11/18/22, 1:26 PM Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis occurs when organisms use light energy from the sun to convert i
molecules (namely, carbon dioxide and water) into organic molecules (glucose) and o
is a light-driven, oxidation-reduction reaction.

The glucose formed in photosynthesis provides energy for the plant and carbon mole
make a wide array of biomolecules.

There are two stages of photosynthesis: the light-dependent reaction  and th

independent reaction. We sometimes call the light-independent reaction the ‘dark rea
the ‘Calvin cycle.’

Where does photosynthesis occur in the plan

Photosynthesis takes place on the leaf. Leaves have several structural adaptations th
them to perform photosynthesis efficiently. These include:

A wide and flat structure, creating a large surface area that abs
high amount of sunlight.
They are organised in thin layers with minimal overlapping betwe
leaves. This minimises the chance of one leaf shadowing anoth
the thinness allows for the diffusion of gases to be kept short. 
The cuticle and epidermis are transparent, allowing sunlight to pe
through to the mesophyll cells underneath.

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As you will see from Figure 1, leaves also have multiple cellular adaptations that
photosynthesis to occur. These include:

Elongated mesophyll cells. This allows more chloroplasts to be

inside them. Chloroplasts are responsible for collecting light energ
the sun. 
Multiple stomata that allow for gaseous exchange, so there is
diffusion pathway between the mesophyll cells and the stomata. S
will also open and close in response to changes in light intensity.
Networks of xylem and phloem that respectively bring water to t
cells and carry away the products of photosynthesis - spe
glucose. 
Multiple air spaces in the lower mesophyll. These allow for more e
diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen. 

Photosynthesis occurs in the plant's chloroplasts. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll,

pigment that can ‘capture’ sunlight. Chlorophyll is found in the membrane of the t
discs, which are small compartments inside the structure of the chloroplast. T
dependent reaction takes place along this thylakoid membrane. The light-inde
reaction takes place in the stroma, fluid inside the chloroplast that surrounds s
thylakoid discs (collectively called ‘grana’).

Below, Figure 2 outlines the general structure of a chloroplast:

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What is the equation/formula for photosynthe

In plants, photosynthesis occurs as follows:

Carbon dioxide + Water + solar energy → Glucose + Oxygen 

As a balanced equation, this is:

What are the stages of photosynthesis?

Photosynthesis has five stages.

Step 1: Absorption of light

The first step involves the chlorophyll attached to photosystem II in the thyla
chloroplasts absorbing light. The chlorophyll is ionised as electrons leave the ch
molecule in photosystem II and are carried down an electron transfer chain d
thylakoid membrane. 

Step 2: Light reaction: Oxidation

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11/18/22, 1:26 PM Photosynthesis

Using the light energy absorbed by chlorophyll, the light-dependent reaction occ
occurs in two photosystems, which are located along the thylakoid membrane. Wa
into oxygen, H+ ions and electrons. The electrons are then carried by plastocyanin
containing protein that mediates electron-transfer)  from photosystem II to photosys
the next part of the light reaction. 

The equation for this reaction is:

 In this reaction, water has been split into oxygen and hydrogen atoms (protons) and electron
came from the hydrogen atoms.

Step 3: Light reaction: Reduction

The electrons produced in the last stage pass through photosystem I and are used
NADPH (reduced NADP). NADPH is a molecule that is essential for the light-inde
reaction.

The equation for this reaction is:

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Step 4: Light reaction: Generation of ATP

In the final stage of the light-dependent reaction, ATP is generated in the thylakoid m
of the chloroplasts. ATP is also known as adenosine 5-triphosphate and is often refer
the energy currency of a cell. Like NADPH, it is essential for the light-independent rea

The equation for this reaction is: 

 ADP is adenosine di-phophate (contains two phosphorus atoms), while ATP has three pho
atoms after the addition of inorganic phosphorus (Pi).

Step 5: Dark reaction: Carbon Fixation

This occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast. Through a series of reactions, ATP and
are used to convert carbon dioxide into glucose. You can find these reactions exp
ligh-independent reaction article. 

The overall equation for this is:

What are the products of photosynthesis?

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The products of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis are ATP, NADPH,

ions.

The products of the light-independent reactions are glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (

used to make glucose) and H+ ions. 

The overall products of photosynthesis are glucose and oxygen. 

What is a limiting factor?

A limiting factor inhibits or slows the rate of a process when it is in short s

photosynthesis, a limiting factor would be something needed to fuel the light-depe
light-independent reaction, such as carbon dioxide, temperature, or light energy. W
three of these factors are at optimal levels, the rate of photosynthesis will increase ste
to a certain point before plateauing  (a state of little or no change). The plateau wil
because one of these three factors will be in short supply, causing the rate of photos
to stop increasing or decrease. 

The law of limiting factors was proposed in 1905. Formulated by Frederick Blackman
that "the rate of a physiological process will be limited by whatever factor is in the
supply". 

Any change in the level of a limiting factor will affect the rate of reaction. 

What are the limiting factors for photosynthe

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The rate of photosynthesis is affected by a number of factors, including:

Light

As the intensity of light increases, so does the rate of light-dependent reac

photosynthesis. Therefore, increasing the intensity of light increases the overal
photosynthesis. This is because more photons  (the basic unit of all light)  will fall on
allowing the water to be oxidized faster. Therefore, the production of ATP and
increases and more cycles of the light-independent reaction will occur.

However, after a certain point, the rate of photosynthesis remains constant even if
intensity increases, as there is not enough heat energy, enzymes or carbon dioxide
to increase the rate of photosynthesis further.

Carbon Dioxide Concentration

As Figure 6 demonstrates, increasing the concentration of carbon dioxide will incr

rate of photosynthesis up to a certain point (similarly to the effects of light intensity)
carbon dioxide molecules are available, more cycles of the light-independent reac
occur at a higher rate. This means that more glucose molecules are produced, more
and ATP are used up, more RuBP  (an organic substance involved in photosynt
produced, and the overall rate of photosynthesis will increase. 

However, at a certain level, the rate of photosynthesis will be limited by other facto
may not be enough light energy to produce enough NADPH and ATP to fuel more

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the light-independent reaction. Therefore, the rate of photosynthesis will not increas
the concentration of carbon dioxide increases. 

Alternatively, there may not be enough heat energy available to catalyse the
controlled reactions in the light-independent reaction at a higher rate, so the
photosynthesis will not be able to increase with the concentration of carbon dioxide. 

Temperature

Since enzymes control photosynthesis, temperature is an important limiting factor for

of photosynthesis. As you will be able to see from Figure 7, the rate of photos
increases with the temperature. However, unlike with carbon dioxide concentration
intensity, the rate of photosynthesis reaches an optimum point before drastically dec
around 35 - 40 , the enzymes that control photosynthesis work at their best. Howev
temperature increases past this optimum point, the enzymes start to denature. The e
active site (where the substrate binds) shape is altered, and the substrate (substance
enzyme acts on) no longer fits. This explains the sharp decrease in photosynthesi
higher temperatures.

 Water is not a limiting factor for photosynthesis. There is very little water needed in th
process of photosynthesis. However, even if there was a shortage of water to the poin
photosynthesis would be restricted, the plant’s stomata would begin to close and absorb
dioxide at a slower rate. Therefore, other processes would stop before water could have a
effect on them.  

Photosynthesis - Key takeaways

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11/18/22, 1:26 PM Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the process by which carbon dioxide and water are converted
glucose and oxygen using light energy from the sun. Photosynthesis takes
during two reactions: the light-dependent reaction and the light-indepen
reaction. The light-independent reaction is often referred to as the dark reacti
the Calvin cycle. 
Photosynthesis is a redox reaction, which means that electrons are both gained
lost whilst the reaction takes place.
Photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts of a plant. The chloroplasts co
small structures called thylakoid discs, which are stacked inside the chloroplasts
membrane of these discs is where the light-dependent reaction takes place. T
discs are suspended in fluid, which is referred to as the stroma. The dark rea
takes place in the stroma. 
The light reaction functions primarily to produce ATP and NADPH, which
function as energy molecules and electron carriers. These are then used to p
the light-independent reaction, which converts carbon dioxide to glucose. T
limiting factors impact the rate of photosynthesis. These are light intensity, ca
dioxide concentration, and temperature.

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