Topic: Plant Physiology

Subtopic: Photosynthesis

Heading: Factors affecting photosynthesis

Title: Factors affecting photosynthesis

The Law of Limiting Factors, also known as Liebig＂s Law of the Minimum, was formulated
by the German chemist and agriculturist Justus von Liebig in the 19 th century. This law
states that the rate of any physiological process (such as growth or photosynthesis) is limited
by the factor that is least available or abundant relative to the optimal requirement. In other
words, the growth or activity of an organism is determined by the scarcest resource.

Light:
 Increasing light intensity usually leads to an increase in the rate of photosynthesis, as
long as other factors (such as CO2 and temperature) are not limiting.
 There is a saturation point beyond which further increases in light intensity do not
significantly increase the rate of photosynthesis because other factors become
limiting.
 Plants primarily absorb red and blue light for photosynthesis. These wavelengths are
most effective in driving the light-dependent reactions.
 Action spectra for photosynthesis illustrate the effectiveness of different wavelengths
in promoting photosynthesis.
 Chlorophyll a absorbs light most efficiently in the red and blue regions, with peaks
around 430 nm (blue) and 662-680 nm (red). Chlorophyll b has absorption peaks in
the blue (around 453 nm) and red (642-663 nm) regions.
 The duration of light exposure, known as the photoperiod, affects the overall energy
availability for photosynthesis. The presence of light during the day allows continuous
energy capture.
 Light compensation point is the light intensity at which the rate of photosynthesis
exactly matches the rate of respiration. Below this point, photosynthesis is not
sufficient to meet the plant＂s energy needs.
 Plants show adaptations in leaf structure and chlorophyll distribution to optimize
photosynthesis under varying light conditions. Sun leaves are adapted for high-light
conditions, while shade leaves are adapted for low-light conditions.
  Excessive light can lead to photoinhibition, where the photosynthetic apparatus is
damaged due to excessive light energy. Plants have protective mechanisms, such as
the xanthophyll cycle and non-photochemical quenching, to mitigate photoinhibition.

Light as a factor affecting photosynthesis.

Carbon dioxide:
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a crucial factor influencing the process of photosynthesis in
plants. It serves as a substrate in the Calvin cycle, the second stage of photosynthesis,
where carbon fixation occurs.
 The rate of photosynthesis is directly proportional to the concentration of carbon
dioxide, up to a certain optimal level. If the concentration of CO 2 is below the optimal
level, it becomes a limiting factor for photosynthesis.
 C3 plants, such as wheat, rice, and soybeans, use the Calvin cycle for carbon fixation.
At low light conditions, C3 plants may not show a significant response to increased
CO2 concentrations. This is because under low light, the rate of photosynthesis may
be limited by factors other than CO2 availability, such as light intensity.
 At high light intensities, both C3 and C4 plants typically show an increase in the rates
of photosynthesis. However, the key difference lies in the response to elevated CO 2
concentrations.
 C3 plants continue to respond positively to increased CO 2 concentrations beyond 360
µL-1 and do not saturate until CO2 levels reach higher concentrations, typically beyond
450 µL-1. This indicates that current CO2 levels are not limiting for C3 plants, and
they can still benefit from elevated CO2 concentrations.
  C4 plants, such as maize (corn) and sugarcane, have a more complex photosynthetic
pathway involving both mesophyll and bundle sheath cells. Similar to C3 plants, at
low light conditions, C4 plants may not show a significant response to elevated CO 2
levels.
 At high light intensities, both C3 and C4 plants show an increase in photosynthetic
rates.
 C4 plants show saturation at a lower CO 2 concentration, around 360 µL-1. Beyond
this point, further increases in CO2 concentrations may not significantly enhance the
photosynthetic rates in C4 plants. This suggests that current atmospheric CO 2 levels
are not limiting for C4 plants.
 The influence of CO2 on photosynthesis is often temperature-sensitive. An increase in
temperature can enhance the rate of photosynthesis, especially when other factors are
not limiting.
 Higher CO2 concentrations can lead to reduced stomatal openings, reducing water loss
through transpiration. This can enhance water use efficiency in plants.

Temperature:
 Temperature is a critical environmental factor that influences the rate of
photosynthesis in plants. The effect of temperature on photosynthesis is complex, and
it involves both biochemical and physiological processes.
 Photosynthesis involves several enzyme-catalyzed reactions, and the activity of
enzymes is temperature-sensitive.
 Each enzyme has an optimal temperature range at which its activity is highest. For
many enzymes involved in photosynthesis, this optimal range falls between 25 to 35°
Celsius.
 The Calvin cycle, which is part of the dark reactions of photosynthesis, is affected by
temperature. Higher temperatures may initially increase the rate of the Calvin cycle,
leading to enhanced carbon fixation. However, excessive heat can result in enzyme
denaturation and reduced efficiency.
 Light reactions of photosynthesis, occurring in the thylakoid membranes, are also
influenced by temperature. Warmer temperatures can increase the rate of electron
transport in the thylakoid membrane, contributing to higher production of ATP and
NADPH.
  The optimal temperature for the carboxylation process (carbon fixation) is generally
lower than the optimal temperature for oxygenation. As temperatures rise, the ratio of
oxygenation to carboxylation increases, leading to increased photorespiration.
 The fluidity of thylakoid membranes, where the light reactions occur, is influenced by
temperature. Extreme temperatures can affect the integrity of thylakoid membranes,
disrupting the organization of photosynthetic pigments and protein complexes.
 Warmer temperatures may lead to increased water loss through transpiration and
increased stomatal opening, allowing more CO2 to enter the leaf.

Water:
 Water is a critical factor that profoundly influences photosynthesis, the process by
which plants convert light energy into chemical energy. Water is involved in various
stages of photosynthesis, and its availability can impact the rate and efficiency of this
crucial physiological process.
 Water serves as a source of hydrogen (H) in the light-dependent reactions of
photosynthesis, where water molecules are split into oxygen (O 2), protons (H+), and
electrons (e-).
 Photolysis of water occurs in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts, generating
oxygen and providing electrons for the photosynthetic electron transport chain. Water
molecules contribute to the formation of ATP through photophosphorylation during
the light-dependent reactions.
 The electrons released from water molecules during photolysis move through the
photosynthetic electron transport chain, leading to the production of ATP and
NADPH, which are essential for the subsequent Calvin cycle.
 Water availability influences the opening and closing of stomata, small pores on the
surfaces of leaves. Stomata regulate the exchange of gases, including water vapor and
carbon dioxide.
 Adequate water uptake by guard cells, surrounding the stomatal openings, maintains
turgor pressure, allowing stomata to open and facilitate the entry of carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis.
 Water uptake by plant cells maintains turgor pressure, which is crucial for cell rigidity
and expansion. Turgor pressure supports cell expansion, allowing plants to grow and
develop. This is particularly important for the formation of new leaves and the
expansion of existing ones to maximize light absorption.
  Water, along with dissolved minerals and nutrients, is transported upward through the
xylem vessels from the roots to the leaves. The transport of nutrients is vital for
various metabolic processes, including those associated with photosynthesis.
 Water plays a role in temperature regulation during photosynthesis. As water
evaporates from leaf surfaces (transpiration), it helps cool the plant, preventing heat-
related damage.

Reference- NCERT Textbook for class XI.