Fundamental Biology

Course Code : BOT- 100

Credit Hours: 3(3-0)

Photosynthesis
 Contents
➢Definition

➢Site of Photosynthesis
➢Structure of Chloroplast
➢Light Reaction
➢Dark Reaction
 Photosynthesis
➢Photosynthesis may be defined as the process in which green plants synthesize
carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water using the energy of sunlight.
 Site of Photosynthesis
➢All green parts of a plant are involved in photosynthesis
➢Leaves are the most important organs of photosynthesis
➢Chloroplasts are the actual sites for photosynthesis
➢Chloroplasts are present in a very large number
➢Chloroplasts are present mainly in the cells of mesophyll tissue inside the leaf
➢Each mesophyll cell has about 20-100 chloroplasts
Chloroplast
 Structure of Chloroplast

• Envelope: The entire chloroplast is bounded by an envelope which is made of a

double membranes ( Outer membrane and inner membrane)

• Stroma: It is a kind of gel-fluid that surrounds the thylakoids (grana)

• Thylakoid: The thylakoids consists of flattened and closed vesicles arranged as a

membranous network. The outer surface of the thylakoid is in contact with the
stroma, and its inner surface encloses an intra-thylakoid space (lumen).

• Grana: Thylakoids may be stacked like a pile of coins, forming grana

 Reactions of Photosynthesis
• It is not a simple single step process. The reaction of photosynthesis consist of two
parts
• 1. Light dependent reaction (Light reaction)
• 2. Light independent reaction (Dark reaction)
 1. Light reaction
➢Light dependent reaction (Light reaction) depends directly on light
➢ATP and NADPH2 are formed in the light reaction
➢Light reaction was studied by Robert Hill so it is also called Hill’s reaction
➢Light reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast
• The light-dependent reactions are of two forms:
❑Non-cyclic phosphorylation

❑Cyclic phosphorylation
 Non-cyclic phosphorylation
➢Formation of ATP during non-cyclic electron flow is called Non-cyclic
phosphorylation
➢This path uses two Photosystems (P680 and P700 nm)
➢Thesephotosystems contain chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b as well as accessory
pigments
➢End products are NADPH, ATP and O2
 Steps of Non-cyclic phosphorylation

1. Excitation of electrons at Photosystem II

2. Photolysis of water
3. Electron transport Chain (ETC)
4. Photophosphorylation
5. Photosystem I
6. Synthesis of NADPH2
• Photosystem II absorbs light energy and electron is excited to a higher energy level and is
captured by primary electron acceptor of PS II.
• An electron hole is created in the molecule of P680. This electron hole is filled by the electrons
from water.
• Splitting of a water molecule into two hydrogen ions and one oxygen atom.
• Each photoexcited electron passes from the primary electron acceptor of Photosystem II to
Photosystem I via an electron transport chain Electron transport chain consists of Plastoquinone
(Pq), Cytochrome Complex. Plastocyanin (Pc).
• As electrons move down the chain their energy goes on decreasing and is used by thylakoid
membrane to produce to produce ATP. This ATP synthesis is called photophosphorylation.
• Photosystem I absorbs light energy an electron is excited to a higher energy level in the reaction
center of chlorophyll P700.
• An electron hole is created in the molecule of P700.
• Photoexcited electron passes from the primary electron acceptor of Photosystem I to second
electron transport chain through ferredoxin (Fd). An enzyme called NADP reductase then
transfers the electrons from Fd to NADP by forming NADPH.
 Cyclic Phosphorylation
➢Formation of ATP during cyclic electron flow is called cyclic phosphorylation
➢This path uses only Photosystem I (P700nm)
➢During this process the electrons cycle back from primary electron acceptor to
ferredoxin Fd to the cytochrome complex.
➢End product is ATP only
 Light independent reaction (Dark reaction)
➢Also known as Calvin cycle
➢Takes place in the stroma of chloroplast because the enzymes that drive the Calvin
cycle are in stroma
➢Calvin cycle uses the products of the light reaction (NADPH and ATP) to produce
sugar from carbon dioxide
➢Thus the Calvin cycle indirectly depends on light to produce sugar
➢Need an enzyme RUBISCO (Ribulose Bisphosphate Carboxylase) and carbon
dioxide
 Phases of Calvin Cycle

Three phases of Calvin Cycle

❑Carbon Fixation: Incorporation of CO2
❑Reduction: Utilization of energy molecules to form organic compound
❑Regeneration: regenerates molecules for another cycle
An Overview of Photosynthesis
 References
• E. J. Simon, J. L. Dickey and J. B. Reece. 2018. Campbell Essential Biology with
Physiology. 6th ed. Pearson Education
• D. E. Sadava, D. M. Hillis, H. C. Heller and S. D. Hacker. 2016. Life: The Science
of Biology. 11th ed. W. H. Freeman.
• https://www.wyzant.com/resources/lessons/science/biology/photosynthesis/light-
dark-reactions
• https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-biology1/chapter/the-calvin-cycle/
• https://.org/science/biology/photosynthesis-in-plants/the-calvin-cycle-
reactions/a/calvin-cycle