+1
\ l i s2 m m + un m 1 n= + l 1 is n 2 l+ i 2
n a n a n a
The series u1-u2+u3-u4+. is convergent. 5.2 Examples Discuss the convergent of the following: a) 1-1/2+1/3-1/4+1/5. Solution: The series is of the form u1-u2+u3-u4+. Positive step 1: The terms are alternatively positive and negative. Step 2: u1=1, u2=1/2, u3=1/3, u4=1/4. un>un+1
iu m m= 1 / 0 Step 3: \ l n=l i n n a n a
(- 1
1
1 ) n+8
un>un+1
un = 1 n+8 1 i =m n+8 0
l i m n a n
u =l
\ un is convergent Note : If any one of the three conditions is not true, then the alternating series is not convergent. 5.2.1 Absolute Convergence 1. Let un be a series of positive and negative terms. It is said to be
absolutely convergent if 2. If
is convergent.
convergent. Example :
This series is convergent. And the 1+ + + +. . . .is . divergent. \ The given series is conditionally convergent. 2. Consider the series 11 1 1 1 + -2 + . . ... 2 22 32 4 5 1 2 1 3 1 4
This series is absolutely convergent, since convergent. Exercise Discuss the convergence of the following:1) 1- + 2) 1
=1 + . +. + . .+ .
1 1 1 2 2 3 2 4 2
.is
1 1 1 - +. . . . . 5 9 1 3 1 1 1 2 +3 4 - . . + . . . 2 3 4
n -1
3)
( -1)
1
1 . n+ n 1 n -1
4)
( -1)
n=2
n +1
Convergent.
is convergent.
( u + | u |)
n n
un |
[u + | u ]| is convergent.
n n
is convergent
\ un is also convergent. Note: (1) When we say that un is absolutely convergent, we assert that the convergence of another series, (viz) (2) The series
un + 1 < R, where kunE may, vao day coi co con nho nay ngon lam un
http://www.freewebtown.com/nhatquanglan/index.html
is a fixed number < 1. (Ratio test) (3) The series un is absolutely convergent if after a certain stage un where k is a fixed number < 1 (Root test)
1 n
<k ,
(4) If two series are absolutely convergent they can be multiplied by term and the resulting series is also absolutely convergent. 5.3 Examples Test for convergency the series
3 n2 n 4 n n-1 n n n+ +. . . +. ( 1- ) . . . . 2 3 4 n
Solution:
1 un = (- 1 n -)
nn n n n +1 n +1
un+1= (- 1 n )
un +1 n n +1 n =( - n 1 ) . n -1 n un n1 (- 1 ) . n+
=-
n. n n +1 n. n n 1+ 1
=-
=
un +1 = un
-n 1+ 1
-n 1+ 1 n 1+ 1 n
un +1 m= n | | u n i
By ratio test un
\ un
is convergent if |n|<1.
5.4 Let us sum up We have studied the definitions of alternating series and absolute convergence of a series. With this we learn how to determine the nature of these series. 5.5 Check your progress (1) If an converges absolutely, then what can you say about an (2) Check whether the series 1 convergent 5.6 Lesson and activities Discuss the convergence of the following series:1) 12 n n n n + +. . . . . n( 1+ ) . . . . . 1+ a 1 a + 2 n +1 a
1 1 1 + 2 - 2 is conditionally 22 3 4
(Convergent if |n|<1) 2) n+ .
3 5 1 n1 . n 3 .+ . +. . . 2 3 2 . 4 5
(Ans: Convergent) 5.8. References A Text Book of Algebra by T.K. Manickavasagam Pillai
6.0 Aims and Objectives We study here Raabes test and Cauchys condensation test inorder to test the convergence. 6.1 Raabes test Let un Then un
n n i m -1 l = be a series of positive terms. Let l n u n +1
v = n
n
1
r
un (n + 1 r) in m -. n 1 =l i rm 1 n un +1n
1 p p n ( + 1 ) n n i m 1 =l n np
= l i nm + ( 1p -) 1 n n
1 1 1 + n i m =l n 1 1 1 + n
=p.1p-1=p
u \ n - n -p1 < un +1 n " m
similarly l- <n
un -1 < l + n " m 2 un +1
If l>1, choose p such that l>p>1 As t can be chosen that l- >p+ , we can find a number m & for all n m
u n n l - un +1 v nn> v n +1 - 1
i.e.,
un vn u v > , n<+1 n +1 un +1 vn u +1 n nv
But as p>1, \ un
v = n
n
1
p
is convergent.
is convergent.
i.e.,
un +1 v >n +1 un v n
But as p<1, \ un
v = n
n
1
p
is divergent.
is divergent.
6.2 Cauchys Condensation Test If f(n)>0 and f(n+1) f(n) for all positive integral names of n and a is a positive integer >1, the series both divergent. Proof: The terms of the series
f(
n and )
f(
f(
The number of terms in the groups are a, a2-a, a3-a2, .an-an-1,. Then
f(
n =u ) 1+u2+u3+.+un+.
= un Where un = f (
n -1 -2 n a + 1) + f 2( +. a
+ . ) f n .+ a(
\f( n ) f( + n1
. fn . a(
f) n (a
\( an a -1n) f u ( an -)1
n n
1 n a a ( --
a n -1 ( a- 1) -1 fn ( a )
n 1 u n
1 f a
(a )
n -1 Taking un a n -1 (a - 1f ) a( )
If
un is convergent.
n n Taking: un ( f ) a 1 - a a
If
un
is divergent.
6.3 Let us sum up We have so far studied the theories in Raabes test and condensation test. 6.4 Check your progress 1) When will you say Raabes test needs to test the convergence of e series. 2) Write down Cauchys Condensation test. 6.5 Lesson and activities 1) Examine the convergence of the series
2 2 2 12 12 3 1 3 25 + . + . . + . +. 2 2 2 22 22 4 2 4 26
..
1 . 3 . 5 .n . .-( 2 1 ) nn 2.4.6.. n. 2
n
1
n n
6.7
Theory of Equations Lesson 7 THEORY OF EQUATIONS Contents 7.0. Aims and Objectives 7.1. Relation between 7.2. Examples 7.3. Let us sum up 7.4. Check your progress 7.5. Lesson end activities 7.6. Points for discussion 7.7. References 7.0 Aims and Objectives We shall study solving equations of 3rd degree, 4th 7.1 Relation between Roots and coefficients of an equation Consider the equation of nth degree in n as
a0
n
n +
1 an -+ n 2
n -2
+ a
n -3 n + a + .n . a .= n . 0
S1= a1 + 2 a+ 3 + a .+ . a. n = a2 a0 a a0
a1 a0
S2= a1 a 2=
3 S3= a1 a 2 a 3= -
. Sn= a1 a a . .a =(1n ) n 2 3 n .
a a0
7.2
Examples
Model 1 1) Solve the equation n3-12n2+39n-28 = 0 whose roots are in Arithmetic Progression. Solution: Step 1 The given equation is n3-12n2+39n-28 = 0 \ a0 = 1, a1 = -12; a2 = 39, a3 = -28
a - d =a1
Since the roots are in AP, let the roots be a-d, a, a+d
a = a2 a + d =a 3
S 1 = a1 + a 2 +a 3 =
- a1 a0
a - d +a + a + d 1 = 2
3a = 12 a=4 Step 2 S 3 = a1 a 2 a 3=
- a3 a0
When a=4, d=-3, the roots are 7, 4, 1 Model 2 Solve the equation 3n3-26n2+52n-24=0, given that the roots are in GP Solution: Step 1 The given equation is 3n3-26n2+52n-24=0 This is of the form aon3+a1n2+a2n+n3=0
\ a0=3;
a2 = a a3 = a r
S3= a1 a 2 a 3=
a
- a3 a0
a. a = r
2 4 3
a3=8
\ a=2
Step 2 S1=a/r+a+ar=
2 2 6 + 2 +2 r = r 3 -a1 a0
1 2 +1 r
2 + r
6 3
2 1+ r + 1r 3 = r 3
b 2 -a 4 c r= -b 2a
r=3,
3. Model 3 HP Solve the equation 6n3-11n2+6n-1=0 whose roots are in HP Proof : Step 1 The equation is 6n3-11n2+6n-1=0 This is of the form a0n3+a1n2+a2n+a3=0
a + b rb = 2a r
..(1)
s 1= a + b +r =
- a1 1 1 (2) = a0 6 a2 =1 a0
s2 = a + b ra + b r=
2a r + a r 1 = , using
3a r =1 1 ar = 3
(1)
.(3)
s 3= a r b=
- a3 1 = a0 6 1 3
But a r =
1 1 \ .b = 3 6 1 b= 2
Step 2 Put b =
1 in (2) 2
1 1 1 a +r + = 2 6
1 1 1 8 4 ..(4) a +r = - = = 6 2 6 3
4 -a 3
3a ( 1 a
1- ) ) -(a 1 )= 0
0 =
3 (a - 1)(aa = 1 a ,= 1
Step 3
4 a = 1 r= a , 3 4 = 1 3 1 = 3
1 1 \a = 1 b ,= ,r = 2 3
1 3
1 2
4. Model 4 Solve n4-12n3+14n2+132n-135=0 given that the roots are in AP Solution: a0=1, a1=-12, a2=14, a3=132, a4=-135 Let the roots be a-3d, a-d, a+d, a+3d S1=a-3d+a-d+a+d+a+3d=
-a1 a0
a4 a0
(1-y)(9-y)=-15
=6, d2=4
The four roots are -3, 1, 5, 9 Step 3 : When a=3, d=-2 The four roots are 9, 5, 1, -3 Model 5 5. Solve 4n4-85n3+357n2-340n+64=0 whose roots are in GP Proof: Let the roots be
a a , ,a r , a3 r r3 r
1 1 3 8 5 + +r +r = 4 3 r r
1 31 8 5 r 2 r + + r + 3 = 4 r
1 1 1 r3 + = 8 5 r + + r + 8 r r r
{Q a
+b
3
a =( b3 + ) a 3 b
( a + b )}
3 1 1 8 5 r2 r + + - 0 8= r r
Put r+ =a
5=0 a3-2a- 8 8
1 r
8a3-16a-85=0 a=
5 is a root 2
1 5 1 \r + = r = , 2 r 2 2
When r=2, a=2, the roots are , 1,4,16 When r= , a=2, the roots are 16,4,1, ,
1 2 1 4
1 4
Model 6 6. Solve : n4-2n3+4n2+6n-21=0 given that it has two roots equal in magnitude but opposite in sign. Proof : a0=1, a1=-2, a2=4, a3=6, a4=-21 Let the roots be a , b,r ,d Given a + b=0 i; a . = e. , b
S1= a + b +r + d =
- a1 a0
r+ d = 2 .(1) s 2= a + b r a+ a +d r b + br+d d =
a +b ( r+ a d r (b + )+
a2 a0
d r+ d = 4 )
Put r+ d = 2
\a + b2 + a 2b + r d= 4 a + b r d= 4
(2)
- a3 a0
{Qa +
b = 0}
s 3= a b r +a b + r d b +d r a =d
a r + d) + r d (+a (b = b) -6
Put r+ d = 2 , a + b = 0
\ 2a = b 6 a b = 3 -
.(3)
But a + b = 0
\b = a -
a ( - a2 = )
using in (3) :
a2 = 3 a = 3
a= 3 b = ,- 3
Step 2 : S4= a b r d =
r+ d = 2
a4 a0
-3r
d= 2 - 1 rd = 7
But d = 2 n
\ r ( 2- n ) = 7
2r-r2=7
n2 -2 n +7 =0
n=
2 4 2 8 2 2 2- 4 2
2 2 2 + 1 2
2 6 x4 x2 1 2
2 2 2 6 i
r=1 i 6
\r = 1 + i 6 d= , i1 6
7.3 Let us sum up We have studied so for how to solve equations whose roots are in AP, GP, HP or a relation between any of its two roots is given. 7.4 Check your progress
(2) If a , b , lare in HP then find b ? (3) If a , b , lare the roots of the equation x3+px2+qx+r=0 find 7.5 Lesson end activities 1. If the roots of the equation n3+pn2+qn+r=0 are in AP, show that 2p3+27r=9pq 2. Solve the equation n3-12n2+39n-28=0 whose roots are in AP (Ans. 1, 4, 7) 3. Solve the equation n4+2n3-25n2-26n+120=0 given that the product of two of its roots is 8 (Ans. 4, 2, -5, -3) 4. Solve the equation 2n3-n2-22n-24=0 two of whose roots are in the ratio 3 : 4 (Ans. -3/2, -2, 4) 5. If the roots of the equation an3+bn2+cn+d=0 are in GP, show that c3a = b3d 6. Solve the equation 27n3+42n2-28n-8=0 whose roots are in GP (Ans. -2/9, 2/3, -2)
1. Solve the equation 6n3-11n2-3n+2=0 given that the roots are in Harmonic Progresson (Ap.2003, BU) 2. Solve the equation n5-n4+8n2-9n-15=0 if 3 and 1-2i are two of its roots (Ap. 2003, BU) 3. Solve 8n4-90n3+315n2 -405n+162=0 given that the roots are in Geometric Progression (Ap. 2003, BU)
4. Solve the equation n4 -2n3+4n2+6n-21=0 given that two of its roots are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign. (Ap. 2003, BU)
5. Solve n4-2n3+4n2+6n-21=0 if the sum of two roots is zero. (Ap.2004,) 6. Solve the equation 4n3-24n2+23n+18=0 given that the roots are in Arithmetic Progression (Nov. 2003, BU)
7. Solve the equation n3 -4n2-7n+10=0 whose roots a and b are connected by the relation b =2 a +5 (Nov. 2003, BU) 8. The root of the equation n6-4n5-11n4+40n3+11n2-4n-1=0 is 2 - 3 Find the remaining roots (Ap. 2005) 9. Find the value of R for which the equation 2n3+6n2+5n+R=0 are in Arithmetic Progression 7.7 References A Text Book of Algebra by T.K. Manickavasagam Pillai Lesson 8 (Nov. 2005, BU)
TRANSFORMATION OF EQUATIONS Contents 8.0. Aims and Objectives 8.1. Transformation of Equations 8.2. Examples 8.3. Let us sum up 8.4. Check your progress 8.5. Lesson end activities 8.6. Points for discussion 8.7. References 8.0 Aims and Objectives
Our aim is to learn about getting the equations whose roots are decreased or increased by a given quantity. Further we also study on how to remove the second term from the given equations. 8.1. Transformation of Equations 8.2 Examples Model 1
1. Find the equation whose roots are the roots of n4-5n3+7n2-17n+11=0 each diminished by 2 Solution : Let the roots be
a, b ,r , d
We shall form the equation whose roots are a - 2 ,b - 2 r, d 2 -, 2 By synthetic division n=2 1 1 n=2 1 n=2 n=2 1 1 A0
\
Model 2 2. Find the equation whose roots are the roots of 4n5-2n2+7n-3=0, each increased by 2 Solution : Let the roots be a , b ,r ,d t, To form the equation whose roots are a + 2 ,b + 2 r+ , d2 + , t 2 +, 2 Increase the roots by 2 means that diminish the roots by -2 By synthetic division n=-2 4 0 n=-2 4 0 4 n=-2 0 4 n=-2 0 4 n=-2 0 4 A0 0 -8 -8 -8 -16 -8 -24 -8 -32 -8 -40 A1 0 16 16 32 48 48 96 64 160 A2 -2 -32 -34 -96 7 68 75 260 -3 -150 -153 A5
3. If a , b , nare the roots of n3+2n2-3n-5=0, form the equation whose roots are
a -1 b -1 n -1 , , a +2 b +2 n +2
Solution : Let y=
n -1 n +1
Imp: replace a by n
1+ y -3 - 5 = 0 y 1-
On Simplification y3-6y2-27y+5=0 4. If a , b , nbe the roots of n3-pn2+qn-r=0 form the equation whose roots are
1 1 b r + a ,r +a , a b b + 1 r
Solution:
b n + 1 a b1 + n = a a
(1)
a , b, r
.(2)
ra +
1 b
1 r
a r 1 b+ r + 1 = = b b
a b 1+ n r 1 + = = n r
a b +
\y =
r +1 n
n=
r +1 y
using in (1)
r + 1 r+ 1 - p y y
3 2
r +1 + q y
r =
On simplification ry3-q(r+1)y2+p(r+1)2y-(r+1)2=0
5. If
a r b
a b r , , b + ra - a r + b - a + b -n
(2)
..(1)
a b = n + r. . . . . . . . . . ( 3 )
a a = b + r a- a + r +b - 2 a a = p - 2a
b b b = = r +a 2 - b r + a 2+ bp - b 2 - a
IIIrly
r r = 2+b r 2 pn p - 2n
\y =
Using in (1)
y p y p y p + q r - p = y 2+ 1 2 1 2 y + 1 y+
3 2
On simplification y3(4pq-8r-p3)+y2(4pq-12r-p3)+y(pq-br)-r=0
b + ra 2 a+ , rb 2 a +, rb -2
a a + b +r = 1 =0 a0
b +r a 2 = a+ 3 r +b 0 - a = 3- a = 3 a -
IIIrly r + a - 2 b = 3 -b 2+ b - 2r= 3 -r
\ y=-3n \ n= - y
3 - y -y Using in (1), + q + r = 0 3 3
3
y3+9qy-27r=0 Model 4: Removal of second term 1. Consider the nth degree equation in n as a0xn+a1xn+1+a2xn-2++an-1xn-1+an=0
We shall remove the second term by diminishing (decreasing) the roots of this equation by h= a1 n 0a
Example : Remove the second form from n5+5n4+3n3+n2+n+1=0 Pf.: a0=1, n=5, a1=5 h=
- a1 5 = - = 1 n 0a 5
\ n=-1
1 5 0 -1 1 4
3 -4 -1 -3 -4 -2 -6 -1 -7=A2
1 1 2 4 6 6
1 -2 -1 -6 -7=A4
1 1 2=A5
n=-1 n=-1
0 -1 1 3 -1 1 2
12=A3
n=-1 n=-1
-1 1 1 -1 1 0
A0 A1 The transformed equation is n5-7n3+12n2-7n+2=0 We notice that the second term (viz.,) the term containing n4 is removed. 8.3.Let us sum up We have studied so far how to get an equation whose roots are decreased or increased by a given quantity.
8.4 Check your progress 1. If a , b,r ,d be the roots of ax3+bx2+cx+d=0, then what is the value of
2. Diminish the roots of x4-5x3+7x2-17x+11=0 each diminished by 2 (Ans x4+3x3+x2-17x-19=0 8.5 Lesson end activities
3 2 1. If a , br , are the roots of the equation n +an +bn+c=0, form the equation
are b + r a 2 r+ a , -2 b
3 2 3. If a , br , are the roots of n +pn +qn+r=0 form the equation whose roots
are a -
1 1 1 b , - , r br a r a b
(Ap.1997)
4. Diminish the roots by 1 of the equation n4-3n3+4n2-2n+1=0 and hence solve the same. (Nov.1997, BU) 8.6 Points for discussion 3 2 5. If a , br , are the roots of n +pn +qn+r=0 form the equation whose roots
b r ) , b (r + a, )r a + are a ( + ( b ) (Nov.2005)
6. Diminish by 2 the roots of the equation n4-5n3+7n2-17n+11=0 (Ans. y4+3y3+y2-17y-19=0) 8.7 References A Text Book of Algebra by T.K. Manickavasagam Pillai.
Lesson-9 RECIPROCAL EQUATIONS Contents 9.0. Aims and Objectives 9.1. Reciprocal Equations 9.2. Examples 9.3. Character and Position of roots Descartes rule to signs 9.4. Examples 9.5. Symmetric Function of roots 9.6. Examples 9.7. Let us sum up 9.8. Check your progress 9.9 Lesson End Activities 9.10. Points for discussion 9.11. References 9.0 Aims and Objectives We shall study the completely a reciprocal equation and how to solve the same and study the nature of roots of a given equation. 9.1 Reciprocal Equations Definition : An equation in which the reciprocal of every root is also a root, is called a Reciprocal equation Eg: Consider the equation x5+x4+x3+x2+x+1=0.(1) Replace x y ,
1 1 1 1 + + 3 + 2+ x 5 x4 x x 1 + +1 =0 x 1 n
x=
1 is also a root a
Note : The following rules are to be observed before we solve a reciprocal equation. Rule 1: In a reciprocal equation if the coefficients have all like signs, then -1 is a root of it. Eg : Consider the equation x+4x4+3x3+3x2+4x+1=0 Here coefficient of x5=const term=1
Coeff. of x4 = Coeff. of x =4
coeff fx3=coeff fx2=3 All the coefficients have like signs ie, some sign Hence By rule 1, x=-1 is a root of it Rule If the coefficients of the terms equidistant from the first and last term have opposite signs, then x=1 is a root Eg : Consider 6x5-x4-43x3+43x3+43x2+x-6=0 Coefficient of x5=6, constant term = -6 Coefficient of x4=-1, coefficient of x=1 Coefficient of x3=-43, Coefficient of x=-43 \ The coefficients of the first and last term have opposite signs \x = 1 is a root/ 9.2 Examples (1) Solve x4+3x3-3x-1=0 Solution This is a reciprocal equation of even degree with unlike signs \ x=1 is a root \ By synthetic division.
1 x=1
3 1
0 4 4
-3 4 1
-1 1 0
The other roots are given by x3+4x2+4x+1=0 This is a reciprocal equation of odd degree with like signs \x = -1 is a root \By synthetic division 1 x=1 -1 1 3 -3 1 -1 0 4 4 1
-3 5 2 -3 5 2
2) Solve 6x5+11x4-33x3-33x2+11x+6=0 This is a reciprocal equation of odd degree with like signs \ x=-1 is a root 6 x=-1 0 +6 -6 5 -5 -38 +38 -5 5 6 -6 0 11 \ By synthetic division -33 -33 11 6
1 1 6 x +2 2 - 5 x+ 3+ 8 x x
2
= 0
1 1 6 x +1 -2 x + 5 +3 - 8 = 0 x x 1 1 6 x + 5 + x 5 + x x
2
= 0
put x +
1 = y x
\ 6y2+5y-50=0
y= -b b 2 a4 c 2a
= =
=
+3 0- 4 0 , 1 2 1 2 +5 1 0 , 2 3 x+ 1 1 - 0 = x 3
y=
1 5 \x + = x 2
x2 + 1 5 = x 2
x2 + 1 1 0 = x 3
x= =
= =
5 3 1 = 2 , 4 2
x=
1 = - , -3 3
3) Solve 6x6-25x5-13x4-31x2+25x-6=0 Solve This is a reciprocal equation of even degree of under signs. \ x=1 is a root of By synthetic division x=1 6 0 6 -25 6 -19 31 -19 12 0 -31 +12 12 +12 -19 25 -19 6 -6 6 0
The other roots are given by 6x5-19x4+12x3+12x2-19+6=0 This is a reciprocal equation of odd degree with like signs \ x=-1 is a root of it. \By synthetic division x=1 6 -19 12 +12 -19 6
0 6
6 -25
+25 -6 6 0
\ The other roots are given 6x4-25x3+37x2 -25x+6=0 These is a middle term Divide by x2 6x4-25x3+37x2 -25/x+6/x=0
6 2 5 6 x 2 +2 2 x5 - 3 + 7 = 0 x x 6 2 5 6 x 2 +2 2 x5 - 3 + 7 = 0 x x 1 1 6 x2 + 2 2 5 x +3 +7 x x =0
1 6 x + 2 x
2 2
1 x5 +3 +7 x
=0
= y=
5 5 y= , 2 3 1 5 \x + = x 2 1 5 \x + = x 3
x2 + 1 5 = x 2
x2 + 1 5 = x 3
2x2+2-5x=0 2x2-5x+2=0
x= 5 2 5- 1 6 4 x= 5 2 5- 8 6 6
= =
5 9 4 5 3 4
5 1- 1 6
9.3 Character and Position of roots Descartes rule to signs If f(x) is a polynomial with real coefficients with the terms arranged in descending power of x, the number of real positive roots of the equation f(x)=0 does not exceed the number of changes in the sign of the coefficients of f(x) written in a row in the order in which they occur. Also the number of real negative roots of f(x)=0 does not exceed the number of changes in the sign of the coefficients of f(-x) considered in a similar manner. 9.4 Examples Ex-1. Show that the equation x6-x5+3x4+4x-1=0 has atleast two imaginary roots pf: f(x) = x6-x5+3x4+4x-1 The series of changes in sign are + -+ +-1 These are three changes of sign in f(x)
The equation cannot have more than three +ve real roots. Step-2 In f(x) f(-x) = (-x)6-(-x)5+3(-x)4+4(-x)-1 = x6+x5+3x4-4x-1 The series of charges of sign in f(-x) and + + +
- -
This is only one charge of sign \ f(x) cannot have more than one negative real not. But the given equation has other two imaginary roots. 2) Find the number of imaginary roots and the number and position of the real roots of x5-x4-4x-1=0 Charges of sign +
- - -
There is only are change of sign. \ The no of +ve real roots is 1 Step 2 : f(-x)=(-x)5 -(-x)4-4(-x)-1 =-x5-x4+4x-1 Arranges of sign - - + These are two changes of sign in f(x) \The number of negative real roots is 2 The number of real roots is 3 But the equation is of degree 5 mix \ There can be minimum two imaginary roots. Position: f(x)=x5-x4 -4x-1 x f(x) 2 + 1 0 -1 + -2 -
\The positive real root is between 2 and 1. These are two negative real roots is one root between 0 and -1 and -1 and -2. 9.5 Symmetric Function of roots By symmetric function of the roots, we mean a function consists of all the roots and which remains unaltered if any two roots are interchanged. If a 1, a 2, a 3 are the roots of the equation a0x3+a1x2+a2x+a3=0, then a 1+ a 2+ a 3 , a 12+ a 22+ a 32 , a 13+ a 23+ a 33 .are all symmetric functions of eth roots. Result-1 Let a 1+ a2+ a3 ,. a 4 be the roots of the equation xn+p1n-1+ p2n-2+ pnx+pn=0 1
then (i) if rn, s r+sr-1p1+sr-2p2++s1pr-1+rpr=0 9.6. Examples 1. If a 1, a 2, a 3, a 4 be the roots of the equation x4+px3+1x2+rx+s=0, find the value of (i)
1
1
(ii)
1 a1 a 2
(iii)
1 a 12
a = -1 = p a0
a a
a 2 a 3= q a 2 a 3= r a 2 a 3= s
(i)
1
1
1 1 1 1 + + + a1 a a a 2 3 4
a 2 a3 a4+ a1 a + a a+ 3 a 3 a 4 a 1 a 2 + 4 a 1 2 a1 a2 a 3 a 4
a
-r s 1
a 2 a 3
a1 a2 a 3 a 4
(ii)
1 1 1 1 1 1 + + + + + + a2 a1 a2 a a a a a a a 4 a 1 a 3 a 1 4 2 3 2 4 1 =
a 3 a4+ a2 a+ + a a a a 4 a 2 a 3 a 1 + 4 1 + 3 2 a1 a2 a 3 a 4
a
q s 1
2 1
a 2
a1 a2 a 3 a 4
(iii)
1 1 1 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 2 a1 a a a 2 3 4
2
1 = 2 a1
2 a
1
1
2 a
r2 q 2 2r 2 q =2 2 s s s
Example 2: Find the sum of the fourth powers of the roots of the equation Solution x4-5x3+x-1=0 This is of the form x4+p1x3+p2x3x+p4=0 p1=-5, p2=0, p3=+1: p4=-1 Let a b n d be the roots of the given equation
4 4 To find a 4 + b4 + n +d
p +
S -+ .S +-r 1 .p + .r 2 rp 2 1
.p = 0
Put r=1 s1+p1=0 s1-5=0 s1=5 .(1) r=2 S2+S1p1+2p2=0 S2+5(-5)+0=0 S2=25 put r=3 S3+S2p1+S1p2+2p2=0 S3+25x(-5)+0+3(1)=0 S3-125+3=0 S3-122=0 S3=122 Put r=4 S4+S3p1+S2p2+ S1p3+4p4=0 S4+122x(-5)+0+5x1+4(-1)=0 S4-610+5-4=0 S4-609=0 S4=609 Example-3 Find the sum of the sixth powers of the roots of the equation x4-x3-7x2+x+6=0 Solve
p1=-1, p2=-7, p3=1, p4=6 let a b n be d the roots of the given equation. n=4, r=6 \ r>n
6 6 To find a 6 + b6 + n +d
Formula
Sr + S
-1 r
where r>n
1
p +
S -+ .S +-r 1 .p + .r 2 rp 2 1
.p = 0
Put r=1 s1+p1=0 s1- p1=0 s2+1(-1)+2(-7)=0 S2-15=0 S2=15 S3+S2p1+S1p2+3p3=0 S3+15x(-1)+1x(-7)+3(1)=0 S3-15-7+3=0 S3-19=0 S3=19 S4+S3p1+S2p2+ S1p3+4p4=0 S4+19x(-1)+15x(-7)+-1x(+1)+4x6=0 S4-10-105+1+24=0 S4-99=0 S4=99 Step 2
Put r = 5 in (1) S5+S4p1+S3p2+ S2p3+S1p4=0 S5+99(-1)+19x(-7)15x(+1)+1x6=0 S5-99-133+15+6=0 S5-21=0 \ S5=21 S6+S5p1+S4p2+ S3p3+S2p4=0 S6+211(-1)+99(-7)+19x1+15x6=0 S6+217-693+19+90=0 S6-904+109=0 S6-795=0 S6+795 9.7. Let us sum up We have so far learnt about solving reciprocal equations, finding the nature of the roots of a given equation. 9.8. check your progress (1) Find the nature of the roots of x3-2x2-3x-4=0 (2) Check whether x5+x4+x3+x2+x+1=0 a reciprocal equation (3) Can x=-1 be a root of the equation 6x6-25x3+31x4 -31x2+25x-6=0
(2) Show that the sum of 20th powers of the roots of the equation x4+ax+b=0 is 50a4b2-4b5(Ap 97) (3) Solve
6x6-35x5+56x4 -56x2+35x-6=0 (4) Prove that the equation x6+3x2-5x+1=0 has atleast four imaginary roots. (Qp 2005) 9.10. Points for discussion (1) Show that all the roots of the equation 2x3-3x2-12x+1=0 are real and district (2) If a , b , g be the roots of x3+px2+qx+r=0 find the values of (a)
(b)
) g (a + b -
(c) b g + g b
Contents 10.0. Aims and Objectives 10.1. Rules for finding the multiple roots of an equation f(x)=0 10.2. Example 10.3. Let us sum up 10.4. Check your progress 10.5. Lesson End Activities 10.6. Points for discussion 10.7. References 10.0 Aims and Objectives We shall study how to solve an equation whose roots are multiple roots. Multiple roots 10.1.Rules for finding the multiple roots of an equation f(x)=0 (1) find f1(x) 10.2 Example Find the multiple root of the equation x4-9x2+4x+12=0 f(x)=x4-9x2+4x+12 f1(x)=4x3-18x+4 The HCF of f(x) and f1(x) and f1(x) are x-2 \ (x-2)2 is a factor of f(x) (x-2)2=x2-4x+4 x2-4x+4 x4-9x24x+12 x2 -4x+3 x4-4x3+4x2 (2) Find the HCF of f(x) and f1(x)
4x3-13x2+4x 4x3-16x+16x 3x2-12x+12 3x2-12x+12 0 The other roots of f(x)=0 are given by x2+4x+3=0 (x+3)(x+1)=0 x=-3, -1 roots of f(x)=0 are 2,2,-1,-3 10.3 Let us sum up We have studied so far in spring an equation whose multiple roots are given. 10.4. Check your progress (1) Solve x3-x2-8x+12=0 has a double root 10.5. Lesson End Activities (1) Solve 6x6-25x3+31x4 -31x2+25x-6=0 (Apr 97, Apr 2005) Bharathiar University (2) Show that the sum of the 20th powers of the roots of the equation Examples (1) Solve 2x4 -12x3+19x2-6x+9=0 given that it has two equal roots Ans : 3,3,
i 2
(2) Solve x5-x4-4x2+7x-3=0 given that it has multiple roots. Ans : 1,1,1,-1 i 2
(3) Search for multiple roots and hence solve x4-6x3+13x2-24x+36=0 Ans : 3,3, 2 1 ,- 2 - 1 10.6. Points for discussion
(4) If the equation x4+ax3+bx2+x+36=0 has three equal roots show that each of them is equal to 10.7. References
6c - a b 3a 2 - b
Lesson 11 ROLLES THEOREM Contents 11.0 Aims and Objectives 11.1. Examples 11.2 Let us sum up 11.3. Check your progress 11.4. Lesson End Activities 11.5. Points for discussion 11.6. References 11.0 Aims and Objectives Our aim is to study on Rolles Theorem. Rolles Theorem Between two consecutive real roots a1 and a2 of the equation f(x)=0 where f(x) is a polynomial, there lies atleast one real root of the equation f1(x)=0 Results : (1) If all the roots of f(x)=0 are real, then all the roots of f1(x)=0 are also real. (2) If f(x)=0 is a polynomial of degree n, f1(x)=0 is a polynomial of degree (n-1) and each root of f1(x)=0 lies in each of the (n-1) intervals between the n roots of f(x)=0 (3) If all the roots of f(x)=0 are real, then the roots of f1(x)=0, f11(x)=0 f111(x)=0 are also real (4) At most only real root of f(x)=0 can lie between two consecutive roots of f1(x)=0 (5) If f1(x)=0 has k real roots, then f(x)=0 cannot have more than (k+1) roots (6) f(x)=0 has at least as many imaginary roots as f1(x)=0 Position of real roots of f(x)=0 11.1. Examples Find the nature of the roots of the equation 4x3-21x2+18x+20=0
Solution : f(x) = 4x3-21x2+18x+20=0 f1(x) = 12x2-42x+18 = 6[2x2-7x+3] = 6[2x2-6x-x+3] = 6[2x-(x-3)-1(x-3)] = 6[(2x-1)(x-3)] f1(x)=0 2x-1=0, x-3=0 x=1/2, x=3 \ The roots of f1(x) are x=1/2, 3.
-a
1/2
+a
\ The roots of f(x)=0 if any, will be with internals (-a , 1/2), (1/2, 3) and (3, a) In (-a , ) f(-a ) = f(1/2) = + In (1/2,3) f(1/2)=+ f(3) = In (3, a ) f(3)=f(a )=+
\ f(x) has three real roots Eg.2 Show that the equation 3x4 -8x3 -6x2+24x-7=0 has one positive, one negative and two imaginary roots. Solution f(x) = 3x4-8x3-6x2+24x-7 f1(x) = 12x3-24x2 -12x+24 = 12[x3-2x2 -x+2] = 12[x2(x-2)-1(x-2)] = 12[(x-2)(x2-1)] f1(x)=0 x-=0, x2-1=0 x=2 x= 1 \ The intervals are
-a
-1
+a
(-a ,-1) (-1,1) (1,2) (2, a ) In (-a , -1) f(-a ) = + f(-1) = In (2,a ) f(2) = + f(a ) = + f(x)=0 has a real root lying in (-a ,-1) and (-1,1). The given equation is of 4 degree. \ The equation has two imaginary roots.
th
In (1,2) f(1)=f(2)=+ 1 + 2 + +a +
Step 2 f(x) = 3x4-8x3 -6x2+2+x-7 0 -1 f(0) = -7 f(1) = + \ There is a positive real root in (-1,1). Step 3 In (-a ,-1) There is a negative real root. 11.2 Let us sum up We have studied so far how to find the roots using Rolles Theorem. 11.3. Check your progress (1) Show that all the roots of x3-7x+5=0 are real 11.4. Lesson End Activities (1) Show that the equation x6-x5+3x4+4x-1=0 has atleast two imaginary roots. +1
11.5. Points for discussion (2) Find the number of imaginary roots and the number of real roots of the equation x6-x4-4x-1=0 (Answer positive real roots 1 no of real roots 3. Atleast two imaginary roots) 11.6. References A Text Book of Algebra by T.K. Manickavasagam Pillai
Lesson 12 NEWTONS METHOD OF APPROXIMATION TO A ROOT Contents 12.0 Aims and Objectives 12.1. Newtons method of approximation to a root 12.2 Examples 1: 12.3 Let us sum up 12.4 Check your progress 12.5. Lesson End Activities 12.6 Points for discussion 12.7. References 12.0 Aims and Objectives We shall find a root by Newtons method. 12.1. Newtons method of approximation to a root Consider the equation f(x)=0 let x=a be a real unrepeated root of f(x)=0. Let a +h be a the actual root, where h is small By Taylors Theorem f(a +h)-f(a )+hf1(a )+ h +f11(a )+
2 !
2
\ x=a+h is a root of f(x)=0, we have f(a +h)=0 \ f(a )+hf1(a )+ h +f11(a )+=0
2 !
2
Q h is small, neglect h
f (a )+hf1(a )=0
h= - f (a ) f 1 (a ) f (a ) f 1 (a )
\a +h a =
1 a 2 =a -
continuing this process, the root can be obtained to any desired degree of accuracy.
12.2 Examples 1: Find the positive real not of x3+ 2x2+5x-220=0 correct to two places of decimals Solution f(x) = x3+ 2x2+5x-220 f1(x) = 3x2+4x+5 f(1) = -ve; f(2)=-ve: f(3)=-ve:f(4)=-ve f(5) = -vef(6)=+ve There is a root lies between 5 and 6. Take 5 as the appointment value of the root. a=5 f(a )=f(5)=-20 f1(a )=f1(5)=100 The second approximation is
f (a ) ( 2 - 0 ) a1 = a - 1 = 5 - 5 = . f (a ) 1 0 0
a2 = a 1
f (a ) f( 5 . 2 ) - 1 1 = 5 . -2 5 = . 1 9 3 5 f (a1 ) ( f 15 . 2 )
f(5.1935) a3 = 5 . 1 9 1 3 5 = 5 . 1 9 4 2 f (5.1935)
Coeff. to two places of decimal, the required root = 5.19 12.3 Let us sum up So far we have studied how to approximate a root of the given equation by Newtons method. 12.4 Check your progress
(1) Find the first approximation of the roots x3+x2+x-100=0 by Newtons Method. (2) Find the second approximation of the roots of 5x3+10x2-86=0 by Newtons method. 12.5. Lesson End Activities (1) By Newtons method of approximation, find to two decimal places, the root of x3+x2+x-100=0 which is approximately equal to 4. (2) By Newtons method, find the real root of 5x3+10x2-86=0 correct to three places of decimal (Ans : 2.059) (3) By Newtons method, find the negative root of 4x3+x2+6x+45=0 correct to three decimal places (-2.096) 12.6 Points for discussion (4) Find to two places of decimal the positive root of x3-3x-4=0 (Ans 2.20) (5) Find the positive root of x4-8x2+5x-8=0 correct to two places of decimals. 12.7. References A Text Book of Algebra by T.K. Manickavasagam Pillai
Lesson 13 HORNERS METHOD Contents 13.0. Aims and Objectives 13.1. Horners Method 13.2. Examples 13.3 Let us sum up 13.4 Check your progress 13.5 Lesson End Activities 13.6. Points for discussion 13.7. References 13.0 Aims and Objectives We shall study the solving of an equation by Horners Method. 13.1 Horners Method We shall consider the method of finding an approximate value of a real root of the equation f(x)=0 bying between two positive integers when there is only one root between those integers. 13.2. Examples Find the positive root of the equation x3+x2-7x-3=0 correct to two decimal places by Horners method. Step 1 f(x) = x3+x2-7x-3 f(2) = -ve f(3) = +ve There is a positive root bying between 2 and 3 By synthetic division 1 x=2 0 1 x=2 0 1 1 2 3 2 5 -7 6 -1 10 9 -3 -2 -5
x=2 0 1
2 7
\ The transformed equations x3+7x2+9x-5=0 Equation (2) has a not lies between 0 and 1 to find first decimal multiply the roots of (2) by 10 x3+70x2+900x-500x=0 Hint In Equation (2) Coeff fx x10, Coeff fx2x100, Constant termx1000 x3+70x2+900x-5000=0 f1(x) = x3+70x2+900x-5000 f1(4) = -ve f1(5) = +ve \ A root of f1(x)=0 lies between 4 and 5 step 2 Diminish the roots of f1(x)=0 by 4 1 x=4 1 x=4 0 14 x=4 0 1 70 4 74 4 78 4 82 900 296 -5000 4784
\ The transformed equation x3+82x2+1508x-216=0 ---(3) There is a root bying between 0 and 1 to find second decimal Multiply the roots by 10 x3+820x2+150800x-216000=0---(4)
f2(x) = x3+820x2+150800x-216000 f2(1) = -ve f2(2) = +ve The root lies between 1 and 2 \ The required root in 2.41 13.3 Let us sum up So far we have studied the concept of solving an equation using Horners method. 13.4 Check your progress (1) Find a positive root of the equation x3+x2-7x-3=0 (2) Find a positive root of the equation x3-5x-11=0 13.5 Lesson End Activities (1) Using Horners method, find a positive root of the equation x3-3x+1=0 correct to three places of decimals. (Ans : 1.532) (2) Find the positive root of the equation x3-2x2-3x-4=0 correct to three places of decimals (Ans 3.284) Bharathiar) (3) Show that the equation x3-6x-13=0 has one real root between 3 and 4 and find it to two places of decimals. (Ans: 3.18) (Nov 2006 (Apr 1984, Apr 2003, Nov2005, Nov 2004)
(4) Find by Horners method the root of the equation x3+x2-2x-1=0 that lies between 1 and 2 (Apr 2005)
(5) Find the positive root of the equation x3-2x2-3x-4=0 correct to three places of decimals using Horners method (Apr 2005, Apr 2004, Apr 1983, Nov 2000, Bharathiar)
13.6 Points for discussion (1) Using Horners method find the root of x3+9x2-18=0 which his between 1 and 2 correct to two decimal places (Apr 2005, Bharathiar)
(2) Find by Horners method, the positive root of the equation x3-4x2+5=0 correct to two significant places of decimals (Nov 2003, Bharathiar)
Lesson-14 RADIUS OF CURVATURE Contents 14.0 Aims and Objectives 14.1 Curvature in Cartesians form 14.1.1 Radius of Curvature 14.2. Radius of Curates in Cartesian 14.3. Examples 14.4 Let us sum up 14.5. Check your progress 14.6. Lesson End Activities 14.7. Points for discussion 14.8. References 14.0 Aims and Objectives Our Aim is to learn the concept of finding the radius of Curvature in Cartesian Coordinates. 14.1 Curvature in Cartesians form y
A Oy O
Let A be a fixed point on the curve y=f(x) let s denote the are along AP measured from A in the curve y=f(x) where P is a any point on y=f(x) let the tangent at P make an angle y with the x axis. Then, as P moves along the curve, s and y vary and the rate of which y increases relative to s is called the curvature of the curve as r i.e. in symbols dy /ds is called the curvature
of the curve at r . In other words the curvature is the rate of change of the direction of the tangent at P. Also curvature of a circle is the reciprocal of its radius. 14.1.1 Radius of Curvature y
Let P and Q be two points on this curve. Let the tangents at P and Q make angles y and y +dy respectively with x axis let the normals at r and Q intersect C as let A be a fixed point on the curve. Let are AP=s Arc AQ = &+D& As Q tends to P, limit of PC is
d s d \ P =C \ P C dy dy \ P C = 1 d s = P C y d s
PQ = rs
d s dy
The circle with the centre at C and radius=PC has the same tangent and the same curvature as the curve y=f(x) has at P. 14.2. Radius of Curates in Cartesian
Consider the curve y=f(x). Let A be a fixed point on it. Let P be any point on it. Let the tangent at p make an angle y with the x axis then dy/dx=tany differentiating with resper to x
d2 y d y = s e2 y c 2 d x d x
dy d s 2 =s e yc . . d s d x
But
\
d x = c oys d s
d2 y d y 1 = s 2 ey c . . 2 d x d x c oys
= s e3 y c dy d s
d s s e3 y c = 2 d y dy d 2x
( s e )c p= r
3 2
d y d 2x
3
( + 1 t 2ay n 2) = d2 y d 2x
2 d y 1 + x d = 2 d y d 2x 3 2
\p =
( +1 y ) y2
2 1
d y d x where d2 y y2 = 2 d x y1 =
14.3. Examples (1) Find the radius of curvature of the curve xy=30 at (3,10)
Solution
d y y = d x x 1 0 d y (3,10)= 3 d x = y1 = 2 0 9
1 0 2 0 y = 2 , 3 9
2 1 3 2
(1 + y = ) r=
y2
1 0 ) 92 ( =
3
0 0 1 3 1 + 2 9 2 0 9
9 x 2 7 2 0
3
(1 0 ) 92 r=
6 0
(2) Find r at the point where x = p 2 to the curve y = 4 sinx-sin2x y = 4 sinx-sin2x put x = p 2 y = 4sin p 2 -sin 2 x p 2
n = 4 x 1 -s i p d y s i p= n 0 d x
s p i n = 1 2
y2 =
d2 y = x4 -s i n + 4x s i n 2 d 2x
p oxy1 ) p , 4 = 4 c s 2 cp o s 2 2 2 2
= 2 - ( -1 )
cosB = -1
=2
py2 ) p , 4 =4 s ix n 4 + sp i n 2 2 2 2
= -4 \ y1 = 2
y 2 = 43 2 3
(1 + y )= (1 + = 4 ) r=
2 1 2
y2
-4
-5 4
52 In magnitude r = 4
5
5 4
(3) Find the radius of curvature of the curve at x=a cos q , y=b sin q at
a b , 2 2
y=b sin q
d y = b c oq s d v
d2 yb d o = + c oe sc 2q u 2 d x a d x
b = - 2 c oe s2q c a
b = - c oq s a
x=
a a \ c o =q s a \q p 2 b a \ s i= qn a\ q p 2
= p =p
y=
b b \A = t p v= , y c- o = q s -. 4 1 a a y2 =
1 = -b
c
3
b 3 oc s e( c= c q o s- ) eb c2 q a a2 b = -2 x a
p 4
( 2)
3 2
b = 2- 2 2 a
(1 + y = ) r=
2 1
y2
b 2 1 + a 2 b - 2 2 a
2 2 -a 2 ( a + b = b a 3
1 2 2
r=
1 2 2 - ( a+ b 2 2 a b 1 2
\ In magnitude r =
+ ( a2 2 a b
2 b
(4) Prove that the radius of curvature at a point (a cos3v, a sin3v) on the curve x2/3+y2/3=a2/3 is 3 a sinv cosv Proof Solution x=a cos3v
d x = 3 -ac o 2v s s iv n d v
x2/3+y2/3=a2/3.
y=a sin 3v
d y = 3as i 2n v c o vs d v
d y d y d v = d x d x d v = 3as i 2n v c o vs 2 -3ac o v s s iv n
d y = t- a v\ n 1 = y t a vn 0 d x
d2 y d v = s i2 n v 2 d x d x
1 = si2 n v 2 s s iv n 3ac o v y2 = 1 v s i3 n 3as i n vc o vs
3 2 2 t+ ( a v 3 2
(1 + y1= ) p=
2 1
n
2
y2
s i n v 3a s i vn
i2n v ). 2 3as i n v c o vs s i3 n v
3
(s =
p=3a sinv cosv 14.4 Let us sum up We have studied the concept of finding the radius of curvature whenever the equation of a curve is given in the form y=f(x) or in a parametric form i.e. x=f(t); y=p(t). 14.5. Check your progress (1) Find the radius of curvature of y2=4ax at (1,1) (2) find the radius of curvature of y=ex at (0,1) 14.6. Lesson End Activities (1) Find the radius of curvatures for the following Ans (a) y=ex at (0,1) ; (b) y = a
l o xg t=x 1 x
( 2 2)
2 3 2
(1/2)
5 1 2a 4
(2) Find the radius of curvature for the curve x=a (cost+sint) ; y=a(cost-sint) (3) Find the radius of curvature of the curve y2=4ax at (at2,2at)
14.7. Points for discussion (1) Prove that the radius of curvature of the curve x=a(q+sinq); y=a(1-cos q ) is 4acos q /2 (2) Find the radius of curvature of the curve x=f( q ) and y= f (v)
Lesson-15 RADIUS OF CURVATURE IN POLAR FORM Contents 15.0 Aims and Objectives 15.2. Example 15.3. Evolutes and Involutes 15.4. Examples 15.5. Pedal Equation 15.6. Examples 1: 15.7. Let us sum up 15.8. Check your progress 15.9. Lesson End Activities 15.10. Points for discussion 15.11. References 15.0 Aims and Objectives Our Aim is to learn the method of finding the radius curvature of a curve given in polar form, the p-r equation of a curve, evolutes and involutes of a given curve.
Radius of curvature in polar forms Bookwork find the radius of curvature of the curve r=f(q). Q
p rq Oq O
q +r q
Let r=f( q ) be the equation of the curve let r be any point on it. Let OP=r. Let OP make an angle o with the initial line OA.
We have tan f =r
df dq
= r.
1 r d dq
t a fn=
r d r dq
differentiating w.r.t. q
2 d r d r d r . - .r 2 22 dq sec s e fr = dq dq 2 dq dq r d dq
d r d - r. dq dq 2 dq sec s e fr = 2 dq r d dq d r d -r d4 1 dq dq = . 2 dq s e 2r 4 r d dq d r d -r 1 dq dq = . 2 1 +t a 2 n f r d dq
2 2
r
2
r
2
r
2
1 1 1+ d dq
d r d -r dq dq . 2 2 d r dq r
2
r
2
2 d r d r r d r dq dq 2 = 2 dq r d r2 + dq
using in (1)
2 d r d r -r d4 dq dq 2 =1 + 2 dq r d 2 +r d q 2
d r r + 2 r d4 dq = dq d r2 + dq
2
d dq 2 r
r
2
d s d s (incomplete) \p = = dq dq
2 d 2r d r + x + r q dq d 2 2 2
l=
r
2
d r d r2 + 2 r dq dq
2 2 d r r + dq 2 2 3 2
r
2
l=
d r d r +2 . r dq dq
r
2
15.1. Example (1) Find the radius of curvature of the curve r2=a2 sec22
d2 r d r = 2r s e2 + cq2 t aqn 2 . 2 dq dq
\r
d2 r 2 2 =2 r s e +c q r 2 t 2 av n 2 dq 2 r4 2 = 2r 2 . 4 (+ r s e 2 c- q 2 1 ) a
2r 6 24 2 + r - 1 4 4 a a
6 r 3 2 6r - r = 4 4 a a
2 2
2r 6 = 4+ a
2
2 r -
r d r + 2 r= dq
+ r
t a nq2
=r2(1+tan222) = r2.sec222
6 q4 q = r 2. 4 = 4 a a
2 6 2 9 d r r r \ r 2 + = 4 = 6 dq a a 3
r 2 + 2 & r2 2
& r &
2 tr2= a r +n
2 2q r
3r 62 +r a4
= r2
2
3r 6 2 2 + ( 2s r e c q2 -1 ) r 42 + a
2
6 r4 r 3 = 2r + r 2 - 4 1 - 4 a a
= 2r 2 + 2 r6 = -4 a
r6 2 r2 a4
6 r 3 4 a
9 r 9 r6 r \ p = 6 - 4 = 6a a a
a . 6 r
r3 = -2 a r 2r = -2 a = r 2 a2 s e q c 2 a
a2 ( + 2 1 q ) = 2 2 a ( +2 q )
3 / 2
p=
3 / 2 a 3 ( 2+ 1 q ) 2 2 a ( +2 q )
a( + 1 q 2 3 )/ 2 ( +2 q2 )
15.2. Evolutes and Involutes Definition1 : The coordinates of the centre of curvature of the curve y=f(x) at any point p(x,y) is given by
x= xy1 ( + 1 y 1 y2
2
1+ y 2 y = y + 21 y
Definition2 : The locus of the centre of curvature of a curve is called the evolute of the curve. Definition3 : If the evolutes of a curve is itself, then it is called an involute. 15.3. Examples: (1) Find the evolutes of the curve y2=4ax at (at2, 2at) Solution x=at2
d x = 2a t d t
; ;
y=2at
d y = 2a d t
d y d y d t 2a y1 = = = d x d x 2a t d t
= 1 t
y2 =
d2 y d t 1 1 = t - 22= . 2 d x d x t a2 t
1 = - 3 2a t
x= x-
y1 ( + 1 y 1 y2
1 1 1 + 2 t t 2 =a t 1 2a 3 t
1 t2 + 1 = a 2t +2 a3 t x 2 t t
2 =a 2 + t2 a (+ 1t )
= a 2+ t 2 a+2 2 a
step-2
1 + y12 y= y+ 2 y
1 t2 = 2a +t -1 a 3t 2 1+
= 2a -t2 a
(t t
+ 1)
t2
=2at-2at(1+t2) =2at-2at-2at3 =-2at3(2) Eliminate t between (1) and (2) from (1) x-2a=3at2
x - 2a 2 =t 3a x - 2a \ = 3a
3
t6
( x -2 a 3) 6 = t ..(3) 2a 3
y2 = t 6 .(4) 4a 2
\ x=acos2
d x = a - s i qn dq
y=b sin2
d x = b c oq s dq
d y d y b c oq s y1 = = dq = d d x x a s i qn dq
b = - c on s a b d q y2 = + c oq s q 2 . a d x b = - 2 c oq s q 3 a
step-2
y ( +y 1 X= x - 1 1 2
2 2
b2 2 -b c o q t +1 2cq o t a a = a c oq -s -b c oe s3q c a2
2 a2 + b c 2o qt a2 b a 2 o -s q c o x t . =a c q a b e c oc s3q
=a c oq s-
2 a cq o. t s3 i qn c q s 2 2 o + a b 2 2 a s q i n 2 2 1 c q o s s aq i 2n b+c qo2 s n2
3 o - s s qi n =a c q a s qi n s qi
=a c o qs c o qs -a 2 ( 1 2 q c +b o 2s cq2o s a 1 2 2 q X= a c o q2 -a s c 2 q o -a s 2c o +b s c 2qo s a
2 ax= a 2 c o q 2a s c 2q o +as 3 c q o -b s c 3q o s
= ( a 2 - b2 ) c 3o q s
a x = c o3 q s 2 a -b
2
\ c o3 q = s
a x 2 a -b
2
..(1)
Step 3
Y=y+
1 + y12 y2
b2 2 c 2 o t q 1 + a = b s i qn+ b - 2 c oe s3q c a
a 2 3 2 b s i q n s qi +n 1 =b b a
2 2
c s
oq s 2 i n q
=b s i qn-
2 2 2 s iq a 2 s i3q n a b n+2 c q o s 2 2 b s i n q a
bY= b 2 s iq 2n a s 3q i -b n 2s q i+2 b n s 3q i n
2 = (b 2 )- a s i 3 nq
b Y = s i3 q n 2 b -a
2
\s i3 q n =
-b Y (2) 2 a2 - b
Step 4 We have
a x = c o3 q s 2 a -b
2
b Y = s i3 q n 2 a -b
2
2 But c o qs + 2s qi = n 1
\(c
3 o q )+ s
2
( sq i=) n
3
2
1
1
3 a x3 b -Y + = 2 2 2 2 b a b a -
a x3 b 2 2 +2 b a a -
3 y = 2 b
( a ) 3x
(a
- b2)
2
+ 2 a (
2
3 y) ( = 2 2 3
)
2 2 b
\( a
3 x ( b3 ) =y )+
(a
2 / 3
\ The locus of (x,y) is (ax)2/3+(by)2/3=(a2 -b2)2/3 Which is the evolute of the ethpse 15.4. Pedal Equation Find the pedal equation of the curve (p-r equation) r=f(v) proof
r
2 x2 b + =1 a2 ar
Y
f
O let the equation of the curve be v=f(v) let o A be the initial line let O be the pole let p be any pt in the curve
Join op let op=r Draw AY the tangent at r . Let f be the angle between the radius vector o r and the tangent at the point r . in V o r y
o Y s i n ( 01 -8 f 0= ) or
s i fn= o Y r
1 1 = 2 (1 +c o e s 2 .f c.) . ( 1 ) 2 p r
1d r r q d
using no(1)
2 1 1 d r = 2 1 + qd r2 r
1 1 1 d r = 2 +4 ...(2) 2 r r r q d
1 u
d 1 r d r dr u 2rd
d r qu d r
2
d + q d
d r = a s i fn dq
1 1 2 2 + 4 .a s i n q r2 r
2 r2 + a s 2 i n q 4 r
2 1 ( a1 c - 2 o q a s +2) s 2 q i n = 2 4 r r
2 a 2 (1 - c oq2) + s s iq n = r4 2 n a 2 (1 -c oq2s - 2 cq o s )+ s i q = r4
=
= \
a 2 [ 2 -2 c oq s ] r4
2a 2 r 2 a x= r4 a 3 r 1 2a = 3 p2 r r3 2a
r2 =
Which is the required p-r equation of the curve r=a(1-cos2) (2) Find the -r equation of the r sin2+a=0 r sin2=-a r=-a cos2
d r = a -[ c oqs] c o q s dq
1 1 2 + 4 .a c o 2sq c 2 oq t 2 r r
4
1 1 = 2 2 r r
1 2 2 .a +c o 2sq ( cq o s 1 ) r
2 1 1 r2 - a + 2 2 2 r r a
1 1 r2 1 + . 2- . 2 1 r 2 r2 a r
1 1 =2 2 r a
=l(1+ecos2)-1
d y =l -1 e ( +1 ce o s2 e ) s i qn d x
=+l(1+ecos2)-2esin2
= l se i qn 2 ( + 1 c o qs )
2
2 2 2 q d r l e s i n = 1q c o s2 ) dq (e +
l 2 e2 s i2 n q , using (1) 2 2 l / r
= e2r2sin22
we know
1 1 1 d r = 2 +4 2 r r r q d = = =
2
1 1 2 2 2 + 4 .e s r i nq r2 r 1 1 2 2 + 4 .e s i n q r2 r 1 1 + se 2 i n r2 . .2 q .) . . . ( 2 ) 2 ( r
But
l =1 + c e o qs r l -1 = c e o qs r l c e2o -1 = r
2 2
sq
=e2(1-sin22)
l 2 2 - 1 = se -ie r e s
2 2 2 2 n q
qe i=
l n - 1 r
using in (2)
1 1 l = 2 + 1 e 2 - 1- 2 r r r = 1 r2 1 e2 2 + r l2 l 2 - 1 + 2
2
1 r2
l2 2 1 + e r2
l + 2r - 1
2
1 1 = p2 r
2l 2 l + e 2 2 r r
r =r
d r dr
O
r
Let OA be the initial line. Let /o be the pole and be any point on it. let the tangent at make an angle with the initial line on let AOP=0. Draw ON the tanget at . let ON= let O =r Also we know
dq d r s iy = n r; c o = qs d s d s t ay n= r dq d r
p=r sin 2
d p d q = s i qn + 1r cqo s d r d r dq d s =s q i + nr c q o s . d s d r =r dq dq +r d s d s
=r
d (+ q 4 d s
d r dy =r d r d s
1 d s d r = r y d d r d s d r =r dy d r \l = r d r dr
Note : For some curvest = f(v), sometimes it is not easy to find radius of curvature, in this case, we should use l = r (4) Show that in the cardio Proof = r= a (1+cos2)
d r = a ( -s i q n ) dq d r = a - s i qn dq d dq r 2 2 q =a s i n
2
d r dr
we know
1 1 1 d r = 2 +4 2 r r r q d
2
2 r2 + a s 2 i n q 4 r 2 r 2 . ( 21 + a c 2o q+ s a2 ) s q i n 4 r
2 a 2 (1 + c oq2) + s s iq n = r4
a 2 ( 2 +2 c oq s ) 4 r
a 2 2 ( +1 c q o s ) 4 r 2a 2 2 2a x = r 4 a r3
1 2a =3 p2 r p2 = r3 ...(1) 2a
2
dr 1 2p = . = r 3 d r2 a
dr 1r 32 = . d r 2 a 2r 3r 2 = 4a r
\ d r4 a r = dr 3 r 2
d r4 a r = r2 . dr 3 r
4a r 3r
\r =
2
1 a 62 r 2 r = 9r 2 r2 =
r2 =
1 a 62 r 3 x , using (1) 9r 2 2a
2a r 9
r 2 8a = = a constant r 9
15.6. Let us sum up So far we have studied the method of finding the radius of curvature in polar form, involutes, evolutes and finings the p-r equation of a curve. 15.7. Check your progress 2 (1) Show that in the cordiod r=a(1+cos2), l r is a constant
(2) Show that the evolutes of the cycloid x=a(2-xsin2), y=a(1-cos) is another cycloid 15.8. Lesson End Activities (1) For the polar equation of the parabola,
2a that p2=ar =1 c o v s show , r
(2) Prove that the p-r equation of the curve r2=a2sin2v is p = that l =
a2 3r
r3 Hence show a2
(3) Prove that the radius of curvature of the curve rcos2(v/1)=a is 2asec3(v/2) (4) Show that the radius curvature of the curve r2=a2 cos 2v is 15.9. Points for discussion (1) Prove that the p-r equation of the curve r=a vcot a is (2) Find the p-r equation of the curve s2+y2=ax and deduce its radius of curvature A n s2 =
1 p 1 1 r2 + 2 2 2 a2 b a b
a2 3r
(7) For the curve r=asinv, show that the p-r equation is ap=r2 15.10. References A book of Calculus by T.K. Manickavasagam Pillai
Lesson-16 TOTAL DIFFERENTIATION Contents 16.0 Aims and Objectives 16.1. Definition 16.2 Example 16.3 Eulers Theorem on homogeneous functions 16.4. Examples (1) verify Eulers theorem for 16.5. Let us sum up 16.6. Check your progress 16.7. Lesson End Activities 16.8. Points for discussion 16.9 References 16.0 Aims and Objectives Our aim is to learn the total differentiation of a function with respect to a veritable using partial derivatives. 16.1. Definition(1) : Let u be a function of namely where x and y are functions of some other variable t. Then
d x u d x u d y is called total differentiation. = + d t x d t y d t u t x y
Also d = u d + x d yis called total differential of n. Definition(2) : Let u be a function of x and y where x are y are functions of t then
d x n d x u d y = + d t x d t y d t
we replace t by x
\ d u u n d y = + d x x y d x
Definition 3 Implicit functions Let the relation between x and y be with form f(x,y)=c where c is a constant then the total differential coefficient with respect to x is zero.
f f d y \o = + x y d x
f d y o x - fx \ = = f d x f y o y
Solution : u=xy2
u =y z x
u =x z y
u =x y z
x=e-t
d x -t = e d t
y=e-tsin2 t
d y -t = e x 2 s ti n tc+ o t s2- s e i nt( ) d t
=e
2 [t 2 s i tn co t ss ti n ]
Z=sint
d z = c ot s d t
d u u d x u d y u d z = + + d t x d t y d t z d t
2t 2 =y ( ) z- t( ) e( 2 x +s e i n tc - o t s st + i n x ) y c o ts -t -t t = e- t s ti2 n - ts i n e s+ i en 2 (e 2 -s t i nt c- tot + s2 st i- t ne ) s e i n t c o t s 2 t - 2 2 t = e -2t s ien + s it n ( 2t s it n t c -o + ts 2 s ie n )2 s t i n c to s 3 = e -2 [ sti n 2 t+ s i2 n t c-o t3s s + it n2 s it n c to s ]
2 = e -2t [ 3 s t i n ct o 3 s 2 ts i n ]
d u if u=x2+y2+a2; x3+y3=a3 d x
d u u u d y = + .......(1) d x x y d x
u=x2+y2+a2
u u = 2 x := y2 x y
d y = 3 -x 2 d x
2 d y-3 x = 2 d x3 y
using in .(1)
x d u - 2 = 2x + 2 y 2 d x y = 2x 2x2 y
1 ( x2 y 22 x ) y 2x (y y x )
(3) Find
y2=4ax f(x,y)=y2-4ax
f = 4 -a x
f = 2y y d y- f = = d x f = 2a y
d y if ax2+2bxy+by2+2gu+2gy+c=0 d x
x 4a y2 y
f=ax2+2bxy+by2+2gx+2fy+c
f = 2a +x2 b + 2 g g x
f = 2b +x2 b+ 2y f y
f d y x = d x f y
2a + x2 b + 2 y g = 2b + x2 b +y g (a + x h) +y g = 2h + x2 b+ 2y f
16.3 Eulers Theorem on homogeneous functions Definition1: Let u be a function of x and y. If u(tx,ty)=tu(x,y) then u(x,y) is called a homogeneous function of degree n in x and y. Eg: u(x,y) = ax2+2hxy+by2 = t2(ax2+2hxy+by2) u (t x, ty) = at2x2+2ht2xy+bt2y2
=t2u(x,y) u (x,y) is a homogeneous function of 2nd degree in x and y Eules theorem on homogenous function If u be a homogeneous function of nth degree in x and y then
x u u + y n= x y u
This is called Endles theorem on homogeneous functions. Proof: Let u(x,y) = aox2+a1xn-1y+a2xn-2y2+a3xn-3 y3+.+anyn
= xn + 0 a y 1+ a x
2 2 y +2a 3 x
3 y y + a . +.a . n 3 x x
n n
y2 y = x n 0+ a 1 + a 2 a + 2 3 x x
3 y + . a . .n y a + 3 x x
( )
u = xnf(y/x)
u y -1 x = x n1 ( f / y x ) - 2 + f y x n nx x x x
= y
\x u x= x
n-2
n -1 y
( ) y +n xy f x (f ) x) x( - f ( y n+) x y f ( ) x x
1 n1
1 n
=xn-1f1(y/x)
\y n = x y
n -1
f y
( x)
n -1 =y 1n f -y n x
\x
u u y+ x x y
( )
1 n + x- y f + x1 y f x x
( )
( )
= n nx (f y / x )
=nu 16.4. Examples (1) verify Eulers theorem for u=x3+y3+z3+3xy2 Solution
u = 3x 2 + x 3 x y
u = 3y2+ z 3 y
u = 3z 2 + x 3 z
\x
u u u 3 3 3 + y z + x =y 3 z + 3x + y 3 +z 3 y + 33 x + 3 y x y z
=3x3+3y3+3z3+9xyz = 3(x3+y3+z3+3xyz) = 3u
\x u u u +y + z = x 3 x y z
u u + y = t xa n x y
2 x2 + y \ sin u = x+ y
let f = sinx
2 x2 + y \f= x+ y 2 2 t 2 x2+ t y x+ y
f (t x, t = y )
2 t2 ( x + 2 y)
x+ y
f f +y = 2 f x y n s i( n = )2 s i n ( s iy )+ x y
u u x c o sy+ c o s= 2 s i n x y c u u ox s +y 2 = s y x i n
u u c o x s x + ; 2 = yt a xn x y
16.5. Let us sum up Solve have learnt on finding the total differentiation and Eulers Theorem on homogeneous function. 16.6. Check your progress (1) Find
d u if u=xyz ; where x=t, y=t2, z=t3 d t
(2) Find x
u u u +y + z x y z
if u=x+y+z
16.7. Lesson End Activities Exercise Verify Eulers theorem on homogeneous functions 1) (a)
4 1 x1 / + y 1 / 3 1 x +y / 4 / 3
(c)u=x3-3x2y+3x2 y+y3 2) If u = s
x
-1
x+ y i n , prove that x + y
u u 1 + y = tn a n x y 2
-1 2 x2 + y a n , show that x+ y
3) If u = t
u u 1 + y = s ni n x y 2
n- ) n
5) If u=tan-1
x
x3 + x-
u u 1 + y = s ni n 2 x y 2
d u 2 3 i f =u 3x 4y 2 zwhere x=t , y=t ; z=4 d t d u x=log t; y=et i f= s u i xn 2y( where ) d t d u 2 2 2 i f =u 3x 2ywhere x -xy+y =a d t
2 x2 y (b) 2 - 2 = 1 a b
17.0 Aims and Objectives In this method different methods of integration are to be learnt Methods of Integration 17.1 Integrals of the form 17.2. Examples
s i dn x ox s
put ex+e-x=t
(ex-e-x)dx=dt
l e x - exe = t x I x- d e +e
d t = l o t+ g c t
x d x 1+ x
2
\ I =
x d x 1 + x2
=
=
d /t 2 t t1 / 2 +c 1 / 2
1 -1 / 2 1 t = d t 2 2
= t+ c
= 1 + x2 + c
a
(1) (2) (3)
(p + x) q M e t h o d d 2 dx =A a + ( x + b ) x +c B 2 x+ b + x c p + x q d x
Important formulas
x x a
d y 1 = t a-n x 1 (+ a/ ) c 2 +a a d y 1 x a = l o g+ 2 + a 2 a +x a d y 1 a x = l o g+ 2 + x 2 a +a x c
(1) Example
x d x +x+ 1
2 let x = A +( x + 1 x ) +B
d d x
x=A(2x+1)+B (1) compose the coefficient of x 1=2A \ A=1/2 put x= out (1) 0=A+B \ B=-1/2 \ x=1/2 (2x+1) -1/2 let I =
x d x +x+ 1
1 ( 2 x +1 )= 1 / 2 =2 2 d x x +x+ 1
= = 1 2x + 1 1 - d x 2 2 x +1x + 2 1 1 l + o x 2g +x ( 1- ) 2 2 1 1 l + o x 2g +x ( 1- ) 2 2 1 1 l + o x 2g +x ( 1- ) 2 2
d x +x+ 1
d x 1 ( x 2 + 2 x + . 1 - ) 1 +1 4 4 2
(x 1 +
d x
2 / 2+ )3
4
2
d x
2 3 (x 1 + / 2+ ) 4
1 1 1 1 / x+2 = l ox 2+ g ( 1 + ) 1 x. t a- n c + 2 2 3 3 / 2 2
1 2 1x + 2 1 = l ox + g ( 1 + ) 1x t a --n c + 2 3 3
3x + 2 d x -4 x + 2 3x + 2 dx(1) 3 x -4 x + 2
2
(2)
3x
I =
Let 3x+2= A
d 2 ( x3 - 4x +2 B + ) d x
3x+2=A(6x-4)+B put x = 0
2=-4A+B (2) put x=1 5=2A+B.(3) solve (2) and (3) A=1/2; B=4 \ 3x+2=1/2(6x-4)+4 using in (1)
1 ( x 6+ 4 + ) 4 2 I = dx 3 x 2 -4 x + 2
= 1 6 x -4 d x + d2 x 4 2 2 x3 - 4x + 2 x 3 4 x+ 2
1 d x = l o - g x 2 ( +3 x 4 + 2 ) 4 2 2 3 ( 4 / 3 x 2 - x/ + 3 1 4 = l o - g x 2 ( +3 x 4 + 2 ) 2 3
= 1 4 l o - g x 2 ( +3 x 4 + 2 ) 2 3
d x 2 - 2x + x 4 - 4 + 2 3 9 9 3
d x
2
( x - 23 ) + 29
d x
1 4 = l o -g x 2 ( +3 x 4 + 2 ) 2 3
x-2
2 + 3 3
x- 2 1 11 2 4 - = l o x g -( 3 4+ 2 x ) . t +a n c + 3 2 3 2 2 3 3 1 2 4 13 - 2x - = l o g x ( 3 4+ 2 x ) t a + n c + 2 3 2 3 1 3 2 x- 1 = l o gx -2( 3 4 2+ ) x 2 2 t+a - n c + 2 2
(3)
1- x
x +1 d x 2 -x
let x+1 = A
d 2 ( - x1 - x ) +B d x
1 -1 ( 1-2 x + ) 2 2d x = 2 1- x - x
= = 1 d x 2 1- l o- g x ( x 1 +) 2 2 2 1 -x -x 1 d x 2 1- l o- gx ( x 1 +) 2 2 2 1- ( x - x )
1 2 1- l o- gx ( x 1 +) 2 2
d x 1 1 1 2 1- x 2 + . x+. 2 4 4
1 2 1- l o- gx ( x 1 +) 2 2
d x
2 1 1 1- x+ 4 2
1 d x 2 1- l o- gx ( x 1 +) 2 2 3 - x +1 4 2
1 d x 2 1- l o- gx ( x 1 +) 2 2 2 3 +1 4 - x 2
1 l 2
o x g
3 + x + / 2 1 1 + 2 c 1 ( - 1 ) lx - o g + 2 2 . 3 / 2 3 - x 1 / 2 2
2
3 + x + 1 2 1 +/ 2 1 l o gx ( -1 ) l -x o g 2 + c 2 2 3 3 - x 1 / 2 2
(a)
x -a in where b > a b -x
Example (1)
x-2 d x 5- x
let x = a cos2v+bsin2v (Method) Here a = 2, b = 5 x = 2 cos22+5sin22 dx = [2(2cos2sin2)+5(2sin2cos2)]d2 =[-4sin2cos2+10sin2cos2]d2 = 6sin2cos2d2 x-2 = 2cos22+5sin22-2 = 2(cos22-10)+5 sin22 = 2(-sin22)+5sin22 = -2sin22+5sin22
x-2 = 3 s i2 n q
x-2 I = d x 5- x
=
=
3 s i2 n q 6 s iqn c qo d sq 2 3c oq s
s i qn .6si q n cqo d sq c oq s
= 6 s i2 q nd q = 32 s i2 q nd q
= 3 ( 1 c o q s 2 dq )
{ \ 1 cos2q = 2sin2q}
2q = 3 dq oq sd c
s i n q2 = 3 q - + c 2 = 3 q 2 s iqn os cq + c 2
x-2 3 x-2 3 5- x 3
x-2 I = 3 s i -1n 3
x 2 c 3
5 x + 3
x-2 1 = 3 s -1 -i n ( 2 x )- ( x 5 + ) c 3 3
(x -a )x b (d ) x
1 8 4 s i2 q n c2 q o sd q 4
= = =
9 2 n c o q) s dq (s i q 2 9 2 ( s i qn) dq 2 9 s i 2 nq2 d q 2
9 1c o sq 4 = dq 2 2 = = = 9 - c o sq 4 (1 )dq 4 9 dq 4 s 4 d cq o q c
\s i n a =2
1 -c o sa2 2 Hea re = 2q
9 s i n q 4 q - + 4 4 9 s i n 2 x q 2 q + 4 4
9 2 s i n 2 xc o sq 2 q + c 4 4 9 2 2 sx i n 2 x c o sq2 q + 4 4 c
9 qn c oqs c + oqs 2 [q s i] . c. . . ( 1 ) 4
But sin2=
x-2 5 x c oq s= 3 3
cos22=2cos22-1
5 - x = 2 -1 3 = = 1 2 ] 3 [1- 0 x3 1 [ 7- 2x ] 3
using in (1)
I= 9 s 4
-1
2 x- 2 x - 3 x i x n - 7 3 3 3
1 (2+ c 3
I=
9 -12 x - 1 i x n 2 - x( s 4 3 9
( 3- )
x (- 7
2c+ )
d x (x -a ) b x (
d x (x 2 ) x ( 5 )
d x (x 2 ) x ( 5 )
6 s i vn c v ods v (3si v2 n ) ( 23v c o s )
6 s i vn c v o ds v 3 s i vn c o vs
= 2 d v
=2v+c
x-2 =2 s i n + 3
-1
\3 s = v i nx -2 2 c x-2 s i nv 2 = 3
s i vn=
x-2 3
(a c
1 d x o v + sb s iv + n c
2t 1+ t2
1- t2 cosx = 1+ t2
1 +s
d x ix n + c o x s
2 t ax n ( / 2 t ) 2 = 1 +t a n 2 x ( +/ 2 t ) 12
1 -t a n x ( /- 2 t) 1 2 = 1 +t a 2n x( /+ 22 ) t 1
= d = x
2d t 1+ t2 2d t 1+ t2 d x
Let I =
1 +s i n+2 c ox s
2
2d t 1+ t2 = 2t 1 t 1+ + 2 2 1+ t 1+ t
= = =
2
d x 2t +2 t + 21 t d t 2t + 2 d t t+2
(2)
5 +4 c o x s 3 sx i n
I = d x 5+ 4 c ox s 3 sx i n
d x
2d t 1+ t2 = 4x ( - 1 t2 ) x 3 t 2 5+ + 2 2 1+ t 1+ t
= 2 = 2 = 2 = 2
d t 5 ( + t1 + ) t4 2 ( f 1 -) t
2
d t 5 + 5+ t 4 +t 2 4f - t
2
d t t -f t +9
2
d t (t -3 2 ) c
-1 ( t - 3) = 2 + 1
1 = 2 - + c t - 3
1 = 2 + c x( / t a n 2 ) 3
17.3. Let us sum up We have studied different types of evaluation of integrals. 17.4. Check your progress (1) (3)
(e
x x
+ exx -
e +e
2
).d
(2) (4)
d x -x + 1 d x 2 x2
2x
d x - x1+
1- x
17.5. Lesson End Activities Integrate the following (1) (2) (3)
ex d x e2 x + 1
s i n ( lx og) d x x
d x x x( l o xg )
(4)
5- 4 x 1 + 2x - xx d x 3x + 1 2 x 2 + x3- d x
2 1 +x 1: 2 ln o+ g ( s 1 2- 2 )x l o+g x + c 2 2 2 ( - x1 - )
(5)
1 3 g2 + ( 2 3 + ) x l o 4l o x 2 2
2 g + 2
+x 1c + ( - x1 - )
6x - 7 x
x+4
d x
3 7 2 + x 1 g - ( 627 - ) x l o + g c + - l o x 2 2 2 2 x 3 + ( 1 2 t a n x l o g t a n x( 2 3 2 )-1 3 / 2 + +c / + 2 ) 1 3
(7)
d x 1 -3 c o+ xs 2 s xi n d x 1 +3 c o+ xs 4 s xi n
(8)
3 (t a x n 2 ) 2 2 1 ( /) + l o g +c 2 3 6 3 1 t a n x ( + / 2 ) 2 2 ( )
18.0 Aims and Objectives Our Aim is to evaluate a given integral by parts method 18.1. Integration by parts We know that
\
d d u (u )v = v d x d x
d(uv) = udv+vdu
\ d ( u =v )u d + u v d u \ u v=u v -v d u
\u d = v uv v d u
I =x sx i nd 2 x
=uv- v d u
-x c o sx 2 c o x s 2 d x 2 2 - x c o xs 2 1 c o sx 2d x 2 2 -x c o s x 2 2 2 1 s ix n 2 + c 2
= =
- x c o xs 2 1 ( s+ in x2) c 2 2
= v t xa 2 n d
v= ( s 2ix n -d 1 )x
v= x ( sdi2 n -x d x
v = tanx x
2 I =x n tx a d
=uv- v d u
= x( tx -a x n )x t -a dn )x ( x = x( x t -ax n x) - x t adn x x d x
2 I = (x t a -n x) lo xg s x e +c x
(3) l o xg d x u=logx ;
d u 1 = d x x 1 d = u d x x
I = x l od g x
dv=dx
= v d x
=uv- v d u
dv=x2dx
d
x
= v x 2d x
v=x3/3
I = x
2
t x a1- d n
=uv- v d u
=
3 x3 x 1 t a -1nx d 2 x 3 3 1 +x 3 x3 1 x 1 t ax n . . d . . 2 .x . ( 1 ) 3 3 1 +x
But x2+1)x3 (x
x3 + 1 -1 \ x3 = x3 + 1 1 x 2 x +1
using in (1)
I= x3 1 1 lx o- g x - d2 x 3 3 x 1 +
x3 d 1 x l oxg x d- x 2 3 3 1x +
1 x2 -1 o x - g tx a n +c 2 3
x3 = l 3
I=
2 x3 x 1 -1 l xo g x t + a n + c 3 6 3
(5)
l o xg d x +1x 2 ) 1 u = l xo gd =; v d 2 x ( +1x )
1 d = x d x x
= v
d x +1x 2 )
v = -(1+x)-1
1 = 1+ x
l o xg I = d x (x + 1 2)
=u v - v d u
1 1 1 - l oxg -d x x +1 x +1 x
1 1 - l o + x g . d . . x . ( 1 ) 1 ) ( x + 1) x ( + x
To find
x(
1 d x x + 1 )
1 ( A1+ x )B + x = x( +1 x )x + ( x1 )
using in (3)
1 1 1 = x( +x 1 x )+ x 1
x(
1 1 1 d =x d x d + x 1 x )+ x 1
= logx-log(x+1)+c
x = log +c x + 1
using in (1)
I=
1 (x +
x l x+ o g l o g+ c 1 x)+ 1
2 (6) e x ( x+ 1 d ) x
= v e xd x
v=ex
2 I =e x(+ x1 d) x
=u v - v d u
x = ( x 1+ e2 ) x 2 e ( x+1 d ) x x I = (x 1 + )e2 1x ( e-1 ) .+ . d . .x . ( 1 ) x
= v e xd x
v=ex
\ e x (x+ d 1 x)=u v v d u = (x 1 + e )x e xd x
18.3. Let us sum up We have studied so far how to evaluate the integral whenever the integral is of the form u d v 18.4 Check your progress (7) x s x i 2 nd x
Hint. uv s i 2 n x=
1 -c o s x2 2
Take u=x; dv=sin2xdx (8) x c xo2 s d x Take u=x; dv=cos2xdx (9) x s x i 3 nd x Use: sin3x = 3sinx-4sin3 x 4sin3x = 3sinx-sin3x sin3x = sinx-1/4 sin3x (10) x c xo3 s d x use : cos3x = 4cos3x 3cosx 4cos3x = cos3x+3cosx \ cos3x = cos3x+3/4 cosx 18.5. Lesson end Activities Integrate the following (1) (log x)2 (2) (3)
x s i -1n x 1- x
1
x 3 s i1-x n 1- x
2
d x
1 a
(4) Prove that e x [ f ( x +f) 1x x ( d=) x ]e (f x)and hence integrate (1+xlog x) (5) xax
x 1 ax - 2 l o ag ( lao g )
ex x
ea x a c bo x s+ s b i bn ]x 2 [ a2 + b
x (2) ea b s ix n d x
ea x as b i n x - cb o b s ]s a2 + b 2 [
Lesson 19 REDUCTION FORMULAS Contents 19.0. Aims and Objectives 19.1. Reduction Formula 19.2. Examples 19.3. Let us sum up 19.4. Check your Progress 19.5. Lesson end activities 19.6. Points for discussion 19.7. References 19.0 Aims and Objectives We are going to study about the evaluation of integrals
d
v=
x = v e a d x
ea a
In = uv - v d u == un =
x n a e x ae x n -1 - n. x d x a a
x n ae x n -1 - n/a U a
= d
ea x x+ c a
c a ox s d x
Prove let In = x n c a ox s d . x (1) In regret by parts u=xn; dv=cosaxdx dv=nx dx ; (1) because In=uv- v d u
= x n s ai nx s a i n x n -1 - n x d x a a x n s ai nx n n -1 x as ix n d x a a
n-1
d
v=
= v a c o x sd x s i an x a
= v a s ix n d x
v=
- c oa s x a
n -1
as x i n d x =u v- v d u
= = =
-c o a sn -x( c a o x s ) x- 1 n xn -2 ( d 1 ) x a a -c c a o nx + s n 1 -2 + x -1 x - na x c do s x a a a o x1 s n -1 - x n -+ I a a
n-2
I =
x s n ia n x c ao x s n 1 - n n - x + n -1 I a a a a
n-2
d
v =
= v a c o x sd x
s i an x a
I1 =uv- v d u
= = = xs a i n xs i a nx - d x a a x s ai x n 1 s i an x d x a a x s ia n x 1 c -a o sx - 2 + a a a c
s a i xn d x
= v a s ix n d x
v=
- c oa s x a
In =uv- v d u
- xn c a o x s c o s n -1 n x d x 2 2
-x c n o as x n n -1 ..(1) + x ac o x sd x a a
= v a c o x sd x
s i an x a
n -1
ac xo d s x =u v- v d u
x n -1 sa i n x s ai n x 2 - - (n 1 x )n -d a a
= =
using in (1)
In =
-1 - xn c a o xn n s x s ai x n n 1 + I n a a a a -2
- x n c a o x sn -n - ( n 1n + x 1s -i an x 2 2 a a a
n-2
as= i
n x
- c oa s x =d x+ c a
u=x ; dv=sinaxdx du = dx ; d = v a s ix n d x
v= - c oa s x a
I1 = u v -v d u
= =
-x c o x s 1 + c oa sx d x a a - x c o xs 1 a x s i n + + a a a c
-x c o x s 1 + s + i an x c a a 2
in n x d x
=u v - v d u
1 n2 = c o x s sn -i x + n ( n 1 -2 ) sx i n d c o sx n -1 = c ox -s x s in + n x(n -21 s n i2 nx ( d 1 )x )i s n -1 2 2 n = c ox -s x s i+ nn x ( -1 s ) ni s in n x ( 1d ) n (x -1 n) sx i d
-1 un = x c o x s nn + s n i n u ( 1 -n n ( - 1 u ) -2 ) 1 un + ( n 1- ) u cn = o x s- sx n i+ - 1u ) - 2 n nn (
un ( + 1 n 1 -) x c =o s x - sn -1i+ nn (- u 1 ) -2 n
-1 un = x c o s x n s+ ( u 1 )- 2 n i nn -
un =
1 nn -11 x c o s s x +n .u . . . -2 . . ( 1 ) n i n a
i) When n is even, the ultimate integral is U0 U0 = d = x x + c ii) When u is odd, the ultimate integral is U1
U1 = xs = id n x c ox + s c
p 2
s i nn n xxdx d x
Un = Un = =
-1 -1 p 2 x c os n s i n + x] n 1 n a 0 n -1 U n n
-2
n U
-2
n -1 n - 3 n - 5 . . .U .1 . .if n is odd n n - 2 n- 4
p p 0
If n is even
Un = n -1 n - 3 n - 5 U . . . .0 . n n - 2 n- 4
p 2 0 p 2 p x 0= x) =
\U 0 = d
\ If n is even, U n =
n -1 n - 3 n - 5 . . . .p ... 2 n n - 2 n- 4
(6) Find a reduction formula for c on x s d x Proof : Let Un = c on x s d x = c on -s1 c ox sd x Integrate by parts u=cosn-1x; dv=cosxdx du=-(n-1)cosn-2xsinxdx; d = v c oxs d x v = sinx Un=Uv- v d u
-1 22 = s i xn + c nx o s n ( - 1n ) x c ox s s di n x
n -1 2 2 = s i xn c + ox s ( 1 n n) xs ( 1 d c o x s ) c o -1 = s ix n +n c x o n s -( nx 1 )2 d c ox s ( n2 1 )x c o d s x
-1 = s ix + n nx c o - ns ( U1n - 2 ) n( n1U )
\U n n
n
n -1 s = x i n x+ c o ns- ( U 1 ) -2 n n -1 = Us i xn+ c xn o s n ( 1 U ) -2
Un =
-1 s ix n nx c on s - 1 +U n n n
-2
....(1)
If n is even, the ultimate integral is U0 U0 = d = v x+c (7) Find a reduction formula for
p
c on x s d x
n -1 n - 3 n - 5 .U . 1. if n is odd n n - 2 n- 4
p p 0
U1 = x 2 c =o d s (+ s x i = n2 ) 1 0 x
\ when n is odd
Un = n -1 n - 3 n - 5 ....1 n n - 2 n- 4
U0 = d
= x p
\U n =
n -1 n - 3 n - 5 p . . . . 2 n n - 2 n- 4
0 p 0 p 0 p 0
s s s s
7 5 3 1p ix d n= x. . . . 8 6 4 2 2
4 2 8 ix n d= x. . =1 5 3 1 5 7 5 3 1p ix d n= x. . . . 8 6 4 2 2
4 2 8 ix n d= x. . =1 5 3 1 5
n im n c x ox sd x
=v s n i mn xc o ds x
t m +1 m s+1 x i n = m +1 m +1
Um,n = uv- v d u
=c =c
n -1 m +1 1 s i n x s m +i x n 2 o x s + ( n 1 )n xc m +1 m +1
ox s
sd i s x
n x
n -1
s m +i1 x n2n--1 n = c o xs +s im x n c xo s 2 ( d s i n x ) m +1 m +1
n -1
s m +i1 x n n--1 n -1 =c n o xs s + im x n 2 c ox s- ( 2 1 d c o xs ) m +1 m +1
=c
n -1
s o xs
i x n n- 1 s xm + i nd-2c [n o x -s x sm i xn m +1 m +1 s
m +1 i x n n- 1 m U, + U2 m n m +1 m +1 n
m +1
c do
sx
U m, = c n on x1 s,
s m +1 x i U m, = c x n -1 o + s n U m +1 U m, + n -1 n U m +1
,
-nn mm , ,m+ 1
-1 n - 1 n2 n U n+1
n -
m +1 sx n n 1 1i =m c on -x sn, + m U 2 m +1 m +1
m +1 n -1 sx n n 1 1i U m , = c onn-x s , + m U 2 n m +1 m +1 m +1
U m, =
1 n -1 m +1 x n. c o +x s i n , s m m+ n + m
n - 1) (U
2 n
If n is odd, the ultimate integral is Um,1 If n is even, the ultimate integral is Um,0 Book work 9 obtain a reduction formula for
p
s i mnx c nxo s d x
p
Proof Um,n =
s i mnx c nxo s d x
]0 2
nUn n
n -1 U m, m+ n
similarly
U m, U m, U m, U m, =
-
n4
n6
n8
n -1 n - 3 n - 5 xn , U . . . . m1 m + n +m -n 2 m + n 4 p
when
2 n is odd U m, 1=x0 m s xi n d c o sx
t m +1 1 = t d= t = 0 m + 1 0 m + 1
1 m
\ when n is odd,
U m , n= n -1 n-3 n-5 1 x x x. . . . . . m + n m + n -2 m + n -4 m +1
= =
an n x d x
t n -1 - U n-2 n -1
U1 = xt a n d=l ox g s+ xe c c
d-
n-2 n
t -U
-2
=
=
-t n -1 - U n-2 n -1
Un - 2
1 n -1 -c o tx n -1
Integral by parts U = secn-2x dx = (n-2)sec n-3 x sec x tan x dx = (n-2)sec n-2 x sec x tan x dx dv = sec2xdx
= v sx e2 d c
v = tanx
\U n = uv v -d u
2 n-2 = s en -c xt -a x n t a xn ( n 2 )x s ex c t da n x n= s en - 2 cx t a xn -(2 n 2 ) x s e2 c x t ( ad n
)x
-2
(n 1 )v x nc2 + tx an n n- ( 2 U ) n s=e
-2
Un =
1 2 n2 x s en -c +x tn a n U n -1 n -1
-2
Book work 13
n Obtain a reduction formula for c oe sc xdx
proof U n = ec c o x sn d x
n-2 = c oe s c c x e o 2cs x d x
dv=cosec2xdx
= v e c o c s x2 d x
v=-cotx
\ un u = v -v d u
-2 =-cotxcosecx-2x- ( x 2 - e ) cc o n xs cx 2 o dt x -2 2 =-cotxcosecn-2x-(x-2) c oe nsc (x c e oc s x 1 d) x
x -2 e xcs x d x o =-cotxcosecx-2x-(x-2) c c o es c x d x
=-cotxcosecx-2x-(x-2)(ux-ux-2) =-cotxcosecx-2x-(x-2)ux+(x-2)ux-2
\ un
n-2 ( + n 2 u ) cn o et -cc o +n ns (n - 2 u) - 2 n=
s i6 n x d x
(2) (4)
c o7 x s d x
s i 6n x c 4xo s d x
s i 3n x c2 xo s d x
d x
(x
+ 1)
, show that
2x.ux+1=
(x
x
+ 1)
+ ( 2 x- 1)u x
2 x 2a ux - 1 2x + 1
Hence obtain a reduction formula for positive integer 3. If ux= -1 (1 - x 2 ) d, x prove that ux=
2x u x -1 2x + 1
1 x
(1 - x ) d
2 0
xwhere m is a
um,x=
m um -1 x,- 1 m+ x p 2n +1
Contents
20.0. Aims and Objectives 20.1. Double Integrals 20.2. Examples 20.3. Triple Integrals 20.4. Examples 20.5. Let us sum up 20.6. Check your progress 20.7. Lesson end activities 20.8. Points for Discussion 20.9. References
20.0 Aims and Objectives We shall study in this lesson how to evaluate double and triple integrals.
parts. 20.1 Double Integrals: When a function f(x) is integrated with respect to n between the limits b a and b, we have the definite integral a f ( x ) d .x If the integral is a function x and y i.e., f(x,y) and if it is integrated between the limits a and b for x and c and y for y, we get a double integral and is denoted by the symbol
y = dx = b
y= c = x a
f (x ,y )d
x d y
y = dx = b
To evaluate
y= c = x a
f (x ,y )d
to x partially (treating y, a constant), between a and b. After this inner integration and substituting the limits for x, we get the integrand a function of y. If we integrate this integrand, w.r.t. y between the limits y=c and y=d,
d b
(x y , d ) n d evaluated. y f
c a
b a
f (x y, d ) x d y
20.2 Examples :
2 1
1.
4x ydxdy
0 2 1
I= 4 x ydxdy
0
=4 x d x d y
n2 =4 d y 2
2
=2 d y
0
=2(y)02=2(2-0) = 4
p s iqn
2.
r d rq d
i n s q r d rqd = q
r2 = 2 0
s i -1 nq
dq
p q 1 1 c o2 s dq = 2 2
d q = dq - cq o s 2 4
0
1 s i n q 2 = q )p - 4 2
1 1 = p - ( 0 ) 4 2
=p 4 20.3 Triple Integrals Extending the concept of the double integral to one more variable
z= f y = dx = b
z=e y = c = x a
)dydz f(x y, z ,d x
z= e
f (x y, d ) x d y
y= c = x a
y= d
20.4 Examples
1 2 3
1.
x yz d x d y d z
0 0 0
1 2 3
I=
1
0 0 0
x yz d x d y d z
3 2 x d x y d y d z
2 3
2y ) z d y d z = (x 2 0 0 0
1 2 9 = y d y z d z 2
1 9 y2 = z d z 2 0 2 0
=9 z d =z9 ( =10) ( - 1 0 = )
z2 2
9 2
9 2
a b c
2.
)d z d y d x ( x + y z +
0 0 0
=
0
a b
c + y z+ )d z d y d x ( x 0 0
c
=
0
a
x + z y + z 2 2d y d x 2
0
2d y d x + y + c) c = ( x c 2
0 0
y2 2 + y + c c y d x = x c 2 2 0 0
= x 0
b2 + b 2
2c b c c + 2d x
x2 b 2 c = b + c 2 2
2 c b + x2 x
= =
a2 b c 2 a b c2 a c b + + 2 2 2
a b c (a + b + c ) 2
20.5 Let us sum up So far we have learnt an evaluation of double and triple Integrals. 20.6 Check your progress
1 1
1. Evaluate
x y d y d x
0 0
2. Evaluate
tzdzdydx x
0 0 0
Ans: logalogb
1. Evaluate
x
1 p 2 p 2
dxdy y 1
2. Evaluate
s i + ) 4q d d y (q n
1 z y+ z
3. Evaluate
zdydx d
0 0 0
a
2 a2 - x
1 2
4. Prove that
p a3 a x y d - x d= y 6
2 2 2
1 1n 1- n - y
5. Prove that
dz x y z d x d y= 7
0 0 0
1 2 0
l o gn 2 x +l o y g
6. Show that
e
0 0 0
x+ y + z
8 1 9 d z d y d =x l o g 2 3 9
20.8 Points for Discussion 7. Evaluate 2x+3y=6 8. Evaluate the region in the positive Quadrant by the line y x y d x dover (Ans. 3/2) v is the region bonded by x=0, + zxdxd , y d where z ( x y+y z ) (Ans. 33/2)
20.9
References
Lesson 21 AREAS AND VOLUMES Contents 21.0. Aims and Objectives 21.1. Applications to Calculations of areas and volumes 21.2. Examples 21.3. Areas in Polar Coordinates 21.4. Examples 21.5. Let us sum up 21.6. Check your Progress 21.7. Lesson end activities 21.8. Points for discussion 21.9. References 21.0 Aims and Objectives We shall study on the applications of to calculations of areas and volumes. 21.1 Applications to Calculations of areas and volumes 21.2 Examples 1. Evaluate R is the region bounded by the R line x+2y=2 y x y d x d where
lying in the first quadrant Proof : The equation of the line is x+2y=2 \
x y + =1 2 1
y B
x y + =1 2 1
p(x0,y) R
Q(x,y)
A O R is the region as show here. The limits of the variables of integration are not given. the order of integration arbitrarily. We shall integrate first w.r.t. to x and then w.r.t y. Treating y=a constant means that it is equivalent to drawing a line || l to x axis arbitrarily lying in the region R of integration. Let P be (x0,y) ; Q be (x1,y), since PQ is ||l to x axis (y=a constant) x varies from x0 to x1 \ x0=0 and x1+2y=2 \ (x1, y) lies on x+2y=2 \ x1+2y=2 x1=2-2y \ The limits for x are x=0 to x=2-2y To find the limits for y : \ we can choose x
We have to find the variation of the line PQ. So that the region R is fully covered. To sweep the entire area of R, PQ has to start from the position where y=0, more parallel to itself and should go up to the position BC where y=1. \ y=0 to y=1
y 1 2- 2
I=
0
1
xydxdy
2- 2 y
x2 = y d 2 0 0
1
1 2 y 2d2 ) y = y( 20
1 2 y1 d ) y =2 y ( 0
1 y2 d) y =2 y ( 2y+
0 1 2 y ) d y =2 ( y 3 +y2 0
2 y y 2d =2 y3 d + y y d y
2 y4 y 3 y =2 + -2 2 3 4
1 6
2 x2 y + = 1 by double integration. 2 a2 b
d x d y
b 1x2 a2
=4
x =0 y =0
d y d x
x2 a2
=4 [ y ]0 d
x =0 a
b 1-
=4b
0
a
2 a2 - 2 d x a2
4b x2d x = a2 a 0
4b 2a -1x = s i n a 2 a
x a2 - x + 2 a
2 4b p a =pa b a 4
3. Find the volume of the tetra hedron bounded by the coordinate planes and
x y z + + =1 a b c
Solution : Volume =
d x d y d z
x y z + + =1 a b c
Evaluation of the plane is i.e., find the limits for x : Put y=0, z=0 \ x=0 to x=a To find the limits for y Put z=0 y=ab|| - x/a To find the limits for z
z x =1 c a x a 2 y b y b x y + =1 a b
x c 1- x - y a b a b 1- a
)
dzdydx
v=
n =0
y=0
z =0
(d
x a b 1- a
x =0 y =0
( z)
c 1- x - y a b
x a b 1- a
=c
x =0
1- x - a b
dydx
0
x =c b 1 - y a 0
a
y 2 - d 2 b
x b 1- a
x
0
1b x 1 dx ) - 1 ( - x ] =c b (1 - x a )(a a
0
2b
1b d1 x =c b 1 - x a a
0
2b
2 b c x d x 1 a 2 0
1- x 3 b c a = 2 1 - /a
a b c x 3 1- a 6
==
a b c 0 {6
1 }
a b c 6
21.3 Areas in Polar Coordinates Consider the equation of the curve r=f(0) Then area =
d o dwith r suitable limits for r and q r
21.4 Examples 1. Find the area of the curve r=a(1+cos q ) by double integration Proof: Area= r q d d r
=2.
0
rdr qd
q o = p q = 0t + c o q s ) r =t0 o(= r1 a
r2 =2 2 0 0
p
a( 1 +c o qs
.dq
a2 2 1 c o qs d)q =2 ( + 2 0
p
=a
(2
0 p
2 c o qs / ) 2 q d
q = Q \q = Q 2 Put 2 dq = d2 Q
q = 0 Q 0=
q = p Q =p
2
p 2
\ Area = 4a
c
0 p
o4 Q s . d2 Q
=8a
c
0
o4 Q s d Q
=8a2x . . d.3
3 1p 4 2 2
Area =
3p 2 a 2
2. Find the area of the circle by double integration, using polar coordinates. Solution : We shall take the equation of the circle of radius a as r=2a c oq s Area = 2 x upper area
q = 0tq o = p 2
r=0 to 2a c oq s
p 2 2 ac oq s
=2
0
r d rq d
2 ac oq s 2
=2
0
r 2 0
p 2
dq
sd q =4a2 c o2 q
0
1 p . =4a x 2 2 = p a2
2
21.5 Let us sum up We have learnt the evaluation of integrals for Areas and volumes. 21.6 Check your Progress (1) Find the area of the cardiod r=a(1+cos2) 21.7 Lesson end activities
2 1. Prove that the area of the curve r2=a2 c o2 q s by double integration is a
21.8 Points for discussion 1. Find the volume of the sphere of radius a by triple integral (Ans.
4p a 3 ) 3
Contents 22.0 Aims and Objectives 22.1 Notion of Improper integrals 22.2 Beta Gamma Integrals 22.3 Properties of Beta function 22.4 Let us sum up 22.5 Check your Progress 22.6 Lesson end Activities 22.7 Points for discussion 22.8 References
f (x
a
)d ; x a x b
There are three types of integrals (i). first kind (ii). Second kind (iii). Third kind
r b + or both, then the case is called an (i) first kind of either a + o
improper integral of first kind. (ii) second kind : an improper integral is called a second kind if f(x) is unbounded at one or more points of the integral of integration.
(iii) third kind : An improper integral is of third kind if it is of first kind and second kind. 22.2. Beta Gamma Integrals Definition 1 : the Gamma function
n1 d n , > n 0 is called a Gamma function. The integral (n)= e - nx 0
Definition 2 : The Beta function The Beta function with parameters m, n is defined by
1 -1 n m -1 (n -n B(m,n)= x x1 d ) n , for m,n>0 0
Note : 1. The Gamma function is a function of n and is convergent for n>0 2. the Beta function is convergent if m,n>0
\(x + 1e ) = x
0
-x
dx x
\ (x + 1u ) = v v - d x
=-n e
n -n ]0
+ -e. n x- x 1 d x
0
=x.(x) \ (x+1)=x(x) Note : 1. (x+1)=x1 ifx is a positive integer. Proof : We have (x+0=x =x(x+1) (x-1) (x-2) (x)
=x(x-1)(x-2)
=x(x-1)(x-2)----3.2.1 (1)
But
(1)= e- x d x
0
=-e-x ) ( 0 - 1- ) = 1 0 = \ (x+1)=x(x-1)(x-2)----3.2.1 (x+1)=x1. 22.3 Properties of Beta function 1. Prove that B(m, n)=B(n, m)
1 x -1 d) x Proof : B(m, n) = x m -1 (x -1 0
By using :
f ( x d )= - x) d x x f ( a
0
1 1 x -1 x m -) x (d ) x = ( -1 0
1-1d) x = x x -1 ( x-m
0
=B(n, m)
y m -1 d y m+ n ( + 1 y ) 0
Put n=
y in (1) 1+ y
1y (1 + y. ) d\d = n y ( +1y 2)
\ 1-n=1-
y 1+ y
Using in (1)
y 1 B(m, n) = 1 + y 1 + y | 0
m -1 n -1
(1 + y )
d y
y m -1 d y = ( +1y m)+ n 0
3. Prove that
p 2 - 1 2- 1 qc n o qs d q B(m, n)=2 s i2 mn 0
Proof : By definition
1 n -1 d) n B(m, n) = n m -1 (n -1 0
Put x= s i 2 n q
sq dn=2x 2 s iqn cqo d
\ when x=0 q =0
s 2 iq n = 1 x=1, q =p 2
\ q =0 to q = p 2
p m -1 2 n -1
- 2 qc( o2 q s s i n c qo s d q =2 s i2 mn ) q 0
n -1
2 + 1 n 2- 2 + 1 q c o q s d q =2 s i2 m-n 0
- 1 2- 1 qc n o qs d q B(m,n)=2 s i2 mn 0
q cno q sd q , \ If Im,n= s i mn
0
then Im,n= B 2 2
m1+ n + 1 , 2
4. Recurrence relation between Beta and Gamma functions: Prove that B(m,n)=
- 1 d n Proof : (m)= e - n nm 0
( m )( n) ( m + n)
t d t \ (m)= 2 e ( t )
0
m 2+ 1 d t =2 e-t t2 0
2
2 - 1 xm d x \ (m)=2 e- n 2 0
n 1 d y Similarly (n) = 2 e- y y 20
2
2 \ (m)(n)=4 e- n x 2 0
-m d 0
p 2 1 y 2 e x
2
n - 1 d y
- ( x + y ) 2 m -1 n x y d 2x 1 d y.(1) =4 e
2 2
Then x2+y2=r2
q = 0t po= ; r 0 t o 2 q = p =r 2
q =p 2n- 1 2 r= -r
\ (m) (n) =4
p
q = 0 r= 0
e (rc
o q r ) s rs id n) r q d ( q
2 m -1
2 m 1 n 1 n 2 o s q r 2s d iq n1 r =4 e-r 2r -m1c r 0 0
qd
-r2 = 2 e 2 0
p2 +m ( ) n1 - 1 c d s 2sm r iq r o 0
2 n -
n q1d
2. (n) (1-n)=
p s i nn p
22.4 Let us sum up So far we have studied Beta, Gamma integrals and their properties. 22.5 Check your Progress 1. Find b (7,8) 2. (x)=____________________ 3. What is the value of (1/2)
2. Evaluate
s i qn d q
3. If x>0, prove that (n+1)=n (n) Deduce the value of (n+1), n is a positive integer
p 2
4. Find
t a qn d q
x (
0
0 x - 11 d) x
Contents 23.0. Aims and Objectives 23.1 Convergence of Improper Integrals 23.2. Simple Examples 23.3. Let us sum up 23.4. Check your progress. 23.5. Lesson End Activities 23.6. Points for discussion 23.7. References 23.0. Aim and Objectives
We will learn on finding the convergence of Improper Integral 23.1 Convergence of Improper Integrals Definition 1: The interval whose length or range is infinite is called an infinite interval.
Example :The intervals (a,), (-a ,b) and (-a ,) are Infinite intervals Definition: Proper integral. The definite integral
f (x ) d is x called a proper
integral if the range of integration is finite and f(x) is bounded. For example,
p
s i xn d a x proper integral
f (x ) d x is called an improper
integral if (1) the interval (a,b) is not finite or (2) the interval is finite but f(x) is not bounded or (3) neither the interval (a,b) is finite nor f(x) is bounded. There are two kinds of improper integrates (viz) of first kind and second kind. First Kind: When the range of integration is infinite and f(x) is bounded.
Eg :
d x is an improper integral. 1 + x2
is finite but the integrate f(x) is unbounded at one or more points of the interval a x b. For example (ii)
chose possible number , however small but not zero these exists a corresponding positive number |N such that |
b N
Similarly we define the convergence of an integral, when the lower limit is infinite or when the integral becomes in finite at the upper or lower limit. In other words, when the limit of an improper integral as defined is a definite finite number, we say that the given integral is convergent. When the limit is a or -a , we say that the integral is called divergent is the value of the integral does not exist. In case the limit is neither a definite number use a o r -a then the integral is called oscillatory and therefore in this case the value of the integral doesnot exist. the integral is not convergent. 23.2. Simple Examples 1) Evaluate I=
d x x
d x x
= x 2d x
1
=l i m x 2d x
x 1
x =l i m x 1 1 2
x
x =l i mx 21 () x
=l i m -x 2 (= 1 ) a
x
\ The limit does not exist finitely The integral is divergent (2) Evaluate Solution
d x (x 2 2)
x d x =l i m -x ( 2 d-2) x 2 3 x (x 2 )
1 lim = -x x-2
1 = -l i m 1 x x - 2
=-(-1)=1=0 finite number \The given integral is convergent. (3) Test the convergence of Solution
4a d x 2 x + 4a
2
x 4a d x 4 a d x = l i2 m 2 2 4 x + 4 a0 x + x a 2 x 1 = 4 a l i m t a -1 nx 2a 0 x 2a
( )
x 0
-1 x =2limta n x
( 2a )
0
= 2 t
-1
x a - n 2a
= 2p = p 2
1 / 3 = l i m+ x3 ( 1 ) 0 x 1 / 3 =3 l i+ x m ( 1 ) 0 x
/ 3 =3 l i +xm ( 11 ) 1 x
=a
\ The given integral is not convergent. 23.3. Let us sum up We have studied on how the convergence of Improper Integrals are known. 23.4. Check your progress. (1) Discuss the convergence of (2) Evaulate
x d x 2 1 +x
1
e- x d x
23.5. Lesson End Activities (1) Show that the Improper Integrals (2) Examine the convergence of (3) Show that the integral 23.6. Points for discussion
d x converges if n<1 ( x - a) x
d x 2 x ( +x 1 )
2
s i2 n x d x is convergent. 2 x
d x x 1 +x 2
(5) Test the convergence of (6) Test the convergence of (7) Test the convergence of 23.7. References
s i2 n x d x 2 x
d x x3 + 1 d x 2 x2 - 1 x-
Contents 24.0. Aims and Objectives 24.1. Simpsons rule: 24.2. Examples 24.3. Let us sum up 24.4. Check your progress 24.5. Lesson End Activities 24.6. Points for Discussion 24.7. References 24.0 Aims and Objectives We shall study to find out the area of curve y=f(x) between x=a and x=b by using (1) simpsons rule (2) Trapezoidal rule
Approximate Integration We know that the area between the curve y=f(x), the x axis and the ordinates x=a, x=b is given by
b
equating of the curve is not available or the integral is not integrable. The simplest method of approximating to the area would be: (a) Simpsons rule (b) Trapezoidal rule. 24.1. Simpsons rule: To evaluate
b
f (x ) d x
Divide the interval [a,b] into n equal parts let the length of each sub-interval be h. Let y1,y2,y3,.y2n+1 be the values of the function to be integrated at 2n+1 equitant points applying the parabolic rule to the white area
1 f ( )x = ( d )[ 2 +1 x ( n + . .+ y . 3.y+ .- 5 y +. 2 y . + ) 1 y4 + ( . + y . 2.y . ] ) 2+h . 1 n. 2 ny . 4 3
x1
We shall first find the area ABQP let AO=OB=h Through any three points, a parable can pass through, having its axis parallel to of axis. Let the centum of such parabola passing through P,M and Q be y=a+bx+cx2 Taking the are ABQP to be approximately given by the area enclosed by this parabola, the x axis and the ordinates AP, BQ, aera ABQP =
b 2x c3 x = a + x + 2 3 -h
h
-h
y d x
h b 2 h c 3 h b2 h 3 c = a + h + a - h+ - 2 3 3 2
b 2 h c 3 h b2 h 3 c h =a + h + a + h + 2 3 2 3
c 3h = 2 a +h 3
2 2 = h [3+ a c 2 h ch ]] 3
Let y1,y2,y3, be the lengths of the ordinates at A,O,B respectively y1 = a-bh+ch2; y2=a; y3 = a+bh+ch2 \ a = y2 \ y1 = y2-bh+ch2 y3 = y2+bh+ch2 \ y1+y3 = 2(y2+ch2)
y1 + 3 y = y2 + c 2h 2 \ c2 h = y1 + 3 y 2 2 2 3 y
2 y+
y)
= =
y 2 + 3y
h + 4y y [ y1 2 + 3 3
This approximation is called one third rule or parabolic rule (c) Trapezoidal rule To evaluate
y d x
A x1 x2
xn-1 B
Erect the ordinates at A, x1,x2,x3,..xn-1 B. Join the chords pp1,p1p2, p2p3, .. pn-1 Q Take the sum of the areas of the trapezium Ax1p1p, x1x2, p2p1,xn-1BQpn-1 as the value of the area. Area of the trape Ax1p1p=1/2h(y1+y2)etc \ Area of ABQP = a y d x
= = 1 h [+ ( 1y ) +(y + y . 2 +. y . + . n+ . 1 yn( + ] ) 2 ) 3 y 2 1 h [( +1) y + + .y 3.+ . + . y. n2 1 + y (2 n y 2
b
])
places. (a) by Trapezoidal rule (b) by simpsms rule Solution Step 1 f(x) = 1/x a=1, b=4
h= b- a 4 - 1 3 = = = 1 6 2 n 6
1.5
2.5
3.5
1/x
0.66666 0.5
0.4
y1=1, y2=0.66666; y3=0.5, y4=0.4, y5=0.33333; y6=0.28571; y7=0.25 (a) By Trape zooidal rule
1 1 d = x [+ h ( x 2 =
y+ 7) y + 2 y 23+y
+ y (
y+ 6) y
1 x0 . 5 1.25)2(2.185 [ (+ ]7 ) 2
log4=1.358925 log22=1.358925 \ 2 log2 = 1.358925 \ log2 = 0.6794625 (b) Using simpsms rule
1 1 d =x x 3
+ h1 [(
)y+7 2 y+ ( 5 +y) 3 y
+ y4
y+ ( 6 y )]
= =
1 5)2(0.8+ 3333)4(1.3523 [( 1 . 2+ ] 7) 6 1 +5 ) 1 . 6 6 + 6 6 6 5 . 4 0 9] 48 [( 1 . 2 6
log4 = 1.38769 log22 = 1.38769 2 log2 = 1.38769 log2=0.693845 24.3. Let us sum up We have seen how to find area of a curve y=f(x) between specified limits using simpsons rule and Trapezoidal rule. 24.4. Check your progress (1) Evaluate (Nov 2000) (2) Evaluate
p
, 2p , . . .p. . . 1 0 1 0
1 + xd
0
(3) Compute
1 1
(Ans : 3690) 24.6. Points for Discussion (1) Applying simpsons rule to find decimals, taking h=0.25. (Ap 2003) (2) Using Trapezoidal rule, find 2000). (3) Complete
1+ x
0
d x
(Bharathiar Ap 2006, Ap 2005) 24.7 References A book of Integral Calculus by Vasiswha and Sharma
Lesson 25 CHANGE OF ORDER OF INTEGRATION Contents 25.0 Aims and Objectives 25.1. Change of order of integration in double Integral 25.2. Examples 1. 25.3. Let us sum up 25.4. Check your progress 25.5. Lesson End Activities 25.6. Points for discussion 25.7. Improper Integral 25.8. References 25.0 Aims and Objectives In this lesson we shall study the evaluation of double integral using change of order of integration. 25.1. Change of order of integration in double Integral When the limits for inner integration are functions of a variable, the change in order of integration will result in changes in the limit of integration i.e. the double integral
b J J
g( x,
f2( y ) f 1( x )
g (x y , d) y d x
When the order of integration is changed. This process of converting a given double integral into an equivalent double integral is called change of order or integration. Working Rule : (1) The region of integration is identified first (2) a rough sketch of the region is drawn (3) New limits are fixed (4) Then integral is evaluated. 25.2. Examples 1.
Change the order of integration the same. Solution : The region of integration is
y x a and 0 y a
a y
x
2 2 +y
y y=x x=0 M
(x,y)
x=a
x o N (x,0) y=0 Let R denote the region bounded by the lives x=y, x=a, y=0, y=a.
\ I =d
xy + yd
2 2
By treating x as a constant, i.e. we shall draw a line parallel to y axis in the region R of integration.
\ I = d
0 a y2 x y= 0
x y d 2 x2 + y
x
y= x
a y( 2 ) = x l +y o x g +2 d x 0 y =0
a 2 -lx o dg = x l+ xo g x+ ( y )2 0
a (x + 2 x = x l o gd 0 x
) x
= xl o +g d( 1 2 x )
0
=l o + g ( 1 2 )x d x
0
=l o + g ( 1 2 x)
( 2)
2
a 0
a2 l o+ g ( 1 2 ) 2
2 2 a a+ a - y
2 0 a - a 2- y
i.e.
x - 1 =a 2 y -2
(x-a)2=a2-y2 \ (x-a)2+(y2)=a2 Which is a circle with the centre at (9,0) and radius a unit. y
Keeping x as a Constant, draw a line MN to y axis M(x, 2a x 2x): x=0 to 2a y=0 to y= 2a x 2x After changing the order of integration
I= xy d y d x
R
2a
2 a 2 x-x
x =0 y =0
xydydx
2a- x
2 = x y x =0 2 0
2a
1 2a x(-a 2 x x2 )d x 0 2
1 2a 3 ( a 2 2 x x )d x 0 2
4 1 x3 x 2 a 3 4 2 2a 0
4 2a
1 a 2 31 = 8 -a 2 3
= 1 41 6 a - 4 2 3 2 4 a 3
6 a 4
25.3. Let us sum up We have studied so far the evaluation of double integral using changing order of integration. 25.4. Check your progress (1) Change the order of integration in the integral evaluate it. (Ap 2003) (Ap 2005) (2) Change the order of integration and evaluate (Ap 2003) (3) By changing the order of integration evaluate Ap 2005 25.5. Lesson End Activities Change of order of integrals and convergence of Improper Integrals. (1) Change the order of integration
xdxdy and then evaluate the same 2 2 +y
a 2 a -x x2
xydxd y and
a x
2 ( y 2d ) y d x x +
e- y y d y d x
1 x
ab ( -y ) b 0
a2 x y d x dand y evaluate 2
2 b 4
2 0
2 ( y 2d ) y d x x +
(Ans 16/3)
25.6. Points for discussion (4) Change of the order of integration and evaluate
ydxdy 2 2 +y
y y2
(Ans : log 2)
Exercise : Convergence of 25.7. Improper Integral (1) Show that (2) Show that (3) Show that
d x is convergent x3 / 2 d x is divergent x3 / 2
e - md n x ( m > 0
e2 k d x (divergent)
(5) Test convergence of the following (a) (c) (e) (g) Answer
-a 0
ex d x s i nxh d x e- x d x
d x x + 2x + 2
2
-a 0
e- x d x c oh sx d x
-a a
-a
-a
d x -a 1 + x 2
a
-a
25.8. References
Lesson 26 JACOBIANS Contents 26.0. Aims and Objectives 26.1. JACOBIANS 26.2. Three variables 26.3. Change of variable in case of Two variables 26.4. Three variables 26.5. Examples Two variables 26.6. Let us sum up 26.7 Lesson End Activities 26.8. Points for discussion 26.9. References 26.0. Aims and Objectives Our aim is to determine Jacobians using partial derivatives and the concept of a determinant. 26.1. JACOBIANS Two Variables If u=f(x,y), v=(x,y) be two continuous functions of the independent
u x variables x and y, then v x u y is called the Jacobian of u and v w.r.t x and y v y
and is denoted by o r ( x , y ) x, y 26.2. Three variables Let u,v,w be functions of x,y,z the Jacobica of u,v and w w.r.t. x,y,z is defined by
u x v x
u/ v
(u , v )
u y v y
u z v z
and is denote = ed by J
u , v ,w , z x, y
w w x y
w z
or =
(u , v , w ) ( x , y , z )
Note : Jacobians will be useful while evaluating multiple integrals which is an easy way of evaluation. Result 1: Let u,v, be function of x and y, whose x and y functions of a,b, then
(u , v ) ( x , y ) ( x , y ) (u , v ) = ..(1) (a , b ) (a , b ) (u , v ) ( x , y ) =1 ( x , y ) (u , v )
But
(u , v ) u = (u , v ) x
v u
u v v u
using in (2)
\ (u , v ) = (u , v )
1 0
0 1 =1
(u , v ) ( x , y )
( x , y ) =1 (u , v )
26.3. Change of variable in case of Two variables Formout1. Suppose we want to charge the variable in the integral
y u,v by the relation x=f(u,v); y= f (u,v) f(x y, d) x d to
R
we have
x x d = x d + u d .v. . . ( 1 ) y y
d = y y y d + u d .v. . . ( 2 ) x v
We shall first treat y, a constant and integrate w.r.t.x. dy=0 \ (2) becomes 0=
y y \ + x= d . v x v y d x u y d x v y y d + u d v x v
\ using in (1)
y d x x u u d = x d -x y u v u
x y y u d -x . d . x u v v v = y v
( x , y ) (v , u ) = d x y x
( x , y ) (u , v ) f ( x y =, d x) d y ( u .d u 1d ,y f )y y v
= d
Eliminate v, we get a relation between u,x and y \ x can be expressed interms of x and y. \ f(x,y) is transformed into f1(x,y) To integrate (3), u is considered as a constant dx=0 \ from (2) d = y d . v \ (3) becomes d
f 1 fu ( ( v, )x ( y , ) y x d . u y (u , v ) v v
y v
( x , y ) = f 2( u , v ) d u d v (u , v )
26.4. Three variables In case of three variables u,v,w Which are functions of x,y,z the Jacobian of u,v,w, w.r.t x,y,z is defined by
u , v ,w J = , z x, y
u x v x u x
u y
u z
v y
v z
w y
w z
u , v ,w (u , v , w ) J is also denoted by , z ( x , y , z ) x, y
u y
v y
( x , y ) 1 = (u , v ) 2 ( x , y ) = (u , v )
x u x v y v y v
u = x+y v = x-y Add u+v=2x; x=1/2 (u+v) subtract, u-v=2y y=1/2 (u-v)
x =1/2 u x =1/2 v y =1/2 v y =-1/2 v
x, y 1 J =2 u, v
1 2
1 2 1 2
=-1/4
=-1/2
u=x+y+z .(1) uv=y+z(2) uvw =z (3) using (2) in (1) u=x+uv x=u-uv uv=y+uvw y=uv-uvw
x=u-uv
x =1-v u
y=uv-uvw
y =v u w u
z=uvw
z =v w x
x = u v
y =u u w v
z =u w v
x =0 w
y = u - v w
z =u v w
1-v u 0
vw uw uv
+u.uv
v-vw vw -1 1
= ( 1 v) u( v) -u [ u w +u w ] + u 2 (v - v / v +w / v ] w
=(1-v)u2 v+u2v2
2 = u2 v - 2 u 2 v+ u2 v
= u2 v
26.6. Let us sum up so far we have studied the method of finding Jacobians for two variables and three variables. Check your progress (1) If x=uv2, y=u2v, Show that
( x , y ) 2 = 3 -u 2 v (u , v )
(2) If x=vsinv cos f y=vsinv sin f z=r cosv, prove that J=r2sinv (3) If x+y=u, y=uv find
( x , y ) (Ans :u) (u , v )
(6) If u =
y z z x x v , = , w= x y z (u , v , w ) ( x , y , z )
find
(Apr. 2006)
(u , v ) ( x , y )