ccmSession 4:

Topic: PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Time: 1hr. 20min/double period (40min per period)

Previous Knowledge: O’Level syllabus on &Photosynthesis Redox reactions in Chemistry

Learning outcomes

a) explain that energy transferred as ATP and reduced NADP from the light dependent stage is used during the light
independent stage (Calvin cycle) of photosynthesis to produce complex organic molecules
b) state the sites of the light dependent and the light independent stages in the chloroplast
c) describe the role of chloroplast pigments (chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, carotene and xanthophyll) in light absorption in
the grana
d) interpret absorption and action spectra of chloroplast pigments
e) use chromatography to separate and identify chloroplast pigments and carry out an investigation to compare the
chloroplast pigments in different plants (reference should be made to Rf values in identification)
f) describe the light dependent stage as the photoactivation of chlorophyll resulting in the photolysis of water and the
transfer of energy to ATP and reduced NADP (cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation should be described in outline
only)
g) outline the three main stages of the Calvin cycle:
• fixation of carbon dioxide by combination with ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP), a 5C compound, to yield two
molecules of GP (PGA), a 3C compound
• the reduction of GP to triose phosphate (TP) involving ATP and reduced NADP
• the regeneration of ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) using ATP
h) describe, in outline, the conversion of Calvin cycle intermediates to carbohydrates, lipids and amino acids and
their uses in the plant cell
a) explain the term limiting factor in relation to photosynthesis
b) explain the effects of changes in light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature on the rate of
photosynthesis
c) explain how an understanding of limiting factors is used to increase crop yields in protected environments, such as
glasshouses
d) carry out an investigation to determine the effect of light intensity or light wavelength on the rate of photosynthesis
using a redox indicator (e.g. DCPIP) and a suspension of chloroplasts (the Hill reaction)
e) carry out investigations on the effects of light intensity, carbon dioxide and temperature on the rate of photosynthesis
using whole plants, e.g. aquatic plants such as Elodea and Cabomba
f) describe the relationship between structure and function in the chloroplast using diagrams and electron micrographs
g) explain how the anatomy and physiology of the leaves of C4 plants, such as maize or sorghum, are adapted for high rates
of carbon fixation at high temperatures in terms of:
• the spatial separation of initial carbon fixation from the light
dependent stage (biochemical details of the C4 pathway
are required in outline only)
• the high optimum temperatures of the enzymes involved

1
Objectives:

At the end of this session you should be able to ask and answer these questions: Can I…

 state the sites of the light dependent and the light independent stages in the chloroplast.
 describe the role of chloroplast pigments.
 explain that energy transferred as ATP and reduced NADP from the light dependent stage
is used during the light independent stage (Calvin cycle) of photosynthesis to produce
complex organic molecules.
 describe the light dependent stage as the photoactivation of chlorophyll resulting in the
photolysis of water and the transfer of energy to ATP and reduced NADP

Main Points:

 Photosynthesis is carried out by phototrophs/autotrophs-troph meaning feeding, auto-

means self
 Photosynthesis is an energy transfer process
 Energy is transferred from light to complex organic molecules
 It involves a series of reactions in which the energy is transferred from sunlight to
molecules such as sugars and starch
 It is a process of converting light energy to chemical energy and storing it in the bonds of
sugar
 This energy transfer consist of 2 inter-dependent pathways.

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Pigments and the Absorption of Light:

The process of light energy absorption begins with the pigments in the grana of the chloroplast.

There are two groups of pigments used by plants to absorb light.

Significance?

 To maximize use of energy from the sun- a pigment molecule is able to absorb the
energy from light only within a narrow range of wavelengths. Different pigments,
capable of absorbing different wavelengths, act together to optimize energy
absorption.

The Pigments are:

 Chlorophylls (Primary Pigments) Chlorophyll is a small molecule with a structure similar

to haem, but a magnesium atom instead of iron
 Carotenoids (Accessory Pigments)

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Chlorophyll a (α) is the main pigment which absorbs light mainly in the red and blue regions of
the spectrum.

Chlorophyll b (β), carotene and xanthophyll are known as ‘accessory’ pigments and they absorb
light from other regions of the spectrum and pass the energy onto chlorophyll a.

Structure of the Chloroplast

Absorption and Action Spectra of Chloroplast Pigments:

Absorption Spectra describes the many different pigments that are working together and the range
of wavelengths of light that they absorb best that are specific to them.

An Action Spectra describes the effect of the amount of light absorbed on photosynthesis rate.

An action spectrum is the rate of a physiological activity plotted against wavelength of light. It
shows which wavelength of light is most effectively used in a specific chemical reaction. Some
reactants are able to use specific wavelengths of light more effectively to complete their reactions.

4
Absorption spectra are what you get when you shine white light through a gas. Certain colors
(energies) of light are absorbed by the gas, causing black bars (gaps) to appear in the spectrum. ...
The electrons in the atoms absorb the heat energy, allowing them to jump into higher energy
levels.

 Absorption spectrum is the graph above and shows the absorbance at different wavelengths
of light
 A low absorption means that those wavelengths are not absorbed, but instead are reflected
or transmitted thus plants seem to be green as it is absorbed least
 An action spectrum however is a graph that shows rate of photosynthesis at different
wavelengths of light

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  Note that rate is higher at lower wavelengths-this is not only due to greater absorption but
also as lower wavelengths contains more energy.

Chromatography:

Chlorophyll pigments can be separated by chromatography?

6
Practical Activity:

1. Grind leaf with solvent such as propanone

2. Leaf extract contains mixture of pigments

3. Draw a pencil line and place extract on it

4. Place paper vertically in jar of different solvent

5. Solvent rises up paper with each pigment traveling at different speeds hence pigments
separated

6. Distance moved by each pigment is unique

7. Use Rf value to identify each pigment

The light dependent reactions (LDR) of photosynthesis:

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  Occurs in the thylakoid membranes – inside the membrane=lumen.
 temperature independent stage
 Reaction controlled by 4 protein complexes – work together to produce ATP & NADP.
 Two of the complexes are Photosystem I and photosystem II (PSI & PSII).
 Photosystems are required to trap wavelengths of light (photons) to energize the electron
found in the primary pigment
 Accessory pigments are arranged in light harvesting clusters that pass on absorbed energy
to the primary pigment (chlorophyll 𝛼) at reaction center
 Photosystem I absorbs wavelengths of 700nm
 Photosystem II absorbs wavelengths of 680nm

LDR is the first major set of processes in photosynthesis in which light energy is initially
converted into chemical energy as ATP and NADPH. It is often represented by the Z-Scheme.

The light dependent reactions include the splitting of water by

 photolysis to give hydrogen ions (protons)

 and the synthesis of ATP in photophosphorylation.
 The hydrogen ions combine with a carrier molecule NADP, to make reduced NADP. ATP
and reduced NADP are passed from the light dependent to the light independent reactions.

Photoactivation of Chlorophyll

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  The Chemical activation or control of a chemical reaction by light.
 Chlorophyll is photoactivated in photosystems I and II
 Light hits PSII to excite electrons which pass down the chloroplast membrane by redox
reactions.
 Electrons are accepted as they move down and loose energy.
 Electrons reach PSI where light hits them again to continue the redox reactions.

Significance:

 Creates high energy molecules that will enter the Calvin Cycle
 The high energy molecules are used to capture CO2 which will later be converted to O2
through a series of reactions.

Photolysis of water

 Occurs in PS II which has a water-splitting enzyme that catalyses the breakdown of water:

 Oxygen is a waste product of this process.

 Hydrogen ions combine with electrons from photosystem I and the carrier molecule NADP to
give reduced NADP.

 Reduced NADP passes to the light independent reactions and is used in the synthesis of
carbohydrate.

The photolysis of water can be demonstrated by the Hill Reaction.

Questions with Answers:

9
1 How are oxygen atoms released during photosynthesis?

During this reaction, water molecules are exposed to light energy and release protons (hydrogen
ions), highly energetic electrons and molecular oxygen (O₂). Later, the hydrogen atoms bind to
carbon dioxide molecules to form glucose.

2 What happens to the water needed for photosynthesis?

During photosynthesis, chlorophyll absorb light energy that is used to convert carbon dioxide
from the air and water from the soil into glucose. Oxygen is released as a by-product. Some
glucose is used for respiration, while some is converted into insoluble starch.

3 What organelle is responsible for photosynthesis in plants and algae?

All photosynthesis in green plants and algae occurs in chloroplasts. A typical plant cell
containsabout 10 to 100 chloroplasts. The chloroplast is enclosed by a membrane. This
membrane is composed of a phospholipid inner membrane, a phospholipid outer membrane, and
an intermembrane space between them.

4 What are the cellular structures involved in photosynthesis?

Chloroplasts are the main cellular structure that is involved in plant photosynthesis. Chloroplasts
contain large concentrations of chlorophyll, which is the primary pigment utilized in
photosynthesis.

5 What are the main components of photosynthesis?

Photosynthesis is a multi-step process that requires sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water as
substrates. It produces oxygen and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P or GA3P), simple
carbohydrate molecules that are high in energy and can subsequently be converted into glucose,
sucrose, or other sugar molecules.

6 What are the different types of plastids?

There are four main types of plastids:

Chloroplasts.
Chromoplasts.
Gerontoplasts.
Leucoplasts.

7 How are oxygen atoms released during photosynthesis?

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During this reaction, water molecules are exposed to light energy and release protons (hydrogen
ions), highly energetic electrons and molecular oxygen (O₂). Later, the hydrogen atoms bind to
carbon dioxide molecules to form glucose.

8 Which wavelengths of light are the most effective in photosynthesis?

Red (610 - 700 nm) and blue (450 - 500 nm) wavelengths are most effective in promoting
photosynthesis. Green (500 - 570 nm) light is least effective - it is not absorbed by plants but is
reflected which is why green plants appear to be green.

9 What is needed for the light dependent reactions to take place?

The two products of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis are ATP and NADPH. The
movement of high energy electrons releases the free energy that is needed to produce these
molecules. The ATP and NADPH are used in the light-independent reactions to make sugar.

10 What are the important events that occur during photosynthesis process?

A. Absorption of light energy by chlorophy2ll.

B. Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into hydrogen
and oxygen. (Light dependent Reaction)

C. Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates. (Light Independent Reaction)

11 Mention the conditions for photosynthesis. Also mention the process involved in each of
these steps.

i) SUNLIGHT Chlorophyll of the leaves of the plant trap sunlight and converts them into
chemical energy during photosynthesis. Plant utilizes visible light only which is made up of 7
colours and green colour is least absorbed (it reflects green the most - that's why the leaves
appear green).

ii) CHLOROPHYLL Chlorophyll is a green pigment mainly present in the leaves of the plant.
There are many types of chlorophyll named a, b, c, d, e and bacterio-chlorophyll. Chlorophyll a
and chlorophyll b are most abundantly present in the nature.

iii) CARBON DIOXIDE Plants take carbon dioxide through stomata to make glucose (food for
the plants).

iv) WATER Water is absorbed by the roots of the plants through osmosis. Through xylem, water
is transported to all parts of the plant.

12 Name other two pigments which absorb sunlight (other than chlorophyll).
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Carotenoids and Fucoxanthin

13 Where does light dependent reaction occur?

In the grana thylakoids of chloroplasts.

14 Where does light Independent reaction occur?

In the stroma of chloroplasts.

15 Which wavelength of light is best absorbed by chlorophyll?

Red colour wavelength0

16 Why do most plants appear green in colour?

The green pigment of chlorophyll absorbs all light colours and reflect the green light.

17 Which products formed during light dependent reaction in photosynthesis process are used
by dark reaction?

NADPH and ATP

18 What is the function of thylakoid membranes in chloroplast?

Thylakoid membranes provide large surface area for light absorption.

Critical Thinking:

1 Sir Calvin, investigated the Light independent reactions. In order to determine the sequence
of the chemical steps occurring, he isolated the products at different points in the photosynthetic
pathway. He built a device that enabled him to expose Chlorella to 14CO2 for a set period of time
and then kill the cells by dropping them into boiling methanol.

Why did Calvin plunge the algal cells into methanol immediately after exposing the cells to a
radioactive CO2?

2 How many Calvin cycles does it take to make glucose?

Past Questions:

12
9700/04/O/N/04 Question 1 9700/41/O/N/10 Question 8

9700/04/O/N/06 Question 7 9700/41/O/N/11 Question 10A

9700/04/O/N/07 Question 10 9700/43/O/N/11 Question 10B

9700/04/M/J/08 Question 7 9700/41/O/N/13 Question 7

9700/04/M/J/09 Question 8C

References:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis

https://www.khanacademy.org/.../photosynthesis

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/photosynthesis-in-plants

www.bbc.co.uk › Home › Science

www.rsc.org/Education/Teachers/Resources/cfb/Photosynthesis.htm

www.livescience.com

blog.cambridgecoaching.com/

https://www.youtube.com

www.teachertube.com/video/photosynthesis-song-49549

Answer to critical thinking question:

1 The Methanol inactivated the enzymes, so that the process of photosynthesis was stopped
immediately at precisely the time the cell was killed.

2 To create 1 surplus G3P requires 3 carbons and therefore 3 turns of the Calvin cycle. To
make 1 glucose molecule (which can be created from 2 G3P molecules) would require 6 turns of
the Calvin cycle.

Session 5:
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Topic: PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Time: 1hr. 20min/double period (40min per period)

Previous Knowledge: O’Level syllabus on &Photosynthesis Redox reactions in Chemistry

Objectives:

At the end of this session you should be able to ask and answer these questions: Can I…

 Describe briefly the types of photophosphorylation, linking it to the two main reactions of
photosynthesis?

The Hill reaction

The Hill reaction is formally defined as the photoreduction of an electron acceptor by the

hydrogens of water, with the evolution of oxygen. In vivo, or in the organism the final electron
acceptor is NADP+. We can measure the rate of the Hill reaction in isolated chloroplasts.

 Redox reactions are oxidation–reduction reactions and involve the transfer of electrons
from an electron donor (reducing agent) to an electron acceptor (oxidising agent).
 Sometimes hydrogen atoms are transferred, so that dehydrogenation is equivalent to
oxidation.

Photophosphorylation

The combination of the water splitting and the proton pumping caused protons to build up inside
the thylakoid lumen, generating a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane. ATP is
therefore photophosphorylated using the ATP synthase enzyme in exactly the same way as
respiration.

Photophosphorylation of ADP to ATP can be cyclic or non-cyclic, depending on the pattern of

electron flow in one or both types of photosystem.

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Cyclic photophosphorylation

 Occurs in the thylakoid membrane

 Only involves Photosystem I

 Reaction centre is P700 i.e. peak absorption ~ 700nm
 Electron photoactivated and instead of falling back into the photosystem and loosing energy as
thermal energy, the excited electron is captured by electron acceptor
 It is then passed on via a chain of electron carriers, during which, enough energy is released to
synthesize ATP by chemiosmosis
 Electron then returns back to Photosystem I i.e. electrons travel in a cyclic manner
Non-cyclic photophosphorylation

Occurs in the thylakoid membrane

Involves both PSI and PSII

Excitation is from both P700 and P680

Reaction centre however is P680 i.e. peak absorption ~ 680nm

Non-cyclic photophosphorylation involves both photosystems in the so-called ‘Z scheme’ of

electron flow
1. Accessory pigments in PSII absorb photons of light, and the energy is passed onto primary
pigment (chlorophyll𝛼) exciting primary pigments electrons (photoactivation) to
a higher energy level causing them to escape and also causes the splitting (or photolysis) of water
molecules.

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o Oxygen diffuses out of the chloroplast and into the air

o The protons build up in the thylakoid lumen causing a gradient to be formed

o The electrons in water replace the electrons that have left the primary pigment

2. The energized electrons are taken up by electron acceptor, and are passed down electron carrier
chain. They are passed from PSII to carrier proteins, where the energy is used to pump protons
from stroma to lumen; then to PSI, where more light energy is absorbed by the chlorophyll
molecules and the electrons is re-energised.

3. The Electrons then recombine with a proton to form a hydrogen atom, which is taken up by the
hydrogen carrier NADP forming Reduced NADP

4. The combination of the water splitting and the proton pumping caused protons to build up
inside the thylakoid lumen, generating a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane. ATP is
therefore photophosphorylated using the ATP synthase enzyme in exactly the same way as
respiration.

Difference between cyclic and non-cyclic

Cyclic photophosphorylation:

 Only Photosystem I takes part

 Electron emitted returns to same photosystem

 Only ATP is produced

 No photolysis, no oxygen is evolved, no NADPH

 It is important in bacteria where only PSI is used, as well as in anaerobic conditions.

Non-cyclic photophosphorylation:

 Electron emitted from PSII absorbed by PSI

 Reduced NADP produced

 Photolysis occurs and produces oxygen

 It is very important to green plants.

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 Figure 1.3 The ‘Z scheme’ of electron flow in photophosphorylation.

Questions with Answers:

What is the Photophosphorylation?

Photophosphorylation refers to the use of light energy from photosynthesis to ultimately provide
the energy to convert ADP to ATP, thus replenishing the universal energy currency in living
things.

How do the products of cyclic and noncyclic Photophosphorylation differ?

cyclic photophosphorylation exists to provide energy for the calvin cycle and involves only p680
in photosystem ll and its product is ATP. Non-cyclic photophosphorylation is carried out using
p700 in photosystem l and p680 in photosystem ll and it produces nadph and atp.
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Why does the cyclic electron flow occur?

Cyclic electron flow produces ATP but not NADPH or O2. It occurs when high levels of NADPH
are already present. This process occurs by electrons leaving the photosystem I complex and,
utilizing the cytochrome bf complex, are pumped through the membrane, creating a proton
gradient.

What is the difference between phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation?

Both photophosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation (oxphos) are processes cells use to
make energy in the form of ATP. First the similarities: in both cases electrons are transferred
through a series of membrane proteins. ... the protons flow back through a special enzyme (ATP-
synthase) which makes ATP.

What is the Z scheme of photosynthesis?

Z‐Scheme of Photosynthesis. The “Z‐scheme” describes the oxidation/reduction changes during

the light reactions of photosynthesis. ... In the Z‐scheme, electrons are removed from water (to the
left) and then donated to the lower (non‐excited) oxidized form of P680

What are the similarities and differences between substrate level phosphorylation oxidative
phosphorylation and Photophosphorylation?

Substrate-level phosphorylation is directly phosphorylating ADP with a phosphate and energy

provided from a coupled reaction. ... Oxidative phosphorylation is when ATP is generated from
the oxidation of NADH and FADH2 and the subsequent transfer of electrons and pumping of
protons.

Critical Thinking:

Past Questions:

Check from session 4

References:
18
people.hsc.edu/faculty-staff/edevlin/edsweb01/courses/Cellbiology/.../new_page_4.htm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis

https://www.khanacademy.org/.../photosynthesis

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/photosynthesis-in-plants

www.bbc.co.uk › Home › Science

www.rsc.org/Education/Teachers/Resources/cfb/Photosynthesis.htm

www.livescience.com

blog.cambridgecoaching.com/

https://www.youtube.com

www.teachertube.com/video/photosynthesis-song-49549

Session 6:

Topic: PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Time: 1hr. 20min/double period (40min per period)

Previous Knowledge: O’Level syllabus on Photosynthesis & Redox reactions in Chemistry

Objectives:

At the end of this session you should be able to ask and answer these questions: Can I…

 outline the three main stages of the Calvin cycle?

 explain the term limiting factor in relation to photosynthesis and explain their effects?

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The light Independent reactions (LIR) of photosynthesis:

 Occurs in the stroma of chloroplast and is called the Calvin Cycle as it was designed by
Calvin, Benson and Bassham between 1946 and 1953
 ATP and Reduced NADP is taken from the light dependent stage
 temperature dependent stage
 The fixation of carbon dioxide is a light independent process.
 3 phases: carbon fixation, reduction reaction & regeneration of RuBP.

1. Carbon dioxide binds to the 5-carbon sugar ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) to form an unstable
intermediate, this is catalysed by the enzyme rubisco. The intermediate is then broken down to
form 2 molecules of (3C) glycerate phosphate (GP). i.e. CO2 is fixed from an inorganic to organic
molecule.

2. GP is reduced and activated to form triose phosphate (TP). The ATP and NADPH from the
light-dependent reactions provide the energy for this step. This is the point at which carbohydrate
is produced in photosynthesis. i.e. ATP & NADPH used to reduce 3-PGA into G3P; ATP &
NADPH then converted to ADP & NADP+ .

3. Most of the triose phosphate continues through a series of reactions to regenerate the RuBP
using ATP and it completes the cycle. i.e. more CO2 can be fixed again.

a. Some of the triose phosphate molecules combine to form glucose, starch for storage, cellulose
for cell walls and sucrose for translocation around the plant.

b. Others converted to glycerol and fatty acids to produce lipids for cell membranes or acetyl
coenzyme A (CoA).

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 Figure 1.5 The Calvin cycle.

The enzyme ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase (rubisco), which catalyses the combination of
carbon dioxide and RuBP, is the most common enzyme in the world.

Total Energy Lost:

Summary of Calvin cycle reactants and products:

Three turns of the Calvin cycle are needed to make one G3P molecule that can exit the cycle and
go towards making glucose. Let’s summarize the quantities of key molecules that enter and exit
the Calvin cycle as one net G3P is made. In three turns of the Calvin cycle:

 Carbon. 333 \text {CO}_2CO2C, O, start subscript, 2, end subscript combine with 333
RuBP acceptors, making 666 molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P).
- 111 G3P molecule exits the cycle and goes towards making glucose.
- 555 G3P molecules are recycled, regenerating 333 RuBP acceptor molecules.
 ATP. 999 ATP are converted to 999 ADP (666 during the fixation step, 333 during the
regeneration step).

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  NADPH. 666 NADPH are converted to 666 NADP^++start superscript, plus, end
superscript (during the fixation step)

Summary of Cycle:

RuBP + CO2 → GP + ATP + NADPH2 → TP + ATP → RuBP

NB: Note that it is NADP which is involved in Photosynthesis and not NAD.
Find the difference between the 2.

Intermediates of Calvin Cycle:

 ADP, NADP+, Inorganic PO4, 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA)

 Most intermediates regenerated into earlier stages of process.

Conversion of intermediates into Carbohydrates, Lipids and Amino acids, and their uses in plants:

 3-PGA
o Used in glycolysis or gluconeogenesis
o Its structure allows it to be combined and rearranged to form sugars which can be
transported to additional cells or stored for energy.

E.g. conversion into fructose-6-PO4 which isomerises into glucose-1-PO4 & glucose-6-PO4.

 Carbohydrate
o Sucrose – transportable energy form
o Fructose – source of energy
o Cellulose – strengthening component of cell wall
 Lipids
o Phospholipids – the main structural component of cell membrane

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  Lipids & carbohydrates in energy storage:

- Lipids contain more energy per gram than carbohydrate

- Carbohydrates more readily digested than lipids
- Monosaccharides and disaccharides are water soluble and easier to transport to &
from storage sites than lipids
- Lipids have less effect on osmotic pressure within a cell than complex carbohydrates.

What does this mean?

Factors affecting the rate of Photosynthesis

 light intensity
 wavelength,
 temperature
 carbon dioxide concentration

Limiting Factors

The rate of any process which depends on a series of reactions is limited by the slowest reaction
in the series.

The rate of a physiological process will be limited by the factor which is in shortest supply. Any
change in the level of the limiting factor will affect the rate of the reaction.

 Light Intensity & Rate of Photosynthesis:

At low light intensities, as the intensity begins to increase, the rate of the LDR and
therefore photosynthesis, increases proportionately (i.e. straight line relationship).
The more photons of light that fall on a leaf, the greater the number of chlorophyll
molecules that are ionized and the more ATP & NADPH are generated.
As light intensity is further increased, the rate of photosynthesis is eventually limited by
another factor, and the rate plateaus.

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Figure 1.6 The rate of photosynthesis at different light intensities and constant temperature

 Carbon dioxide & Rate of Photosynthesis:

An increase in CO2 concentration increases the rate at which carbon is incorporated into
carbohydrate in the Calvin cycle.
This means that the rate of photosynthesis generally increase until limited by another
factor.
Atmospheric CO2 concentration is about 0.04%. Increasing CO2 concentration causes rapid
rise in rate of photosynthesis which eventually plateaus when maximum rate of fixation
[i.e. phase of Calvin cycle CO2 fixation] is reached.

 Temperature & Rate of Photosynthesis:

Light-dependent reactions not affected by changes in temperature.
Light-independent reactions are dependent on temperature – Can you think why?

(they are reactions catalyzed by enzymes)

As the enzymes approach their optimum Temperature, the overall rate increases. It
approximately doubles for every 10oC increase in temperature.
Above optimum temperature, rate begins to decrease as enzymes are denatured until the
reaction stops.

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 Figure 1.8 The rate of photosynthesis at different temperatures and different carbon dioxide
concentrations. (0.04% CO2 is about atmospheric concentration.)

Figure 1.9 The rate of photosynthesis at different temperatures and constant light intensities

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Questions with Answers:

How many molecules of ATP and Nadph are used in a single turn of the Calvin cycle?

Two molecules of G3P are needed to produce one molecule of glucose. Therefore, the Calvin
cycle needs to make a total of 6 turns to produce two molecules of G3P. One turn of the Calvin
cycle requires 3 molecules of ATP and 2 molecules of NADPH so for 6 turns:

3 ATP x 6 = 18 ATPs

What goes into the Calvin cycle and what is the product?

The immediate products of one turn of the Calvin cycle are 2 glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P)
molecules, 3 ADP, and 2 NADP+. (ADP and NADP+ are not really "products." They are
regenerated and later used again in the Light-dependent reactions). Each G3P molecule is
composed of 3 carbons

What is the enzyme that starts the Calvin cycle and how does it work?

The Calvin cycle has three stages. In stage 1, the enzyme RuBisCO incorporates carbon dioxide
into an organic molecule, 3-PGA. In stage 2, the organic molecule is reduced using electrons
supplied by NADPH. In stage 3, RuBP, the molecule that starts the cycle, is regenerated so that
the cycle can continue

How many Calvin cycles does it take to make glucose?

To create 1 surplus G3P requires 3 carbons, and therefore 3 turns of the Calvin cycle. To make
one glucose molecule (which can be created from 2 G3P molecules) would require 6 turns of the
Calvin cycle.

How many molecules of carbon dioxide are needed to produce one molecule of glucose?

In the chemical equation it takes six carbon dioxide molecules and 6 water molecules to make one
molecule of glucose.

Where does the RuBP come from in the Calvin cycle?

RuBP is ribulose biphosphate. It's purpose is in the dark reaction. It is formed by taking a
phosphate, coming from the splitting of ATP, and joining it with RuP, changing RuP (ribulose
phospate) into RuBP. RuBP is then able to join with CO2 and form an unstable 6C molecule
which is the basis for the dark reaction

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What is the function of the Nadph in the Calvin cycle?

In photosynthesis, NADPH is generated (along with ATP) in the light-dependent reactions, and
used in the light-independent reactions as a reducing agent in the Calvin cycle to reduce
atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) producing monosaccharides for use by the plant for structure
and energy.

Is the Calvin cycle aerobic?

So aerobic respiration produces 34 more ATP molecules than glycolysis, anaerobic respiration,
does. ... The Krebs cycle is similar to the Calvin cycle, in that organic molecules are being
recycled, in a loop of chemical reactions

Where is the enzyme RuBisCO found?

Nearly all the biomass on earth has had contact with this very inefficient molecule. Rubisco in
plants is a large protein with a molecular weight of 560,000 Dalton. The enzyme is located in the
chloroplasts' stroma, consisting of at least 15% and up to 50% of the chloroplast protein

Critical Thinking:

Past Questions:

9700/04/O/N/03 Question 1 9700/41/O/N/14 Question 8

9700/04/M/J/05 Question 5

9700/04/M/J/06 Question 2 9700/4/SP07 final Question 2

9700/04/O/N/08 Question 9

9700/41/O/N/09 Question 8

9700/42/O/N/09 Question 8

9700/41/M/J/11 Question 10B

9700/41/M/J/12 Question 8

9700/42/M/J/12 Question 8C

9700/41/O/N/13 Question 7A

9700/41/M/J/14 Question 1

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References

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/photosynthesis-in-plants/the-
calvin-cycle-reactions/a/calvin-cycle

Session 7:

Topic: PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Time : 1hr. 20min/double period ( 40min per period)

Previous Knowledge: O’Level syllabus on Photosynthesis & Redox

reactions in Chemistry

Objectives:

At the end of this session you should be able to ask and answer these questions:
Can I…

 explain how an understanding of limiting factors is used to increase crop

yields in protected environments, such as glasshouses?
 describe the relationship between structure and function in the chloroplast
using diagrams and electron micrographs?


Maximizing Crop Yield –The effects of Limiting Factors

 Using the knowledge of limiting factors

 Using controlled environments:
o Greenhouse
o Glasshouse

A better understanding of the environmental factors on rate of photosynthesis,

allows us to manage the growth of plants in protected fields increasing yield of
crop.

Sensors monitor light intensity, humidity and concentration of CO2 and control
optimum conditions.

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  Artificial lights used allow photosynthesis to continue beyond day light
hours and in a higher than normal light intensity.
 Paraffin lamps are placed in green houses to increase rate of
photosynthesis because burning paraffin produces CO2 and the flame
provides a light source as well as temperature from the heat produced.
Moisture and humidity are also maintained.

Carbon based fuels such as propane and kerosene can also be burned.

Plants are grown in nutrient soil solution where its contents vary depending on
the plants stage of growth.

Pests and fungal diseases are fewer, further improving yield.

Adaptations for Photosynthesis:

 Leaf adaptation
 Structure
 Function
 Chlorophyll adaptation
 Structure
 Function

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Figure 2.1 Transmission electron micrograph of a chloroplast from
Potamogeton leaf (× 27 000).

There are 3 types of photosynthesis based on the mechanism that different

plants employ for carbohydrates to be formed from CO2. This mechanism is
mainly due to how CO2 is fixed.

C3 photosynthesis – C3 plants

C4 photosynthesis – C4 plants

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CAM photosynthesis – CAM plants

C3 photosynthesis – C3 plants:

 Fix CO2 inside mesophyll cells

 They use only the Calvin cycle to fix CO2 from the air.
 Rubisco catalyse reaction between CO2 and RuBP to produce unstable 6C
compound which breaks down into 3C compounds.

Disadvantage:

They cannot grow in hot and arid areas – Rubisco incorporates more O2 into
RuBP as temperatures increase. There is extreme loss of water and stomata
will also close. This leads to Photorespiration. Here the net loss of CO2 and
nitrogen from the plant limits growth.

 C3 plants thrive in areas where sunlight intensity is moderate.

 Examples: rice, wheat, vegetables, fruits, etc.
Photorespiration
C4 photosynthesis – C4 plants:

 Fix CO2 twice in mesophyll and bundle sheath cells. First fixation
produces a 4C –oxaloacetate.
 An adaptation of the C3 pathway which overcomes the limitation of
photorespiration.
 It improves photosynthetic efficiency and minimizes water loss in hot dry
environments.
 Most C4 plants originate from the tropics and warm temperate zones with
high light intensity and high temperature i.e. hot dry climates.

Structural Adaptation of C4 leaves:

 Bundle Sheath Cells (BSC) known as the Kranz leaf anatomy–

formed around the vascular bundle. No air space - covered by a
tight layer of spongy mesophyll cells.

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  Mesophyll Cells – formed around BSC with no air space. Contain
PEP carboxylase which fix atmospheric CO2 at low concentrations.
 Chloroplast – in both mesophyll and BSC.
o Mesophyll cell chloroplast (MSC) – contains
PEP carboxylase
o BSC chloroplast – contain rubisco
There is a double CO2 fixation pathway.
C4 plants use PEP carboxylase to accept CO2 from atmosphere

Advantages:
 They avoid photorespiration so photosynthesis is efficient
 They make efficient use of CO2 by fixing carbon up to 4 times faster
than C3 plants
 Improves water use efficiency
 Higher rates of photosynthesis at high temperatures
 Improves efficiency of nitrogen utilization unlike C3 plants that
require a lot of rubisco
DIAGRAM OF C4 LEAF SHOWING KRANZ ANATOMY prints
for students
Spatial separation of initial carbon fixation from the light dependent stage:

C4 plants separate the site of oxygen production (PSII) from rubisco

(Calvin cycle) to avoid photorespiration.
How?
‘Division of Labour’ by MSC and BSC.

PSII and Rubisco are placed in different:

 Cells – C4 plants have uniform mesophyll layer with a well-

developed BSC around each vein – i.e. dual cell – Kranz anatomy.
The Bundle sheath appears like a wreath surrounding the vein.
The Calvin cycle occurs primarily in the bundle sheath cells
PSII activity occurs in the mesophyll cells

 Chloroplasts – C4 chloroplasts are dimorphic – more than one type.

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 High optimum temperatures of enzymes involved:
 C4 photosynthesis is an adaptation to high light intensities, high
temperature and dryness.
 C4 plant enzymes are not inhibited by high temperatures
 C4 plants have a higher temperature optimum for photosynthesis
due to operation of a CO2 concentrating system that inhibits
rubisco oxygenase activity.

CAM Plants:
Examples:
 cacti.
 Bryophyllum.
 the pineapple and all epiphytic bromeliads.
 sedums.
 the "ice plant" that grows in sandy parts of the scrub forest biome

cacti.

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Bryophyllum

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epiphytic bromeliads
Epiphyte - a plant that grows on another plant, especially one that is not parasitic, such as
the numerous ferns, bromeliads, air plants, and orchids growing on tree trunks in tropical
rainforests.

Biome - A biome is a community of plants and animals that have common characteristics for
the environment they exist in. They can be found over a range of continents. Wikipedia

ice plant

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  Adapted to dry habitats
 Have the Crasulacean Acid Metabolism – CAM
 The plants absorb CO2 at night and fix it in the form of a 4C
 During day time CO2 is released and refixed by RuBP which then enters
Calvin cycle
In CAM plants CO2 fixation and Calvin cycle occur at different times of the
day.

Questions with Answers:

Where does photosynthesis take place in CAM plants?

CAM Crassulacean acid metabolism –photosynthesis takes place in the

mesophyll cells, but carbon fixation (and opening of stomata) takes place at
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night and the Calvin cycle happens during the day. The equations are the same
as for C4 plants. Substitute “night” for mesophyll and “day” for bundle sheath

How do C4 and CAM plants avoid Photorespiration?

These plants avoid photorespiration by two mechanisms: 1) PEP carboxylase,
and 2) a separation in time of carbon fixation and the Calvin cycle (light
independent reactions).

Background: Photorespiration refers to the dual affinity of RuBP Carboxylase

(aka Rubisco) for carbon dioxide and oxygen

How do C4 plants photosynthesise?

Two steps of C4 photosynthesis that occur in the mesophyll cells are the light-
dependent reactions and a preliminary fixation of CO2 into a molecule called
malate. CO2 is released from malate in the bundle sheath cells, where it is fixed
again by Rubisco and the Calvin-Benson cycle

How is photosynthesis similar to C4 plants and CAM plants?

In both cases, rubisco is not used to fix carbon initially. In which of the
following organelles does photosynthesis take place? ... Carbon dioxide
provides the carbon atoms that are incorporated into sugars in photosynthesis

How do C4 and CAM plants survive under dry conditions?

C4 plants have a facilitated uptake and storage of CO2 so they can close the
stomata sooner in the daytime. C4 transpiration is ~25% of a C3 plant's
transpiration, so they conserve water. This uses an enzyme that is not
vulnerable to photorespiration like RUBISCO so they have greater productivity
in high temperatures

Why do plant Photorespire?

Photorespiration occurs when the CO2 levels inside a leaf become low. This
happens on hot dry days when a plant is forced to close its stomata to prevent
excess water loss

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Why are C4 plants more efficient?

The speciality about these cells is that they are able to fix up CO2 in the
absence of atmospheric CO2 while C3 plants can't fix this. This pathway is
called as C4 pathway as the first stable compound formed in this pathway is of
4 C atoms. ... So efficiency of C4 plants is greater than C3 plants

What is the main difference between C4 and CAM plants?

The main difference between C4 and CAM plants is the way they minimize
water loss. C4 plants relocate the CO2 molecules to minimize photorespiration
while CAM plants choose when to extract CO2 from the environment.
Photorespiration is a process that occurs in plants where oxygen is added to
RuBP instead of CO2.

What is photorespiration in plants?

Photorespiration (also known as the oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle, or

C2 photosynthesis) refers to a process in plant metabolism where the enzyme
RuBisCO oxygenates RuBP, causing some of the energy produced by
photosynthesis to be wasted

Why Photorespiration is considered to be wasteful process for plants:

Photorespiration is a wasteful process because it prevents plants from using

their ATP and NADPH to synthesize carbohydrates. RuBISCO, the enzyme
which fixes carbon dioxide during the Calvin cycle, is also responsible for
oxygen fixation during photorespiration

How is RuBISCO related to Photorespiration?

The enzyme, rubisco, not only initiates carbon fixation in the Calvin cycle; it
also combines with oxygen to initiate photorespiration. ... Fortunately for
plants (and for us indirectly!) rubisco has an affinity for carbon dioxide that is
80 times higher than its affinity for oxygen

Why does Photorespiration lower photosynthetic output for plants?

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Photorespiration decreases photosynthetic output by adding oxygen, instead of
carbon dioxide, to the Calvin cycle. As a result, no sugar is generated (no
carbon is fixed), and O2 is used rather than generated

What do you mean by Kranz anatomy?

Kranz anatomy. the special structure of leaves in C4 PLANTS (e.g. maize)

where the tissue equivalent to the spongy mesophyll cells is clustered in a ring
around the leaf veins, outside the bundle-sheath cells. (The term 'Kranz' means
wreath or ring in German)
Critical Thinking:

Bring on the tough stuff

Scientists on another planet have made an exciting discovery

about a new photosynthetic plant. The plant appears black
instead of green. What does the plant’s color tell you about its
photosynthesis?
Jan Van Helmont hypothesized that in order for a tree to grow
and gain mass, it must find food somewhere else. He carefully
weighed a tree and the soil that he wanted to plant the tree in.
Time passed, and the tree grew. After five years, he reweighed
the tree, which had grown quite large, and the soil. To his
surprise, the soil weighed basically the same amount, suggesting
to Jan that the plant couldn’t be gaining mass from the soil. If
you were Jan, what would you do next to try to figure out what
the plant was consuming for food?

Photosynthesis is often described in two steps: the light

reactions and the dark reactions. Given what you have
learned about photosynthesis and the ways that plants
have adapted to optimize it, why is dividing
photosynthesis into these categories misleading?

Are plants more important to people, or are people more important to

plants? Explain.

Why can’t we humans perform photosynthesis?

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 Describe the major differences and similarities between
C3, C4, and CAM plants.
Why is the spatial separation of photosynthesis within the chloroplast
important?

Photosynthesis Answers

1. Answer: On Earth, the pigment in a plant's leaves reflects

the light that isn't utilized by the plant. If this plant on
another planet appears black, that must be because it is
able to harness the entire spectrum of visible colors in
light for energy.
 
2. Answer: Jan suspected that the tree was gaining mass
from the water he was adding. In order to confirm this
hypothesis, he could use isotonically labeled water (or use
any other molecule that you thought the plant was using).
If the plant was incorporating any part of this chemical into
its mass, you could then look for that isotopic label in the
tissues of the plant.
 
3. Answer: It is misleading because, although the
activation of the photosystems is light-dependent,

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 the Calvin cycle can run in the light; it is light-
independent, meaning that it does not require light
to occur.
 
4. Answer: We could argue that plants are more important to people because we
subsist on plants. That is, we consume them and are higher up in the food chain.
However, many plants have been domesticated by people and require people to be
able to actually disseminate their seeds; corn is one example. Therefore, in the case
of domesticated plants, people are just as important to their survival as we are to
theirs.
 
5. Answer: Humans lack chloroplasts, which are the places where all the major proteins
and pathways required for photosynthesis occur. Instead of being autotrophs
ourselves, we eat the carbon of others and are therefore heterotrophs.

6.Answer: C3, C4, and CAM plants all perform

photosynthesis and generate their own
carbohydrates from CO2. C3 plants do this
through a 3-carbon intermediate (PGA, or
phosphoglycerate) while C4 plants do this
through a 4-carbon intermediate (malate). C3
plants have adapted to reduce the amount of
photorespiration that occurs, which is basically
RuBisCOs malfunction, by isolating RuBisCO
from oxygen and shuttling CO2 to RuBisCO
via the C4 intermediate.  CAM plants have

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 adapted to dry climates by only opening their
stomata at night to minimize water loss, as
well as storing their CO2 as malate, just like in
C4 plants.
 
7. Answer: Spatial separation of photosynthesis in the
chloroplast allows for oxidative phosphorylation, or
the generation of ATP through the proton gradient,
to occur. Additionally, the light-independent
reactions, which are oxygen sensitive, must be kept
separate from the light-dependent reactions, which
generate oxygen.

https://www.shmoop.com/photosynthesis/questions.html

Past Questions:
9700/41/M/J/10 Question 4

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