Photosynthesis

6CO2 + 6H2O + sunlight C6H12O6 + 6O2

Structure of chloroplast

 A double membrane bound organelle found in green plant cells. Two membranes are separated by an intermembrane space. Envelope is semi permeable. The matrix of the chloroplast is called stroma. Stroma contains enzymes that catalyzes light independent reactions of photosynthesis.

 Disc shaped structures in the stroma are called thylakoids ,surrounded by thylakoid membrane. These are the sight of light dependent reactions of photosynthesis. Thylakoids contain chlorophyll molecules, accessory pigments and electron transport systems. Light absorbing molecules are arranged in photosystems. This is the sight of ATP synthesis in chloroplast.

 Stalks of thylakoids are called grana (granum). Grana are connected with each other by lamella.

Lamella act as the skeleton of the chloroplast and maximizing the efficiency of the chloroplast.
Chloroplast also contain a circular DNA, lipid globules starch granules and 70s ribosomes.

Structure of chlorophyll
Chlorophyll is present in the thylakoid membrane. Have a polar porphyrin head and a nonpolar hydrocarbon tail. Tail is lipid soluble. It is a group of five pigmentschl a, chl b, carotenoid and phaeophytin. Carotenoid- carotene and xanthophyll

Photosystems
On the thylakoid membrane photosensitive pigments are organized into complex systems. Primary pigments, accessory pigments and electron carriers are assembled together in this chlorophyll complex. These chlorophyll complexes are called photosystems. There are two photosystems- PSI and PSII

Photosystem I
Accessory pigments or antennae pigments (chl a, carotenoid, chl b) are arranged around the primary pigment chlorophyll a. The absorption peak of this chl a is 700 nm and it is the reaction centre. Antennae pigments absorb light energy, transfer to reaction centre, reaction centre molecule get oxidized and release high energy electrons.

Photosystem II
It is larger than PSI. The reaction centre is chlorophyll A with absorption peak of 680nm.

Mechanism of photosynthesis
A process of energy transduction. Light energy into electrical energy Electrical energy into chemical energy.

Three main phases of photosynthesis

Light harvesting- light energy is captured by the pigments. Light dependent stage (photolysis)- splitting of water into H ion and oxygen. Light independent stage- the reduction of carbon dioxide and form sugars.

Light dependent stage

Occurs in the thylakoid of chloroplast. It involves the splitting of water by light (photolysis) and produce ATP. Accessory pigments absorb light energy and transfer it into reaction centre. The electron within the molecule gets excited and possess high energy. These electrons are emitted by the chl a molecule and are received by the electron carriers. Then passed on to other molecule. The energy is used for the synthesis of ATP (phosphorylation) .

Non-cyclic photophosphorylation
Light energy is trapped in PSII and boosts electrons to higher energy level. The electrons are received by electron acceptor (TM). The electrons are passed along a series of electron carriers to PSI. H+ ions pump from stroma to thylakoid. Concentration of H+ increases in the thylakoid which diffuse back to stroma by chemiosmosis. Release energy from chemiosmosis is used for the synthesis of ATP from ADP and Pi by the enzyme ATP synthase.

 PSI also absorb light and emits electrons even to a higher energy level. Electrons are received by second electron acceptor. The protons from the water molecule combine with the electron from the second electron acceptor . H+ reduces NADP to NADPH This passes to the reactions of light independent stage. The PSI gain its lost electron from the PSII. PSII gain its lost electron from the splitting of water. Oxygen is produced as a waste gas during the photolysis of water

Cyclic photophosphorylation
It involves only PSI. PSI absorbs light energy and release high energy electrons. The energized electron is picked up by the electron acceptor. It then passed along a chain of electron carriers. Mean while it pump H ion into the lumen of the thylakoid. Movement of H ion into the stroma from the thylakoid membrane release energy to make ATP by chemiosmosis.

Chemiosmosis and ATP synthesis

Electrons flow along a series of electron carriers from one PS to the next during photophosphorylation. This provide energy to stroma to pump H ion into the thylakoid space. As a result the concentration of H ion increases within the thylakoid space than in the stroma. H ion diffuse along the gradient across the membrane through special protein channel called chemiosmotic channel which contain ATP synthase. Form ATP from ADP and Pi

Light independent stage (Calvin cycle )

Takes place in the stroma. Takes place whether or not light is present. The details of this stage were analyzed by Melvin Calvin. It is the reduction of CO2 using the reduced NADP and ATP from the light reaction.

Stages in Calvin Cycle

CO2 diffuse into the leaf through stomata. CO2combine with a 5C compoundRibulose biphosphate (RUBP)and form an unstable 6C compound. (Ribulose biphosphate carboxylase- RuBISCO)

The 6C compound break down into two molecules of 3C compound Glycerate-3-phosphate (GP).

 GP is converted into glyceraldehyde biphosphate by using ATP from the light reaction.

Glyceraldehyde biphosphate is reduced to Glyceraldehyde-3- phosphate (GALP)by using reduced NADP.

From every 6 GALP formed 5 are converted into RUBP and the remaining one into Glucose. The high concentration of RUBP keeps running the Calvin Cycle at a high rate.

Factors Affecting The Rate Of Reaction

Mainly three factors which affect the rate of photosynthesis: Light intensity CO2 concentration Temperature Limiting factor Among the factors that control a particular reaction, the factor which is closest to its minimum. The rate is limited by that factor and only a change in that factor change the rate of that particular reaction.

Light intensity and rate of photosynthesis

At very low light intensity rate of photosynthesis is very low. Further increase in light intensity increases the rate of photosynthesis until light saturation is reached. This is the maximum rate of photosynthesis. Beyond this no change in rate of photosynthesis as high light intensity destroy chloroplast.

Temperature and rate of photosynthesis

Calvin cycle is temperature dependent as enzymes involved in it. The minimum temperature for photosynthesis is 0C. The optimum temperature is 25C. The rate doubles for each rise of 10C up to an optimum temperature. Above 25C enzyme denaturation occurs.

Concentration of CO2 and rate of photosynthesis

Major limiting factor to photosynthesis. Increasing concentration increases the rate of photosynthesis till a certain level. Further increase in CO2 will add no effect.

Absorption and action spectra

Absorption spectrum: Graph showing the degree of absorbance of different wavelength of light by a pigment. Action spectrum Graph showing the effectiveness of different wavelength of light stimulating photosynthesis.

ATP molecule
Made up of adenine (nitrogenous base), a ribose sugar and three phosphate groups. Second and third covalent bonds are unstable and can be broken down easily. Break down of ATP release energy- exergonic Synthesis of ATP from ADP and phosphate condensation (endergonic)

Question 1
Describe the structures in a chloroplast that are involved in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis.

Answer 1
1. ref to thylakoids ; 2. (made of) membranes ; 3. (arranged as) {stacks / grana / eq} ; 4. contain {pigment / chlorophyll} / eq ; 5. (arranged as) quantasomes / photosystems

 (iii) The graph below shows the results of the investigation

QUESTION 2

Describe and suggest an explanation for the changes in the concentrations of RuBP and GP shown in the graph.

1. both RuBP and GP levels constant until carbon dioxide {lowered / eq} ; 2. ref to (RuBP and GP in) Calvin cycle ; RuBP 3. (at lower carbon dioxide levels) the RuBP increases and drops (and then stays constant) ; 4. rises because being regenerated / eq ; 5. falls as being used to {fix / eq} carbon dioxide ; 6. idea that RuBP level remains constant once (new) equilibrium reached ;

ANSWER 2

GP 7. (at lower carbon dioxide levels) the GP drops (and then stays constant) ; 8. drops because less {carbon dioxide available to convert into GP) / less carbon fixation / eq} ; 9. levels out at a lower level as carbon dioxide still available but at lower level; 10. credit correct manipulation of figures for a description of either RuBP or GP ;

QUESTION 3
Explain how oxygen is produced during the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis

ANSWER 3
1.reference to energy from light ; 2.reference to photolysis ;
3.of water

Qn 4

Name the parts labelled

Answer 4
A stroma B starch (grain) / lipid droplet C thylakoid (membrane) / chlorophyll D granum

Question 5
One of the reactions of photosynthesis can be summarised as shown below. water hydrogen ions + oxygen gas + electrons (a) Name the reaction shown.

(b) Give one other factor, not shown above, that would be required for this reaction to occur in a chloroplast.
(c) Describe the role of the electrons in the light dependent reaction of photosynthesis. (4)

 (d) Describe and explain how the products of the light dependent reaction are involved in the production of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (GALP). (4)

(e) GALP does not accumulate in a chloroplast during photosynthesis. Explain how GALP is used following its production. (2)

Answer 5
(a) photolysis (of water) ; (b) light / enzyme / chlorophyll /eq ;

(c) 1. passed to chlorophyll / photosystem / replace electrons lost by chlorophyll / eq ; 2. light energy {promotes electrons to higher energy level / excites electrons } / electrons emitted ; 3. ATP production ; 4. reduction of NADP / production of NADPH / eq ; 5. reference to electron carriers / electron transport chain ; 6. reference to redox / eq ;

(d) 1. GP ; 2. reduced ; 3. using H from reduced NADP ; 4. and ATP as source of energy ;

(e) 1. 10/12 GALP /eq ; 2. (regeneration of) RuBP /eq ; 3. (rest used to form) glucose ; 4. and starch / other organic chemicals /eq ;