KANHA MAKHAN PUBLIC

SCHOOL

PROJECT FILE
SESSION – 2023 TO 2024
TOPIC –
PHOTOSYNTHESIS

PREPARED BY : Vishnu Sharma

SUBMITTED TO : Madhusudan Sir
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I Would Like To Express My Special Thanks To

Our Mentor Mr.Madhusudan Gargacharya Sir For
His Time And Efforts He Provided Throughout
The Year Your Useful Advice And Suggestions
Were Really Helpful To Me During The Project
Completion In This Aspect I Am Eternally Grateful
To You

Also I would like to take this opportunity to thank

my family member &supporters without them it
could not have been done effectively in such a
short period of time I cannot forgot their love &
support

A project is a bridge between theoretical & practical

learning and with this thinking I worked on the project
and made it successful due to timely support and
efforts of all who helped me..
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that "Vishnu
Sharma" Student of class 11th 'A²'
has successfully completed his
Biology Project File on
"PHOTOSYNTHESIS" under the
guidance of "Mr. Madhusudan
Gargacharya Sir".

STUDENT SIGN TEACHER SIGN

 Index
 Photosynthesis

 The Process of Photosynthesis

 Factors affecting Photosynthesis

 Photosynthetic Pigments

 Light-Dependent Reactions of Photosynthesis

 Light-Inependent Reactions of Photosynthesis

 Role of Chloroplast in Photosynthesis

 The C4 Pathway
 Importance of Photosynthesis in the Global
Ecosystem
 Evolution of Photosynthesis in Plants
 Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, some bacteria and some protistans use the energy
from sunlight to produce glucose from carbon dioxide and water. This glucose can be converted into
pyruvate which releases adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by cellular respiration. Oxygen is also formed.

Photosynthesis may be summarised by the word equation:

carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen

The conversion of usable sunlight energy into chemical energy is associated with the action of
the green pigment chlorophyll.

During photosynthesis, light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll, a green pigment found in the
chloroplasts. This energy is used to power a series of complex chemical reactions that ultimately
result in the production of glucose. The carbon dioxide required for this process is obtained from
the atmosphere, while the water is absorbed through the roots of the plant.

In addition to producing glucose, photosynthesis also plays a crucial role in the production of oxygen.
The oxygen released during photosynthesis is essential for the survival of most living organisms, as it is
used in cellular respiration to generate energy.
 The Process of Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is a complex biochemical process that takes place in the chloroplasts of

plant cells, as well as in some types of algae and bacteria. It is the process by which these
organisms use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen.

During photosynthesis, light energy is absorbed by the green pigment chlorophyll, which is
found in the chloroplasts. This energy is used to power a series of chemical reactions that
ultimately result in the production of glucose. The carbon dioxide required for this process is
obtained from the atmosphere, while the water is absorbed through the roots of the plant.

Photosynthesis can be divided into two main stages: the light-dependent reactions and the
light-independent reactions (also known as the Calvin cycle). In the light-dependent reactions,
light energy is used to split water molecules, releasing oxygen as a byproduct and producing
energy-rich molecules such as ATP and NADPH. These molecules then power the light-
independent reactions, where carbon dioxide is fixed and converted into glucose.

In addition to producing glucose, photosynthesis also plays a crucial role in the

production of oxygen. The oxygen released during photosynthesis is essential for the
survival of most living organisms, as it is used in cellular respiration to generate
energy.
Factors affecting Photosynthesis

1. Light intensity: Photosynthesis requires light energy, so the rate of

photosynthesis increases with higher light intensity. However, beyond a
certain point, the rate of photosynthesis may plateau as the plant
becomes saturated with light.

2. Carbon Dioxide Concentration: Carbon dioxide is a key reactant in

photosynthesis, and an increase in its concentration can lead to an
increase in the rate of photosynthesis, up to a certain point.

3. Temperature: Photosynthesis is a biochemical process that is sensitive

to temperature. As temperature increases, the rate of photosynthesis
generally increases, up to an optimal temperature. However, at very high
temperatures, the enzymes involved in photosynthesis can become
denatured, leading to a decrease in the rate of photosynthesis.

4. Water Availability: Water is also essential for photosynthesis, as it is

one of the reactants in the process. A lack of water can limit the rate of
photosynthesis, as it can lead to stomatal closure and reduce the uptake
of carbon dioxide.

5. Chlorophyll concentration: The amount of chlorophyll in the plant can

also affect the rate of photosynthesis. A higher concentration of
chlorophyll can lead to a higher rate of photosynthesis, as there are more
pigment molecules available to absorb light energy.

6. Nutrient Availability: Other nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and

potassium are also important for the process of photosynthesis. A
deficiency in these nutrients can limit the rate of photosynthesis.

These factors interact with each other and can vary depending on the
plant species and environmental conditions. Understanding these factors
is important for optimizing agricultural practices and improving crop
yields.
Photosynthetic Pigments

Photosynthetic pigments are molecules found in the

chloroplasts of plant cells that are responsible for capturing light
energy during photosynthesis. The main photosynthetic
pigments are chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, carotenoids, and
phycobilins.

Chlorophyll a is the primary pigment involved in photosynthesis

and is responsible for capturing light energy and converting it
into chemical energy. Chlorophyll b works in conjunction with
chlorophyll a to broaden the range of light wavelengths that can
be absorbed.

Carotenoids are accessory pigments that help to capture light

energy and also protect the plant from damage caused by
excessive light. They are responsible for the yellow, orange, and
red colors seen in leaves during the fall.

Phycobilins are found in certain types of algae and cyanobacteria,

and they also serve as accessory pigments to capture light
energy.

These pigments are located in the thylakoid membranes of the

chloroplasts, where they are organized into photosystems that
are responsible for capturing and transferring light energy to the
reaction centers of photosynthesis.

The different pigments have specific absorption spectra,

meaning they can absorb different wavelengths of light. This
allows plants to efficiently capture a broad range of light energy
for photosynthesis.

Overall, Photosynthetic pigments play a crucial role in the

process of photosynthesis by capturing light energy and
converting it into chemical energy that can be used by the plant
for growth and development.
Light-Dependent Reactions of Photosynthesis

The light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis take place in the

thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts and are responsible for
capturing and converting light energy into chemical energy in the form of
ATP and NADPH.

These reactions involve a series of complex processes, including

photophosphorylation, the splitting of water molecules, and the transfer of
electrons through the electron transport chain.

The process begins with the absorption of light by the photosynthetic

pigments, which excites electrons and causes them to move to a higher
energy state. These high-energy electrons are then passed along the
electron transport chain, where they release energy that is used to pump
protons across the thylakoid membrane, creating a proton gradient.

Meanwhile, water molecules are split by an enzyme called water-splitting

complex, releasing oxygen, protons, and electrons. The electrons from
water replace the ones lost by the photosystem II, ensuring that the
process can continue.

As the electrons continue to move through the electron transport chain,

they eventually reach photosystem I, where they are re-energized by
another round of light absorption. This energy is used to reduce NADP+ to
NADPH, which is a molecule that carries high-energy electrons to the
Calvin cycle, where they are used to fuel the production of sugars.

In addition to producing NADPH, the light-dependent reactions also

generate ATP through a process called photophosphorylation. As the
protons flow back across the thylakoid membrane through ATP synthase,
this enzyme uses the energy released to convert ADP and inorganic
phosphate into ATP.

Overall, the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis are essential for

capturing light energy and converting it into chemical energy that can be
used to power the Calvin cycle and produce organic molecules for the
plant's growth and metabolism.
Light-Independent reactions of Photosynthesis

The light-independent reactions of photosynthesis, also known

as the Calvin cycle, take place in the stroma of the chloroplasts
and are responsible for using the chemical energy produced in
the light-dependent reactions to convert carbon dioxide into
organic molecules, specifically glucose.

The Calvin cycle begins with the enzyme RuBisCO catalyzing the
fixation of carbon dioxide by combining it with a five-carbon
sugar molecule, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP). This reaction
produces two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA), which
are then converted into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P)
through a series of reduction and regeneration steps.

Some of the G3P molecules produced are used to regenerate

RuBP, allowing the cycle to continue. The remaining G3P
molecules are used to synthesize glucose and other
carbohydrates, which can be used by the plant for energy or
stored for later use.

In addition to producing glucose, the Calvin cycle also

regenerates the molecules needed to continue the cycle, such as
RuBP and ATP. This ensures that the cycle can continue to
operate and produce organic molecules as long as there is an
adequate supply of ATP, NADPH, and carbon dioxide.

Overall, the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis are

essential for converting carbon dioxide into organic molecules
using the chemical energy produced in the light-dependent
reactions, ultimately providing the plant with the energy and
building blocks it needs for growth and survival.
Role of Chloroplast in Photosynthesis
Chloroplasts are the organelles responsible for carrying out
photosynthesis in plant cells. They contain the necessary
pigments, enzymes, and other molecules required for the light-
dependent and light-independent reactions of photosynthesis.

In the light-dependent reactions, chloroplasts capture and

convert light energy into chemical energy in the form of ATP
and NADPH. This process takes place in the thylakoid
membranes of the chloroplasts, where pigments such as
chlorophyll absorb light and use it to drive the electron
transport chain and the production of ATP and NADPH.

In the light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle), chloroplasts

use the ATP and NADPH produced in the light-dependent
reactions to convert carbon dioxide into organic molecules.
This process occurs in the stroma of the chloroplasts, where
enzymes catalyze a series of reactions that result in the
fixation of carbon dioxide and the production of sugars and
other organic compounds.

Overall, chloroplasts play a crucial role in photosynthesis by

capturing light energy and using it to produce organic
molecules that serve as a source of energy and building blocks
for the plant. Without chloroplasts, plants would not be able to
carry out photosynthesis and produce their own food.
 The C4 Pathway

The C4 pathway is an alternative photosynthetic pathway used by certain plants to fix carbon
dioxide and carry out photosynthesis. This pathway is an adaptation to hot and dry environments,
as it helps plants minimize water loss and increase the efficiency of carbon fixation.

In the C4 pathway, carbon dioxide is first fixed into a four-carbon compound in the mesophyll cells
of the leaf, using the enzyme PEP carboxylase. This four-carbon compound is then transported to
the bundle sheath cells, where it is decarboxylated to release carbon dioxide and used in the Calvin
cycle. This separation of initial carbon fixation and the Calvin cycle allows for more efficient carbon
fixation and reduces the loss of carbon dioxide through photorespiration, which can occur in the
traditional C3 pathway.

Plants that use the C4 pathway have specialized leaf anatomy with distinct mesophyll and bundle
sheath cells. The mesophyll cells are responsible for initial carbon fixation, while the bundle sheath
cells are involved in the Calvin cycle. This separation of functions allows for more efficient
photosynthesis, especially in conditions where water loss needs to be minimized.

Some examples of plants that use the C4 pathway include corn, sugarcane, and certain types of
grasses. These plants have evolved to thrive in diverse environments around the world, including
tropical and subtropical regions.

In conclusion, the C4 pathway is an important adaptation that allows certain plants to efficiently fix
carbon dioxide and carry out photosynthesis in hot and dry environments. This pathway has
significant implications for agriculture and ecological diversity, as it enables plants to thrive in
conditions where the traditional C3 pathway may be less efficient.
Importance of Photosynthesis in the Global Ecosystem

Photosynthesis is essential for the global ecosystem as it is the

process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light
energy into chemical energy, producing oxygen and organic
compounds in the process. This process is the foundation of the
food chain, as it provides the energy source for all living
organisms. Additionally, photosynthesis plays a crucial role in
regulating the Earth's atmosphere by removing carbon dioxide
and releasing oxygen, which is essential for the survival of
aerobic organisms.

Furthermore, photosynthesis is a key factor in maintaining

biodiversity and ecological balance. It provides the energy and
nutrients necessary for the growth and development of plants,
which in turn support a wide range of animal species.
Additionally, photosynthesis contributes to the cycling of
nutrients and the maintenance of ecosystems through the
production of organic matter.

In addition to its ecological importance, photosynthesis also has

significant implications for human society. It is the basis for
agriculture and food production, as plants use photosynthesis to
produce the carbohydrates, proteins, and fats that form the basis
of the human diet. Moreover, photosynthesis is being studied for
its potential in biofuel production, as it offers a renewable and
sustainable source of energy.

In summary, photosynthesis is a fundamental process that

sustains life on Earth and has far-reaching implications for both
natural ecosystems and human society. Understanding and
appreciating the importance of photosynthesis is crucial for
addressing current environmental challenges and ensuring the
long-term sustainability of our planet.
Evolution of Photosynthesis in Plants
In conclusion, the evolution of photosynthesis in plants is a
complex and intricate process that has played a crucial role in
shaping the development of life on Earth. From the ancient
cyanobacteria to the diverse array of plant species we see
today, the evolution of photosynthesis has involved numerous
genetic, cellular, and physiological adaptations that have
allowed plants to efficiently capture and utilize light energy for
the production of organic compounds and oxygen.

The emergence of chloroplasts, the evolution of pigments, and

the development of various physiological and anatomical
adaptations have all contributed to the success and
diversification of plants in different environments.
Understanding the evolutionary history of photosynthesis not
only provides insights into the history of life on Earth but also
has practical implications for agriculture, biofuel production,
and climate change mitigation.

Overall, the evolution of photosynthesis in plants is a

remarkable journey that continues to shape the biological
world around us, and further research in this area holds great
potential for addressing current and future challenges related
to food security, renewable energy, and environmental
sustainability.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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