UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Photosynthesis

Chapter 4: Photosynthesis
High-energy compounds such as ATP do not
form spontaneously. They are formed through
a series of metabolic pathways known
collectively as photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis involves two sets of

reactions:

• light-dependent reactions: energy is trapped and used

to generate ATP and NADPH (similar to NADH)

• light-independent reactions: ATP and NADPH are

used to make a high-energy organic molecule
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Photosynthesis Section 4.1

Summarizing Photosynthesis
6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) + energy  C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g)

The arrow in this summary equation represents more than

100 distinct reactions that lead to the end products.
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Photosynthesis Section 4.1

Plant Structure and Function

Water and carbon dioxide are used to synthesize glucose.
Water enters through roots and is transported to leaves.
Carbon dioxide enters through stomata in the leaves.

Continued…
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Photosynthesis Section 4.1

Plant Structure and Function

Water and carbon dioxide diffuse into the cells and reach
the chloroplasts, which is where photosynthesis takes
place. Inside the chloroplast, an interconnected membrane
system forms thylakoid disks that stack to form grana.
Surrounding the grana is the
stroma, which contains
catalytic enzymes.
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Photosynthesis Section 4.1

The Absorption of Light Energy

Matter absorbs light energy in the form of packets of energy,
called photons, that carry specific amounts of energy. Each
wavelength (colour) of visible light is associated with photons of
a specific amount of energy.
• longer wavelength photons have smaller amounts of energy
• shorter wavelength photons have larger amounts of energy

An atom or a molecule in a plant can only

absorb photons that have an
amount of energy that
is exactly equal to the difference between
two energy levels in the atom or molecule.
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Photosynthesis Section 4.1

The Absorption of Light Energy

A photosynthetic pigment is a compound that can absorb certain
wavelengths of visible light and pass it on to other compounds.
There are a variety of photosynthetic pigments in the thylakoid
membranes:
• chlorophyll a and b: main plant pigments reflect green light
•carotenoids: accessory plant pigments reflect yellow, orange,
and red light
(A) Leaves appear green because
chlorophyll molecules in leaf cells
reflect green and yellow
wavelengths of light and absorb
other wavelengths (red and blue).
(B) This absorbance spectrum for
three photosynthetic pigments
shows that each pigment absorbs
a different combination of colours
of light.
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Photosynthesis Section 4.1

Photosystems Capture Light Energy

A photosystem is a protein-based complex composed of
clusters of pigments (chlorophyll and accessory pigments) that
work together to absorb light energy of many wavelengths.

In a photosystem, an
antenna complex of
various pigments harvests
the light energy and
funnels it to the reaction
centre, made up of a pair
of chlorophyll a
molecules and proteins.
Continued…
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Photosynthesis Section 4.1

Photosystems Capture Light Energy

The chloroplasts in plants and algae employ two photosystems
(I and II) that work together to convert light energy into
chemical energy.
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Photosynthesis Section 4.1

The Light-Dependent Reactions: Step 1

The P680 molecule absorbs a photon, which excites an
electron enough to leave the molecule. (This can occur 200
times a second.) P680+ has a strong attraction for electrons
and pulls them from water.
 
The process of photon  electron leaving  water
donating an electron occurs four times; at this point
oxygen gas is formed.

The four hydrogen ions from the two split water molecules
remain in the thylakoid space. The oxygen is released.
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Photosynthesis Section 4.1

The Light-Dependent Reactions: Step 2

Electrons are transferred along a series of electron-carrying
molecules in the electron transport system. Along the way,
energy is released and used by the b6-f complex to pump
hydrogen ions from the stroma into the thylakoid space. This
generates a hydrogen-ion concentration gradient across the
thylakoid membrane.
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Photosynthesis Section 4.1

The Light-Dependent Reactions: Step 3

The electrons from P680 are used to replace the ones that
are excited and released from P700 in
photosystem I, linking the two systems. The P700
electrons are passed along an electron transport chain
and are used by the enzyme
NADP reductase to reduce NADP + to form NADPH.
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Photosynthesis Section 4.1

Making ATP by Chemiosmosis

ATP synthesis in photosynthesis

involves the same mechanism as
ATP synthesis in aerobic
respiration. This process is called
photophosphorylation because
the original energy comes from
photons. Again, the membrane is
impermeable to hydrogen ions so
they must pass through ATP
synthase.

Continued…
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Photosynthesis Section 4.1

Making ATP by Chemiosmosis

 UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Photosynthesis Section 4.1

Noncyclic and Cyclic Photophosphorylation

The production of ATP by passing electrons through the Z-scheme is called
noncyclic photophosphorylation because electron passage is unidirectional. The
electrons are transferred from photosystem II to NADP+ to form NADPH.
Chloroplasts also employ cyclic photophosphorylation where only photosystem I
is used and electrons return to P700.
 

In this way, chloroplasts

are able to generate the
NADPH and ATP
required by the
numerous reactions
carried out in the stroma.
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Photosynthesis Section 4.1

The Dream of Mimicking Nature

Scientists see potential in the idea of developing an artificial
system that mimics the splitting of water by photosystem II.
This technology would involve using solar energy to split
water and generate oxygen and hydrogen gas, which could
then be used in devices such as hydrogen fuel cells.
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Photosynthesis Section 4.1

Section 4.1 Review

UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Photosynthesis Section 4.2

4.2 Fixing Carbon Dioxide: The Light-

Independent Reactions
Plants convert carbon dioxide to carbohydrates by using ATP
and NADPH produced in the light-dependent reactions, along
with enzymes in the stroma.
 
The initial step involves converting carbon dioxide into
organic compounds in a process called CO2 assimilation.
This step occurs in the Calvin cycle.
 
The reactions in the Calvin cycle can be
grouped into three phases. The end organic
molecule is glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P).
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Photosynthesis Section 4.2

The Calvin Cycle: Phase 1

Carbon Dioxide Fixation
• CO2 bonds with ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP). The resulting six-carbon compound
is unstable and breaks down into two 3-phosphoglycerate (PGA) molecules.
• The reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase (also named
rubisco).

• Plants that use this

method to fix carbon
are called C3 plants,
and the pathway is
called C3
photosynthesis.
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Photosynthesis Section 4.2

The Calvin Cycle: Phase 2

Reduction
• PGA is activated by ATP and then reduced by NADPH and
converted to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P).

In their reduced, higher-

energy state, some of the
G3P molecules leave
the cycle to become
glucose, while other
G3P molecules remain
to replenish RuBP.
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Photosynthesis Section 4.2

The Calvin Cycle: Phase 3

Regenerating RuBP
• ATP energy is used to break and re-form the bonds to make
RuBP from G3P.
• The Calvin cycle must be completed six times in order to
synthesize one molecule of glucose.

Of the 12 G3P molecules

that are produced in six
cycles, 10 are used to
make RuBP and 2 are
used to make one
glucose molecule.
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Photosynthesis Section 4.2

The Calvin Cycle

The net equation for the Calvin cycle is:
6CO2 + 18 ATP + 12 NADPH + water  2 G3P + 16 Pi + 18 ADP
+ 12 NADP+

G3P is the starting

substance for many
carbohydrates and

some
plant oils and amino
acids.
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Photosynthesis Section 4.2

Adaptation to Photosynthesis
Oxygen competes with carbon dioxide for the same active
site on rubisco.
 
In a process called photorespiration, oxygen reacts with
RuBP, and different products are formed, thus reducing the
efficiency of photosynthesis.
 
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Photosynthesis Section 4.2

Adaptations to Photosynthesis

Leaves prevent water loss in hot, dry conditions by closing

their stomata. Water is conserved, but carbon dioxide is
prevented from entering.
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Photosynthesis Section 4.2

Adaptations to Photosynthesis
C4 and CAM plants live in hot and dry climates. They
have evolved mechanisms to reduce photorespiration and
improve the efficiency of photosynthesis.

C4 plants separate the uptake of

CO2 from the Calvin cycle in
different types of cells. CAM
plants do something similar with a
biochemical pathway. In both
cases, they increase the ratio of
carbon dioxide to oxygen for the
Calvin cycle.
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Photosynthesis Section 4.2

C4 Plants
C4 plants use energy to
“pump” carbon dioxide
into the bundle-sheath
cells, where it becomes
concentrated. Included
among the C4 plants are
food crops such as corn,
sorghum, sugarcane
(shown here), and millet.

Also included are grasses

such as crabgrass and
Bermuda grass.
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Photosynthesis Section 4.2

CAM Plants: opening and closing of the

stomata is opposite from most plants

The stomata
are open at
night and
closed in the
daytime.
When the carbon
dioxide is removed
from the four-carbon
compound malate in
the daytime, it cannot
leave the cell
because the stomata
are closed.
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Photosynthesis Section 4.2

The Energy Cycle in Plant Cells

Both aerobic respiration and
photosynthesis occur in
plants and are closely
related. Together they
represent a plant cell’s
energy cycle.
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Photosynthesis Section 4.2

Aerobic Respiration and Photosynthesis

UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Photosynthesis Section 4.2

Section 4.2 Review