C S VIN THNG

PHM VN TN

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

Chng I TIN TC V H THNG THNG TIN

LCH S PHT TRIN CNG NGH VIN THNG IN T. PHN LOI CC NGUN TIN TC V CC H THNG THNG TIN. S NG XC NH V SNG NGU NHIN. S KHI MT H VIN THNG. S PHN CHIA CC VNG TN S (FREQUENCY ALLOCATIONS). S TRUYN SNG IN T. S O TIN TC. CC H THNG TIN L TNG. M HA (CODING).

Trang I.1

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

LCH S PHT TRIN CNG NGH VIN THNG IN T.

- T cui th k 18 u th k 19, cng ngh pht thanh v truyn thng bng in c pht trin. - Nm 1820, George Ohm a ra cng thc phng trnh ton hc gii thch cc tn hiu in chy qua mt dy dn rt thnh cng. - Nm 1830 Michall Faraday tm ra nh lut dn in t trng. - C th coi lch s thng tin d liu c bt u vo nm 1937 vi s pht minh in tn Samuel F. B.Morse. l h thng truyn cc xung in biu din cho cc du chm v vch (tng ng vi cc s nh phn 1, 0) trn cc ng dy ng nh cc my c in. Cc t hp khc nhau ca cc m ny thay cho cc ch, s, du,...c gi l m Morse. - Nm 1840, Morse ng k sng kin v in tn M. - Nm 1844 ng y in tn u tin c thit lp gia Baltimore v Washington DC. - Nm 1849, bn tin u tin c in ra nhng vi vn tc rt chm nhng n nm 1860 vn tc in t 15 bps. - Nm 1850, i s Boole ca George Boole to ra nn mng cho logic hc v pht trin r le in. Trong khong thi gian gian ny, cc ng cp u tin xuyn qua i ty dng lp t h thng in tn. - James Clerk Maxwell a ra hc thuyt in t trng bng cc cng thc ton hc vo nm 1980. Cn c vo cc hc thuyt ny Henrich Hertz truyn i v nhn c sng v tuyn thnh cng bng cch dng in trng ln u tin trong lch s. - Tng i in thoi u tin c thit lp vo nm 1876 (ngay sau khi Alexander Grhm Bell pht minh ra in thoi). Nm nm sau Bell bt u dch v gi ng di gia New York v Chocago. Cng khong thi gian , Guglieno Marconi ca Italia lp t mt trm pht sng v tuyn pht cc tn hiu in tn. - Nm 1900, Einstein, mt nh vt l ni ting v hc thuyt tng i vit rt nhiu ti liu quan trng v vt l cht rn, thng k hc, in t trng v c hc lng t. Vo khong thigian ny, phng th nghim Bell ca M pht minh v sng ch ra ng phng in cc cho cc knh thin vn xoay c. Tip theo , Le De Forest tr thnh ngu khi xng trong lnh vc vi mch in t thng qua pht minh ca ng v mt ng chn khng ba cc. Lc ny, h thng tng i tng t t ng c kh nng hot ng khng cn bng chuyn mch. - Nm 1910, Erwin Schrodinger thit lp nn tng cho c hc lng t thng qua cng b ca ng v cn bng sng gii thch cu to nguyn t v cc c im ca chng. Vo khng thi gian ny, pht thanh cng cng c bt du bng cch pht sng. - Nm 1920, Harold .S. Black ca phng th nghim Bell pht minh ra mt my khuch i phn hi m bn m ngy nay vn cn dng trong lnh vc vin thng v cng ng my in m. - V.K.Zworykin (M) pht minh ra n hnh cho v tuyn truyn hnh v cp ng trc (phng tin truyn dn hiu qu hn cc dy ng bnh thng). - Cui nhng nm 1940, phng th nghim Bell t ra nn mng cho cho cc cht bn dn c tch hp cao. Howard Aiken ca i hc Harward cng tc vi IBM thnh cng trong vic lp t mt my in ton u tin c kch thc 50 feets v 8 feets. V sau , J.Presper Ecker vi Jonh Mauchly ca i chc Pnnylvania pht trin my in ton ln mt bc gi l my in ton ENIAC. Von Neuman da vo y pht trin my in ton c lu gi chng trnh. - Vo nhng nm 1960, cc loi LSI (Large Scale Interated), cc my in ton mini, cp quang v my phn chia thi gian c pht trin v thng mi ho thnh cng. - Vo nhng nm 1970, truyn hnh nh qua v tinh, cc h thng tng i in t cng ln lt ra i.
Trang I.2

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

Phn loi cc ngun tin tc v cc h thng thng tin. - Mt ngun tin digital ( digital information sourse ) to ra 1 tp hp hu hn cc bn tin ( Message ) c th. V d : My nh ch ; c mt s hu hn cc k t ( bn tin ) c pht ra t ngun ny. - Mt ngun tin tc analog to ra cc bn tin c xc nh lin tc. V d mt micro: in th ra din t tin tc v m thanh v n c phn b trn mt dy lin tc nhiu tr gi. - H thng thng tin digital chuyn tin tc t mt ngun digital n thit b thu ( Sink ). - H thng thng tin analog chuyn tin tc t mt ngun analog n Sink. Ni mt cch cht ch, sng digital c nh ngha nh l mt hm theo thi gian v ch c mt tp hp cc tr gi ri rc. Nu dng sng digital l dng sng nh phn, th ch c hai tr gi. Dng sng analog l mt hm theo thi gian c khong cc tr gi lin tc. Mt h thng thng tin digital in t thng c cc in th v dng in vi dng sng digital. Tuy nhin, n vn c th c cc dng sng analog. Th d, tin tc t mt ngun nh phn c th pht n sink bng cch dng mt sng sin 1000Hz din t bit 1 v mt sng sin 500Hz din t bit 0. y ngun tin tc digital c pht n sink bng cch dng cc sng analog, nhng vn c gi l h thng vin thng digital. Xa hn na, sng analog ny c gi l tn hiu digital v n m t 1 ngun tin digital. Tng t, mt tn hiu analog m t mt ngun tin analog . T quan im ta thy mt k s Vin thng digital cn hiu lm sao phn tch cc mch analog cng nh cc mch digital.

Vin thng digital c nhng li im:

- Cc mch digital tng i r c th c dng. - Khong tc ng ln hn. ( Khong gia cc tr ln nht v nh nht ). - D liu t ting ni, hnh v cc ngun d liu khc c th c trn ln v truyn i trn cng mt h truyn digital. - Trong cc h truyn vi khong cch xa, nhiu khng chng cht t repeater n repeater. ( Trm pht li ). - Sai s trong d liu c phn tch th nh, d khi c mt lng nhiu ln trn tn hiu thu c. - Nhiu c th c sa cha ( corrected ) bng cch dng s m ha.

Nhng n cng c nhng bt li:

- Thng thng, n cn mt h rng dy tn ( Band width ) ln hn h analog. - Cn n s ng b ha. Vi nhiu u im, cc h digital tr nn ngy cng ph bin. Sng xc nh v sng ngu nhin. Trong cc h Vin thng, ta phn cc dng sng lm hai loi ln: Xc nh v Ngu nhin. - nh ngha: Mt dng sng xc nh c th c m hnh ha nh mt hm hon ton ring bit ca thi gian. Th d: Nu w(t) = A cos ( 0t + o ) Din t mt dng sng , vi A, 0 , o l cc hng bit. Th dng sng w(t) c ni l c xc nh. - nh ngha: Mt dng sng ngu nhin khng th c chuyn bit ha hon ton nh l nt hm theo thi gian v phi m hnh ha 1 cch xc xut. Cc dng sng biu din mt ngun khng th xc nh c. Th d, trong h vin thng digital, ta c th gi tin tc ng vi bt k mt mu t no - Mi mu t c biu din bng mt dng sng xc nh. Nhng khi ta xt dng sng c pht t ngun ta thy rng l dng sng ngu nhin, v ta khng bit chnh xc nhng k t s c pht.
Trang I.3

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

Do , ta thc s cn thit k h vin thng dng dng sng ngu nhin v tt nhin bt k nhiu no c a vo s cng c m t bng mt dng sng ngu nhin. K thut ny cn n nhng khi nim v xc sut v thng k. ( S lm vic phn tch v thit k phc tp hn ). Nhnng may thay , nu ta trnh by tn hiu bng dng sng tiu biu xc nh, th ta vn c th c hu ht, nhng khng tt c cc kt qu.

S KHI MT H THNG VIN THNG.

Hnh 1.1 S khi ca mt h thng vin thng. Ch ch mt h Vin thng l truyn mt tin tc t ngun, k hiu l s(t), n Sink. Tin tc s (t); tin tc c th l digital hay analog, ty vo h c dng. N c ly ra t Sink k hiu l ~ th l tin tc v Video, audio hay vi loi khc. Trong cc h multiplex ( a hp ), c th s c nhiu ngun vo v nhiu Sink. Ph ca s(t) v ~ s (t) tp trung quanh f = 0. Chng c gi l nhng tn hiu bng gc ( base band ). Khi x l tn hiu: my pht ty iu kin ngun sao cho s truyn c hiu qu. Th d: Trong 1 h digital, n l mt vi x l. Trong h analog, n khng g hn l 1 lc h thng. Trong h lai, n l mch ly mu tin tc vo ( analog ) v digital - ha c mt bin iu m xung ( Pulse code modulation ) PCM. Tn hiu ra ca khi XLTH my pht cng l tn hiu bng gc v cc tn s tp trung gn f = 0. Khi sng mang: my pht i tn hiu bng gc x l thnh mt bng tn truyn a vo knh truyn. Th d: Nu knh gm mt cp dy xon ( twisted - pair ) telephone, ph ca sm(t) s nm trong dy m tn ( audio ), t 300 -> 3.700Hz. Nhng nu knh gm cp quang, ph ca sm(t) s l tn s nh sng. - Nu knh truyn i nhng tn hiu bng gc, khng cn dng khi sng mang v sm(t) c th l tn hiu ra ca khi XLTH. - Khi sng mang th cn khi knh c th ch truyn cc tn s thuc 1 bng xung quanh fc , vi fc >> 0. Trong trng hp ny sm(t) c gi l tn hiu dy thng ( Band pass Signal ). V n c thit k c nhng tn s thuc 1 bng quanh fc. Th d, mt i pht bin iu AM vi mt tn s kt hp 850 KHz c sng mang fc = 850 KHz. S p tn hiu bng gc dng sng s(t) thnh tn hiu dy thng sm(t) c gi l s bin iu ( modulation ). ( s(t) l tn hiu audio trong i pht AM ). Tn hiu dy thng bt k c dng: sm(t0 = s (t) cos [ c(t) + (t) ] Vi c = 2fc, fc l tn s sng mang. Nu s(t) = 1 v (t) = 0 th sm(t) s l mt tn hiu hnh sin thun ty vi f = fc v bng tn bng 0.

Trang I.4

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

Trong s bin iu bi mch sng mang, sng vo s(t) lm cho R (t) v/hoc (t) thay i nh l mt hm ca s(t). S thay i trong R (t) v (t) lm cho sm(t) c mt kh bng ph thuc vo nhng tnh cht ca s(t0 v vo hm p c dng pht ra R (t) v (t). Cc knh truyn: C th phn chia lm 2 loi: dy mm ( softwire ) v dy cng (hardwire). Vi loi knh dy mm tiu biu nh: Khng kh, chn khng v nc bin. Vi loi knh truyn dy cng: Cp dy xon telephone, cp ng trc, ng dn sng v cp quang. Mt cch tng qut, knh truyn lm gim tn hiu, nhiu ca knh truyn v / hoc nhiu do my thu khin cho ~ s (t) b xu i so vi ngun. Nhiu ca knh c s gia tng t ngun in, dy cao th, s nh la hoc nhiu do s ng ngt ca mt computer. Knh c th cha b phn khuch i tc ng, th d: H thng repeater trong telephone hoc nh v tinh tip chuyn trong h thng vin thng trong khng gian. D nhin, cc b phn ny cn thit gi cho tn hiu ln hn nhiu. Knh cng c th c nhiu ng ( multiple paths ) gia input v output v chng c thi gian tr ( time delay ), tnh cht gim bin ( attenuation ) khc nhau. Nhng tnh cht ny c th thay i theo thi gian. S thay i ny lm thay i bt thng ( fading ) tn hiu ng ra ca knh. ( Ta c th quan st s fading khi nghe khi nghe 1 i sng ngn xa ). My thu nhn tn hiu ng ra ca knh v i n thnh tn hiu bng gc. S phn chia cc vng tN s (Frequency Allocations). Trong cc h thng tin dng khng kh lm knh truyn, cc iu kin v giao thoa v truyn sng th ph thuc cht ch vo tn s truyn. V mt l thuyt, bt k mt kiu bin iu no (Am, Fm, mt bng cnh - single sideband, phase shift keying, frequency shift keying...) u c th c dng cho bt k tn s truyn no. Tuy nhin, theo nhng qui c quc t, kiu bin iu rng bng, loi tin c truyn cn c xp t cho tng bng tn. Bng sau y cho danh sch cc bng tn, k hiu, iu kin truyn v cng dng tiu biu ca chng. Bng tn 3 - 30KHz 30- 300KHz 3003000KHz 3 - 30MHz t tnh truyn Sng t. Suy gim t ngy v m. Nhiu khng kh cao Tng t VLF. t tin cy. B hp thu vo ban ngy Sng t v sng tri ban m. Suy gim t vo ban v nhiu vo ban ngy. Nhiu khng kh HF S phn x tn ion cn Hight frequency thay i theo thi gian trong ngy, theo ma v theo tn s. Nhiu khng kh t ti 30Mhz Gn vi LOS. S tn x gy VHF bi nhng thay i nhit . Very high Nhiu khng gian. frequency Truyn LOS. Nhiu khng UHF Ultra high gian. frequency L S SHF Truyn LOS. Suy gim do
Trang I.5

K hiu VLF very low frequency LF low frequency MF Medium frequency

Nhng ng dng tiu biu Thng tin di nc Hng dn radio cho hi hnh Radio hng hi. Tn s cp cu pht sng Am radio nghip d. Pht thanh quc t. Vin thng qun s. Thng tin ng di cho khng hnh v hi hnh. in thoi, in tn, fax. Truyn hnh VHF. Radio FM stereo. Tr gip khng hnh. Truyn hnh VHF. Radio FM Stereo. Tr gip khng hnh. Vin thng v tinh. Radar

30- 300MHz 0.3 - 3 GHz 1.0 - 2.0 GHz 2.0 - 4.0 GHz 3 - 30 GHz

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

Bng tn

2 - 4.0 4.0 - 8.0 8.0 - 12.0 12.0 - 18.0 18.0 - 27.0 27.0-40.0 30 - 300 GHz

26.5 - 40 33.0 - 50.0 40.0 - 75.0 75.0 - 110.0 110 - 300 103 - 107

K hiu t tnh truyn Nhng ng dng tiu biu Supper high Oxi v hi nc trong khng microwave links. frequency kh. S hp th do hi nc rt cao t i S 22.2 GHz C X KU K Ka Tng t trn. Hi nc hp Radar, v tinh, th nghim. EHF Extremely high th rt mnh ti 183GHz. Oxy hp thu ti 60 v 119 frequency GHz . R Q V W Mm Vin thng quang IR (Hng ngoi Truyn LOS ) nh sng kh kin v UV ( T ngoi )

S truyn sng in t. Cc c tnh truyn ca sng in t c truyn trong knh truyn dy mm th ph thuc nhiu vo tn s. iu ny c thy t bng k trn. Ph in t c th c chia lm 3 bng ln: Sng mt t ( Ground ware ), sng tri ( Sky ware ) v sng truyn theo ng tm mt ( light of sight ) LOS.

S truyn tn hiu (signal propagation)

Anten pht (Transmit antenna)

The Earth a. Truyn sng t

Anten thu (Recieve antenna)

Ion cu

S truyn tn hiu (signal propagation)

Anten pht (Transmit antenna)

The Earth b. Truyn sng tri

Trang I.6

Anten thu (Recieve antenna)

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

S truyn tn hiu (signal propagation) Anten pht (Transmit antenna) The Earth c. Truyn theo ng tm mt Hnh 1.2: s truyn sng in t. Anten thu (Recieve antenna)

1. Tn s ca sng t nh hn 2 MHz.
y sng in t c khuynh hng truyn theo chu vi tri t. Kiu truyn ny c dng trong cc i AM. y s ph sng a phng theo ng cong mt t v tn hiu truyn trn ng chn tri thy c. Cu hi thng c t ra: Tn s thp nht ca sng c th dng l bao nhiu ? Cu tr li l tn s ny ty thuc vo chiu di ca anhten pht. s bc x c hiu qu, antenna cn di hn 1/10 bc sng. V d: Vi sng mang fC = 10KHz, bc sng l: C = fC = ( 3.108m/s )/104Hz = 3.104 m Nh vy, mt anten di t nht 3.000m bc x c hiu qu mt sng in t 10KHz!

2. Khong tn s ca sng tri l 2 n 30 Mhz.

S truyn ca sng ny da vo s phn x tng ion ( ion sphere - tng in ly ) v mt t. Nh , c th truyn mt khong rt xa. Tng ion c biu phn b nh sau:

Hnh 1.3: Biu phn b tng ion S ion ha xy ra do s kch thch cc phn t kh bi cc bc x v tr t mt tri. Tng ion gm cc lp E, F1, F2, D. Lp D ch hnh thnh vo ban ngy v l lp ch yu hp th sng tri. Lp F l lp chnh, lm phn x sng tri v tri t. Thc t, s khc x tng bc qua cc lp ca tng ion khin tng ny tc dng nh mt vt phn x lm sng tri b phn x tr li tri t.

Trang I.7

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 1.4: S phn x sng tri b tng ion. Ch s khc x n thay i theo cao ca tng ion, v mt electron t do thay i. 81n n = 1 2 f Trong : N: Mt electron t do ( s e-/m3 ). f: tn s ca sng (Hz). - Di vng ion ha, n = 1 - Trong vng ion ha, n < 1 ( V N > 0 ) Sng b khc x theo nh lut Snell: nsinr = sini Trong : I : Gc n r: Gc khc x. a. Vi nhng sng c tn s f < 2MHz : 81N > f2 nn n tr nn o. Tng ion s lm gim sng n. b. Vi nhng sng c tn s t 2 - 30 MHz ( Sng tri ), s truyn sng, gc phn x v s hao ht tn hiu ti mt im phn x tng ion ty thuc vo f, vo thi gian trong ngy, theo ma v s tc ng ca vt en mt tri. Ban ngy, N rt ln lm n o. Sng b hp thu, c rt t sng tr li tri t. Ban m, N nh nn n < 1. Khi , nu sng truyn t tri t ln tng ion th r > I. S xy ra hin tng khc x tng bc. Do s phn x nhiu ln gia tng ion v mt t, sng tri truyn i rt xa. V th, c nhng sng tri pht ra t nhng i xa bn kia tri t vn c th thu c trn bng sng ngn.

3. S truyn LOS l phng thc truyn cho cc tn s trn 30 MHz.

, sng in t truyn theo ng thng. Trong trng hp ny f2 >> 81N lm cho n 1 v nh vy c rt t sng b khc x bi tng ion. Sng s truyn ngang qua tng ny. Tnh cht c dng cho thng tin v tinh. Cch truyn LOS bt li cho vic truyn thng tin gia 2 trm mt t, khi m ng i tn hiu phi trn ng chn tri. cong mt t s chn ng truyn LOS.

Trang I.8

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 1.5 Anten pht cn phi t trn cao, sao cho anten thu phi thy c n. d2 + r2 = ( r + h )2 d2 = 2rh + h2 h2 << 2 rh Nh vy: d = 2rh Bn knh tri t l 3.960 miles. Tuy nhin, ti nhng tn s LOS bn knh hiu dng l
4 3.960 . Vy khong cch d = 2rh miles. Trong h tnh bng feet. 3 Th d: Cc i truyn hnh c tn s trn 30MHz trong bng VHF v UHF, vng ph sng ca cc i cng sut ln b gii hn bi ng tm mt. Vi mt thp anten 1000 ft d = 44,7miles. Nu anten thu cao 30 feet , d = 7,75 miles. Vy vi chiu cao i pht v my thu ny, i c vng ph sng c bn knh 44,7 + 7,75 = 52,5 miles. * Vi nhng tn s 30 - 60 MHz, tn hiu c th b tn x bi tng ozon. S tn x l do s bt thng ca n lp di ca tng ny. ( 50 miles trn mt t ). Khin cho thng tin c th truyn i xa hn c 1000 miles. * Tng t s phn x tng tropo ( trong vng 10 miles cao hn mt t ) c th truyn tn hiu ( 40 MHz - 4GHz ) xa vi trm miles. 1 miles = 1.609,31 m 1 feet = 0.3048 m sea miles = 1852 m. S o tin tc. nh ngha: Tin tc gi t 1 ngun digital, khi bn tin th j c truyn i l :

IJ = log2

1 PJ

bits

PJ: L xc sut ca vic truyn bn tin th J C s (base) ca log xc nh n v c dng o tin tc.Nu log c s 2, th n v l bits.Vi log t nhin n v l Nats.V vi log c s 10 n v s l Hastley Bit, n v o tin c ngha khc vi bit l n v ca d liu nh phn.Tuy nhin ngi ta vn hay dng bit k hiu cho c hai loi n v. Cng thc trn c vit li vi c s t nhin v c s 10: IJ =

1 1 log10 Pj = log n Pj log10 2 log n 2

Mt cch tng qut, ni dung tin tc s thay i t bn tin ny n bn tin khc, v PJ s khng bng nhau. Nh vy, ta cn n mt s o tin tc trung bnh ca ngun.
Trang I.9

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

nh ngha: S o tin tc trung bnh (average information) ca 1 ngun l:

H=

Pj I j =
j=1

1 P log j 2 P j j=1
m

bits

m: S bn tin. PJ : Xc sut ca s gi bn tin th J Tin tc trung bnh cn gi l entropy. V d: Tm information content (dung lng tin tc ) tin tc ca mt bn tin gm mt word digitaldi 12digit , trong mi digit c th ly mt trong 4 mc c th. Xc sut ca s gi mt mc bt k trong 4 mc c gi s bng nhau v mc ca mt digit khng ty thuc vo tr gi c ly ca digit trc . Trong mt string gm 12 symbol (digit) m mi symbol gm mt trong 4 mc l 4.4.....4 = 412 bits, t hp (word) khc nhau. V mi mc gm bng nhau tt c cc word khc nhau u bng nhau. Vy:

1 1 PJ = 12 = 4 4
hoc

12

1 = 12 log 2 (4) = 24 bits IJ = log 2 1 1 2 4 Trong v d trn ta thy dung lng tin ( information content ) trong bt k mt bn tin c th no u bng vi dung tin trong bt k bn tin c th khc (24 bits). Vy tin tc trung bnh H l 24 bits. Gi s rng ch c 2 mc (nh phn) c cho php cho mi digit v rng tt c cc wordth gn bng nhau Vy tin tc s l IJ = 12 bits cho word nh phn v tin tc trung bnh l H = 12bits. tt c word 12 bits s cho 12 bits tin tc v cc word gn bng nhau Nu chng khng bng nhau mt vi trong cc word 12 bits s cha hn 12 bits tin tc v mt vi s cha t hn .V tin tc trung bnh s cha t hn. inh ngha: Nhp ca ngun (nate source) c cho bi H bits/sec R= T H: Tin tc trung bnh. T: Thi gian cn thit gi mt bn tin. nh ngha trn c p dng cho mt ngun digital. Cc h thng tin l tng. C mt s tiu chun c dng nh gi tn hiu qu ca mt h thng tin . l gi thnh, rng knh, cng sut truyn, t s s/n ti nhng im khc nhau ca h, thi gian tr ngang qua h thng. V xc sut bit error ca h digital. Trong cc h digital, h ti u c th c ngha nh l mt h c xc sut bit error ti thiu ng ra ca h vi s cng ch v cng sut c pht v rng knh. iu ny lm ny ra cu hi: liu c th pht minh mt h khng c bit error ng ra d khi c nhiu thm nhp vo knh ? Cu hi ny c Claude Shannon tr li l c th, vi vi gi thit Shannon chng minh rng mt dung lng knh C (bits/sec) s c tnh sao cho nu nhp tin tc R (bits/sec) nh hn C, th xc sut ca bit error tin n zero. Phng trnh ca C l:
Trang I.10

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

S C = B log 2 1 + N B: rng knh (Hz) v S/N l tng s cng sut tn hiu trn nhiu ti ng v ca my thu digital. - Trong cc h analog, h ti u c ch nh ngha nh l mt h c tng s S/N ln nht ng ra my thu vi s cng ch v cng sut c pht v rng knh. Ta c th t cu hi: Liu c th thit k mt h thng vi tng s S/N ln v hn ng ra khi nhiu thm nhp vo knh ? Cu tr li l d nhin l khng. m ha (CODING). Nu d liu ng ra ca mt h thng tin digital c errors, c th gim error bng cch dng mt trong hai k thut : -Automatic Repeat request (ARQ). -Forward error conection (FEC). Trong mt h ARQ, khi my thu phn tch c error trong khi d liu, n yu cu khi d liu pht tr li. Trong mt h FEC d liu c pht ra cn c m ha sao my thu c th sa sai nh l cc sai s phn tch. Bin php ny cng c xp loi nh s m ha knh, v n c dng sa sai khi knh b nhiu. S chn la ARQ hay FEC ty vo p dng ring. ARQ thng c dng trong h thng tin computer. FEC c dng sa sai tr cc knh simplex (1 way). H thng tin vi FEC c v hnh di y. V mt l thuyt dung lng knh ca Shannon chng t rng mt tr gi v hn ca S/N ch gii hn nhp truyn. l xc sut ca error P(E) c th tin n zero khi nhp tin tc nh hn dung lng knh.
Truyn Tn hiu s m nhiu r(t) Nhn Mch sng g (t ) M ho mang v x l
m (t )
~

M ho g(t) Mch sng s(t) knh v x l mang

Hnh 1.6

B thu tn hiu s

Trang I.11

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

Chng II PHN TCH TN HIU

XEM LI CHUI FOURRIER. PH VCH. BIN I FOURRIER. CC HM K D: ( SINGNLARITY FUNCTIONS ). PHP CHNG (CONVOLUTION). PHP CHNG HNH ( GRAPHICAL CONVOLUTION ). NH L PARSEVAL. NHNG TNH CHT CA BIN I FOURRIER. NH L V S BIN IU. CC HM TUN HON.

Trang II.1

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

XEM LI CHUI FOURRIER.

1. Mt hm bt k S(t) c th c vit: ( dng lng gic ).
S(t) = a0cos(0) +

n =1

[ an cos 2 nf0t + bn sin 2f0t ]

(2.1)

Vi t0 < t < t0 + T ; T S hng th nht l a0 v cos (0) = 1.

1 fo

Vic chn cc hng an v bn theo cc cng thc sau: - Vi n = 0 ; - Vi n 0 ; a0 = an = bn =

1 T

s(t)dt
to

t o +T

(2.2)

2 to +T s( t ) cos 2nf o t.dt T to

(2.3)

2 to +T s( t ) sin 2nf ot.dt T to

(2.4)

H thc (2.2) c c bng cch ly tch phn 2 v ca (2.1). H thc (2.3) v (2.4) c c bng cch nhn c 2 v ca (2.1) cho hm sin v ly tch phn. 2. Dng cng thc EULER, c th a dng s(t) trn v dng gn hn ( dng hm m phc ). EULER ej2nfot = cos 2nfot + j sin 2nfot S(t) = (2.5) (2.6)

n =

Cn e j2nfot

Trn n: S nguyn; dng hoc m. V Cn c nh bi: Cn =

1 to +T s(t) e -j2nfot dt T to

(2.7)

iu ny d kim chng, bng cch nhn hai v ca (2.5) cho e -j2nfot v ly tch phn hai v. Kt qu cn bn m ta nhn c = mt hm bt k theo thi gian c th c din t bng tng cc hm sin v cos hoc l tng ca cc hm m phc trong mt khong. Nu s(t) l mt hm tun hon, ta ch cn vit chui Fourrier trong mt chu k, chui s tng ng vi s(t) trong mi thi im. V d 1: Hy xc nh chui Fourrier lng gic ca s(t) nh hnh v. Chui ny cn p dng trong khong - /2 < 1< /2 .
Trang II.2

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

s(t)

Ta dng chui Fourrier lng gic, vi T = v fo 1 1 = = nh vy chui c dng: T s(t) = a0 +

-2 -/2 /2 2 Hnh 2.1 Tn hiu cos(t).

n =1

[ an cos 2nt + bn sin 2nt ]

Trong :
2 2 +

1 a0 =

2 2 +

cos t. dt =

2 an =

cost .cos 2nt .dt =

2 ( 1) n +1 ( 1) n + 2n 1 2n + 1

Ta nh gi bn nh sau:

2 bn = T

2 2 +

s( t ).sin 2nt .dt

V s(t) l mt hm chn theo thi gian, nn s(t) .sin 2nt l mt hm l v tch phn t - /2 n /2 l zero. Vy bn = 0 vi mi s(t) l. Chui Fourrier c vit :
2 s(t) = +

n 2 ( 1) n +1 ( 1) cos 2nt + 2n 1 2n + 1 n =1

(2.8)

Lu : Chui Fourrier cho bi phng trnh trn y c cng khai trin nh ca hm tun hon sp(t) nh hnh di y: sp(t)

3/2 -/2 /2 -3/2 Hnh 2.2 Anh ca s (t) trong bin i Fourier. Ph vch

Trong lc tm s biu din chui Fourrier phc ca 1 hm theo thi gian, ta dng mt tha s trng lng phc Cn cho mi tr ca n. Tha s Cn c th c v nh l hm ca n. Vy cn n 2 ng biu din. Mt biu din cho sut ca n v mt biu din pha. ng biu din ny th ri rc. N ch khc zero i vi nhng tr gin on ca trc hanh. ( V d: C1/2 th khng c ngha ). ng biu din Cn i vi nf0 gi l ph Fourrier phc. Trong nf0 l lng tng ng vi tn s ca hm m phc m i vi n Cn l mt h s trng lng. V d 2: Tm ph Fourrier phc ca sng cosin c chnh lu ton sng, s(t) = cos t, nh hnh v di y.

Trang II.3

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

|cost|

-3/2

-/2

/2

3/2

Hnh 2.3 Tn hiu |cos(t)|. Trc ht ta phi tm khai trin chui Fourrier theo dng hm m phc. Vi F0 =
1 , ta tnh tr gi Cn t (2.6) v tm chui Fourrier trc tip.

Tuy nhin v d 1, ta khai trin chui Fourrier di dng lng gic ri, nn c th khai trin hm cos a v dng hm m phc bng cch dng cng thc Euler:
2 s(t) = +

n 2 ( 1) n +1 ( 1) cos 2nt + 2n 1 2n + 1 n =1

Vi cos 2nt =

1 j 2nt e + e j 2nt 2

]
an j 2nt + e 2 an j 2nt + e 2

Vy chui Fourrier dng hm m:

2 s(t) = + 2 = +

n =1

n =

an j 2nt e 2

n =1

n =1

a n j 2nt e 2

(2.9)

Ta i bin s s hng sau. Vy Cn lin h vi an: Cn = Cn = Cn =

an 2 a n 2 2

Vi n > 0 Vi n < 0

Trong trng hp ny, Cn l s thc. Nn ch cn v mt hnh.

Trang II.4

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

2/

2/3 -2 -3 -1 1 -2/15 Hnh 2.4: Ph vch ca v d 2 . Bin i Fourrier: Mt tn hiu khng tun hon c xem nh l trng hp gii hn ca mt tn hiu tun hon, trong chu k T ca tn hiu tin n . Nu chu k tin n , tn s cn bn F0 tin n 0. Cc ha tn khp li vi nhau v, trong gii hn, tng chui Fourrier biu din cho s(t) s tr thnh mt tch phn. 2 2/35 3
3

nf0

[s(t)] = S(f)

s(t)e

j 2ft

dt

(2.10)

F [.] k hiu cho bin i Fourrier ca [.]. N cn c gi l ph - hai - pha ( Two - Side - Spectrum ) ca s(t), v c hai thnh phn tn s dng v m u thu c t (2.10). Gi s s(t) l mt hm thc (vt l). Mt cch tng qut, S(f) l mt hm phc theo tn s. S(f) c th phn lm hai hm thc X(f) v Y(f) : S(f) = X(f) + jY(f) (2.11) Dng trn gi l dng Cartesian, v S(f) c th c biu din trong mt h trc ta Descartes. Cng c th biu din S(f) trong mt h trc cc. Khi , cp hm thc s trnh by sut v pha. S(f) = S(f) ej(f) Vi : S(f) = v: Y (f ) (f) = tan-1 X (f ) Dng trn y cn gi l dng cc ( Polar form ).
Trang II.5

(2.12)

X 2 (f ) + Y 2 (f )

(2.13)

(2.14)

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

xc nh nhng tn s no hin hu, ta kho st ph ca xut S(f). ( i khi gi tt l Ph ). Ph ca mt dng sng ( dng hay th ) c th thu c t nhng php tnh ton hc. N khng xut hin mt cch vt l trong cc mch in thc t. Tuy nhin c th dng Spectrum Analyser quan st mt cch gn ng. * phc hi li s(t) t bin i Fourrier ca n, ta tnh tch phn sau:

s(t) =

S( f ) ej 2ft dt = F

-1

[S(f)]

(2.15)

Phng trnh ny thng gi l bin i ngc ca S(f). Hai hm s(t) v S(f) to thnh mt cp bin i Fourrier. Trong , s(t) din t trong phm vi thi gian, cn S(f) din t trong phm vi tn s. K hiu cho mt cp bin i Fourrier : Hoc S(f) s(t) s(t) S(f) (2.16)

Nu tn hiu hoc nhiu c m t trong phm vi ny, th s m t tng ng trong phm vi kia s c bit nh cch dng (2.10) hoc (2.15). Dng sng s(t) c th bin i Fourrier c nu n tha cc iu kin Dirichelet. Tuy nhin, tt c cc dng sng vt l trong k thut u tha cc iu kin . V d 3: Ph ca mt xung expo. t s(t) l mt xung expo tt ( Decaying Exponential Pulse ) b ngt ( Switched ) ti t = 0.

e t s(t) = 0

, t>0 , t<0

(2.16)

Ph ca xung ny c c bng dng php bin i Fourrier. S(f) =

e
0

j 2ft

dt

S(f) =

1 1 + j 2f

(2.17)

Ph ca S(f) c th tnh bng cch hu t ha mu s (2.17) X(f) = V dng cc:

1 1 + ( 2f ) 2

Y(f) =

2f 1 + ( 2f ) 2

Trang II.6

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

S(f) =

1 1 + ( 2f )
2

(f) = tan-1(2f)

Cp Fourrier trong v d trn:

, t > 0 e t , t < 0 0 Cc hm k d: ( Singnlarity Functions ).

1 1 + j 2f

(2.18)

Ta phi a vo mt loi hm mi trc khi ni n nhng ng dng ca l thuyt Fourrier. Loi hm ny ni ln bt c lc no ta phn gii cc loi hm tun hon. l mt phn ca nhm cc hm k d. Chng c th nhng chuyn ha ca hm nc n v. 1. V d 4. Bin i Fourrier ca hm cng ( Gating Function ): Tm bin i ca s(t), trong :

A s(t) = 0

, t > , Ph n kha c
s(t) A t

(2.19)

Hnh 2.5 Tn hiu s(t). * T nh ngha ca bin i Fourrier. S(f) =

s(t)e

j 2ft

dt

A .e

j 2ft

dt

ej 2ft = A j 2f

= A =A

ej 2f e j 2f j 2f

(2.20)

sin 2f f

Trang II.7

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

s(f) 2

1/2

1/

Hnh 2.6 Anh ca s(t) trong bin i Fourier. Nhng hm thuc loi trn y rt ph bin trong k thut thng tin. trnh lp li hm ny ta nh ngha hm Sa(x) nh sau: Sa(x) Khi (2.20) c vit li: S(f) = 2A . Sa( 2f ) (2.22)
sin x x

(2.21)

2. Hm xung lc ( Impulse ).
By gi ta mun tm bin i Fourrier ca 1 hng, s(t) = A, vi mi t. Ta c th xem n l gii hn ca xung g(t) khi . Ta c gng theo cch quanh co ny, v k thut trc tip tht bi trong trng hp ny. Khi p s(t) = A vo tch phn nh ngha, ta c: S(f) =

Ae j 2ft dt

(2.23)

Tch phn ny khng hi t. T (2.6), ta thy khi , bin i Fourrier tin n v cc ti gc v nhng im ct trc zero tr nn cch nhau v cng ln. Nh vy, trong gii hn, chiu cao ca bin i Fourrier tin n v cc, cn b rng th n zero. iu ny nghe bun ci ! Nhng n khng phi l mt hm thc s vi mi lc v n khng c xc nh ti f = 0. Nu ta c ni bt c iu g v bin i Fourrier ca mt hng, ta phi thay i cch ngh. S thay i bt u bng cch nh ngha mt hm mi t tn l xung lc ( m n khng phi l mt hm thc s ti mi lc ). K hiu l (t). nh ngha ca xung lc c to bi 3 quan st n gin. Hai trong s ni n ri, l:

( t) = 0 ( t)

, t 0 , t=0

(2.24)

Tnh cht th 3 l din tch tng di dng xung lc l n v:

Trang II.8

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

(t) dt = 1
a < 0 ; b> 0

(2.25)

V tt c din tch ca (t) tp trung ti mt im, nhng gii hn trn tch phn c th chuyn v gc m khng lm thay i gi tr ca tch phn. Vy:

(t) dt = 1
a

(2.26)

Ta c th thy rng tch phn ca (t) l u(t), hm nc n v:

1 ( ) d = 0

, t >0 , t <0

= u( t )

(2.27)

By gi ta tnh tch phn ca mt hm bt k vi (t).

s(t)(t) dt = s(0)(t) dt

(2.28)

(2.28) ta thay s(t) bi mt hm khng i, bng vi s(0) m khng lm thay i tch phn. Ta nh rng v (t) = 0 vi mi t 0. V th tch ca (t) vi mt hm bt k ch ph thuc tr gi ca hm ti t = 0. Vi hm khng i ( theo thi gian ) c chn, ta c th em n ra ngoi du tch phn.

s( t ) ( t ) dt = s( 0)

( t ) dt = s( 0)

(2.29)

y l mt kt qu c ngha, v n c xem nh l c tnh mu ( Sampling Property ) ca xung lc. Nu i cc bin s, s c mt xung b di ( Shifted Impules ) vi c tnh mu tng t.

s( t ) ( t t 0 ) dt = s( k + t 0 ) ( k ) dk = s( t 0 ) Hnh 2.7 Xung drac b di mt khong t0.

(2.30)

(t)

(t-t0)
1

t0

Hai hnh v trn trnh by (t) v ( t - t0 ). Mi tn hng ln ch tr gi tin n v cc. S 1 bn cnh mi tn ch din tch ton phn ca xung lc.
Trang II.9

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

V d 5: Tnh cc tch phn sau: a)

(t)[ t + 1] dt
2 2

b)

c)

(t 1)[ t
3

1 5

(t 1)[ t + 1] dt
3

+ 4t + 2 dt

d) Gii:

(1 t)[ t + 2] dt
4

a) p dng trc tip c tnh mu:

[
2

( t ) t 2 + 1 = s(0) = 02 + 1 = 1

b) V xung lc ri vo khong ca tch phn: T phng trnh (2.30)

5 3

( t 1) t 2 + 1 dt = s(1) = 12 + 1 = 2

c) Xung lc xy ra t = 1, nm ngoi khong ca tch phn. Vy:

( t 1) t 3 + 4t + 2 dt = 0

d) ( 1 - t ) ri ti t = 1 v l gi tr ca t lm cho sut bng zero. Vy:

(1 t)[ t + 2] dt = 1
4

+2 =3

* By gi ta tm bin i Fourrier ca mt xung lc:

(t)

( t)e
Ae

j 2ft

dt = e0 = 1

(2.31)

* Ta tr li tnh bin i ca 1 hng, s(t) = A. Ta d thy l tch phn xc nh khng hi t. A

j 2ft

dt

(2.32)

Trang II.10

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

Vi f 0, tch phn ny b gii hn bi Vi f = 0 tch phn s ?

A . f

* V tch phn nh ngha bin i Fourrier v tch phn tnh bin i ngc th tng t, nn ta c th phng on rng bin i ca mt hng l 1 xung lc. l v, mt xung lc bin i thnh mt hng, vy mt hng s bin i thnh mt xung lc. Ta hy tm bin i ngc ca mt xung.

(f)

(f )e

j 2ft

df = 1

(2.33)

Nh vy, iu phng on ca ta l ng! Bin i ngc ca (f) l mt hng, vy ta c: A A(f) * Nu ta bin i ngc 1 xung lc b di, ta khai trin cp bin i sau: Aej2fot A ( f - f0 ) V d 6: Tm bin i Fourrier ca s(t) = cos2f0t Gii: Dng cng thc Euler, khai trin hm cosin: Cos2f0t =
1 j2fot 1 e + e - j2fot 2 2

(2.34) (2.35)

Bin i Fourrier ca s(t) l tng cc bin i ca 2 hm expo. T (2.34)

1 1 Cos2f0t (f f 0 ) + (f + f 0 ) 2 2

(2.36)

Trang II.11

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

Bin i ny c v:

s(f)

1/2

1/2

-f0

f0

Hnh 2.8 Bin i Fourier ca cos2f0t.

3. Hm nc n v ( Unit step function ).

Mt cp bin i khc m ta s ni n, l hm nc n v. y, mt ln na, ta li gn hm vo nh ngha ca php bin i, tch phn khng hi t. Ta li dng n k thut phng on. V do s khng lin tc ca hm nc, k thut ny tr nn c nhiu hy vng. Php bin i th tng i d tnh khi ta thc hin nh sau: 1 + Sgn( t ) u(t) = (2.37) 2 Trong , hm Sgn c nh ngha bi: , t >0 +1 Sgn (t) , t<0 1 sign (t)/2 1/2 t -1/2 + 1/2 1/2 t = 1 t

(2.38) U(t)/2

Hnh 2.9 Tn hiu ca hm dc. Bin i ca

1 1 l (t). 2 2

Bin i ca hm Sgn(t) c th tnh bng cch xem n nh l mt gii hn ca hm expo. Sgn(t) = lim [ e-at Sgn(t) ] a0

Trang II.12

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

e-at t

-e

at

-1 Hnh 2.10 Hm sgn(t). Ta c: F [ Sgn(t) ] = lim F [ e-at Sgn(t) ] a0 1 1 1 = lim + = a0 j2f + a j2f a j f (3.39)

Bin i ca hm nc n v c cho bi phng trnh (2.40) u(t) Php chng (CONVOLUTION) Php chng 2 hm r(t) v s(t) c nh ngha bi thut ton tch phn: r(t) * s(t) =

1 1 + (f ) j2f 2

(2.40)

r()s(t ) d = s()r(t ) d

(2.41)

K hiu * th c qui c v c r(t) chng vi s(t) . Tch phn th hai l kt qu t s i bin s v chng t rng php chng c tnh giao hon vy: r(t) * s(t) = s(t) * r(t). Nh l php chng 2 hm ca t l mt hm ca t. l mt bin s gi do tch phn m ra. Mt cch tng qut, tch phn ca phng trnh (2.41) th rt kh tnh. V d 7: Tnh php chng ca r(t) vi s(t). Trong , r(t) v s(t) l nhng xung vung c v nh hnh. r(t) 1 s(t)

-1

-2 Hnh 2.11 Dng tn hiu r(t) v s(t).

Gii: Cc hm c th vit di dng: r(t) = u ( t + 1) - u ( t - 1)

Trang II.13

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

s(t) = u ( t + 2) - u ( t - 2) Trong , u(t) l hm nc nh ngha bi:

1 u(t) = 0 , t>0 , t<0

Php chng r(t) * s(t) Ta thy rng: r() = u ( + 1) - u ( - 1) v: s( t - ) = u ( t - + 2 ) - u ( t - - 2 ) r() s(t-) = u (+1)u(t-+2) - u(+1)u(t--2) - u(-1)u(t-+2) + u(-1)u(t--2) Nh vy, tch phn c tnh thnh tng phn: r(t) * s(t) =

r()s(t ) d

u( + 1)u(t + 2) d - u( + 1)u(t 2) d

u( 1)u(t + 2) d + u( 1)u(t 2) d u(t + 2) d - u(t 2) d

1

By gi, ta nh rng u ( + 1 ) th bng zero vi < -1 v u ( - 1 ) th bng zero vi t < 1. Nh vy, nhng gii hn ca tch phn c thu li: r(t) * s(t) =

- u( t + 2) d +
1

u(t 2) d
1

Ta thay mt ca cc hm nc bng tr gi ca n ( l 1 ) trong khong m n p dng. By gi, ta c gng tnh tng tch phn. Nh l: u(t - + 2) = 0 v Ta c: u(t - - 2) = 0

t+2

,>t+2 ,>t-2

u(t + 2) d = d =
1

t+3

( V rng t + 2 > -1 hoc t > -3. khong khc, tch phn l zero). - Nu t - 2 > -1 hoc t > 1,
Trang II.14

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

u(t 2) d = d =
1
t+2

t2

t 1

- Nu t + 2 > +1 hoc t > -1,

u(t + 2) d = d =
1 1

t +1

- Nu t - 2 > 1 hoc t > 3,

u(t 2) d = d =
1 1

t2

t3

Dng 4 kt qu ta c: r(t) * s(t) = ( t + 3)u(t + 3) - (t - 1)u(t - 1) - (t + 1)u(t + 1) + (t - 3)u(t - 3) Bn s hng ny v tng ca chng c v nh hnh di y. T v d khim tn ny, ta c th thy rng nu r(t) hoc s(t) cha hm nc, th cch tnh php chng tr nn rt lng tng. Hnh 2.12 Php chng ca tn hiu r(t) v tn hiu s(t). (t+3)U(t+3) 3 t -(t+1)U(t+1) t -1 -(t-1)U(t-1) 1 t (t-3)U(t-3)

-3 -1

r(t)*s(t) 2

-4 -3 -2 -1

1 2 3 4

Php chng hnh ( Graphical convolution ) Nu r(t) v s(t) qu phc tp, hoc dng sng khng c bit chnh xc, ta c th dng php chng hnh. Phng php ny dng nhng quan st v kim tra tng qut m khng phi tnh chi tit cc tch phn. Trong nhiu p dng thng tin, phng php ny th m khng cn thit phi tnh mt php chng chnh xc. V d 8: Dng php chng hnh cho 2 hm v d 7.

Trang II.15

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 2.13 Php chng hnh cho hai hm v d 7. t -4 -3

1 2 2
-1 1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -4.5 -.5 1 1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1.5 1 1 1 -1 1 1 1 -1 1 -.5 1 1 5 3.5 -.5 1 3 -1 1 1 1 -2 1 2.5 -1 1 1 1 -2.5 1 2 -1 1 1 -3 1 1.5 -1 1 1 -3.5 -4 1 .5 1 1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 .5 1 1 1 -5 -1 1 -1 -.5 1 1 1 r(t) 1 -6 1) s(t- -2 1 1 1 ) r()s(t-

Din tch 0 0
1 2

2
1
1 2

1
1 2

-1

-1
1 2

2 2 2 2 2
1 2

0
1 2

1
3 2

-1

-1

nh qua gng ca s() l s( - ). l s() c phn x qua trc ng. Vi mt t cho sn, ta lp s(t - ), biu din cho hm s( - ) b di v pha phi bi t. Sau , ta ly tch s: r(t) s(t)( t - ) V ly tch phn ca tch s ny ( chnh l tm din tch ) c c tr gi ca php chng ng vi tr gi ca t.
Trang II.16

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh trn y trnh by 12 khung ca s di hnh. Vi v d c bit ny, khng bt buc s(t) phi phn x c nh qua gng, v s(t) l mt hm chn. Nh l din tch ca tch s biu din cho tr gi ca php chng. Din tch ny c v thnh mt chui cc im. C th thy l kt qu ging nh v d 7. ng ni cc im l ng thng. iu hin nhin, v php chng tr thnh tch phn ca mt hng. Kt qu cho mt hm dc ( Ramp Function ). r(t)*s(t) 2

-3

-2

-1

Hnh 2.14 Kt qu php chng hnh ca s(t) v r(t). V d 9: Tnh php chng ( bng hnh ) ca 2 hm sau y: (Sinh vin t gii)

r(t) 1 1

s(t)

-1

Hnh 2.15 Tn hiu s(t) v r(t) . By gi ta xem php chng ca mt hm bt k vi xung lc (t).

(T) * s(t) =

(t)s(t ) d = s(t 0) = s(t)

(2.42)

Nh vy mt hm bt k chng vi mt xung lc th gi nguyn khng thay i.

Trang II.17

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 2.16 Kt qu php chng hnh ca s(t) v r(t) Nu ta chng s(t) vi xung lc b di ( Shifted ) (t - t0), ta thy:

(t - t0) * s(t) =

(t t )s(t ) d = s(t 0) = s(t t )

0 0

(2.43)

Tm li, php chng s(t) vi mt xung lc khng lm thay i dng hm ca s(t). C th ch gy nn mt s di thi gian trong s(t) nu xung lc khng xy ra ti t = 0. Gi ta c khi nim v thut ton gi l php chng . Ta hy tr li php bin i Fourrier. nh l v php chng: Nu V Th: Ta cng c th chng minh:
Trang II.18

r(t) R(f) s(t) S(f) r(t) * s(t) R(f). S(f) (2.44)

C th chng minh trc tip nh l bng cch tnh bin i Fourrier ca php chng.

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

R(f) * S(f) r(t) . s(t) Bng cch tnh bin i Fourrier ngc. V d 9: Dng nh l php chng tnh tch phn sau:

(2.45)

sin 3 sin( t ) d t

Gii: Tch phn trn biu din php chng ca 2 hm theo thi gian: sin
3t sin t * 2 t

sin 3t F t

sin t F t

-3/2

3/2

-1/2

1/2

-1/2

1/2

Bin i Fourrier ca tch phn l tch ca bin i Fourrier ca 2 hm. Hai bin i ny c th xem bng ph lc. Hnh 2.17 Tch ca hai bin i Fourier t s(t) v r(t). Ly bin i Fourrier ngc ca tch ny, ta s c kt qu ca php chng. l:
sin t t

nh l PaRseval Dng sng ca mt hm v ca bin i Fourrier ca n th rt t ging nhau. Tuy nhin, mt vi h thc hin hu gia nng lng ca mt hm thi gian v nng lng ca bin i Fourrier ca n.

Trang II.19

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

Dng nng lng ch tch phn ca bnh phng ca hm. T ny c dng v n biu din tr gi nng lng ( watt - sec ) tiu tn trong in tr 1 nu tn hiu l in th hoc dng in ngang qua in tr. Ta c: r(t) s(t) R(f) * S(f) F [ r(t) s(t) ] =

r(t)s(t)e

j 2ft

dt

(2.46)

R(k)S(f k) dk

V ng thc ny ng vi mi f, ta t f = 0. Khi :

r(t)s(t) dt = R(k)S( k) dk

(2.47)

Biu thc (2.47) l mt dng ca cng thc Paseval. N lin quan n nng lng nn ta xt trng hp c bit: s(t) = r * (t) r*(t) l lin hp ca r(t). F [ r*(t)] cho bi lin hp ca bin i Fourrier, b phn x qua trc dc. l R*(-f). Dng kt qu ca (2.47), ta c:

r (t) dt = R (f ) df
2 2

(2.48)

Phng trnh (2.48) chng t rng nng lng ca hm theo t th bng vi nng lng ca bin i Fourrier ca n. NHNG tnh cht ca bin i Fourrier 1. Thc / o - Chn / l. Bng sau y tm tt nhng tnh cht ca bin i Fourrier da trn s quan st quan st hm theo t.

Hm thi gian A B C D E Thc Thc v chn Thc v l o o v chn

Trang II.20

Bin i Fourrier Phn thc chn - Phn o l Thc v chn o v l Phn thc l - Phn o chn o v chn

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

o v l

Thc v l

C th dng cng thc Euler chng minh: S(f ) =

s( t )e j 2ft dt

s(t) cos2ft dt j s(t) sin 2ft dt

=R+jX R l mt hm chn ca f v khi f c thay bng -f th hm khng i. Tng t, X l mt hm l ca f. Nu s(t) gi s l thc, R tr thnh phn thc ca bin i v X l phn o. Vy tnh cht A c chng minh. Nu s(t) thc v chn, th X = 0. iu ny ng v X l ( tch ca hm chn v l ) v tch phn l 0. Vy tnh cht B c chng minh. Nu s(t) thc v l, R = 0. ( Tnh cht C ). Nu s(t) o, X tr thnh phn o ca bin i v R l phn thc. T quan st n gin , cc tch cht D, E, F d dng c chng tht. 2. Di thi gian ( Time Shift ). Bin i Fourrier ca mt hm thi gian b di th bng vi bin i ca hm thi gian gc nhn bi mt hm expo phc. e
-j2fot

S(f) s(t - t0 )

(2.49)

V d 10: Tm bin i Fourrier ca:

1 s(t) = 0 s(t)

, 0< t < 2 , ph n kha c

1 t

Hnh 2.18 Dng tn hiu s(t).

Gii: T nh ngha ta c:

Trang II.21

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

S(f ) =

e
0

j 2ft

e j 2ft j 2f dt = e e j 2f j 2f

= e-j2f

sin 2f f

Kt qu ny c th thu c t vic dng mt hm nc trong v d 4 v tnh cht di thi gian. s(t) v d 10 trn y th ging nh v d 4 ( Vi A = = 1), ngoi tr vic dch thi gian 1 sec.

4. Di tn s ( Frequency shift ).
Hm theo thi gian tng ng vi mt bin i Fourrier di tn th bng vi hm theo thi gian ca bin i khng di tn nhn vi 1 hm expo phc. S(f - f0 ) e
j2fo

s(t)

(2.50)

V d 11: Tm bin i Fourrier ca s(t).

j 2t e s(t) = 0

, t <1 , ph n kha c

Gii:

s(t) ny ging nh s(t) v d 4 ( vi A = = 1), tr vic nhn vi tha s ej2t . nh l v s di tn c dng thy rng bin i l bin i gc b di bi mt n v tn s. Nh vy, ta ly bin i trong v d 4 v thay th f - 1 cho f. S(f) =

sin 2( f 1) ( f 1)

S(f)

f 0.5 1 1.5

Hnh 2.19 Bin i Fourier ca tn hiu s(t).

5. S tuyn tnh.
S tuyn tnh l tnh cht quan trng nht ca php bin i Fourrier. Bin i Fourrier ca mt t hp tuyn tnh ca cc hm theo thi gian l mt t hp tuyn tnh ca cc bin i Fourrier tng ng.

Trang II.22

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

as1(t) + bs2(t) aS1(f) + bS2(f)

(2.51)

Trong a, b l nhng hng bt k. C th chng minh trc tip t nh ngha ca php bin i Fourrier v t tnh cht ca tuyn tnh ca thut ton tch phn.

[as (t) + bs (t)]e

1 2

j 2ft

dt = a s1( t )e j 2ft dt + b s2( t )e j 2ft dt

= aS1(f) + bS2(f) V d 12: Tm bin i Fourrier ca s(t).

1 2 s(t) = 1 0 ,1 < t < 0 , 0< t < 1 , 1< t < 2 , Ph n kha c

s(t) 2

0.5 1

Hnh 2.20 Bin i Fourier ca tn hiu s(t).

Gii:

Ta dng tnh cht tuyn tnh v thy rng s(t) l tng ca hm trong v d 4 vi hm trong v d 11. Vy, bin i F cho bi tng ca hai bin i. S(f) =
sin 2f 1 + e j 2f f

V hm c cho s chn nu b di v tri 0,5 sec, ta c th vit li. S(f) = 2 Nh l v s bin iu nh l ny kt hp cht ch vi nh l v s di tn. Cho mt hm s(t) v bin i Fourrier ca n. Hm s(t) nhn vi mt sng cosin: s(t) cos2fot Trong , f0 l tn s ca cosin. Bin i Fourrier ca dng sng ny cho bi:
Trang II.23

sin 2f cosf j f e f

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

F [s(t) cos2f0t ] =

1 1 S(f f 0 ) + S(f + f 0 ) 2 2

(2.52)

Kt qu ca s nhn mt hm theo t vi mt hm sin thun ty l lm di bin i gc, c chiu ln v chiu xung, bi tn s ca hm sin. ( V ct bin cn phn na). Ta c th chng minh trc tip t nh l di tn. Phn cos2f0t thnh 2 thnh phn expo v p nh l di tn cho ta thy rng bin i F ca mt hm tun hon theo t l mt on xung lc cch u nhau. Mi xung lc c ln ( Strength ) bng vi h s Cn tng ng. V d 12: Tm bin i F ca hm tun hon to bi cc xung lc n v nh hnh v. Hm cho bi: s(t) =

n =

(t nT)
s(t)

-T

2T

3T

Hnh 2.21 Hm tun hon s(t).

Gii:

Bin i F cho bi phng trnh (2.53) S(f) = Trong : f0 =

1 T 1 T

n =

C (f nf )
n 0

Cn =

s(t)e
T 2

T 2

jn 2f 0 t

dt

Trong khong ca tch phn, s phn b ca s(t) ch do xung lc ti gc. Vy:

1 T

Cn =

T 2

( t )e jn 2f 0t dt =

T 2

1 T

Cui cng, bin i F ca on xung lc l:

Trang II.24

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

1 S(f) = T

n =

(f nf )
0

Trong f0 =

1 . T 1 1 s(t )ej 2f 0t + s(t )e j 2f 0t 2 2

Mi thnh phn: s(t) cos2f0t = Cc hm tun hon v d 6, ta thy bin i F ca 1 hm cosin (f0) v ti tr m ca tn s ny (-f0). By gi, ta s chng t rng bin i F ca mt hm bt k l mt hm ri rc ca tn s. l bin i th khc zero ch ti nhng im ri rc dc theo trc f. Cch chng minh da vo s khai trin chui F v s tuyn tnh ca php bin i F. Gi s ta phi tm bin i F ca mt hm tun hon s(t), vi chu k T. Ta c th vit hm s(t) theo cch biu din chui F phc. s(t) =
1 . T

n =

C e
n

jn 2f 0 t

Trong f0 =

Ta lp mt cp bin i: Aej2fot A (f - f0) T cp ny v tnh tuyn tnh ca php bin i F, ta c:

[s(t) ] =

n =

[e

jn2fot

(2.53)

Bin i ny c v nh hnh di y. Nh l Cn l s phc, vy hnh v ch c ch ch trnh by khi nim. Nu hm s(t) thc v chn, Cn s thc. s(f) C-2 C0 C2 C4

-f0

f0

2f0

4f0

Hnh 2.22 Bin i Fourier ca hm tun hon s(t).

Trang II.25

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Chng III: CC H TUYN TNH

I CNG. HM H THNG. HM CHUYN PHC: (COMPLEX TRANSFER FUNTION). CC MCH LC. CC LC THC T. CC LC TC NG. TCH CA THI GIAN V KH BNG. CNG SUT V NNG LNG. PHN TCH PH.

Trang III.1

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

I. I CNG:
Mt h thng l mt tp hp nhng nh lut lin kt mt hm thi gian ng ra vi mi hm thi gian ng vo. S khi biu din mt h thng v hnh 3. 1.

r(t)

s(t)

Hnh 3.1 - Input hay ngun tin r(t). - Output hay p ng ca ngun tin s(t). Cu trc vt l thc t ca h xc nh h thc chnh xc gia r(t) v s(t). S lin h gia Input v Ouput c dng k hiu l mi tn mt chiu. r ( t ) s( t ) Nu h l mt mch in, r(t) c th l in th hoc dng in v s(t) c th l in th hoc dng in c o bt k ni u trong mch. Mt h c ni l Chng cht ( Superposition ) nu p ng do tng cc tn hiu vo l tng ca cc p ng ring tng ng. Ngha l, nu s1(t) l p ng ca r1(t) v s2(t) l p ng ca r2(t) th p ng ca r1(t) + r2(t) l s1(t) + s2(t). Nu r1 ( t ) s1 ( t ) r2 ( t ) s 2 ( t ) (3.1) Th: r1 ( t ) + r2 ( t ) s1 ( t ) + s 2 ( t ) Mt khi nim lin quan n tnh chng cht l s tuyn tnh. Gi s r1(t) s1(t) v r2(t) s2(t). H thng c ni l tuyn tnh nu h thc sau y c gi ng vi mi tr gi ca cc hng a v b: (3.2) a.r1 ( t ) + b.r2 ( t ) a.s1 ( t ) + b.s 2 ( t ) Mt h thng c ni l Khng i theo thi gian ( Time invariant ) nu p ng ca mt tn hiu vo khng ph thuc vo thi im m tn hiu tc ng ln h. Mt thi tr ( Time shift ) trong tn hiu vo s gy ra mt thi tr bng nh vy trong p ng ca n : Nu r ( t ) s( t ) r ( t t 0 ) s( t t 0 ) Th ,vi mi t0 thc. Mt iu kin cho mt mch in khng i theo thi gian l cc thnh phn ca n c tr gi khng i vi thi gian ( gi s cc iu kin u khng i ). l in tr, t v cun cm.

II. HM H THNG:
c trng ha mt h thng tuyn tnh khng i theo thi gian, ta c th dng mt phng php rt n gin. Thay v cn bit p ng ca mi tn hiu vo, ta ch cn bit p ng ca mt tn hiu th (test input) m thi. Tn hiu th l xung lc. Xem php chng: r(t) = r(t) x (t) =

r ( ) ( t )d

(3.3)

Ta xem tch phn l trng hp gii hn ca mt tng:

Trang III.2

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

r ( t ) = lim

n =

r(n)(t n)

(3.4)

Phng trnh (3.4) biu din tng trng lng ca xung lc b tr. Nh vy, tn hiu ra l mt tng cc p ng ra b tr ca mt xung lc duy nht. Gi s, ta bit p ng ra ca mch do mt xung lc duy nht gy ra v k hiu l h(t) (p ng xung lc). Vy p ng do tn hiu vo ca phng trnh (3.4) l:

s( t ) = lim

n =

r(n)h(t n)

(3.5)

Nu ly gii hn, n tr thnh tch phn:

s( t ) = r()h ( t )d

s(t) = r(t) x h(t)

(3.6)

Phng trnh (3.6) chng t rng p ng ca bt k tn hiu vo no cng c th tm c bng cch chng n vi p ng xung lc ca h thng. nh Fourier ca xung lc l 1. Vy mt cch trc gic, ta thy (t) cha tt c mi tn s. V th xung lc thng c xem nh l mt tn hiu th (Test Signal) cho h thng. Cho mt xung lc ng vo h thng, ng ra ta c p ng h(t). Cn c trn h(t), ta c th xc nh c nhng t trng ca h. (t) Hnh 3.2: p ng xung lc Ta khng th to c mt xung lc l tng trong thc t m ch c th xem n xp x vi mt xung c bin tht ln v rt hp. Ly bin i F phng trnh (3.6) : S(f) = R(f) H(f) Hoc H (f ) = S(f) R(f) (3.7) (3.8) h(t)

H(f) l hm chuyn hoc hm h thng.

III.HM CHUYN PHC: (complex transfer funtion)

Hm chuyn phc ca mt h l t s phasor ng ra v phasor ng vo. Phasor l mt s phc biu din bin v pha ca hm sin. T s cc phasor l mt hm phc ca tn s. Trong trng hp t bit, ng vo l dng in v ng ra l in th, th hm chuyn phc l mt tng tr phc (complex impedance). Td: Xem Hnh 3.3. Trong , i1 (t) l ng vo v v(t) l ng ra.
Trang III.3

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 3.3

4jf 1 + 4jf Nu i2 (t) l Output, hm chuyn l : 1 H (f ) = 1 + 4jf H (f ) =

Hm chuyn cho bi:

(3.9)

(3.10)

Ta dng cng k hiu H(f) ch hm chuyn phc ca h v cng chnh l nh Fourier ca p ng xung lc. H(f)=

F[h(t)]

IV.CC MCH LC:

Cc mch lc dng lm gim thnh phn tn s khng mong mun khi mt sng. Nhiu h thng thng tin c cha cc mch lc l tng khng lm mo tn hiu. Mt tn hiu b mo (distorted) khi dng sng c bn ca n b bin dng - Lu l r(t) c th c nhn bi mt hng v b di (thi gian) m khng lm thay i dng sng c bn, trng hp ny khng xem l tn hiu b mo. Xem A.r (t - t0) l mt phin bn ca r(t) - Trong A v t0 l nhng hng thc bt k. A khng th bng zero. F Ar (t - t0) Ae- j2f to R(f) (3.11) Ta xem nh l Output ca mt h tuyn tnh vi input l r(t) v hm h thng j2f to (3.12) H(f) = AeH(f) l hm phc, c v Hnh 3.4 (xut v pha).

Trang III.4

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 3.4: Nhng c tnh ca mt h khng mo. Lc h thng l tng. Mt lc h thng l tng l mt h tuyn tnh, tc ng ging nh mt lc l tng khng mo. Nhng thnh phn tn s ln hn tn s ct ca lc u b chn, khng xut hin ng ra. Tn s ct l tn s cao nht c i qua mch lc, K hiu l fm. Hm h thng l: j2 ft 0 , f < fm Ae H (f ) = 0 , f > f m Hm chuyn ca mch h thng l tng c v Hnh 3.5. Nh l, v h(t) th thc, nn sut ca H(f) th chn v pha th l. (Hnh 3.4)

A -fm

H (f )

ph H(f ) -fm fm

fm

Hnh 3.5: c tnh ca lc h thng l tng. p ng xung` lc ca lc h thng l tng c c bng cch tnh bin i F ngc. f h ( t ) = m Ae j2 ft 0 .e j2 ft df. (3.13) fm Asin2f m (t - t o ) = (t t o )

fm

Hnh 3.6: p ng xung lc ca h thng l tng. Lc dy thng l tng: Lc dy thng l tng cho qua nhng tn s gia hai tn s khc khng, fL v fH. N tc ng nh mt h khng mo l tng, tn hiu ra khng cha nhng thnh phn tn s nm ngoi dy thng lc. Hm h thng ca n: Ae j2 ft 0 ,f L < f < f H H (f ) = (3.14) khac 0 , Phn

Trang III.5

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 3.7: Hm h thng ca lc dy thng l tng. p ng xung lc ca lc, c th tnh bng cch F -1 ca H(f). (Khai trin t p ng xung lc ca lc h thng v dng nh l di tn). Hm h thng c th vit : f +f f +f H(f ) = H LP f L H + H LP f + L H (3.15) 2 2

fL fH fH fL 2 2 Hnh 3.8: c tnh ca lc dy v h thng. Nu ta nh ngha im gia (midpoint) ca dy thng (trung bnh ca fL v fH) l fav : f +f f av = L H 2
-fH -fL fH fL p ng xung lc cho bi:
j2favt -j2favt h(t) = hLP(t)e + hLP(t) e = 2hLP(t)cos2favt= 2hLP(t)cos[ (fL + fH)t ]

(3.16)

Asin(f H f L )t (3.17) t Kt hp (3.16) v (3.17) thm vo tnh cht di thi gian, ta tm c p ng xung lc ca dy thng l tng: 2Asin[(f H f L )(t t 0 )]cos[(f L + f H )(t t 0 )] h(t) = (3.18) (t t 0 ) h LP ( t ) =

T pt (3.13) ta c :

Trang III.6

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 3.9: p ng ca lc dy thng l tng Dng sng ca p ng xung lc tng t nh ca lc h thng. Khi 2 tn s gii hn tr nn ln so vi hiu s gia chng, p ng xung lc ging ng chm chm (p ng xung lc ca lc h thng v nh qua gng ca n ). iu xy ra khi tn s ca dy lc ln hn so vi b rng ca dy thng. Nhn xt ny c ngha khi ta kho st v s bin iu AM. S Mo Dng: Mo tuyn tnh c th gy ra nhng vn trong cc h thng truyn xung hoc trong thng tin s. S mo ny c c trng bi thi gian lan ta (spreading) do hiu ng nhiu ng hoc do c tnh ca knh. H(f) = A(f)e (3.19) A(f): Tha s bin ; (f): Tha s pha. S mo dng sinh ra t hai tha s ph thuc tn s phng trnh (3.19). Nu A(f) khng l hng, ta c s mo bin . Nu (f) khng tuyn tnh vi f, ta c s mo pha. Mo bin . Trc ht Gi s (f) tuyn tnh vi f. Hm chuyn c dng: -j2fto (3.20) H(f) = A(f)e Trong hng s t l ca pha l t0 , v n biu din cho thi tr ca knh. Mt cch tng qut phn tch biu thc ny vi s bin thin ca bin l khai trin A(f) thnh chui Fonrier.
H (f ) =
n =0

-j(f)

Hn(f)

(3.21)

Cc hng ca tng c dng

nf j2 ft 0 (3.22) H n (f ) = a n cos .e f m Chng ta c th lin kt vi lc Cosine, m c tuyn bin cho sng Cosine trong dy thng nh hnh 3.10 (vi n = 2).

Trang III.7

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 3.10: Lc cosine Hm h thng ca lc ny l: 2 j2 ft 0 H (f ) = A acos f + .e f m

1 1 t exp j2 f t + = A.e j2 ft 0 + a exp j2f o o f f m m

Nu input l r(t) vo lc cosine b gii hn bi bng tn th Output l:
a 1 1 a t r t + t t + s( t ) = A.r ( t t 0 ) + r o o 2 f 2 m fm

(3.23)

Phng trnh (3.23) cho thy p ng c dng ca mt phin bn khng mo ca input cng thm 2 phin bn b di thi gian (time - shifted) ( ting vang / a l ) echoes/multipaths. Tr li trng hp lc tng qut, ta thy Output ca mt h vi s mo bin l mt tng cc input b tr. Vy vi:
nf H (f ) = a n cos f n =0 m

j2 ft 0 .e

(3.24)

Th Output do mt input r(t) l :

s(t) =

an n n t o + r t to r t + 2f m 2f m n=0 2

(3.25)

Th d: Xem lc c c tnh tam gic nh Hnh 3.11. Gi s pha th tuyn tnh, vi dc 400t -2t0. Tm Output ca mch ny khi input l r ( t ) = sin t

Hnh 3.11
Gii :

Khai trin H(f) thnh chui F f 4 4 3f 4 5f 1 + 2 cos + + ...... cos H (f ) = r + 2 cos 2 1000 9 1000 25 1000 2

Trang III.8

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

r(t) b gii hn trong khong sao cho tt c tn s u qua mch lc. iu ny ng v R(f) = 0 ti cc tn s trn 200/2 v mch lc ct ti f = 1000/. Nu ta gi 3 s hng khc khng u tin th Output s l: s(t) = r(t) * h(t). 1 2 s( t ) = r (t t o ) + 2 r t t o + r t + t o 2 1000 1000 3 3 2 t0 r t t 0 + r t + 2 1000 9 1000 Kt qu ny c v nh hnh 3.12 vi to = 0,05 sec. Nhng nh nh du X l nhng nh khng mo ca s(t).

Hnh 3.12 Mo pha : S thay i pha t trng hp khng mo (pha tuyn tnh) c th c c trng bng s thay i dc ca c tuyn pha v c tuyn ca mt ng t gc n mt im trn ng cong c tuyn. Ta nh ngha Tr nhm (Group delay hay tr bao hnh) v tr pha (Phase delay) nh sau: d(f ) tgr (f) df (f) tph (f) (3.26) 2f

Hnh 3.13 : Tr nhm v tr pha. * i vi mt knh Khng mo l tng, c tuyn pha l mt ng thng. Vy tr nhm v tr pha u khng i vi mi f. Tht vy, c hai s bng vi thi tr t0 ca tn hiu vo.

Trang III.9

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

V.CC LC THC T:
By gi ta trnh by nhng mch thc t, xp x vi cc lc dy thng v h thng l tng. Gi s rng H(f) tin n hm h thng ca mt lc l tng - Mt s thay i nh ca H(f) c th a n mt s thay i tng i ln ca H(t). Ta c th kho st nhng hu qu ca s thay i t tnh cht bin khng i hoc t tnh cht tuyn tnh ca pha ca hm h thng ca lc l tng. Lc h thng: Mch th ng n gin nht xp x vi mt lc h thng l mch ch cha mt thnh phn tch tr nng lng. Th d mch RC nh Hnh 3.13 . iu ny ng, v khi tn s tng, t xem nh b ni tt.

i(t)

Hnh 3.13: Lc h thng RC

Hm chuyn:

H(f) =
Sut v pha:
H (f ) =

1/ j2fC 1 = R + (1/ j2fC) 1 + j2fRC

1 1 + (2fRC) 2

(3.27)

(f) = - tan-1 (2fRC)

Nu t RC =

1 1 , sut ca hm chuyn gim n ti tn s 1 Hz. Ta gi l tn 2 2

s ct 3 db ca lc. Hnh 3. 14 ch sut v pha ca mch RC, so snh vi ng cong li ca mt lc h thng l tng c tn s ct 1Hz.

Trang III.10

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 3.14: Cc c tuyn ca lc RC Ta xem p ng xung lc ca 2 h thng. - i vi lc h thng l tng: sin 2(t t o ) h(t ) = t - i vi mch RC, vi RC = 2: t h(t) = e - 2

(3.28)

(3.29)

Trang III.11

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hai p ng ny v Hnh 3.15. y, ta chn ty thi tr ca mch h thng l tng l 10 sec hnh v d phn bit.

Hnh 3.15: So snh cc p ng xung lc. By gi hy xem sng vung vo hai mch lc. Ta dng mt sng vung c tn s c bn l 1/4Hz (bng cch dng s hng u tin khc zero ca chui Fourier), hnh 3.16a. Lc h thng l tng vi tn s ct 1Hz ch cho qua hai s hng u tin khc Zero ( l, tn s 1/4Hz v 3/4Hz). Trong khi , mch RC (vi s gim 3dB 1 Hz)lm mo ng k cc thnh phn ny (Hnh 3.16b). Khng ch th, n cn thu nhn nng lng tn hiu ti tn s ct.

Trang III.12

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 3.16: So snh p ng ca sng vung vi 2 lc. C mt vi loi mch xp x vi lc h thng l tng. Mi loi biu l nhng tnh cht ring. 1. Lc Butteworts lm mt sng d trong dy tn s i qua v lm gim cc tn s khng mong mun ngoi dy ny. N c xem l loi lc lm phng ti a. 2. Lc Chebyshev gim cc tn s khng mong mun hiu qu hn lc Butteworts, nhng lm phng sng d km hn. 3. Cc lc c in quan trng khc gm lc Bessel, Papoulis, Gauss. Ta ch n lc Butteworts: Bin ca lc h thng l tng c th tnh xp x bi hm: 1 (3.30) H n (f ) = 1 + (2f ) 2 n Hm ny c v, vi vi tr gi ca n, nh hnh 3.17. Ta ch v na dng ca trc f, v 1 hm chn. Chn fm = cho hnh v. (Khi thit k c th chn bt k tn s ct no). Nh l 2 khi n chn ln, c tuyn Butteworts s tin n c tuyn ca lc h thng l tng.
Trang III.13

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Nu h(t) thc (V l h thng vt l ), phn thc ca H(f) chn, trong khi phn o l. Vy : H(f) = H * (-f ) H (f)2 = H(f)H*(f) v T , kt hp vi phng trnh (3.30), thit k cc lc Butteworts. (3.31) (3.32)

fm=1/2 Hnh 3.17: Hm li Butteworts Tng ng. Thit k mt lc Butteworts cp 3 (n = 3) vi tn s ct fm =

Gii: T phng trnh (3.30) ta c:
1 2

1 1 + (2f ) 6 i n v bin i laplace bng cch t s = j2f. Quan st v tr tng i ca cc lc v zero ca hm: 1 2 H(s) = H (s).H( s) = 1 S6 Cc lc ca H(s)2 l 6 nghim n v. Chng cch iu nhau quanh vng trn n v. Ba cc kt hp vi H(S) ba na mt phng tri. Ba cc kia vi H(-S). Vy H(S) c tnh t cc lc ca n: 1 1 H(S) = = 3 (3.33) 2 (S P1 )(S P2 )(S P3 ) S + 2S + 2S + 1 H (f )
2

Hnh 3.18: 6 nghim Nu v (t) l p ng v i(t) l ngun, hm h thng ca phng trnh (3.33) tng ng vi mch ca hnh hnh 3.19a.

Trang III.14

C S Vin Thng
4/3h

Phm Vn Tn

i(t)

1.5uF

0.5uF

1 v(t)

(a)

(b) Hnh 3.19: Lc Butteworts cp 3 Nhng mch lc cp cao hn s c lm y bng cch dng thm mt lc. Linh kin thm vo l cun cm ni tip, t song song. Lc dy thng Mch th ng n gin nht xp x vi mt lc dy thng l tng l mch cha hai thnh phn tch tr nng lng. Tng ng nh mch RLC v hnh 3.20:

Hnh 3.20: Lc dy thng RLC Nu output ly ngay qua LC u song song, th mch trn xp x vi mt lc dy thng. iu ny ng, v khi tn s tin n zero, cun cm xem nh b ni tt. V khi tn s tin n , t xem nh b ni tt. Nh vy p ng ca mch tin n 0 c hai u v cc i gia.

H (f ) =

j2fL R (2f ) 2 RLC + j2fL

(3.34)

Sut:

Trang III.15

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

H (f ) =

1 1 R 2fC + 1 2fL
2 2

Sut cc i ti 2f = ca lc.

1 . iu ny c xem nh l tn s cng hng l tng LC

Hnh 3.21 ch c tnh ca mch RLC. , ta chn R= L= C= 1.

-1 p ng xung lc ca mch RLC c cho bi bin i ngc F t/ h(t) = 1,15 e- 2 sin (1,15t) N c so snh vi p ng xung lc ca lc dy thng l tng (phng trnh (3.18)) 2A sin[(f H f L )( t t o )] cos[(f H + f L )(t t o )] h(t) = ( t t o )

Hnh 3.21: Cc c tnh ca lc RLC

Trang III.16

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 3.22 : So snh nhng p ng xung lc. Hnh 3.22 cho thy p ng xung lc ca mch RLC v ca mch dy thng l tng. Ta chn fH = 0,1Hz v fL = 0,25Hz l cc im 3db nh l h s Q ca mch RLC th rt thp v t s ca rng knh v tn s gia gn bng 1.

VI.CC LC TC NG:
phn trn ta kho st vi mch lc thc t n gin dng cun cm, t v in tr. Nhng mch lc nh vy gi l lc th ng, v tt c cc thnh phn y hoc hp thu hoc tch tr nng lng. Mt mch lc gi l tc ng nu n cha cc thnh phn cn li ca mt mch. Lc tc ng khng hp thu nng lng tn hiu mong mun, nh cc lc th ng. Chng c nhiu kh nng c thit k n gin v cc hm chuyn c th thc hin c (Trong khi cc lc th ng, trong vi p dng, th d lc audio, cn n rt nhiu cun cm v t ). B phn c bn xy dng cc lc tc ng l op.amp. Cc tnh cht ca op.amp, vic phn tch v thit k cc lc tc ng l phn rt quan trng ca in t hc. Nhng y ta s khng lp li. Ch gii thiu hai loi lc tc ng tiu biu.

Hnh 3.23: Op.amp vi hi tip Zin : Tng tr vo Zf : Tng tr hi tip. Hai hnh, hnh 3.24 v hnh 3.25 biu din lc h thng tc ng v lc dy thng tc ng dng op.amp.

Trang III.17

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 3.24: Lc h thng tc ng

Trang III.18

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 3.25: Lc dy thng tc ng

VII.TCH CA THI GIAN V KH BNG.

Vn cn lu tm trong vic thit k mt h thng tin l kh bng (band width, rng bng ) ca h thng. Kh bng l khong tn s ca h c kh nng hot ng. Kh bng c lin quan n bin i f ca hm thi gian. N khng th xc nh trc tip t cc s hng ca hm, tr khi ta dng cc biu thc trc quan v s thay i tr gi ca hm nhanh n mc no. Nhng i lng vt l quan trng trong vic thit k h thng tin bao gm th ti thiu ca mt xung v thi gian ti thiu m trong output ca h c th nhy t mt mc ny n mt mc khc. Ta s chng t 2 i lng ny c lin quan n kh bng.
Trang III.19

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Bt u t mt v d v ri tng qut ha kt qu. p ng xung lc ca mt lc h thng l tng: sin 2f m ( t t o ) h(t) = ( t t o )

(3.35)

h(t)

Hnh 3.26: c lc h thng l tng.

tnh ca

C hai nhn xt: 1- B rng ca vnh ln nht ca h(t) l 1/fm. Vy n t l nghch vi kh bng ca tn hiu. Thc vy, v kh bng (Hiu ca tn s cao nht v thp nht ) l fm , nn tch ca rng xung vi kh bng l 1. 2 - V hm nc l tch phn ca xung lc, nn p ng ca hm nc l tch phn ca p ng xung lc. p ng hm nc v hnh 3.27. Ta thy rng thi gian tng (rise time) ca p ng ny th t l nghch vi kh bng ca lc. Thi gian tng c nh ngha l thi gian cn cho mt tn hiu i t tr gi u n tr gi cui dc theo mt ng dc vi h s gc khng i bng vi dc ti a ca hm.

Hnh 3.27 : p ng nc ca lc h thng. dc ti a ca a(t) l tr ti a ca h(t) o hm ca n. Tr ny c cho l 2fm. Vy thi gian tng ca p ng nc : 1 tr = (3.36). 2f m V kh bng ca lc l fm , ta thy tr v kh bng t l ngc v tch ca chng l 0.5. Mc d ta ch quan st s quan h ngc gia thi gian tng v kh bng (hay rng xung v kh bng) i vi lc h thng l tng, nhng iu ny c th p dng mt cch tng qut. l, thi gian th t l ngc vi kh bng trong bt k h thng no. Tch ca chng l mt hng. By gi ta p dng nhn xt y vo trng hp c bit ca kh bng v rng xung (Kh xung - Pucse Width). Gi s rng mt hm thi gian v bin i F ca n v 3.28.
Trang III.20

hnh

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Ta nh ngha kh xung T l chiu rng ca mt hnh ch nht m chiu cao ca n nh ti s(0), v din tch bng vi din tch nm di ng biu din xung. Nh rng n khng phi l mt nh ngha y tr khi s(0) l cc i ca dng sng.

Hnh 3.28: Kh xung v kh bng. Tng t, ta nh ngha kh bng BW, bng cch dng mt xung trong phm vi tn s (bin i F ) nh hnh 3.28b. Ta c : S(t)dt T S(o) S(f)dt BW S(o) Tch ca chng : s(t)dt S(f)dt TBW = s(o)S(o)

(3.37)

(3.38)

Dng tch phn bin i F tm:

S(0) = s(t)e j2 ft dt f =o = s(t)dt

(3.39) (3.40)

Bin i ngc tm:

s(0) = S(f)e j2 ft df

t =o

= S(t)df

Thay th (3.39), (3.40) vo (3.38) : TBW = 1 (3.41) Tch ca kh xung v kh bng bng 1. Hai thng s ny th t l ngc. iu ny rt c ngha trong h thng tin s, nhp truyn bit b gii hn bi kh bng ca knh.

VIII.CNG SUT V NNG LNG.

Ch ch u tin ca nhiu h thng tin l lm tng tn hiu ng thi nn nhiu. c bit hn, ta mun lm gim cng sut nhiu ng ra ca h m khng lm gim cng sut tn hiu: H lm tng t s S/N. Gi Er l nng lng ca r(t):

E r = r 2 ( t ) dt

(3.42)

Nu r(t) l in th hoc dng in ngang qua in tr 1, Er s l nng lng tiu tn nhit (W/sec).
Trang III.21

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

i vi nhng tn hiu khng b gii hn thi gian, Er thng l v hn. Th d, r(t) l mt hng khc zero. Trong trng hp ny, ta phn chia nng lng vi thi gian trung bnh, gi l cng sut trung bnh Pr . T 1 2 2 (3.43) Pr r ( t ) = lim r ( t ) dt av t 2T T Ta ch tm chuyn bnh phng ra ngoi du tr tuyt i nhn mnh rng c hai v tr iu c cng kt qu. Nu Er hu hn, Pr l zero v nu Pr khc zero, Er phi v hn. Ngi ta chia tn hiu thnh 3 nhm da vo tnh b gii hn ca cng xut v nng lng. - Nhm I: Pr = 0. Nhm ny cha nhng tn hiu c nng lng hu hn. Ph bin nht l tn hiu b gii hn thi gian. - Nhm II: 0 < Pr < . Nhm ny cha nhng tn hiu c cng xut hu hn. Ph bin nht l tn hiu thi gian tun hon. - Nhm III: Pr . Nhm ny c tnh han chnh. Nhng ta khng gp nhng tn hiu c cng xut v hn trong thc t. Vi tn hiu, th v v mt l thuyt, thch nghi vi nhm ny, th d nh on xung lc tun hon.

IX. PHN TCH PH:

Bin i F khng hin hu trong i sng thc t. N l mt cng c ton hc gip phn tch h thng. C nhng gii hn nghim ngt khi ta c gng tm bin i F ca mt hm thi gian c dng trong mt h Analog. Gi s r(t) l input ca mt lc h thng l tng, c hm chuyn H(f) nh hnh 3.29. Bin i F cho bi:

R ( f ) , fL < f < fH S(f ) = , phn khac 0 s(t) c cho bi bin i ngc ca S(f)

Hnh 3.29
s ( t ) = R (f ) e
fL fH j 2 ft

df + R (f )e j2 ft df
f H

fL

(3.44)

Nu fH rt gn vi fL (lc dy hp - narrwband filter), ta gi s rng xp x khng i trn ton khong ca tch phn. Nh vy, nu fav l tn s gia ca dy lc, ta c: j2favt -j2favt s(t) ( fH + fL )[R(fav) e + R(-fav) e ] (3.45) V R(-fav) = R * (fav), ta c: s( t ) = (f H + f L ) R (f av ) cos[2f av t + R (f av )] (3.46)

Trang III.22

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Sut ca output th t l vi sut ca bin i F ca input tnh ti fav . Pha th b di bi pha ca R(fav). Trong rt nhiu mch phn tch ph thc t, lc dy thng c qut ngang bi mt khong tn s, v sut ca output thay i xp x vi R(f). C 3 ngun sai s (error ). Th nht, trong khi lc dy thng th hp, kh bng ca n th khc zero. iu ny nh hng n phn gii output. Th hai, lc th khng l tng. Cui cng, khi tn s gia lc thay i vi thi gian (khi n b qut), output khng nht thit tin n tr ng ca n (steady state). Thi gian tng ca lc th t l nghch vi kh bng ca n. Vy, lc cng hp, cng c qut chm hn.

Trang III.23

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Chng IV: BIN IU BIN

I CNG. S BIN IU ( MODULATION). BIN IU BIN SNG MANG B NN 2 BNG CNH: (DSB SCAM). ( DOUBLE - SIDE BAND SUPPRESSED CARRIED AMPLITUDE MODULATION ). BIN IU BIN SNG MANG C TRUYN 2 BNG CNH. HIU SUT. CC KHI BIN IU. CC KHI HON IU ( DEMODULATORS). TRUYN MT BNG CNH (SINGLE SIDEBAND) SSB. BIN IU AM TRC PHA. BIN IU BNG CNH ST ( VESTIGIAL SIDEBAND ) VSB. AM STEREO.

Trang IV.1

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

I CNG
Hnh 4.1 trnh by mt mu dng sng ca ting ni m ta mun truyn i. N khng c mt c trng ring bit no v ty thuc rt nhiu vo m thanh c to ra. V dng sng chnh xc khng c bit, nn ta c th ni nh th no v h thng cn thit truyn n ? Trong trng hp ting ni ( hay bt k mt tn hiu Audio no ), cu tr li da vo sinh l hc. Tai ngi ta ch c th p ng vi nhng tn hiu c tn s khong di 15kHz ( s ny gim theo tui tc ). Vy nu mc ch cui cng ca ta l nhn nhng tn hiu audio, phi gi s rng nh F ca tn hiu l zero khi f >15kHz.

S(f) = 0 , f > fm

; Vi fm = 15kHz .

Hnh 4.1: Dng sng ca ting ni Nhng ha m hoc nhng dng c pht m khc, c th to ra nhng thnh phn tn s cao hn 15kHz, d tai ngi khng th nghe c. Tuy nhin, nu mt trong nhng tn hiu nay i qua mt lc h thng c tn s ct 15kHz, th ng ra ca lc ( nu a n loa ) s to li ging nh tn hiu vo. Nh vy, ta gi s rng tn hiu b gii hn bi mt tn s trn ( upper frequency ) vo khong 15kHz. By gi ta gi s ly mt tn hiu audio v c truyn qua khng kh - Bc sng ca tn hiu 3KHz trong khng kh khong 100km. Mt anten 1/4 sng s di 25km! iu y khng th thc hin. V nu gi s ta c th dng c anten th ta cn gp phi 2 vn . Th nht, lin quan n nhng tnh cht ca khng kh v tn s audio. Nhng tn s ny truyn khng hiu qu trong khng kh. Th hai, s giao thoa do cc dy tn cc i pht ph ln nhau. V nhng l do , ta phi ci bin tn hiu tn s thp trc khi gi n i t ni ny n ni khc. Tn hiu ci bin t nhy cm vi nhiu so vi tn hiu gc. Phng php chung nht thc hin s ci bin l dng tn hiu tn s thp bin iu ( ci bin nhng thng s ca ) mt tn hiu tn s cao hn. Tn hiu ny thng l hnh sin.

S BIN IU
SC(t) l tn hiu hnh sin cao tn, c gi l sng mang (carrier). Gi nh th v n c dng chuyn ti tn hiu tn tc t i pht n my thu. SC(t) = Acos (2fet+) (4.1) Nu fC(t) c chn thch hp, sng mang c th c truyn i c hiu qu. Th d, c th chn nhng tn s trong khong gia 0.5 v 3MHz truyn xa n 250 km. Bc sng ca cc tn s tng ng c 100MHz, v chiu di hp l ca anten c th chp nhn c: c 3.10 8 = = = 3m f 10 8 Biu thc (4.1) cha 3 thng s c th thay i: bin A; tn s fC; v pha . Nh vy, hu qu l c 3 kiu bin iu: bin iu bin , bin iu tn s hoc bin iu pha.

Trang IV.2

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

BIN IU BIN SNG MANG B NN 2 BNG 2 CNH: (DSB SCAM)

( double - side band suppressed carried amplitude modulation ). Nu ta bin iu bin ca sng mang phng trnh (4.1), ta c kt qu: Sm(t) = A(t) cos ( 2fCt+ ) (4.2) Tn s fC v pha khng i Bin A(t) thay i cch ny hay cch khc theo s(t). n gin, ta gi s = 0. iu ny khng nh hng n kt qu cn bn v gc thc t tng ng vi mt di thi gian

2fc

. ( Mt s di thi gian khng c xem l s mo

dng trong mt h thng tin ). A(t) thay i nh th no vi s(t)? Cu tr li n gin nht l chn A(t) bng vi s(t). iu s a n dng sng bin iu AM. sm(t) = s(t) cos 2fCt (4.3) Tn hiu loi nay gi l bin iu AM sng mang b nn 2 bng cnh v nhng l do m ta s thy ngay sau y: t S(f) l bin i F ca s(t). Nh l ta khng cn g hn l S(f) phi bng zero i vi nhng tn s cao hn tn s ct fm. Hnh 4.2 ch mt S(f) biu din cho yu cu . ng ngh rng S(f) lun phi l nh vy, m n ch l bin i F ca mt tn hiu tn s thp tng qut, c dy tn b gii hn.

Hnh 4.2 nh l v s bin iu ( chng II ) c dng tm Sm(f): 1 Sm(f) = F [s(t)Cos2fCt] = [S (f + fC) + S (f - fC)] 2

(4.4)

Nh l bin iu mt sng mang bng s(t) s lm di tn s ca s(t) ( c chiu ln v chiu xung ) bi tn s ca sng mang.

1 1/2

Hnh 4.3 iu ny vi kt qu lng gic ca mt php nhn mt hm sin vi mt hm sin khc.

tng t

Trang IV.3

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

+ fm.

1 1 Cos(A+B) + cos (A-B) (4.5) 2 2 Nu cosA thay bng s(t), trong s(t) cha nhng tn s lin tc t gia 0 v fm. Hnh 4.3 cho thy, sng bin iu sm(t) cha nhng tn s trong khong fC - fm v fC

CosA CosB =

Nu gn nhng tr tiu biu vo cho fm = 15kHz v fC = 1MHz, ta s thy khong tn s b chim bi sng bin iu l t 985.000 n 1.015.000Hz. - Th nht: Vi khong tn s ny, th th anten c chiu di hp l c th xy dng c. l mt trong 2 vn cn gii quyt. - Vn th hai, l kh nng tch knh trong mt h a hp (Multiplexing). Ta thy, nu mt tin tc bin iu mt sng hnh sin tn s fC1 v mt tin tc khc bin iu mt sng hnh sin tn s fC2 th cc nh F ca 2 sng mang b bin iu s khng ph ln nhau. V fC1, fC2 tch bit nhau t nht l 2fm.

f > 2fm Hnh 4.4: Bin i F ca 2 sng AM. Nu cc tn s ca 2 sng bin iu khng cch nhau xa lm, c 2 c th dng 1 anten, mc d chiu di ti u ca anten khng nh nhau cho c 2 knh [trong thc t, mt anten c dng cho c 1 khong tn s. Ta nhn mnh li rng, cc tn hiu c th c tch ra nu chng khng b ph ln nhau ( hoc v thi gian, hoc v tn s ). Nu chng khng ph nhau v thi gian, c th dng cc cng hay cc Switchs tch. Nu chng khng ph v tn s, cc tn hiu c th tch ra bi cc lc dy thng. Vy, mt h thng nh hnh 4.5 c th dng tch sng mang b bin iu.

H1(f) 1

BPF s1(t).cos2fc1t + s2(t).cos2fc2t H1(f) s1(t). Cos2fC1t

-fc1

fc1 H2(f)

1 H2(f) s2(t). Cos2fC2t -fc2 Hnh 4.5: S tch 2 knh.

Trang IV.4

fc2

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Nu nhiu tn hiu c truyn trn cng mt knh, ch c th c tch ra ti my thu bng cc lc dy thng. Cc lc ny ch tip nhn, mt trong cc tn hiu hin din trong tn hiu bin iu mong mun. TD: Mt tn hiu cha thng tin c dng: sin2t s(t) = t Tn hiu ny bin iu bin mt sng mang c tn s 10Hz. Hy v dng sng AM v bin i F ca n. Gii: Sng AM c cho bi phng trnh: sin2t sm(t) = cos 20t t Hm ny c v nh hnh 4.6: Hnh 4.6: Dng sng AM

cos 20t l sng mang.

k ), sm (t) = s(t). 10 k 1 , sm(t) = -s(t). - Khi sng mang bng -1, t = + 10 20 v dng sng AM. Ta bt u v s(t) v nh qua gng ca n -s(t). Sng AM chm mt cch tun hon vo mi ng cong ny v thay i bin gia nhng im tun hon . Trong hu ht trng hp thc t, tn s sng mang cao hn rt nhiu so vi th d trn. Bin i F ca s(t) c v hnh 4.7 ( Xem ph lc chng II )

- Khi sng mang bng 1 ( t =

Hnh 4.7: nh Fourier ca s(t) Bin i F ca sng bin iu c tnh nh nh l bin iu. S(f - 10) + S(f + 10) Sm(f) = 2

(4.7)

Trang IV.5

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 4.8: Tn ph ca sng bin iu V Sm (f) c suy t S(f) bng cch di tt c cc thnh phn tn s ca s(t) mt khong l fC, ta s c th hi phc li s(t) t sm(t) bng cch di cc tn s bi cng mt tr theo chiu ngc li. nh l bin iu chng t rng php nhn mt hm thi gian vi mt hm Sinusoide s di nh F ca hm thi gian i ( c chiu ln v xung ) trong min tn s. Vy nu ta li nhn Sm(t) vi mt hm sin ( tn s sng mang ), th nh F s di lui xung n tn s thp ca n. Php nhn ny cng di nh F ln n 1 v tr gia khong 2fC, nhng thnh phn ny d dng b loi bi mt lc h thng. Tin trnh ny v hnh 4.9. S hi phc ca s(t) c m t bi phng trnh (4.8) sm(t). cos 2fCt = [ s(t) cos 2fCt ] cos 2fCt = s(t) cos2 2fCt s( t ) + s(t )cos 4f C t = (4.8) 2 Ng ra lc h thng l s(t ) /2 sm(f)

Hnh 4.9: S hi phc tn hiu t sng bin iu. Tin trnh ny gi l hon iu ( Demodulation ).

BIN IU BIN SNG MANG C TRUYN 2 BNG CNH

( Double - Side Band Transmitted Carrier AM ). DSBTCAM. By gi ta ci bin thm s bin iu AM, bng cch cng vo sng bin iu mt phn ca sng mang.

Trang IV.6

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

s(t)

Hnh 4.10. Hnh 4.10 ch s cng mt sng mang hnh sin thun ty vo sng bin iu DSBSCAM. Kt qu cho bi phng trnh (4.8) sm(t) = s(t) cos 2fCt + A cos 2fCt (4.9) y l kiu bin iu AM sng mang c truyn 2 bng cnh. ( DSBTC AM). Khc vi kiu AM sng mang b nn 2 kiu AM sng mang c truyn c cha mt thnh phn r rng ca sng mang ( A cos 2fCt ). nh F ca TCAM l tng ca bin i F ca SCAM v bin i F sng mang thun ty. Bin i sng mang l mt cp xung lc fC.

Hnh 4.11: Bin i F ca TCAM Dng sng c th vit li ( T phng trnh 4.9 ) sm(t) [A+s(t)] cos 2fCt (4.10) Hm ny c th v theo cch v dng sng SCAM. Trc ht, ta v ng bin [A+s(t)] v nh qua gng -[ A + s(t)]. Sng AM chm tun hon vo 2 ung bin v thay i bin iu gia nhng im tun hon . Hnh v 4.12, cho mt s(t) hnh sin ( th d ting hut so vo mt microphone ). - Hnh 4.12a Tn hiu s(t) hnh sin - Hnh 4.12b Dng sng DSBTCAM vi gi tr ca A nh hn bin a ca s(t); A<a; A0. - Hnh 4.12c Dng sng DSBTCAM khi A ln hn bin ca s(t); A>a; A0. - Hnh 4.12d Dng sng DSBTCAM khi A=0.

Trang IV.7

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 4.12

Trang IV.8

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Hnh 4.12

HIU SUT
S cng thm sng mang vo sng bin iu s lm cho s hon iu d dng hn. Ci gi m ta phi tr l hiu sut. Mt phn ca nng lng c truyn dng gi sng mang v nh vy khng mang mt thng tin hu ch no. Ta thy t phng trnh (4.9) : Cng sut sng mang l cng sut ca A cos2fCt, hay 2 2 A 2 watts. Cng sut ca tn hiu l cng sut ca s(t) cos2fCt, l tr trung bnh ca s (t) chia 2. Cng sut trung bnh ca s2(t) th n gin l ca s(t), hay PS. Vy cng sut ca tn hiu l PS 2. Cng sut truyn ton phn l tng ca 2 s hng ny. Ta nh ngha hiu sut l t s ca cng sut tn hiu cng sut ton phn: PS = (4.10) A 2 + PS TD: Gi s ta xem dng sng hnh 12c, v t A bng vi bin ca hnh sin. Vy hiu sut l 33%.

Trang IV.9

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

CC KHI BIN IU:

Hnh 4.13 S ca cc khi bin iu AM. - Hnh 4.13a: H thng to nn DSBSC AM. - Hnh 4.13b,c: H thng to nn DSBTC AM. Hnh 4.13: Khi bin iu AM Ti sao s bin iu th khng tuyn tnh ? Ta bit, bt k mt h tuyn tnh v khng i theo thi gian no iu c mt output m bin i F ca n l tch ca nh F ca input vi H(f). Nu bin i ca tn hiu vo bng zero

trong mt khong tn s no , th nh F ca output phi cng bng zero trong khong y. Ngha l, tnh cht tng qut ca h tuyn tnh khng i theo thi gian l n khng th cho ra bt k mt output no nu khng c input ng vo. Vy c mt h tuyn tnh khng theo t no c th cho sm(t) ng ra khi nhn s(t) ng vo ? Ni cc khc, ta c th tm c hay khng mt H(f) no cho: Sm(f) = S(f) . H(f)

Hnh 4.14 R rng, cu tr li l khng.

Trang IV.10

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

S bin iu l mt tin trnh di tn. V khng c mt h tuyn tinh no thc hin c iu . Mt h phi tuyn v thay i theo t, ni chung, l rt phc tp. Tuy nhin, trong trng hp bin iu, ngi ta c th thc hin c bng 2 kiu gin tip: Bin iu cng (Gated mudolator) v bin iu theo lut bnh phng (Square - Law Mudolator ). Bin iu Cng: Da vo s kin: Php nhn s(t) vi mt hm tun hon bt k s to ra mt chui sng AM vi nhng sng mang l bi s ca tn s c bn ca hm tun hon. Hnh_4.15

Hnh 4.15: Tch ca s(t) v hm cng tun hon Output ca mch nhn (hnh 4.15) (4.11) s(t)P(t) = s(t) a 0 + a cos(2nf c t ) n n =1 fc L tn s c bn ca hm tun hon. an , cc h s chui F. Gi s P(t) l hm chn ( trnh phi vit cc s hng sin trong chui ) Lc BPF s chn tt c, ch tr thnh phn no trong chui m ta s chn. Kt qu l ng ra c mt sng AM. Mch lc iu hp vi tn s c bn, nhng n s c th iu hp vi mt trong nhng ha tn ca sng AM, c tn s sng mang cao hn. Trong thc t, ta chn nhng ha tn thp (V cc h s F lm gim bin tn hiu khi n tng). P(t) l mt hm cng gm mt on xung tun hon. (Hnh 4.16)

Trang IV.11

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 4.16: Hm cng * V P(t) lun bng 0 hay bng 1, mch nhn c th xem nh c c ch hot ng on/off ( hoc switch ). Output ca BPF tm c bng cch khai trin P (t) thnh chui F v tm a1. 2 a1 = s m (t ) = s(t ).P(t )
2 s(t) cos2fCt (4.12) Phng trnh (4.12) c vit cho hm cng c na thi gian cao v na thi gian zero. Nhng sng AM vn c to ra vi bt k tr gi no ca chu k thao tc ca xung. B phn to hm cng c th l th ng hoc tc ng hnh 4.17 ch b phn bin iu gm 2 thnh phn th ng.

sm(t) =

B phn to hm cng

Hnh 4.17a: Mch to xung cng th ng dng Switch.

R
1

+
2 -

+ 4

s(t)

c2(t)

cos2fct

Hnh 4.17b: Mch to xung cng th ng dng diode. - Hnh 4.17a, SW ng ngt tun hon. Khi SW h, tn hiu ra bng tn hiu vo. Khi SW ng, tn hiu ra bng zero. R l in tr ngun. Bt li ca SW c hc l ng ngt chm. Tn s ng ngt ca SW phi bng tn s sng mang ( hoc c s, nu ta chn 1 ha tn ). Vi tn s sng mang c MHz, SW c hc khng th p ng kp. - Hnh 4.17b: S ng ngt thc hin nh cu diode. Khi cos2fCt dng ( im B c in th dng hn im A ), c 4 doide b kha: Mch tng t nh hnh 4.17a khi SW h, tn hiu ra l s(t). Ngc li khi cos2fCt m ( im B c in th m hn im A ). C 4 diode dn: mch ging nh hnh 4.17a khi SW ng. Gii hn duy nht cho mch ng ngt ny l tn s ng ngt ca loi Diode c dng. ( Tnh khng l tng ca cc diode, thng l thi gian hi phc ( recovery time ) ca in dung mi ni kh ln so vi chu k sng mang ).

Trang IV.12

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

- Hm cng cn c th to c bng cch dng cc linh kin tc ng, nh transistor hot ng gia vng kha v vng bo ha. Mt transistor kha, tng ng vi mt SW h. Mt transistor bo ha, xem nh mt SW ng. - Hnh 4.18, trnh by mt kiu mch bin iu di l bin iu vng (ring modulator). Sng mang l mt sng vung, c a vo mi gia ca 2 bin th. Output l mt phin bn b cng ha ca input, ch cn lc l c c sng AM . Bin iu Theo Lut Bnh Phng. Loi ny da vo nh lut: Bnh phng ca mt tng 2 hm c cha mt s hng l tch ca 2 hm : [s1(t)+s2(t)]2= s1 2 (t) + s2 2 (t)+2 s1(t).s2(t) Nu s1(t) l tn hiu cha tin v s2(t) l sng mang, ta c: [ s(t) + cos2fCt ]2 = s2(t) + cos2 2fCt + 2s(t) cos2fCt (4.13) S hng th 2 chnh l sng AM mong mun. Ta phi tm cch tch n ra khi 2 thnh phn kia. Ta bit, s tch s n gin, khi chng khng ph nhau ( trong phm vi thi gian hoc phm vi tn s ). R rng, chng ph nhau v thi gian. Vy, ta hy xem phm vi tn s. Cc xung lc ti gc v 2fC kt qu ca s khai trin lng gic 1 + cos2 Cos2 = 2 ng cong lin tc gia ( tn s thp ) ch bin i F ca s2(t). Ta khng bit dng chnh xc ca s(t). Nhng ch bit rng nh F ca n b gii hn nhng tn s nh hn fm. Bin i F ca s2(t) b gii hn nhng tn s di 2fm. Mt cch thy iu l xem bin i F ca s2(t) l php chng ca S(f) ln chnh n. Php chng hnh cho thy bin i ny i t zero n 2fm. Cch khc, l xem s(t) nh l tng ca cc hnh sin c tn s (ring) di fm. Khi bnh phng tng ny, ta c kt qu l tt c cc tch ca cc s hng. iu ny s a n tng v hiu ca cc tn s khc nhau ( dng lng gic). Khng c tng hay hiu no vt qu 2fm nn tn s gc khng vt qu fm.

Trang IV.13

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 4.18: Bin iu vng

Trang IV.14

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 4.19: Bin i F ca (4.13) Hnh 4.19 cho thy khi fC >> 3fm th cc s hng khng ph nhau ( v tn s ). Vy c th tch chng bng mt lc BPF c sng AM. Trong hu ht cc trng hp thc t, fC>>fm, nn iu kin ny d tha.

SQR

Hnh 4.20: Mch bin iu bnh phng. Hnh 4.20 ch ton th mt khi bin iu theo lut bnh phng. Cc b phn tng c th l tc ng, th ng hay op.amp. - B phn bnh phng th khng n gin. Bt k mt linh kin phi tuyn no cng u cho mt tn hiu ra tng ng vi mt tn hiu vo bi mt h thc m ta c th khai trin thnh chui ly tha. Gi s khng c s tch tr nng lng, ngha l output ti bt k thi im no ch ph thuc vo input ti cng thi im , ch khng k n nhng tr gi trc . Vi y(t) l output v x(t) l input: y(t) = a0 + a1x(t) + a2x2(t) + a3x3(t) + .... (4.14)

S hng m ta lu l a2x2(t). V ta tm cch ta tm cch tch n khi cc thnh phn khc. Linh kin phi tuyn c chn dng phi c bn l mt linh kin c c tnh bnh phng. Th d diode an trong phng trnh (4.14) phi c tnh cht: an << a2 , Vi n > 2 C vi iu cn ni thm v s phi tuyn. Nu cc s hng ng vi n = 1 v n = 2 trong chui chim u th (bin ln) th kt qu l sng TCAM. Hn na, Nu an nh qu ( vi n > 2 ), sng AM vn c nu lm cho s(t) tht nh. Vy sn(t) << s(t) vi n > 1, v TCAM vn cn chim u th. y l mt trng hp khng mong mun, v bin ca sng qu nh. * Cc diode bn dn c c tuyn rt ging vi lut bnh phng ( trong vng hot ng ca n ). S khi ca mt mch bin iu cn bng (balance modulator) v hnh 4.21. H ny cng sng mang cos2fCt vi tn hiu cha tin s(t), sau a chng vo linh kin phi tuyn ( bnh phng ). S vn hnh cng c lp li vi -s(t) . Mch tng s ly hiu s ca 2 tn hiu ra, lm loi b s hng ca ly tha l trong khai trin (4.14). V d, xem s hng ly tha 3.

Trang IV.15

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Khi khai trin [s(t)+cos2fCt]3, S hng ph ln bng tn ca sng AM l s2(t)cos2fCt. S hng ny khng i du khi -s(t) c thay vo s(t). Nh vy ti mch tng (thc ra l tr ) chng s trit nhau. S hng m ta mun ly, s(t).cos2fCt , s i du khi -s(t) c thay cho s(t). Vy mch s lm tng i bin tn hiu. Ta cng nh rng, khi s hng bc mt b trit, nn tn hiu ra ca khi bin iu cn bng l SC AM. ( Bin iu AM sng mang b nn ). Mch in thc t ca bin iu bnh phng v hnh 4.22. y l mch transistor kiu E chung. Mch dng s phi tuyn ca transistor to nn tch ca tn hu vi sng mang. Mch c iu hp chn C, lc b nhng ha tn khng mong mun.
SQR

SQR

SQR

SQR

Hnh 4.21: Khi bin iu AM cn bng

s(t)

Hnh 4.22: Mch bin iu bnh phng Cc mch bin iu bnh phng thc t d thit k n ngc nhin! Thc vy, Chng thng hin hu ngoi mun. Cc sn phm ca s bin iu xut hin trong mch in mt khi cc linh kin in t b a vo vng hot ng phi tuyn. V vy, ngi ta thng c ngn nga mt mch hot ng nh mt mch bin iu khng mong mun. Hnh 4.23 l mch ca mt my pht AM bin iu chn C. Ch cn thay i in th tc thi t vo chn B ca Transistor do s bin i bin ca tn hiu trong tin s(t). Sng xut hin ti nh ca mch iu hp chn C l tng ca VCC v tn hiu s(t). Nh vy, c bn ta lm thay i in th tc thi do bin ca s(t) thay i.
Trang IV.16

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Ng ra ca mch l mt lc BPF, nhm gim thiu cc ha tn sinh ra do s hat ng phi tuyn ca transistor.

Hnh 4.23: Mch pht AM bin iu chn C

CC KHI HON IU ( Demodulators)

Ta ni t trc rng s(t) s c hi phc t sm(t), bng cch hon iu cho sm(t) v sau cho tn hiu qua mt lc LPF. ( loai sng mang ). Hnh 4.24 l s khi ca mt mch hon in ng b (Synchronous Demodulator) hay hon iu kt hp. Gi nh vy v mch dao ng to sC(t) c ng b ha v c tn s v pha vi sng mang c thu.

Trang IV.17

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

S(f) 1

f -fm G(f) 1/4 1/2 1/4 f -2fc -fm fm 2fc fm

Hnh 4.24: Hon iu AM V mch nhn ca hnh v nhn khng khc vi mch nhn dng trong mch bin iu, ta c th tin on nhng ci bin ca mch bin iu cng v bnh phng c th p dng c y. C hai loi hon iu ng b Hon iu Cng: Trc ht, hy kho st s dng mch bin iu cng hon iu mt sng DSBSCAM:

Hnh 4.25: Hon P(t) l mt mt chui xung tun hon bin n v. P(t) = a0 +

iu cng hm cng gm

n =1

an cos2nfCt

Trang IV.18

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Vy tn hiu vo ca LPF l:
sm(t) P(t) = s(t) cos2fCt a0 + an cos2nf C t n =1

= a0 s(t) cos2fCt + Quan tm n thnh phn bc 1:

s(t) 2

a [cos(n 1)2f
n =1 n

t + cos(n + 1)2f C t ]

(4.15)

sm(t).P(t) = a0.s(t).cos2fct + a1.s(t).cos22fct

= a0.s(t).cos2 f c t + a 1s( t ) a 1s( t ) cos 4f c t + 2 2

Vy output ca LPF cho bi: so(t) = V s hon iu c hon tt. Ta ni v hot ng ca hon iu cng cho mt sng AM SC. By gi, nu ta thay A + s(t) cho s(t) trong phng trnh (4.15) ( trng hp TCAM). Ta s thy rng hon iu cng s to ra mt tn hiu ra. 1 so(t) = a1[A + s(t)] 2 Biu thc trnh by tn hiu cha tin gc b di bi mt hng. Nu h cha linh kin lin lc ac, hng s khng sut hin output. Nu tt c mch khuch i trong h lin lc dc, ta c th loi bng cch dng mt t ni tip tng i ln, n np n tr trung bnh ca tn hiu. Ta gi s tr trung bnh ca tin s(t) l zero. Nu n khng ng, s loi b hng cng s loi vi tn hiu khc. May mn, hu ht s(t) u c tr dc l zero. Hon iu Bnh Phng: Ta kho st hiu qu ca vic cng sng AM vo mt sng mang thun ty, ri sau bnh phng tng: [sm(t) + A cos2fCt ]2 (4.16)
1 a1s(t) 2

Trc ht, hy xem trng hp sng mang b nn SCAM. Phng trnh (4.16) tr nn: sm(t) = s(t). Cos2fCt

{cos2f C t[s(t ) + A]}2 =

=

cos22fCt + [s(t) + A]2

[s(t) + A]2 + [s(t) + A]2 Cos4f C t 2

(4.17)

- S hng th nh l mt sng AM xung quanh mt sng mang tn s 2fC. Vy c th tch n ra d dng bng mt lc LPF.

Trang IV.19

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

- S hng th nht c th khai trin: s2(t) + A2 + 2A s(t). Nhng tn s cha s2(t) ph vi s(t), v chng khng th tch ra. Tuy nhin, gi s rng ta
s(t) + A dng mt lc LPF tch tt c s hng ra khi thnh phn c tn s 2fc . 2
2

Nh l lc ny phi cho qua nhng tn s ln n 2fm. Vy ta hi phc bnh phng ca tng ca A v s(t). Ta s ly cn bc 2 ca n c:

0,707 s(t) + A =

1 2

s( t ) + A .

A* S ly sut ca mt tn hiu s a n mt dng mo. Th d, tn hiu l mt hnh sin thun, sut ca n c dng sng sin chnh lu 2 bn k vi tn s c bn gp i tn s gc. Tn hiu chnh lu khng ch cha mt tn s n, m bao gm nhiu ha tn. [ nu ta nghe n loa, sng sin gc s cho mt tng thun, trong lc sng sin chnh lu 2 bn k s cho mt tng s - Thnh phn ha tn - cao hn mt bt ]. Nu tn hiu gc l mt hn hp nhiu tn s, s mo s nghim trng hn. B* Nhng gi s A ln sao cho s(t) + A khng bao gi c tr m, th s(t) + A s bng s(t) + A. Khi , ta hon iu c. Ngha l sng mang c thm vo my thu hon iu phi c bin ln hn hay bng tr m ti a ca s(t).

By gi ta xem vic hon iu sng TCAM. Trong vic hon iu, cn thit phi to li mt bn sao hon chnh ca sng mang. iu ny kh thc hin, tr khi sng AM cha mt s hng tun hon c tn s bng tn s sng mang. iu ny t nhin a ta n vic phi dng TCAM. Thc vy, phng trnh (4.16) l kt qu t vic bnh phng sng TCAM thu c m khng cn cng thm mt sng mang a phng (ni local) (ti my thu ). s(t)

Hnh 4.26: Khi hon iu bnh phng cho TCAM. Hnh 4.26 l khi hon iu cho TCAM. Bin sng mang A ln lm cho s(t) khng m. A+

C* i vi sng SCAM, cn phi thm mch to (bn sao ca) sng mang ti my thu. Bn sao ny cn c ng b ha vi sng mang thu c ( ph hp v tn s v pha). Thng my thu c mt mch dao ng ni thc hin vic ny. Ta hy xem hu qu ca s khng ph hp v tn s v pha. Gi s mch dao ng ni hnh 4.24 b lch tn bi f v lch pha bi . Khi , output ca mch nhn l:

Trang IV.20

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

sm(t) cos [ 2 (fC+f )t + A] = s(t) cos2fCt cos [ 2 (fC+f )t + A]

cos [ 2 f t + ] cos [ 2 (2 f C + f )t + ] + = s(t) 2 2

y cng l input ca LPF ca khi tch sng ng b, output ca n l: s0(t) = s(t)
cos [ 2 f t + ] 2

(4.18)

(4.19)

( S hng th nh ca (4.18) c thnh phn tn s 2fC + f nn b loi ) Biu thc (4.19) cho thy mt tn hiu l s(t) nhn vi mt hm Sinusoide ti tn s f Hertz. Ta gi s f nh, v ta c lm cho n 0. nh l bin iu ch rng so(t) c mt bin i

vi cc tn s trong khong n fm + f . D LPF c thit k ch cho qua cc tn s ln fm , nhng n vn cho qua ton b fm + f ,v f << fm

Gi s ta c th lm ph hp v tn s chnh xc ri, ch cn khc pha. Phng trnh (4.19) tr thnh: so(t) = s(t)
cos 2

(4.20)

l mt phin bn khng mo ca s(t). Khi 900, output s zero. S Hi Phc Sng Mang Trong TCAM. Ta thy, s hon iu ng b cn phi c s thch hp hon ho v tn s v s sai pha khng n 900. S thch hp tn s ch c th nu sng AM c cha mt thnh phn tun hon tn s bng vi sng mang. l, nh F ca sng AM nhn c my thu phi c mt xung lc ti tn s ca sng mang. y l trng hp ca TCAM. Tn hiu thu c c dng: sm(t) = s(t) cos2fCt + A cos2fCt Mt cch trch sng mang t sng bin iu l dng mt lc dy thng tht hp iu hp vi tn s sng mang. trng thi thng trc, tt c s hng ca sng mang s i ngang qua lc ny, trong khi ch c 1 phn ca sng bin iu qua m thi. Bin i F ca tn hiu ra ca lc l: so(f)=
1 [S(f - fC) + S(f + fC) + A(f + fC) + A(f - fC)]. 2

Vi khong cc tn s trong dy thng ca lc,

Trang IV.21

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

fC Ly

BW BW < f < FC + 2 2

-1

:
f c + BW

so(t) = A cos2fCt +

f C BW

S(f f C ) cos2fCt + df
2

(4.21)

Tch phn ca phng trnh (4.21) gii hn bi:

1 Smax (f)BW. 2t

Vy:

Mt mch lc vi kh bng tht hp s ch cho qua s hng th nht, ( thnh phn sng mang thun ty ).

Hnh 4.27: S hi phc sng mang dng BPF trong TCAM. Mt cch khc hi phc sng mang l dng vng kha pha (phase - lock loop). Vng kha pha s kha thnh phn tun hon input to nn mt sinusoide c tn s sng mang. Hnh 4.28: Vng kha pha Hnh 4.29: Hi phc sng mang trong TCAM bng PLL Tch Sng Khng Kt Hp ( Incoherent Detection ): Cc khi hon iu ni trn cn phi to li sng mang my thu. V tn s sng mang phi chnh xc v pha phi ng phi hp ( matched ) ng ti b phn tch sng, nn sng mang t i pht xem nh l mt thng tin chnh xc v thi gian (timing information) cn phi c truyn ( n my thu ). V l do , cc khi hon iu trn gi l tch sng kt hp ( Input

So pha
VCO Trang IV.22

v0(t)

Tn hiu chun

Hi tip

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Incoherent Detection ). Nhng nu thnh phn ( s hng ) sng mang ln trong TCAM, ta c th dng kiu tch sng khng kt hp. Trong , khng cn phi to li sng mang. Gi s sng mang ln sao cho A + s(t) > 0. Hnh 4.30. Ta bit, hon iu bnh phng th hiu qu cho trng hp ny.

Hnh 4.30: TCAM vi A + s(t) > 0 Ta nhc li, nh hnh 4.26, output ca khi bnh phng: [A + s(t)]2 cos22fCt =
1 [A + s(t)]2 + [A + s(t)]2 cos4f C t 2

Output ca LPF ( cho qua nhng tn s ln n 2fm) l: s(t) =

[A + s(t)]2

2 Nu by gi ta gi s rng A ln sao cho A + s(t) khng bao gi m, th output ca khi cn hai l: so(t) = 0,707[ A + s(t) ] V s hon iu c hon tt
s(t)

Hnh 4.31: Tch sng bnh phng

Trang IV.23

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Tch sng chnh lu: Khi bnh phng c th c thay bng mt dng phi tyn khc. Trng hp c bit, xem mch tch sng chnh lu ( Rectifier Detection ) nh hnh 4.31.

sm(t)

Chnh lu

s1(t)

LPF

H (f )

-fm fm Hnh 4.31: B tch sng chnh lu. Xem mt sng DSBTCAM:
s m ( t ) = [A + s( t )]. cos 2ft

Mch chnh lu c th l na sng hoc ton sng. Ta xem loi mch chnh lu ton sng ( Full - Wave Rect ) Chnh lu ton sng th tng ng vi thut ton ly tr tuyt i. Vy tn hiu ra ca khi chnh lu l: s1(t) = A + s(t)cos2fCt V gi s A + s(t) khng m, ta c th vit: s1(t) = [A + s(t) ] cos2fCt Tr tuyt i ca cosine l mt sng tun hon, nh hnh 4.32.

cos(t )

Hnh 4.32 Tn s cn bn ca n l 2fC. Ta vit li s1(t) bng cch khai trin F : s1(t) = [ A + s(t) ] [ ao + a1 cos4fCt + a2 cos8fCt + a3 cos12fCt +.... ] Vy output ca LPF l: so(t) = ao [ A + s(t) ] V s hon iu hon tt. * By gi, ta hy xem c ch m khi tch sng trn hi phc li sng mang. Hnh 4.33 ch rng s chnh lu ton sng th tng ng vi php nhn sng vi mt sng vung. (ti tn s fC ). l tin trnh ly tr tuyt i ca phn m ca sng mang. N tng ng vi s nhn cho -1. Vy, mch chnh lu khng cn bit tn s sng mang chnh xc, m ch thc

Trang IV.24

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

hin mt thut ton tng ng vi nhn cho mt sng vung ( c tn s chnh xc bng fC ) v pha ca sng mang thu c. C th xem y nh mt bi tp, chng t rng mt mch tch sng ng b c th hot ng bng cch nhn sng vi mt ham cosine ( tn s fC ) hoc vi mt sng vung c tn s fC.

Hnh 4.33: Chnh lu ton sng tng ng vi php nhn 1 sng vung. Tch Sng Bao Hnh. (Envelope Detection) Tch sng cui cng m ta kho st y l n gin nht. Xem dng sng TCAM hnh 4.34. Nu A + s(t) khng bao gi m, ng bin trn hay bao hnh ca sng AM th chnh xc bng vi A + s(t). Nu ta thit lp mt mch ly ng bin ny, ta thc hin mt mch tch sng bao hnh. * Trc ht, xem mt mch tch sng nh ( peak detector ) nh hnh 4.35

Hnh 4.34: Dng sng TCAM vi A < a S phn tch mch tch sng nh da vo 2 quan st: (1) input khng th ln hn output ( vi mt diode l tng ). V (2) output khng bao gi gim vi t. Quan st th nht ng, v nu input vt qu output th diode c thm mt in th dng phn cc thun. Quan st th 2 do s kin l t khng c ng x in. Nn output lun lun bng vi tr nh ca input trc thi im .

Trang IV.25

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 4.35: Tch sng nh * By gi nu ta u thm mt in tr x in cho t. Mch hnh 4.36 l mch tch sng bao hnh. Output s c dng expo gia cc nh. Nu chn la thi hng RC thch hp, th output s xp x vi bao hnh. V mch tc ng nh mt mch tch sng. Output c cha sng d ( tn s fC) nhng iu khng h g, v ta ch quan tm n nhng tn s di tn s fm.

Hnh 4.36: Tch sng bao hnh Thi hng RC phi ngn sao cho bao hnh c th vch nhng thay i tr nh ca sng AM . Cc nh cch nhau ti nhng khong bng vi tn s sng mang, trong lc chiu cao th theo bin i ca bin ca s(t). Ta xem trng hp s(t) l mt hm sin thun ( tn s fC). N s c kh nng thay i tr 1 nh nhanh nht. Ti tn s ny, cc nh thay i t mt tr max n min trong fm sec. Mch 2 cn 5 ln thi hng t 0,7% tr cui cng ca n. Vy nu ta t thi hng RC n 10% ca 1 , Th mch tch sng bao hnh c th hot ng tn s cao nht. V d, vi fm = 5kHz, fm 1 m sec. ( hoc 20s). thi hng s chn l 50 Bin iu v Hon iu bng IC

Trang IV.26

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Cc mch bin iu v hon iu c th dng IC. Cc IC ny c cha nhng mch khuch i Visai a vo vng bo ha hoc m phng mt giao hon in t. ( Electronnic Commulator ). - Hnh 4.37, IC MC1496 c s dng nh mt bin iu TCAM. Mch tng t c th dng pht ra SCAM, bng cch chn li tr s cc in tr trong mch hiu chnh sng mang. - Hnh 4.38, cng dng chip ny hon iu cho TCAM. Sng mang trong mch c thc bng cch thc tn khuch i cao tn vo vng bo ha. Nh vy, output ca tn ny ging nh mt sng vung ti tn s fC. Sng mang ny c a vo mt trong nhng ng v ca MC 1496. Ng ra phi l LPF, hi phc tn hiu cha thng tin.

+12V 1K 1K

1K 2 51 0.1uF Carrier s(t) U3 7 8 1 4 MC1496 9 3 6

3,9K

3,9K

+Sm(t)

-Sm(t)

51 1 3

51

10

5 6,8K

+8V

Hnh 4.37: Bin iu AM

Trang IV.27

C S Vin Thng
+12V
+12V

Phm Vn Tn
+12V
+12V

3,9K

3,9K

1K

600

1K

Sm(t)

U3

U3 7
8
Amplifier/Limiter

1
10K
50K

MC1496
9

10K

s(t)

51

51

10

6,8K

+8V

Hnh 4.38: Hon iu cho TCAM

TRUYN MT BNG CNH (single sideband) SSB:

Trong cc h thng AM m ta ni trn, khong tn s cn thit truyn tn hiu l bng gia fC - fm v fC + fm kh bng tng cng l 2fm Trong vic khai thc cc i pht AM, ngi ta xem tng ph nh l ti nguyn thin nhin . Vic bo qun cho n l mt ch tiu quan trng. Nu kh bng cn thit cho mi knh rng qu, Th s i pht sng cng mt lc s t i. Ta tm mt phng php c th gi thng tin m kh bng th nh hn 2fm. Truyn mt bng cnh l k thut cho php truyn phn na kh bng cn thit cho AM hai bng cnh.

Hnh 4.39: nh ngha cc cnh bng Hnh 4.39 nh ngha cc bng cnh. Phn ca sm(t) nm trong bng trn sng mang gi l bng cnh trn ( upper - sideband ). V phn di sng mang gi l bng cnh di (lower sideband). Mt sng AM 2 bng cnh th bao gm c bng cnh trn v bng cnh di. Ta c th dng cc tn cht ca bin i F chng t rng 2 bng cnh ny ph thuc ln nhau. Bin i F ca sng AM c to nn bng cch di ( shifting ) S(f) ln v xung, nh bit. Bng cnh di to nn do phn f m ca S(f); v bng cnh trn do phn f dng ca S(f). Ta gi s rng tn tc s(t) l mt hm thc. Vy sut ca S(f) th chn v pha th l. Phn f m c th suy t f dng bng cch ly phc lin hp. Tng t, bng cnh di ca sm(t) c th suy t bng cnh trn. V cc bng cnh khng c lp, ta c th truyn tt c cc thng tin c bn bng cch gi i ch mt bng cnh.

Trang IV.28

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 4.40: Bin i F ca cc bng cnh Hnh 4.40 ch bin i F ca bng cnh trn v bng cnh di ca sng AM, ln lt k hiu l susb(t) l slsb(t). Sng AM 2 bng cnh l tng ca 2 bng cnh.

sm(t) = susb(t) + sLsb(t)

(4.22)

V sng SSB ch chim mt phn ca bng tn b chim bi sng DSB, n tha 2 yu cu ca mt h bin iu. l, bng cnh chn tn s sng mang ring, ta c th chuyn sng bin iu thnh mt khon tn s, m truyn i mt cch hiu qa. Ta cng c th dng nhng bng khc nhau cho nhng tn hiu khc nhau (tc fc khc nhau). Nn, cng lc c th truyn i nhiu tn hiu (a hp). Ch cn mt vn cn chng t. l, thng tin gc c th c hi phc t sng c bin iu SSB. V sng bin iu c th c to ra bi cc mch tng i n gin. Vy ta xt n cc khi bin iu v hon iu. Khi Bin iu Cho SSB: V bng cnh trn v bng cnh di tch bit v tn s, cc mch lc c th dng chn bng cnh mong mun. Hnh 4.41, ch khi bin iu cho bng cnh di (LSB). C cc cch to bng cnh trn (USB). Ta c th hoc thay i dy thng ca lc BPF ch nhn USB, hoc c th ly h s gia DSB v LSB.

Hnh 4.41: Khi bin iu cho LSB, SSB

Trang IV.29

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 4.42: Khi bin iu cho USB, SSB

Cc mch lc 2 hnh bn phi tht chnh xc, v khng c dy tn bo v no gia bng cnh trn v bng cnh di. * Mt phng php khc to ra SSB. S khi v hnh 43 ( dng LSB - SSB ). Gi s s(t) l mt Sinusoide thun ty. Vi trng hp n gin ny, s phn tch ch cn n lng gic. S(t) = cos2fCt Sng DSB Amc dng: sm(t) = cos2fCt + cos2fCt cos2(f C f m )t + cos2(f C + f m )t = (4.23) 2 S nhn dng cc bng cnh trong trng hp n gin ny tht r rng: S hng th nht l bng cnh di, s hng th nh l bng cnh trn.

Hnh 4.43: Bin iu cho LSB, SSB By gi ta khai trin bng cnh di: cos2(f C fm)t sLsb(t) = 2 cos2f C t.cos2 f m t + sin2 f C t.sin2 f m t = 2

(4.24)

Trang IV.30

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

SSB

Vy ta c th thy ti sao s khi hnh 4.43 c th to ra LSB. S hng th nht ca phng trnh (4.24) l sng DSB AM. S hng th nh c c l do s di pha 900 cho mi sng Cosine. S trn y c th ci bin to ra bng cnh trn (USB). Ch cn thay b phn tng bng mt b phn ly hiu s hai outputs ca 2 mch nhn. Khi Hon iu Cho SSB: Khi hon iu ng b hnh 4.44 c th dng hon iu SSB Hnh 4.44: Hon iu ng b * V phng din tn s, ta bit s nhn cho mt Sinusoide s lm di tn bin i F c chiu ln v chiu xung. - Hnh 4.45, ch bin i F ca susb(t) khi nhn n vi mt Sinusoide ti tn s fC. - Hnh 4.46, ch kt qu tng t i vi tn hiu sLsb(t). Trong c 2 trng hp, mt lc LPF s hi phc li bn sao ca tn hiu cha thng tin gc. SUSB(f)

Hnh 4.45: Bin i F ca hon iu USB v SSB

Trang IV.31

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

SLSB(f)

-fc

fc

F sLSB(t).cos2fc t

-2fc

2fc

Hnh 4.46: Bin i F ca hon iu LSB v SSB * V phng din thi gian ta thy:

s(t)cos2 2f C t s(t)sin2f C t + cos2f m t fSSB(t) cos2fCt = 2 Du + cho LSB v du - cho USB. Khai trin lng gic s(t) + s(t)cos2 2f C t s(t)sin4f C t = 4 Output ca LPF (vi mt input nh vy ) s l s(t)/4 V ta hon tt c s hon iu. * Ghi ch: (t) l bin i Hilbert ca s(t)
1 s() 1 s(t) d s(t) (t) = d. V s(t) = - t t

(4.25)

(4.26)

Bin i Hilbert ca mt hm thi gian c c bng cch quay tt c thnh phn tn s i mt gc 900. V d: s(t)= cos(2fCt+) (t)= sin(2fCt+)

BIN IU M TRC PHA:

Ta chng t rng nhng tn hiu khng ph nhau v tn s v thi gian th c th tch ra khi nhau. DSBAM gia s tch bit v tn s v thi gian th c th tch bit tn s cc knh khng b giao thoa vi nhau. Nhng n phi cn dng kh bng rng gp i SSBAM. Tuy nhin, trong trng hp 2 tn hiu DSBAM c gi i ng thi m c tn s v thi gian ph nhau, chng vn c th tch ra ti my thu. Thc vy, bin iu bin trc pha s thc hin c vic y. ( Quadrature Amplitude Modulation QAM ) .

Trang IV.32

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 4.47: My thu QAM Gi s, c 2 tn hiu s1(t) v s2(t) c tn s gii hn nh hn fm. Hai tn hiu ny bin iu 2 sng mang c tn s bng nhau. s1m(t) = s1(t).cos2fCt s2m(t) = s2(t).sin2fCt Tng ca 2 sng: AM = sm1(t) + sm2(t) = s1(t). cos2fCt + s2(t).sin2fCt Mc d hai sng ph ln nhau, nhng chng c th tch ra bi my thu nh hnh v trn. - Tn hiu ng vo LPF1: sa(t) = [s1(t) cos2fCt + s2(t) sin2fCt].cos2fCt = s1(t).cos22fCt + s2(t).sin2fCt.cos2fCt 1 = [s1(t)+ s1(t) cos4fCt + s2(t) sin4fCt] 2 Mch lc LPF1 s ch cho qua s hng th nht, l s1(t)/2 - Tn hiu ng vo LPF2: sb(t) = s1(t) cos2fCt.sin2fCt + s2(t) sin22fCt 1 = [s1(t) sin4fCt + s2(t) - s2(t) cos4fCt] 2 Ng ra ca LPF1 l s hng th hai, s2(t)/2

BIN IU BNG CNH ST ( vestigial sideband ) VSB.

Bin iu SSB c li hn DSB v mt s dng tn s. l SSB ch dng phn na kh bng cn thit tng ng ca DSB. Nhng SSB c bt li l kh thit k mt my pht v mt my thu c hiu qu. Mt vn ni bt ca SSB l vic thit k mch lc loi b mt bng cnh - Tnh cht pha ca mch lc s to nn sng d. Vic ny s gy hu qu xu. V d, trong truyn hnh, kh bng rng hn trong truyn thanh (ting ni). S mo pha tn hiu video gy nn hiu ng offset ln hnh nh c qut, ( to ra bng ma )- mt ngi rt nhy vi dng mo nh vy (hn l s mo tng t ca ting ni). Vy ta c l do ni n mt kiu bin iu nm gia SSB v DSB. l kiu bng cnh st (VSB). [ Mt bng cnh b loi tr khng hon ton bi mch lc trnh mo ].

Trang IV.33

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

VSB c xp x cng kh bng tn vi SSB v khng kh thit k mch hon iu. Nh tn gi, VSB c cha phn st li ca bng cnh th nh (khng loi b hon ton nh SSB). Hnh 4.48: Bin iu VSB Mch lc c dng cho VSB khng ging nh trong SSB - n khng cht ch. sm(f)

-fc

+fc

H(f)

-fc

+fc

Sm(f).H(f)

-fc

+fc

Hnh 4.48 ch bin i ca DSB, c tnh mch lc v bin i ca output. Nu SV(f) l bin i F ca tn hiu VSB, th: SV(f) = Sm (f)H(f) = [ s(f + fC) + s(f - fC)]H(f) Output ca b hon iu ng b c bin i: S (f + f C ) + S V (f f C ) S0(f) = V , f < fm 2 Thay (4.27) vo (4.28), ta tm c:
S(f )[H(f f C ) + H(f + f C ) 4 Phng trnh (4.29) c dng t cc iu kin cho mch lc. Tng nm trong [ ] c v hnh 4.49. Vi mt H(f) tin biu.

(4.27) (4.28)

S0(f) =

(4.29)

Trang IV.34

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 4.49: Lc BPF cho VBS Gi s rng mt s hng sng mang c cng vo (TCAM). Sng mang c truyn VSB c dng sv(t) + A cos2fCt S hng sng mang ny c rt ra ti my thu bng cch dng hoc mt lc bng rt hp hoc mt vng kha pha. Nu s hng sng mang ln, c th dng tch sng bao hnh [ ta thy iu SSB. , sng mang ln hn nhiu so vi tn hiu. Cn DSB, sng mang ch cn ln cng c vi tn hiu. i vi VBS, Bin sng mang th nm gia 2 kiu y ]. Khi cng mt sng mang vo, hiu sut s gim. S d dng trong vic thit k mt mch tch sng bao hnh khin h ny c chn dng trong truyn hnh.

AM STEREO.
Ta ch gii thiu nhng im ch yu v AM stereo. S phn gii su hn cn n nhng hiu bit v bin iu pha, m ta s ni chng 5. Nguyn l AM Stereo l gi 2 tn hiu audio c lp trong kh bng 10kHz nm trong mi i pht thanh thng mi. Nhng hiu chnh cn thit c th tng thch vi cc my thu mono ang hin hu (nu 2 tn hiu biu din cho 2 knh tri v phi, th mt my thu mono phi hi phc tng ca 2 tn hiu ny). Nu 2 tn hiu k hiu l sL(t) v

sR(t), tn hiu tng hp c th vit :

(4.30)

q(t) = sL(t) cos2fCt + sR(t) sin2fCt

Nu c 2 tn hiu sL(t) v sR(t) l tn hiu aodio vi tn s ti a l 5kHz, q(t) chim dy tn gia fC - 5kHz n fC+5KHz. ( kh bng tng cng l 10kHz ). Tn hiu tng hp c th vit li nh l mt Sinusoide duy nht: q(t) = A(t) cos[2fCt+(t)]
2 Trong : A(t) = s 2 L (t) + s R (t)

(4.31)

s R (t) (t) = -tan s (t) L

-1

Mch tch sng bao hnh trong mt my thu mono s to A(t). l mt phin bn b mo ca tng ca 2 knh v khng cn cho yu cu tng thch. Hnh 4.50 Ch s ca khi bin iu v hon iu. Khi v chm chm l mt vng kha pha, c dng hi phc sng mang. Output ca vng kha pha l cos(2fCt-450)

Trang IV.35

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Cc hm thi gian khc c ghi trong hnh l: s1(t) = (2fCt - 450) s2(t)= cos2fCt s3(t)= sin2fCt s4(t) = sL(t) cos22fCt + sR(t) sin2fCt + cos2fCt

s5(t)= sL(t) sin2fCt cos2fCt + sR(t) sin22fCt s (t) s6(t)= L 2 s (t) s7(t)= R 2

Hnh 4.50: H thng AM STEREO

=1/2sL(t)
Trang IV.36

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Trang IV.37

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Chng V:BIN IU GC
TN S TC THI. BIN IU TN S (FREQUENCY MODULATION). BIN IU PHA. FM BNG HP (NARROW BAND FM). PM BNG HP. FM BNG RNG (WIDE BAND FM). HM BESSEL. KHI BIN IU. KHI HON IU. FM STEREO. SO SNH CC H.

Trang V.1

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

TN S TC THI.
Xem mt sng mang cha b bin iu sC(t) = A cos(2fCt + ) (5.1) Nu fC b thay i ty theo thng tin m ta mun truyn, sng mang c ni l c bin iu tn s. Cn nu b lm thay i, sng mang b bin iu pha. Nhng nu khi fC hay b thay i theo thi gian, th sC(t) khng cn l Sinusoide na. Vy nh ngha v tn s m ta dng trc y cn c ci bin cho ph hp. Xem 3 hm thi gian: s1(t) = A cos 6t (5.2a) s2(t) = A cos (6t +5) (5.2b) -t (5.2c) s3(t) = A cos (2t e ) Tn s ca s1(t) v s2(t) r rng l 3Hz. Tn s ca s3(t) hin ti cha xc nh. nh ngha truyn thng ca ta v tn s khng p dng c cho loi sng ny. Vy cn m rng khi nim v tn s p dng cho nhng trng hp m tn s khng l hng. Ta nh ngha tn s tc thi theo cch c th p dng c cho cc sng tng qut. Tn s tc thi c nh ngha nh l nhp thay i ca pha. d t s(t) = A cos (t) 2f i ( t ) = (5.3) dt fi : tn s tc thi, Hz. Nh l c 2 v ca phng trnh (5.3) c n v l rad/sec. Nh vy trong th d trn, tn s tc thi ca cc tn hiu cho ln lt l 3Hz; 3Hz v e-t (1 - t) Hz. Th d 1: Tm tn s tc thi ca cc sng sau: cos2t , t < 1 s( t ) = cos 4t ,1 < t < 2 cos 6t , 2 < t Gii: Sng c dng: s(t) = cos[2t g(t)] (5.4) Trong g(t) c biu th nh hnh 5.1.

Hnh 5.1 Tn s tc thi cho bi:

f i (t) = d [t.g( t )] = g( t ) + t dg dt dt

fi (t) c v hnh 5.2. Trang V.2

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 5.2 Th d 2. Tm tn s tc thi ca hm sau y: s(t) = 10 cos2[1000t + sin 10t ] Gii: Ap dng nh ngha tm: 1 d f i (t) = = 1000 + 10 cos 10t 2 dt fi c v hnh 5.3.

Hnh 5.3

BIN IU TN S (FREQUENCY MODULATION).

Bin iu FM c pht minh bi Edwin Armstrong nm 1933 [cng l ngi pht minh my thu kiu i tn (superheterodyne - siu phch)]. Trong bin iu FM, ta bin iu tn s tc thi fi (t) bi tn hiu s(t). V cng v c th tch bit cc i vi nhau, ta phi di tn s(t) ln n tn s sng mang fC. Ta nh ngha bin iu FM nh l mt sng vi tn s tc thi nh sau: fi (t) = fC + Kf s(t) (5.5) Trong : fC l tn s sng mang (hng s) v Kf l hng s t l, thay i theo bin ca s(t). Nu s(t) tnh bng volt, Kf c n v l Hz/v hoc 1/v.sec . V tn s l o hm ca pha, nn t t (t) = 2 fi ()d = 2 [fCt + Kf s()d] (5.6) o o Gi s iu kin u bng zero, sng bin iu c dng: fm(t) = A cos (t).

t f m ( t ) = A cos 2f c t + K f s()d 0

(5.7)

Nh l, nu t s(t) = 0, phng (5.7) s thnh mt sng mang thun ty. Td . V sng AMSC v FM cho cc tn hiu thng tin nh hnh 5.4. Gii: Trang V.3

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

s1(t)

sm1(t)

m1(t)

Hnh 5.4 s2(t)

sm2(t)

m2(t)

Hnh 5.4 Tn s ca fm(t) thay i t fC + Kf[min . s(t)] n fC + Kf[max . s(t)]. Trang V.4

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Bng cch lm cho Kf nh mt cch ty , th tn s ca fm(t) c th c gi mt cch ty xung quanh fC. iu lm tit gim c kh bng. Nh l s bin iu th khng tuyn tnh cho s(t). Nu thay s(t) trong phng trnh (5.7) bng mt tng gm nhiu tn hiu th sng FM kt qu khng l tng ca cc sng FM thnh phn. iu ng, v: Cos (A + B) cosA + cosB. Ta chia bin iu FM lm 2 nhm; ty thuc vo c ca Kf. Vi Kf rt nh ta c FM bng hp; v Kf ln ta c FM bng rng.

BIN IU PHA.
Khng c s khc bit c bn gia bin iu pha v bin iu tn s. Hai t y thng c dng thay i cho nhau. Bin iu mt pha bng mt sng th cng nh bin iu o hm ca n (tn s) vi sng y. Sng bin iu pha cng c dng: pm(t) = A cos (t). Trong (t) c bin iu bi s(t). Vy: (5.8) (t) =2 [fCt + Kp s(t)] -1 Hng s t l Kp c n v V . Sng PM c dng: pm(t) = A cos 2 [fCt + Kp s(t)] (5.9)

Khi s(t) = 0, sng PM tr thnh sng mang thun ty. Ta c th lin h PM vi FM bng cch dng nh ngha ca tn s tc thi: ds fi (t) = fC + Kp (5.10) dt Trng rt ging vi (5.5), trng hp ca FM. Thc vy, khng c s khc bit gia vic bin iu tn s mt sng mang bng s(t) v vic bin iu pha ca cng sng mang bng tch phn ca s(t). Ngc li khng c g khc nhau gia vic bin iu pha ca mt sng mang bng s(t) v bin iu tn s cng sng mang y bng o hm ca s(t). V vy, tt c cc kt qu sau y th chuyn d dng gia 2 loi bin iu.

FM BNG HP (NARROW BAND FM).

Nu Kf rt b, ta c th dng php tnh xp x n gin phng trnh ca sng FM. t (5.11) f m ( t ) = A cos 2f c t + K f s( )d 0 trnh vic lp li nhiu ln, ta t g(t) l tch phn ca tn hiu cha tin.
g ( t ) = s ( ) d
0 t

(5.12)

Phng trnh (5.11) tr nn: fm(t) = A cos 2 [ fc t + K f g(t)] Dng lng gic, khai trin hm cosine: (5.13)

Trang V.5

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

fm(t) = Acos2fCt . cos2Kf g(t) - A sin2fCt . sin2Kf g(t) Cosine ca mt gc b 1. Trong khi sin ca n gn bng chnh n.

(5.14)

Vy, nu Kf nh sao cho 2Kf g(t) biu din cho mt gc rt nh, ta c th tnh xp x phng trnh (5.14): fm(t) Acos2fCt - 2A g(t) Kf sin2fCt ca n (vi mt t kh khn) nh sau: Bin i F ca g(t) lin h vi s(t) bi: G(f) =
S(f) j2 f

(5.15)

Php tnh ny tuyn tnh vi g(t) v nh vy tuyn tnh vi s(t). Ta c th tnh bin i F

Ly bin i F ca (5.15):

fm(f) =

S (f f c ) S (f + f c ) A [(f f c ) + (f + f c )] + 2AK f 4j f fc f + fc 2

(5.16)

Hnh 5.5: Bin i F ca sng FM. FM bng hp c 3 vn : - Tn s c th tng cao n mc cn thit truyn i c hiu qa, bng cch iu chnh fC n tr mong mun. - Nu tn s sng mang ca ngun tin ln cn cch n t nht 2fm, th cc tn hiu cha nhng ngun tin khc nhau c th truyn cng lc trn cng mt knh. - s(t) c th hi phc t sng bin iu. V phn sau ta s thy, cng mt khi hon iu c th tch sng cho FM trong c 2 trng hp Kf nh v Kf ln. Kh bng ca sng FM l 2fm, ng nh trng hp AM hai cnh. Th d dng ting hut so (ti a 5000Hz) bin iu mt sng mang. Gi s s di tn ti a l 1Hz. Nh vy, tn s tc thi thay i t (fC - 1)Hz n (fC + 1)Hz. Bin i F ca sng FM chim mt bng gia (fC - 5000)Hz v (fC + 5000)Hz. R rng, tn s tc thi v cch thc m n thay i gp phn (c 2) vo kh bng ca FM. Gi l Bng hp khi Kf nh, l v khi Kf tng, kh bng s tng t tr ti thiu 2fm.

PM BNG HP.
Bin iu pha bng s(t) th ging nh bin iu tn s bng o hm ca s(t). V o hm ca s(t) cha cng khong tn s nh s(t), nn kh bng ca PM bng hp cng chim vng tn s t gia fC - fm v fC + fm. Tc l kh bng rng 2fm. Vi FM bng hp, tr max ca 2kf g(t) l mt gc rt nh (Trong g(t) l tch phn ca s(t)).

Trang V.6

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Vi PM bng hp, 2Kp s(t) phi l mt gc rt nh. iu ny cho php tnh xp x cosine v sine (s hng th nht trong chui khai trin).

FM BNG RNG (WIDE BAND FM).

Nu Kf nh khng cho php tnh xp x nh phn trn, ta c FM bng rng. Tn hiu c truyn fm(t) = A cos 2 [ f c t + K f g(t)] (5.17) Trong g(t) l tch phn ca tn hiu cha tin s(t). Nu g(t) l mt hm bit, bin i F ca sng FM s tnh c. Nhng trong nhng trng hp tng qut, khng th tm bin i F cho sng FM, v s lin h phi tuyn gia s(t) v sng bin iu. Nhng phn gii thc hin trong phm vi thi gian. Ta gii hn trong mt trng hp ring, dng tn hiu mang tin l mt Sinusoide thun ty. iu ny cho php dng lng gic trong phn gii. S(t) = a cos 2fmt a: hng s bin . Tn s tc thi ca sng FM c cho bi: fi (t) = fC + aKf cos 2fmt (5.18) Sng FM c dng: aK f fm(t) = A cos 2 fc t + (5.19) sin2 f m t fm Ta nh ngha ch s bin iu : aK f , : khng n v (5.20) f m fm(t) = A cos (2fCt + sin2fmt) fm(t) = Re {A exp (j2fCt +j sin 2fmt)} (5.21) Hm expo trong (5.21) phn thnh mt tch, trong tha s th 2 c cha tin. l: expo (j sin 2fmt). l mt hm tun hon, chu k 1/fm. Khai trin chui F phc, tn s fm.

e j sin 2 f m t =
H s F cho bi:
1

n =

C e
n

jn 2 f m t

(5.22)

Cn = fm

e
fm

fm

j sin 2 f m t

e jn 2 f m t dt

(5.23)

Tch phn ca (5.23) khng tnh c, n hi t ti mt tr gi thc. Tr gi thc l mt hm ca n v . N khng phi l mt hm ca fm. Tch phn c gi l hm Bessel loi mt, k hiu Jn().

HM BESSEL.
Hm Bessel loi 1 l gii p 2ca phng trnh vi phn: d y dy + x 2 2 2 2 x dx dx + ( x - n ) y( x ) = 0

Trang V.7

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Mc d hm Bessel c nh ngha cho tt c tr gi ca n, ta ch quan tm n cc s nguyn thc dng v m. Vi nhng tr nguyn ca n, J-n(x) = (-1)n Jn(x). Hnh 5.6, v Jn cho nhng tr ca n = 0, 1 v 2. Nh l vi x rt nh, J0(x) tin n 1 trong lc J1(x) v J2(x) tin n zero. ( Xem hnh trang sau ). Ta hy xem hm Bessel khi n tr nn ln. Ta kho st mt im c bit trn cc ng cong. Hnh 5.7, v Jn (10) l mt hm ca n. - Khi n m, hm tr nn dao ng khng tt ( under damped oscillator ). - Vi nhng tr n dng, ta lu n tnh i xng ca phng trinh (5.23). - Mt quan st quan trng l, vi n > 9, hm Bessel tin n tim cn vi zero. Tht vy, vi n c nh v ln, hm Bessel c th tnh xp x bi: n 2 Jn ( ) (5.24) ( n + 1) Trong (n+1) l hm Gamma.

Hnh 5.6: Hm Bessel cho n = 0, 1 v 2. Hm Gamma tin n vi cc sut ln hn 2. Th d, tr gi ca hm Gamma ng vi cc sut 2, 3, 4, 5 v 6 l 1, 2 , 6, 24 v 120. V hm Gamma nm mu s, c th thy rng Trang V.8

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

hm Bessel gim rt nhanh khi n tng. l mt tnh cht chnh tc tim kh bng ca sng FM.

Hnh 5.7: Jn (10) l mt hm ca n. Tr li phng trnh (5.23), ta thy cc h s Fourier c cho bi: Cn = Jn (). V sng FM tr nn: jn2 f m t j2 f c t fm (t) = Re Ae (5.25) J n ( ) e n = V ej2fct khngl mt hm ca n, ta em vo du tng: j2 t ( f c + nf m ) fm (t) = Re A J n ()e n = V ly phn thc:

fm (t) = A

n =

J n () cos 2( fC + nf m ) t

(5.26)

Ta rt gn sng FM thnh tng ca cc Sinusoids. Bin i F ca tng ny l mt chui xung lc.

Trang V.9

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 5.8: Bin i ca FM, i vi tin tc l Sinusoids. Ta ang gp phi mt rc ri ln ! Bin i ny m rng theo c 2 chiu t tn s sng mang. N c mt kh bng rng v hn. D Jn() tin n zero ti vi tr gi, nhng kh bng rng th khng b gii hn. Nh vy, ta khng th truyn c hiu qu v cng khng th phi hp nhiu ngun tin ring l vo chung mt knh ( Multiplexing ) ( v trng f ). Vi khng i, cc hm Jn() tin n zero khi n tng. Vi s chn la , s hng J0() tin n zero v sng mang b loi. Trong trng hp AM, s loi b sng mang lm tng hiu sut. Nhng i vi FM, s loi sng mang khng c li g c v cng sut ton phn gi khng i. a * tnh xp x kh bng ca sng FM, ta xem cc xung hnh 5.8. Trc ht, ta chn mt tr nh. T hnh 5.6, ta thy rng, nu < 0,5 th J2() < 0,03. Cc hm Bessel bc cao hn (n > 2) th nh hn. Ti =0,5, J1 l 0,24. Vi nhng tr nh ny ca , bin i F hnh 5.8 ch bao gm 5 xung lc gn sng mang. l, thnh phn ti sng mang v 2 thnh phn cch fm k t sng mang. iu , cho mt kh bng l 2 fm. Ta bit iu v nhng tr rt nh ca (aKf/fm) tng ng vi iu kin bng hp. b * By gi, gi s khng nh, th d = 10. Nhng tnh cht m ta ni trn ch rng Jn(10) s gim nhanh chng, khi n > 10. Xem hnh 5.8, ta thy nhng thnh phn c ngha l sng mang v 10 ha tn mi bn ca sng mang. Mt cch tng qut: Vi ln,s s hng (thnh phn) mi bn ca sng mang l ( c lm trn s nguyn ). iu cho mt kh bng l 2fm. Gn y, Jonh Carson a ra nh lut: Kh bng ca sng FM th xp x bng hm ca tn s tn hiu cha tin v ch s bin iu: BW 2(fm + fm) (5.27) iu tha nhn 2 trng hp gii hn. Vi rt nh, kh bng 2fm v ngc li vi ln, kh bng 2fm. Thay = aKf/fm vo (5.27): BW 2(aKf+fm) (5.28) * Ta nh li tn s tc thi c cho bi phng trnh (5.18): fi (t)=fC + aKf cos2fmt Ta thy rng fm l nhp thay i ca fi (t) ,trong lc aKf l tr ti a m n di tn t sng mang - c 2 i lng y iu tham gia vo kh bng ca sng FM. Th d: Tm bng xp x ca cc tn s b chim bi sng FM vi sng mang c tn s 5khz, Kf = 10Hz/V v: a) s(t) = 10 cos10t. b) s(t) = 5 cos20t. c) s(t) = 100 cos2000t. Gii: a) BW 2(aKf+fm) = 2[10(10)+5] = 210Hz. b) BW 2(aKf+fm) = 2[5(10)+10] = 120Hz. c) BW 2(aKf+fm) = 2[100(10)+1.000] = 4khz. Bng ca nhng tn s b chim: a) 4895 n 5105 Hz. b) 4940 n 5060 Hz. c) 3 n 7 Khz.

Trang V.10

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Phng trnh (5.28) c khai trin cho trng hp c bit ca mt tn hiu cha tin hnh Sinusoide. Nu s bin iu l tuyn tnh, th ta c th p dng cng thc ny cho thnh phn tn s cao nht ca s(t) tm kh bng. Nhng, FM th khng tuyn tnh nn cch y khng ng. Ta s tm mt cng thc tng t cho trng hp tng qut. Hnh 5.9, ch tn s tc thi ca trng hp c bit m tn hiu cha tin Sinusoide v trng hp tng qut. Hnh 5.9: Tn s tc thi

akf

Trong trng hp s(t) hnh sin, aKf l di tn ti a ca tn s so vi fc. V trong trng hp tng qut di tn ti a tng t k hiu l f. Cng thc tng qut cho (5.28) l: (5.29) BW 2( f + fm )

Nu f rt ln so vi fm, ta c FM bng rng, v tn s ca sng mang thay i mt khong rng, nhng vi nhp chm. Tn s tc thi ca sng mang thay i chm t fCf n fC+f. Nh vy sng FM xp x vi mt Sinusoide thun trong mt thi gian di. Ta c
th ngh l n l tng ca nhiu Sinusoide vi cc tn s nm gia 2 gii hn. Nn bin i F th gn bng vi s chng ( Superposition ) cc bin i F ca nhng sinusoide y tt c nm trong gii hn tn s. Vy thc hp l gi s rng kh bng th xp x vi b rng ca khong tn s ny, hoc 2f. Nu f rt nh, ta c mt sng mang thay i trong mt khong rt nh ca tn s, nhng vi nhp nhanh. Ta c th tnh gn ng bng 2 mch giao ng ti nhng gii hn tn s. Mi giao ng c Cng ha trong na thi gian ton th. Bng ca cc tn s b chim bi output ca H 5.10 l t fC - f - fm n fC + f + fm. Vi f nh, kh bng l 2fm . Ta thy kh bng ca sng FM tng vi s tng tr gi ca Kf. V im ny, s dng FM bng hp ( vi kh bng ti thiu 2fm ) l hp l. Nhng, FM bng rng li c u im v trit nhiu hn c FM bng hp v AM.

Hnh 5.10: Xp x ca FM bng hp

Trang V.11

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

V d: Mt sng mang 10MHz c bin iu FM bi mt tn hiu Sinusoide c tn s 5KHz, sao cho di tn ti a ca sng FM l 500KHz - Tm bng xp x ca cc tn s b chim bi sng FM. Gii: Kh bng xp x BW 2(f + fm). BW 2(500KHz + 5KHz) = 1.010 KHz . Vy bng ca tn s b chim th tp trung quanh tn s sng mang, v trong khong t 9.495 n 10.505KHz. Tn hiu FM th d ny l bng rng. Nu n l bng hp, kh bng s ch l 10KHz. Th d: Mt sng mang 100KHz b bin iu FM bi mt tn hiu sinusoide c bin 1V. Kf c tr 100Hz/V. Tm kh bng xp x ca sng FM nu tn hiu bin iu c mt tn s 10KHz. Gii: Ta li dng php tnh xp x ca Carson: BW 2(f + fm) V tn hiu cha tin s(t) c bin n v, di tn ti a f c cho bi kf , hoc 100Hz . fm l 10 Khz, tn s ca tn hiu bin iu. Vy : BW 2(100Hz + 10 Khz) = 20.200Hz . V fm rt ln so vi f , y l tn hiu FM bng hp. Kh bng cn thit truyn cng tin tc khi dng DSB AM s l 20KHz, xp x vi kh bng ca sng FM ny. V du: Mt sng bin iu gc c m t bi: (t) = 10 cos[2 x 107t + 20cos1000t] Tm kh bng xp x ca sng ny. Gii: fm l 500Hz. tnh f, trc ht ta tm tn s tc thi: 1 d fi (t) = ( 2 x 107t + 20cos1000t ). 2 dt = 107-10.000 sin 1000t . di tn ti a ca 10.000 sin1000t, hoc 10KHz. Vy kh bng xp x c cho bi: BW 2( 10.000 + 500 ) = 21khz . R rng y l mt sng FM bng rng v f rt ln so vi fm. Nh l ta khng bit y l bin iu tn s hoc pha khi tm kh bng.

KHI BIN IU.

Ta thy sng FM c kh bng gii hn chung quanh sng mang fC. Nh vy tiu chun th nht ca mt h thng bin iu c tha. Ta c th truyn tin mt cch hiu qu bng cnh chn fC trong mt khong ring. V ta cng c th Multiplexing nhiu tn hiu ng trong cng mt knh bng cnh lm cc tn s sng mang ln cn cch bit nhau sao cho bin i F ca ca cc sng FM khng ph nhau v tn s. Tiu chun th 2, l chng t c s(t) c th c hi phc t sng bin iu gc. V cc khi bin iu, hon iu c th thc hin c trong thc t. Ta bt u xem li FM bng hp - dng sng c din t bi phng trnh (5.15). fm(t) = A cos2[fct - Kf g(t)]

fm(t) = A cos2fct - 2A g(t) Kf sin 2fct Phng trnh ny tc khc a n s khi nh hnh 5.11. - Biu thc tng ng cho PM bng hp:
Trang V.12

(5.30)

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

pm(t) = A cos2fCt - 2AKP s(t) sin2fCt (5.31) Hnh 5.11 Phi c ci bin bng cch thay 2Kf s(t) bng 2Kp s(t) v b tch phn.

Hnh 5.11: Khi bin iu cho FM bng hp. Tn s tc thi ca output ca h l: fi (t) = fC + Kf s(t) y l FM bng hp v tr ln nht ca Kf s(t) ( di tn ) th nh so vi nhng tn s hin din trong s(t). Gi s ta t output ca sng FM bng hp ngang qua mt linh kin phi tuyn m n nhn tt c tn s bi mt hng s C. Kt qu tn s tc thi l: fi (t) = CfC+ Ckf s(t) (5.32) di tn ca sng mi ny bng C ln sng c, trong lc nhp thay i ca fi (t) vn khng i. iu ny, v hnh 5.12. Nh vy, vi tr C ln, s nhn tn lm thay i FM bng hp thnh FM bng rng. N cng lm di chuyn sng mang, nhng iu ny khng gy hiu qu trn mt sng FM d l bng hp hay bng rng.

2Cfm

Cfc-Cfm Cfc+Cfm Hnh 5.12: S nhn tn Xem mt cch khc, nu kh bng sng FM ln ng k so vi 2fm, tn hiu l bng rng. Nu sng mang mi c tn s cao hn ny khng mong mun, ta c th di ( i tn ) n bt k tr no m khng lm nh hng n kh bng. Khi bin iu FM kt qu v hnh 5.13.

Hnh 5.13: Khi bin iu cho FM bng rng * C mt cnh trc tip to nn FM bng rng, nh hnh 5.14.

Trang V.13

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 5.14: Mch pht FM Mt mch dao ng cao tn to sng mang, c tn s quyt nh bi mch iu hp ( hoc thch anh ) u song song vi mt doide bin dung (Varicap). in dung ca varicap c th thay i bng cnh lm thay i dng chy ngang qua n (nu phn cc thun) hoc in th t ln 2 u n (nu phn cc ngc). S thay i in dung ca varicap s lm thay i tn s ca mch giao ng. Nu dng hay th i ngang qua varicap thay i t l vi tn hiu cha tin th tn s ca mch giao ng thay i t l vi tn hiu ny. V sng FM s c to ra. Trong hnh 5.14. Bn phi D l mch giao ng m tn s c lm thay i. Bn tri D l mch phn cc v ghp tn hiu s(t) vo doide D. T C2 c tr rt ln so vi tr ca in dung Varicap, nn ch c tc dng cch ly DC. RFC, cun chn cao tn, nga tn hiu dao ng ghp ngc li ngun phn cc. C1: t phn dng.

KHI HON IU.

Xem dng sng bin iu FM nh sau:

fm(t) = A cos2( fct + Kf

s()d ) .

S hon iu hi phc li s(t) gm 2 loi: - Tch sng phn bit ( Discriminator ), tch mt thnh phn tn s ra khi cc thnh phn khc v chuyn s thay i tn s thnh thay i bin ri tch sng ging nh AM. - Vng kha pha ( Phase - Lockloop ) phi hp mt dao ng ni vi sng mang c bin iu.

1. Tch sng phn bit. (discriminator)

A. Ly o hm mt Sinusoide l tin trnh nhn Sinusoide vi tn s tc thi ca n:
t d = -2A [ fc + Kf s(t) ] sin2(fct + Kf s()d ) . 0 dt

Trang V.14

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 5.15: o hm ca sng FM Gi s tn s tc thi th ln hn nhiu so vi fm (hp l vi thc t). Thnh phn sng mang lp y vng gia bin v nh qua gng ca n. Thc t, vng din tch gia ng bin trn v ng bin di b che kn do tn s qu cao ca sng mang. Nh vy, ngay c khi tn s sng mang khng l hng, bao hnh ca sng vn c nh ngha: 2 A[fC + Kf s(t)] (5.34) S thay i cht t ca tn s sng mang s khng ng k bi mt tch sng bao hnh. Trong cc h thng tin thc t, fC >> Kf s(t). Vy lng nm trong ngoc ca (5.34) th dng, v ta c th b u tr tuyt i. Tm li: Mt mch vi phn v sau l mt tch sng bao hnh s c th dng hi phc li s(t) t sng FM.

Hnh 5.16: Hon iu FM. Nu s bin iu l PM, th output ca h hnh 5.16 l o hm ca s(t). Khi cn thm mt mch tch phn ng ra ca h. Hm h thng ca mch vi phn: H(f) = 2jf (5.35)

Hnh 5.17: c tuyn Sut ca mch vi phn. c tuyn Sut c v hnh 5.17. Sut ca output ca mch vi phn th t l tuyn tnh vi tn s ca input. Nh vy mch vi phn i FM thnh AM. Khi mt mch vi phn dng nh th, ta gi n l mt discriminator.

b. C mt loi Discriminator khc. Bt k h thng no c mt sut hm h thng gn - Tuyn tnh vi tn s trong khong dy tn ca sng FM s iu i FM thnh AM.
Th d: Mt BPF s lm vic nh mt Discriminator nu cho n hot ng trn mt

H (f )

f
Gn tuyn tnh
khong gii hn ca kh bng, nh hnh 5.18. Hnh 5.18 Trang V.15

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Ta c th chng minh s tuyn tnh ca BPF Discriminator theo cch thc tng t nh khi bin iu cn bng. Xem mch in hnh 5.19. Na trn ca my bin th L1 v C1 iu hp ti fa . Na di my bin th v C2 iu hp ti fb.
D1

D2

Hnh 5.19: Tch sng dc

Hnh 5.20: Discriminator Mch in trn y gi l tch sng dc ( Slope Detector ) v n dng on dc ca c tuyn mch lc tch sng.

C. By gi ta tr li khi vi phn gc. Ta s thy mt cch tip cn khc. Ta c th tinch o hm mt cch gn ng bng vi tn hiu ca hai tr mu ca sng:
(t) - ( t - to ) to
d . dt

iu ny dn n khi hon iu nh hnh 5.21. V mt s di thi gian th tng ng vi mt s di pha, nn khi ny gi l hon iu di pha ( Phase Shif Demodulator ).

fm

(t)

s( t )

Hnh 5.21: Hon iu di pha.

2. Vng kha pha (phase - lockloop).

Vng kha pha PLL l mt mch hi tip, c th c dng hon iu sng bin iu gc. Mch hi tip thng c dng gim thiu error (v zero). Trong trng hp PLL, error l mt hiu pha gi tn hiu ng vo sng FM v mt tn hiu chun hnh sin. (VCO) .

Trang V.16

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Error 1 cos(1 2 ) 2

PLL tch sng FM: Trc ht, xem mch so pha; gm 1 mch nhn v mt lc LPF. Cho hai tn hiu vo cng tn s v pha ln lt l 1 v 2 1 cos(a + b) = [cos(a + b) + cos(a b)] 2 Thnh phn cos(a+b) c tn s 2fc nn b lai b bi LPF. Ng ra l
1 cos(1 2 ) . y 2

l Error ca mch so pha. Error s tin n 0 khi 1-2 tin n 90o. Mch PLL gm 1 mch so pha v 1 VCO, nm trn ng hi tip. Mch to nn mt vng iu chnh t ng.

r1 r2

LPF

vo (t)
Error

VCO

Hnh 5.22: Vng kha pha (PLL) VCO to ra mt sng sin. Mt phn tn hiu ra Vo(t) c hi tip v lm Error sa sai pha cho VCO. Mch c tc dng t iu chnh sao cho Error tin n 0. Ngha l c khuynh hng lm hiu pha tin n 90o. Khi , ta ni vng b kha (locked). By gi, ta p dng PLL tch sng FM .

Sng FM n

cos2[fc (t) + Kf g(t)]

s 2 (t ) s1 (t)

LPF

vo (t)
Error

VCO

Hnh 5.23: Tch sng FM VCO to 1 sng sin, bin B, tn s fc v lch pha vi sng FM n 1 gc /2. Sng hnh sin ny c Error bin iu FM nn c dng:

Trang V.17

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

s1 ( t ) = B sin 2(f c t + K o v o ()d

0

s2(t) l ng ra mch nhn nn:

s 2 (t ) = AB cos 2 f c t + K f g (t ) sin 2 ( f c t + K o v( )d )
0

s 2 (t ) =

AB sin 2 K f g (t ) K 0 v( )d ) +Bc cao 2 0

t

f m (t ) = 2K f g (t ) at hai he so pha: (t ) = 2K 0 v0 ( )d 0 AB sin f m (t ) 0 (t ) ngo ra ca LPF: v0 (t ) = 2

2 Tm ap ng transient, lay o ham hai ve: dv 0 (t ) AB d f m (t ) d 0 (t ) = = AB[K f s (t ) K 0 v0 (t )] 2 dt dt dt Cuoi cung, phng trnh vi phan c cho bi: dv 0 (t ) + K 0 ABv 0 (t ) = K f ABs (t ) dt ap ng thng trc la nghiem ca phng trnh nay. Cho o ham tien ti zero. Kf s (t ) => v 0 (t ) = K0

Neu he so pha nho: v0 (t ) =

AB f m (t ) 0 (t )

FM STEREO.
FM Stereo l tin trnh gi i 2 tn hiu Audio ng thi trong cng mt knh FM. Nh rng ta ch c kh bng 30KHz gi theo kiu FM bng hp. Hnh 5.24: Tn hiu Stereo Multiplex
38K

Hnh 5.24 l mt h thng Multiplex 2 knh Audio. S1(f) v s2(f) l bin i hiu m tn tng qut, c kh bng gii hn. Trang V.18

F ca 2 tn

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Trc ht ta bin iu AM mt sng mang 38KHz vi S2(t). iu ny lm di tn tn hiu n khong gia 23 v 53 KHz nh vy n khng ph vi tn hiu ca S1(t). Sau ta cng chng li v ri cng vi sng cao tn 19KHz. Bin i F ca output v bn phi ca hnh 5.24. Tn hiu tng hp: s1(t) + s2(t) cos 2 x 38 x 103 t + cos2 . 19 . 103t . Biu din bi mt hm thi gian vi tn s trn l 53KHz. Ta c th bin iu FM sng mang bng hm ny. Nh vy, nu dng kiu FM bng hp, ta ch s dng 106KHz ( trong khong 200KHz c php ). Ti my thu, ta hon iu sng FM hi phc tn hiu tng hp (Hnh 5.25). LPF1 hi phc s1(t) . BPF s tch s hng th 3 ra khi tn hiu tng hp, v ri ta phi hi phc s2(t) t sng bin iu (AM). Nu ta chn cnh cng thm mt sng mang vo cho TCAM ny, ta khng phi dng mt mch tch sng bao hnh nhn li s2(t). iu ny ng, vi tn s sng mang l 38KHz, vo khong 2,5 ln ln hn tn s cao nht ca s2(t). M s hot ng ca tch sng bao

L+R LR
FM Stereo Demux

hnh i hi tn s sng mang phi rt cao so vi tn s ln nht ca tn hiu cha tin. Vy ta phi dng tch sng ng b. iu ny, ta thy hnh 5.25, tn hiu tng hp c nhn vi sng mang 38KHz v ri LPF2 s hi phc li s2(t). Bng cnh no ta bo m rng Sinusoide 38KHz my thu s ng b ha tt cho sng mang nhn c ?. Ta vn c th truyn i sng mang v dng vng kha pha hi phc n my thu. Nhng y, c mt cnh n gin hn. Xem li hnh 5.24. Nh l, sng mang 38KHz l do nhn i tn s t mch dao ng 19KHz. Tn hiu ny (19KHz) c cng vo tn hiu tng hp. Hnh 5.25: Hon iu FM Stereo. Nh vy, Tn hiu tng hp hin ti l: s1(t) + s2(t) cos2 x 3.8 x 104t + A cos2 x 1,9 x 104t Bin i F ca n v bn phi hnh 5.24. Ta thy c mt xung lc xut hin ti 19KHz ( l do sinusoide cng vo ). Ti my thu, output ca khi tch sng bao hnh (hnh 5.25) c cha thnh phn ny. N c tch ra nh BPF - v chnh n c phn i dng ng b ha cho vic tch sng AM. Nh vy, ta thy 2 tn hiu Sinusoide 38KHz ( i pht v my thu ) u c ngun gc t mt ngun chung 19KHz. Vn cn tn ti mt vn . l vn tng hp gia my thu Mono v Stereo. Mt my Mono khng thun nhn knh tri ( hoc phi ). hnh 5.25, out put ca LPF1, s1(t) biu Trang V.19

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

din cho tn hiu mt my thu mono - nhng ta khng mun s1(t) v s2(t) biu din cho tn hiu ring ca mi knh. Thay vo , ta t s1(t) l tng ca tn hiu tri v phi v s2(t) l hiu. Nh vy, my thu mono s nhn tng ca tn hiu tri v phi. My thu Stereo phi lm mt thut ton cng tuyn tnh. Thut ton ny l cng s1(t) + s2(t) t vo mt knh, v ly hiu t vo knh kia. l thut ton Matrix.

SO SNH CC H.
* FM bng hp: C th c pht ra vi mt h thng gm mt mch nhn, mt mch tch phn v mt mch di pha. N c hon iu vi mt Discriminator theo sau l tch sng bao hnh hoc vng kha pha. Kh bng ca FM bng hp l 2fm (fm l tn s cao nht ca tn hiu cha tin). Mc d s bin iu nhn rt ging nh mt bin i AM, nhng n c mt s khc bit. Sng bin iu c bin khng i, cho php ta a thm mch hn bin vo my thu. Nh , ct c nhiu, vy n c u im hn AM v mt ny. * PM bng hp: Rt ging vi FM bng hp - Mch tch phn trong khi bin iu v hon iu c thm vo. Kh bng l 2fm. Bin ca PM th khng i, nn cng tng t FM bng hp, my thu c mch hn bin ( limiter ) loi nhiu. Mch tch phn cui cng trong khi hon iu lm gim tn s cao. iu ny c li, nu tn hiu cha tin ch tn s cao hoc nhiu chen vo c tn s cao. * FM bng rng: c pht ra hoc gin tip t FM bng hp ( ngang qua mch nhn tn ) hoc bng VCO. N c hon iu cng mt cnh thc nh FM bng hp. Kh bng khong 2fm, ln hn kh bng AM hay kh bng bin iu gc bng hp. u im ln nht ca FM bng rng l kh nng gim nhiu ca n. T s tn hiu trn nhiu khong 2 . * PM bng rng: Tng t vi FM bng rng. Tuy nhin c im kh, l ch s bin iu khng th tng v hn. di pha ti a b hn n 1800. Do y, c mt s khng xc nh v pha, nn tn hiu gc khng th c hi phc duy nht. * DSBSCAM: C kh bng 2fm.. Hiu sut 100%, v khng phi tn nng lng cho sng mang thun ty. S hon iu cn cc mch kt hp. l vn kh trong vic to li sng mang my thu. * DSBTCAM: C kh bng 2fm. Hiu sut nh hn 50% v phi tn nng lng trong vic truyn i mt sng mang thun ty. B phn hon iu d thc hin nht ( tch sng bao hnh ). N khng dng cho mt tn hiu c mc DC khc zero v thng tin ny s b mt ti khi hon iu. * SSBAM: C kh bng nh nht fm. Hiu sut 100% v khng tn nng lng cho sng mang thun ty. Khi bin iu hoc hon iu phc tp, s phc tp cao l do s lc cn thit i pht v s hi phc sng mang vi cc mch tch sng kt hp my thu. * VSBSCAM: C kh bng ln hn fm nhng nh hn 2fm. Khi bin iu d thc hin hn vi SSB. Nhng khi hon iu cn hi phc sng mang v cng cn mt mch lc c iu chnh cn thn kt hp ng vi cc bng cnh. * VSBTCAM: C kh bng ln hn fm nhng nh hn 2fm, khi bin iu thc hin hn l SSB v nu sng mang ln c th dng tch sng bao hnh. V vy, s hon iu rt n gin.

Trang V.20

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Chng VI: BIN IU XUNG

LY MU (SAMPLING). ERROR TRONG S LY MU. BIN IU XUNG. BIN IU BIN XUNG: PAM. MULTIPLEXING PHN THI GIAN - TDM (TIME - DIVISION MULTIPLEXING). BIN IU RNG XUNG PWM: (PLUSE WIDTH MODULATION). BIN IU V TR XUNG -PPM (PULSE POSITION MODULATION).

Trang VI.1

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

I. LY MU (Sampling).
i mt sng cha tin Analog thnh tn hiu ri rc, trc thi gian, phi bng cch ny hay cch khc, c ri rc ho. S i trc thi gian lin tc thnh mt trc ri rc c thc hin nh phng php ly mu. nh l ly mu ( i khi cn gi l nh l Shannon, hoc nh l Kotelnikov ) chng t rng: Nu bin i F ca mt hm thi gian l zero vi f > fm v nhng tr gi ca hm thi gian c bit vi t = n TS ( vi mi tr nguyn ca n ) th hm thi gian c bit mt cch chnh xc cho mi tr ca t. 1 iu kin hn ch l TS < . 2f m Ni cch khc, s(t) c th c xc nh t nhng tr gi ca n ti mt lot nhng thi im cch u nhau. Tn s ly mu, k hiu l fS = 1/TS ,fS > 2fm Nh vy, tn s ly mu t nht phi 2 ln cao hn tn s ca tn hiu c ly mu. Nhp ly mu ti thiu, 2 fm, c gi l nhp ly mu Nyquist. Th d, nu mt ting ni c tn s max 4KHz, n phi c ly mu t nht 8.000 ln/sec. Ta thy rng khong cch gia nhng thi im ly mu th t l nghch vi tn s cao nht ca tn hiu ( fm ). C t nht 3 cch tip cn vi nh l Shannon. Ta s trnh by y 2 cch. 1. Cch th nht, ch cn s hiu bit c bn v nh l AM.

Hnh 6.1: Tch ca chui xung v s(t). Ta ly tch ca mt chui xung v s(t). Nu chui gm nhng xung hp, th output ca mch nhn l mt phin bn c mu ho ca tn hiu gc. Output khng ch ty thuc vo nhng tr mu ca input m cn vo mt khong nhng tr chung quanh mi im ly mu. Nhng h thng thc t thng ly mu trong mt khong thi gian nh xung quanh cc im ly mu. Hm nhn khng nht thit phi cha cc xung vung hon ton, n c th l mt tn hiu tun hon bt k. Php nhn s(t) vi p(t) nh hnh 1 l mt dng " ng m cng " (Time Gating ) hay Switching. Ch ch ca ta l chng t rng tn hiu gc c th c hi phc t sng ly mu, ss(t). Gi s s(t) bng zero ti nhng tn s cao hn fm. Bin i F ca n S(f) b ct ti fm.

Trang VI.2

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 6.2: Bin i F ca s(t) V chui xung nhn vo gi s l tun hon, n c th c khai trin thnh chui F. V v p(t) c chn l hm chn, ta c th dng chui lng gic ch cha cc s hng cosine. Vy : ss(t) = s(t)p(t).

= s(t) a o + a n cos2nf S t

n =1

(6.1)

= ao s(t) +

n=1 Mi s hng trong ca phng trnh (1) l mt sng AM, trong tn hiu cha tin l s(t) v sng mang l nfS.

an s(t) cos2nfSt

Bin i F ca ss(t) v hnh 6.3.

fs
Hnh 6.3: Bin i F ca sng mu ha Tp trung ti gc, l bin i ca aos (t). Cc phin bn b di tn l bin i ca cc s hng bin iu cha trong du . Ta thy cc thnh phn khng ph nhau v fS > 2fm. ( l iu kin ca nh l ly mu ). Vy chng ta c th tch ra bng cch dng nhng mch lc tuyn tnh. Mt lc LPF c tn s ct fm s hi phc li thnh phn aos(t). 2. Ta ni n cch th hai, v n i vo cc nguyn l ton hc ca s ly mu. Khai trin S(f) thnh chui F trong khong: - fm < f _< fm

S(f) =

n =

C e
n

jnt 0f

(6.2)

Trong : to =

fm

V Cn c cho bi: Cn =
1 fm jnt of df S( f )e 2f m f m

(6.3)

Trang VI.3

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Nhng F s(t) =

-1

cho ta :
fm

S(f )ej 2ft df =

f m

S(f )ej 2ft df

(6.4)

So snh (6.3) v (6.4) ta thy: Cn =

1 n 1 nt o s s = 2f m 2 2f m 2f m

(6.5)

Phng trnh (6.5) cho thy Cn s c xc nh mt khi s(t) c bit ti im n t= . Mt khi Cn c bit th S(f) c bit. V mt khi S(f) bit th s(t) cng s c 2f m bit. Nh vy, ta chng minh c nh l ly mu. Ta c th gii tm s(t). Thay Cn vo phng trnh (6.2):

1 S(f) = 2f m

n =

n s e 2f m 1 2f m

jn ft fm

(6.6)
jn f fm

-1

s(t) =

n =

fm

f m

n s e 2f m

.ej 2 ft df

n =

n s 2f m

sin( 2 f m t + n) 2 f m t + n

(6.7)

Ta c th dng (6.7) tm tr gi ca s(t) ti bt k thi im no bng cch bit nhng tr mu ho ca s(t).

II. ERROR TRONG S LY MU.

nh l ly mu ch rng s(t) c th c hi phc hon ton t nhng tr mu ca n. Ta nh ngha error nh l s sai bit gia hm thi gian c hi phc v hm gc. Trong thc t, error l hu qu t 3 ngun chnh:

1. Ly mu vi tn s khng cao:
V d: Mt hm sin tn s 3 Hz nh hnh 4. Gi s ta ly mu hnh sin ny vi nhp 4 mu/sec. nh l ly mu cho bit, tn s ly mu nh nht c th hi phc tn hiu

Hnh 6.4: Error do ly mu chm

Trang VI.4

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

l 6 mu/sec. Vy 4 mu/sec th khng nhanh. Nn nhng mu ny s to nn mt hm sin 1Hz (ng chm chm ). Tn hiu 3 Hz t ho thnh tn hiu 1 Hz (Hnh 6.4). By gi ta xem mt tn hiu c ly mu bng mt chui xung lc l tng ( dng n nh gii hn l thuyt ca cc xung hp ) ti tn s nh hn nhp Nyquist.( Hnh 6.5 ) t

(t)

Hnh 6.5: Ly mu xung lc vi tn s nh hn nhp Nyquist Nu ta nh ngha error nh sau: e(t) so (t) - s(t) Bin i F

:
E(f) = So (f) - S(f) = S(f - fS) + S( f + fS ) ; f < fm.

Nh rng nu s(f) b gii hn nhng tn s di fS/2, bin i F ca error s l zero.

2. Ly mu trong mt khong thi gian c gii hn:

nh l ly mu cn thit phi ly mu ti mi t trong mt khong v hn, v mi mu c dng to li tr gi ca hm gc ti bt k thi im no. Trong mt h thng thc t, tn hiu c quan st trong mt thi gian c gii hn.

3. Trong cc h thng tin digital:

Ta ch gi i nhng tr gi ri rc. Do sinh ra Round-Off Error.

III. BIN IU XUNG:

nh l ly mu gi ra mt k thut i mt tn hiu Analog s(t) thnh mt tn hiu ri rc. Ta ch cn ly mu tn hiu lin tc ti nhng thi im ri rc, th d mt danh sch cc s 1 c ly mu s(0), s(T), s(2T)... Trong T< . 2f m truyn tn hiu ri rc mu ho , danh sch cc s s c c trn mt telephone hoc c vit trn mt mnh giy gi FAX. Mt phng php rt hp dn cho vin thng l bin iu vi thng s ca mt sng mang ty vo danh sch cc s. Tn hiu c bin iu sau c truyn trn dy hoc trong khng kh ( nu bng tn n chim cho php ). V thng tin c dng ri rc, nn ch cn dng tn hiu mang sng ri rc (thay v dng sng sin lin tc nh 2 chng trc).

Trang VI.5

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Ta chn mt chui xung tun hon lm sng mang. Cc thng s c th lm thay i l bin , b rng v v tr ca mi xung. S lm thay i mt trong ba thng s y s a n 3 kiu bin iu: - PAM ( Pulse Amlitude Modulation: Bin iu bin xung ). - PWM ( Pube Width Mod: Bin iu rng xung ). - PPM ( Pulse Position Mod: Bin iu v tr xung ).

IV. BIN IU BIN XUNG: PAM.

- Hnh 6.7 : V mt sng mang sC(t) mt tn hiu cha tin s(t) v tn hiu PAM sm(t). ta thy ch c bin ca xung sng mang b thay i, cn dng xung vn gi khng i. Nh l sm(t) khng phi l tch ca s(t) vi sC(t). Ta gi sm(t) trong trng hp ny l PAM nh phng ( flat top PAM ) hoc PAM ly mu tc thi ( Instantanous Sampling PAM )

Hnh 6.7: PAM nh phng - Nu ly tch ca sC(t) v s(t), ta c kt qu l sng PAM v nh hnh 6.8. , chiu cao cc xung khng phi l hng m thay i theo ng cong ca s(t). Trng hp ny, ta gi l PAM ly mu t nhin ( Natural Sampling ).

Trang VI.6

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 6.8: PAM ly mu t nhin

F ca PAM xc nh knh sng cn thit. Trc ht l xem trng hp ca PAM ly mu t nhin. Da vo nh l ly mu. Khai trin sC(t) thnh chui F.
By gi ta ly bin i Ri nhn vi s(t). Kt qu thu c l 1 tng gm nhiu sng AM vi cc tn s sng mang l tn s cn bn v cc ho tn sC(t) . Xem hnh 6.9.

Hnh 6.9: Bin i F ca PAM ly mu t nhin Bin i F ca PAM nh phng th kh tnh hn. n gin ta xem h thng v hnh 6.10 Ly mu s (t) bng mt chui xung lc l tng. Ri nh dng mi xung lc thnh dng xung nh mun, trong trng hp ny l mt xung vung nh phng.

Hnh 6.10: Mch to ra sng bin iu Bin i F ca tn hiu ly mu ng v ca lc c tm t nh l ly mu. Chui F ca chui xung lc c nhng tr Cn bng nhau vi mi n. Bin i xung lc v hnh 6.11

F ca sng c ly mu

Trang VI.7

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 6.11: Bin i F ca sng c ly mu xung lc. Bin i F ca output ca mch lc l tch ca bin i trn y vi hm chuyn ca mch lc. Hm chuyn ny c v hnh 6.12. Cui cng bin i ca output v hnh 6.13. Nh rng phn tn s thp ca n khng phi l mt phin bn b mo ca S(f).

Hnh 6.12: Hm chuyn ca mch lc

Trang VI.8

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 6.13: Bin i F ca PAM nh phng

Th d 1: Mt tn hiu cha tin c dng: s(t) = 6.14. Tm bin i F ca sng bin iu. sc(t)
1

sin t t c truyn bng cch dng PAM. Sng mang l chui xung tam gic tun hon nh hnh

2T

Hnh 14: Sng mang. Gii: Ta xem hnh 6.10. Output ca mch ly mu bng xung lc l tng c bin i F.
1 S (f ) = T

n =

S(f nf )
o

Trong S(f) l bin i F ca

sin t . Bin i ny l mt xung nh hnh v. t

Mch lc phi thay i mi xung lc thnh mt xung tam gic. p ng xung lc ca chng l mt xung tam gic m bin i ca n l:

H(f ) =

sin 2 ( f )

2 2f 2

Trang VI.9

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Cui cng, bin i

F ca sng PAM c cho bi tch ca S(f).H(f) nh hnh v 6.15.

Hnh 6.15: Bin i F ca v d 1.

S quan st tng qut c ngha v PAM l sng PAM chim tt c nhng tn s t zero n v hn. Nh vy, n b xem l khng th truyn c hiu qu trong khng kh cng nh Multiplexing. V phn c ngha nht ca bin i F ca sng PAM nm xung quanh tn s zero, ta thng dng AM hoc FM gi sng PAM. l, ta xem sng PAM nh l tn hiu cha tin v n bin iu mt sng mang hnh sin. Nhng ti sao ta phi thc hin mt bin iu kp, m khng truyn tn hiu gc bng AM hoc FM ? Hy nh l tn hiu gc khng c dng Analog lin tc m l tn hiu ri rc. Sau khi bin iu AM hoc FM vi sng PAM, kh bng tr nn rt rng. V l do ny bin iu xung c kt hp vi AM hoc FM thng khng c truyn theo cng cch thc nh tn hiu bin iu khc. N thng truyn trn cp ng trc, vn c kh nng truyn mt khong rng ca tn s. i khi n cng c truyn qua khng kh ti tn s microwave. Tn s ny cao kh bng rng khng b xem nh l s qu cng sut ( over powering ) i vi sng mang. V Multiplexing tn s khng c, n ch truyn mt tn hiu ti mt thi im. Tuy nhin, ta s thy mt dng khc ca Multiplexing thch hp vi tn hiu bin iu xung.

1. Khi bin iu.

Nhng mch cng dng bin iu AM u c th dng bin iu PAM ly mu t nhin. Ch cn loi b lc dy thng t khi bin iu ( Hnh 6.16.a). Hnh 6.16b ch khi bin iu dng cu diode.

Trang VI.10

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 6.16: Khi bin iu cho PAM Khi bin iu cho PAM phng nh th n gin hn cho PAM ly mu t nhin. Ta ch cn dng mt mch ly mu v gi ( Sample and Hold ). Mch ny c l tng ho nh hnh 6.17.

Hnh 6.17: Mch ly mu v gi. S1 ng tun hon ti nhng thi im ly mu. T C np in n tr mu mi khi s1 ng v ri S1 ngt. V t khng c ng x in, nn s gi tr gi mu v to nn ng phng ca nh sng PAM. Khi S2 ng, t s x n zero. Ta tnh trc t v mch in t sao cho thi gian np tht nhanh v ta cng chn mch c tng tr ra tht nh thi hng x ngn.

2. Khi hon iu.

S hon iu PAM ly mu t nhin da trc tip vo nh l ly mu. S hi phc tn hiu Analog gc t phin bn mu ho ca n cn mt LPF. S hon iu PAM nh phng cn thm mt s vic. Ta s dng mch S/H phc hi mt dng sng hnh bc thang xp x vi dng sng tn hiu gc. t thi gian gi bng chu k ly mu. Kt qu v hnh 6.18. Hm bc thang c th c lc bi mt LPF dng sng c trn phng, gn ging vi dng sng gc.

Trang VI.11

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 6.18: Hon iu dng mch S/H - Bin i i

F ca sng PAM nh phng nh hnh 6.11. Ta c c bng cch nhn bin

F ca tn hiu mu ho cho H(f) ( hm chuyn ca mch lc ) i xung lc mu ho thnh xung mu ho. Phn bng gc ( base band ) ca bin i F c dng S(f)H(f). Vy s(t) c
th c hi phc t sm(t) bng cch dng mt mch lc LPF m hm chuyn ca n th v hnh 6.19. Mch lc vi hm chuyn 1/H(f) c xem nh l mt mch cn bng v n trit nhng hiu qu ca s to dng xung.

Hnh 6.19: Hm chuyn ca hon iu PAM Tch sng kiu ly mu v gi cn mt thng tin v thi gian ng b vi i pht. l, my thu phi ly mu sng nhn c ti nhng thi im ly mu lc u. Thng tin v thi gian c th ly sng thu c. Hoc n cng c th c gi theo (Analog) di dng nhng xung nh du ( Marker Pulse ). Nu sng thu c c thi gian tng, cc b tng c th c d bng mt mch vi phn. Xung rng kt qu c th c dng thc hin thi im ly mu.

Trang VI.12

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Ngc li, xung nh du tun hon c th c chen vo tn hiu truyn. Cc xung nh du c bin ln hn xung tn hiu, nn chng c th c nhn dng d dng ti my thu.

V. MULTIPLEXING PHN THI GIAN - TDM (Time Division Multiplexing).

Ta nhiu ln nhn mnh rng cc tn hiu c th tch bit nhau nu chng khng ph nhau v thi gian hoc v tn s. V kh bng ca sng bin iu xung th cc rng, nn s tch tn s thng khng kh thi. May mn, sng bin iu xung c c trng bi phn sng xung quanh zero ca trc thi gian ( tn hiu bng gc base band ). V vy, c th tch tn hiu v mt thi gian. TDM l tin trnh cng cc tn hiu sao cho chng khng ph nhau v thi gian.

1. Multiplexing nhng knh c nhp ly mu ging nhau:

Trc ht, ta ni v TDM cho cc tn hiu c nhp ly mu ging nhau. Sau ta a vo nhng k thut Multiplex cc tn hiu c nhp ly mu khc nhau. K thut ny bao gm b siu giao hon ( supercommutation ) v b Multiplexer c Memory. TDM cc tn hiu c nhp ly mu ging nhau c th xem nh nhng xung xen k. Hnh 6.20 ch TDM 2 tn hiu.

Hnh 6.20: Multiplex c 2 knh Nh l SW thay i v tr trong khong thi gian khng lu hn mt chu k ly mu. l, hai xung c gi trong mi chu k ly mu, vy nhp xung trn mi knh th gp i nhp ly mu. Gi s ta tng ln 10 knh. SW tr thnh mt b giao hon nh hnh 6.21.SW phi xoay gip vng nhanh sao cho n tr li knh 1 trong thi gian ly mu ln 2. SW ca my thu phi xoay ng b vi SW i pht. Nu ta bit chnh xc tin g c gi i trn mt ca cc knh, ta s c th nhn dng c mu ca n ti my thu. Mt phng php chung to s ng b l hy sinh mt knh v gi tn hiu ng b vo . Ta s thy iu trong vi h thng truyn Digital.

Trang VI.13

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 6.21: Multiplexing10 knh. iu duy nht lm gii hn vn tc quay ca SW ( v do gii hn s knh c th Multiplex ) l t s ca rng mi xung vi khong cch gia cc mu gn nhau ca mt knh. Vy cn thit k mi xung hp hn v kh bng ca tn hiu rng hn.

2. Multiplexing nhng knh c nhp ly mu khc nhau:

C 2 cch Multiplex nhng tn hiu c nhp ly mu khc nhau: Multiplex khng ng b v Multiplex siu giao hon. a - Dng mt buffer gi nhng tr mu v ri a chng ra theo mt nhp c nh. Phng cch ny cng c hiu qu nu nhp ly mu c nhng thay i. iu quan trng thit k mt h thng nh vy l buffer phi lun lun c cc mu gi khi knh c yu cu. iu ny cn n vic a vo cc mu nhi ( stuffing samples ) nu buffer b trng. Ngc li, buffer phi ln sao cho n khng b ngp trn ( overflow ). Phng php buffer cng c dng nu cc ngun tin khc nhau c truyn khng ng b. S nh c cho bufffer cn n s phn gii xc sut, do a n cc b Multiplexer thng k Stat.Mux ( Statistical Multiplexer ). b - K thut tng qut th nh l dng siu giao hon. Tt c nhp ly mu c nhn vi nhp c bn. iu ny s gp khi cn ly mu nhng knh vi nhp cao hn, lc dng khng c Multiplexing. Gi s, nu ta c hai knh vi nhp ly mu cn l 8 v 15,5 kHz, khi Multiplex chng ta c th chn 16 kHz ly mu nhanh hn. Nguyn l ca siu hon th n gin. Ta hy xem th d hnh 6.22, v mt bnh xe giao hon ( Commutator Wheel ) 32 khe v 2 bnh xe giao hon ph. Gi s ta mun Multiplex 44 knh sau: 1 Knh ly mu ti 80 KHz 1 Knh ly mu ti 40 KHz 18 Knh ly mu ti 10 KHz 8 Knh ly mu ti 1250 Hz 16 Knh ly mu ti 625 Hz

Trang VI.14

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Nh l tt c nhp ly mu l bi s ca 625 Hz. Ta chn t nhp cn bn ca bnh xe giao hon 10.000 vng /sec. Vy mi knh ( ca 18 knh ly mu ti 10 kHz ) em v mt khe ca bnh xe - Knh ly mu 40 kHz cn 4 khe cch u nhau trn bnh xe; vy n c ly mu 4 ln trong mi vng quay ( 0,1 ms ) ca bnh xe - Tng t knh ly mu 80 kHz cn 8 khe cch u nhau trn bnh xe. i vi nhng knh c nhp ly mu nh hn 10 kHz, ta ch cn ly mu chng ti nhng vng quay c chn la ca bnh xe. Th d, 1 knh 1250 Hz cn c ly mu mt ln khi bnh xe quay 8 vng. Trong khi , knh 625 Hz ly mu 1 ln/mi 16 vng quay ca bnh xe. Ta thc hin vic y bng cch dng hai bnh xe giao hon ph. Tm knh 1250 Hz c giao hon nhau nh mt bnh xe 8 khe, vi nhp 1250 vng/sec. C mi 0,1 ms, mt trong cc knh c ni vo mt khe ca bnh xe chnh. Tng t, 16 knh 625 Hz c giao hon nh bnh xe 16 khe , quay 625 vng/sec.

Hnh 6.22: Siu giao hon

VI. BIN IU RNG XUNG PWM: (Pluse Width Modulation).

Nh trng hp ca PAM, ta li bt u vi mt sng mang l mt chui xung tun hon. Hnh 6.23, ch mt sng mang cha bin iu, mt tn hiu cha tin s(t) v sng bin iu PWM. rng ca mi xung bin iu thay i tu theo tr mu tc thi ca s(t). Tr mu ln hn s lm rng xung bin iu rng hn. V rng xung thay i, nn nng lng ca sng cng thay i. Vy khi bin tn hiu tng, cng sut truyn cng tng.

Trang VI.15

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 6.23: Bin iu PWM Cng nh trong trng hp FM, PWM l mt php bin iu phi tuyn. Xem mt th d n gin minh chng iu . Gi s tn hiu cha tin l mt hng, s(t) = 1. Sng PWM s gn nhng xung c rng bng nhau, v mi tr mu th bng vi mi tr mu khc. By gi nu ta truyn s(t) = 2 theo PWM, th ta li c mt chui xung c rng bng nhau, nhng rng ca chng ln hn khi truyn s(t) = 1. Nguyn l tuyn tnh s cho kt qu l rng xung ca trng hp sau gp i trng hp trc. Nhng y khng phi nh vy, nh hnh 6.24.

Hnh 6.24: PWM l php bin iu phi tuyn. Nu ta gi s tn hiu s(t) bin i chm ( ly mu vi nhp nhanh hn so vi nhp Nyquist ) th cc xung ln cn s c rng hu nh bng nhau. Vi gi thit ny, c th phn gii xp x cho sng bin iu, theo chui Fourier. Mi s hng ca chui l mt sng FM, thay v l mt sng sin thun tu. Ta s trnh by mt dng ca khi bin iu v mt dng ca khi hon iu cho PWM. Trong c hai, ta u dng sng rng ca chuyn i gia thi gian v bin . iu ny tng t nh cch thc cho FM, ta thy rng cch d nht bin iu mt tn hiu l trc tin i n thnh AM. Tn hiu rng ca c dng v hnh 6.25. Trang VI.16

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 6.25 Cch x l c din t hnh 6.26. Hnh 6.26a ch khi bin iu v hnh 6.26b, ch nhng dng sng tiu biu.

Trang VI.17

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 6.26: Khi bin iu PWM. Trc tin tn hiu s(t) c ly mu v gi c s1(t). Tn hiu rng ca b di xung 1 n v to nn s2(t). Tng ca s1(t) v s2(t) to nn s3(t) v vo mch so snh. Nhng khong thi gian m s3(t) dng l nhng khong m rng t l vi tr gi mu gc. Output ca mch so snh l 1 khi s3(t) dng v l 0 khi s3(t) m. Kt qu l s4(t), l mt sng PWM. rng xung c th c hiu chnh bng cch tng gim s(t). Trong hnh v, ta gi s rng bnh thng s(t) nm gia 0 v 1.

Trang VI.18

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

S hon iu c thc hin bng cch tch phn sng PWM trong mi khong thi gian. V chiu cao ca xung th khng i, tch phn t l vi rng xung. Nu output ca tch phn c ly mu v gi ti tr gi cui ca n, kt qu s l mt sng PAM.

VII. BIN IU V TR XUNG -PPM (Pulse Position Modulation).

PPM c li hn PWM v mt trit nhiu v cng khng c vn cng sut thay i theo bin tn hiu. Mt tn hiu cha tin s(t) v sng PPM tng ng v hnh 6.27.

Hnh 6.27: PPM Ta thy nu tr gi mu ln hn s c xung tng ng di xa hn (so vi v tr khng bin iu ca n). * Mt sng PPM c th c suy t mt sng PWM. S lin h gia chng l, trong khi v tr ca xung thay i trong PPM th sn khin ca xung thay i trong PWM. Gi s ta d mi sn khin ca PWM, ( ly o hm v xem nhng xung m ). By gi nu ta t mt xung c rng khng i ti mi im ny, kt qu l sng PPM. iu ny c v hnh 6.28.

Trang VI.19

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

R rng, c PWM v PPM u rt phc tp so vi PAM. Chng phc tp hn v cn c nhng tnh cht khc. Trong cc h TDM, ta phi bo m rng cc xung mu ln cn khng c ph nhau. Nu cc xung di t do hoc rng hn ( nh trong PPM v PWM ), ta khng th chen vo mt cch n gin cc xung khc trong khng gian m tin chc rng khng c s tc ng qua li s xy ra. Khong cch cn thit phi c gi c th truyn cc tr mu ln nht. iu ny lm gim s knh khi Multiplex.

Hnh 6.28: i PWM thnh PPM

Trang VI.20

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Chng VII: VIN THNG S

I CNG. CHUYN I TNG T S ADC (ANALOG-DIGITAL CONVERTER). CHUYN I S-TNG T DAC (DIGITAL ANALOG CONVERTER). VIN THNG M HO ( CODED COMMUNICATION). BIN IU M XUNG- PCM ( PULSE CODE MODULATION). LNG T HO KHNG U N ( NONUNIFORM QUANTIZATION). K THUT BIN IU LUN PHIN (ALTERNATE MODULATION TECHNIQUES). NHIU LNG T (QUANTIZATION NOISE). GII THIU V M HO ENTROPY V NN D LIU. GII THIU V SA LI TIP CHUYN (FORWARD ERROR CORRECTION).

Trang VII.1

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

I CNG
Trong cc chng trc, ta ni v s truyn cc tn hiu analog. Sng mang c dng l mt sinusoid lin tc ( AM, FM v PM ) hoc mt hm thi gian ri rc (bin iu xung). Chng ny ta thm mt k thut truyn khc. Tn hiu c truyn by gi tr thnh mt thanh phan ca mt h ri rc. Nh vy, thay v truyn nhng tr in th lin tc, ta tp trung vo mt tp hp hu hn cc tr ri rc. Trc nht ta xem s truyn ca mt danh mc cc s. Danh mc ny c th l kt qu t s ly mu mt hm thi gian lin tc, hoc tin tc gc c th c dng mt danh mc. Tnh cht c bn ca mt h vin thng digital l nhng s trong danh mc c th ch ly nhng tr ri rc. Nhiu tn hiu c dng mt danh mc cc s ly ra t mt tp hp hu hn. Th d, thi gian ca ngy ( nu ta lm trn giy hay pht ); s lng ca mt hng mc no c sn xut trong mi gi ( th d: s xe ); thng tin c pht ra bi computer... Tn hiu analog c th c truyn theo nhng k thut digital. Khi , nht thit tn hiu analog cn phi chuyn i thnh tn hiu s. S i qui cch t analog thnh digital c thc hin nh ADC (Analog to Digital Converter).

I. CHUYN I TNG T S ADC (analog-digital converter)

Bc th nht chuyn i mt tn hiu analog lin tc thnh dng digital l i tn hiu thnh mt danh mc cc s. ( iu ny c thc hin bng cch ly mu hm thi gian). Danh mc cc s kt qu biu din cho nhng tr lin tc. l mc d mt mu no c th trng ra nh l mt s lm trn, nhng thc t n s c tip tc nh mt s thp phn v hn. Danh mc cc s analog sau phi c m ho thnh cc Code Words ri rc. Bin php trc nht hon tt vic l lm trn mi s trong danh mc. Th d, nu cc mu nm trong khong t 0 n 10V, mi mu s c lm trn n s nguyn gn nht. Vy cc t m ( code words ) s rt ra t 11 s nguyn ( t 0 n 10 ). Trong a s cc h vin thng digital, dng thc t c chn cho cc t m l mt s nh phn 0 v 1. L do chn s tr nn r rng khi ta bn n k thut truyn chuyn bit. Tr li th d trn, converter s hot dng trn nhng mu t 0 n 10V bng cch lm trn nhng tr mu n Volt gn nht, ri i s nguyn thnh s nh phn 4 bit ( m BCD ). S chuyn i A/ D c xem nh l s lng t ho ( quantizing ). Trong s lng t ho u n, cc tr lin tc ca hm thi gian c chia thnh nhng vng u n, v mt m s nguyn c kt hp cho mi vng. Nh vy, tt c cc tr ca hm trong mt vng no u c m ho thnh mt s nh phn ging nhau. Hnh 7.1 ch nguyn l lng t ho 3 bit theo hai cch khc nhau Hnh 7.1a, ch khong cc tr ca hm c chia lm 8 vng eu nhau. Mi vng kt hp vi mt s nh

Trang VII.2

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

phn 3 bit. Chn 8 vng v 8 l lu tha ca 2 ( = 23 ). Tt c t hp 3 bit u c dng, lm hiu qu ln hn. Hnh 7.1b ch s lng t ho bng cch dng s lin h ca input v output. Trong khi input th lin tc, output ch ly nhng tr ri rc. B rng ca mi bc khng i. V s lng t ho th u n.

Hnh 7.1: S lng t ha. Hnh 7.2 ch mt s(t) v dng digital ca n cho b i ADC 2 bit v 3 bit.

2-bit

01

11

11

11

01

00

00

01

01

Hnh 7.2: Th d v A/D * Mch lng t ho : C ba loi mch lng t ho. 1. Lng t ho m, m ln lt ng vi s thong qua mi mc lng t. 2. Lng t ho ni tip, to ra mt t m, tng bit mt. l, chng bt u vi bit c trng so ln nht ( MSB ) v lm vic n bit co trng so nh nht ( LSB ). 3. Lng t ho song song, to ra cng lc tt c cc bit ca mt t m hon chnh.

A. Lng t ha m:
Hnh 7.3 v mt khi lng t ho m.

Trang VII.3

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 7.3: Lng t ha m Ramp generator ( mch to ng dc ) bt u ti mi im ly mu. Mch em cng bt u cng lc. Ng ra ca mch S/H l mt tn hiu bc thang xp x vi tn hiu gc. ( Nhng bc s gi tr mu trc trong sut mi khong ly mu ). Mch em s stop khi ng dc t n tr mu. Dng sng tiu biu c ch Hnh 7.3b. V nh vy, thi gian m Ts t l vi tr mu ( v dc c gi khng i ). Tn s clock chn sao cho mch em c thi gian m n s m cao nht ca n i vi mt thi khong (duration) ca ng dc tng ng vi mu ln nht. S m cui trn bo em tng ng vi mc lng t ho. Th d : Thit k mt khi lng t ho m cho mt tn hiu ting ni c tn s ti a 3 kHz. dc ca ng dc 106 V/sec. Bin tn hiu nm trong khong 0 n 10 V. Tm tn s Clock cn thit nu dng mt counter 4 bit. Gii : L do duy nht xt tn s max ca tn hiu l xem dc c t n tr max ca mu hay khng ( trong mt chu k ly mu ). Vi tn s max ca tn s tn hiu l

Trang VII.4

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

1 msec. V ng 6 dc c th t n ti a 10V trong 0,01 msec, n nhanh trnh c qu ti. Counter phi c th m t 0000 n 1111 trong 0,01 msec. Tn s Clock phi l 1,6 MHz, v cn trn 16 ln m trong mt chu k ly mu.

3 kHz, nhp ly mu ti thiu l 6 kHz. Vy chu k ly mu max l

B. Lng t ha ni tip:
Hnh 7.4 ch s khi ca lng t ho ni tip 3 bit, cc input nm trong khong t 0 n 1. Cc hp hnh thoi l cc b so snh. Chng ta so snh input vi mt tr c nh v cho mt output nu input vt qu mt tr c nh v mt output khc nu ngc li. S khi ch hai ng output c th, c t tn l YES v NO. Nu khong ca input ca cc tr mu khng l 0 n 1V, tn hiu s c chun ha ( c di ri khuch i hoc gim ) c nhng tr nm trong khong . Nu cn s bit nhiu hn ( hoc t hn ) cc khi so snh c thm vo ( hay bt ra ). S khi so snh bng s bit m ho.

Hnh 7.4: Lng t ha ni tip b2 l bit th nht ca tr mu c m ho. Bit c trng so ln nht (MSB). b0 l bit th ba, cng l bit cui, bit c trng so nho nht (LSB). Th d : Gii thch hot ng ca hnh 7.4, ng vi 2 tr mu ca input: 0,2 v 0,8 V. Gii: * Vi 0,2 V S so snh th nht vi 1/4 c p s l No. Vy b2 = 0 so snh th 2 vi 1/4 cng c li p l No.Vy b1 = 0. So snh th ba, Yes.Vy b0 = 1. Do , m nh phn cho 0,2V l 001. 1 1 * Vi 0,8V. So snh th nht vi , Yes b2= 1 ta tr vi , c 2 2 1 1 0,3. So snh th hai vi , Yes b1 = 1 v ta tr vi , c 0,05. So snh th ba vi 4 4 1 , No b0 = 0. Vy m cho 0,8V l 110. 8 * Mt h thng n gin ho c th thc hin c nh hnh 7.5, ng 1 ra ca khi , t mt khi X2 ri hi tip kt qu v khi so snh th nht. Tn hiu 2 mu c th qua s nhiu ln t c s bit ca chiu di ca t m ha.

Trang VII.5

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 7.5: Lng t ho ni tip n gin ha.

C. Lng t ha song song:

Hnh 7.6 trnh by mt mch i song song 3 bit, v mi bc ca tin trnh l 1v. Cu chia in th lp ra cc mc in th tham kho cho mi mch so snh. Ta thy c 7 mc m cc tr gi l 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6,7v. in th tng t vo VA c a vo mi ng vo ca cc mch so snh.

Trang VII.6

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

+10V

M ho u tin
C7
-

3K
7V
1K
6V
+

I7

1K

1K
4V
+

1K
3V
1K
+

2V
1K
1V

1K

Ng vo tng t a)

Ng vo tng t VA <1v >1v, <2v >2v, <3v >3v, <4v >4v, <5v >5v, <6v >6v, <7v >7v

Ng ra cc mch so snh C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 b)

Hnh 7.6 a) S mach ADC song song 3bit b) Bng s tht Nu VA<1v, tt c ng ra cc mch so snh C1-C7 cao. Nu VA>1v, c t nht mt ng ra cc mch so snh xung thp. Cc ng ra c a vo mch m ho u tin tc ng thp, to mt s nh phn tng ng vi chn ra mch so snh c hiu lc. Chn ra mch so snh c hu lc l chn c ch s cao nht (nu ng thi c nhiu chn ra cng xung thp). Th d, khi VA nm gia 3 v 4v. Cc chn ra C1, C2 v C3 u thp. Tt c cc chn khc cao. Mch m ho u tin ch thc

Trang VII.7

5V

C6

I6

Trng s ln
C B A

C5

I5

Ng ra s

C4

I4

C3

I3

C2

I2

C1

I1

Ng ra s C B A 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

hin vi tr gi thp ca C3, v cho ra ng CBA=011 (biu din cho s nh phn tng ng ca VA vi phn gii 1v). Khi VA cao hn 7v, C1-C7 u thp. Ng ra mch m ho CBA=111. Mch ADC song song khng cn xung ng h, v n khng c mch m ng b hoc nhng thao tc tin trnh tun t. Tin trnh i gn nh tc thi, ngay khi t VA vo. Thi gian chuyn i tu thuc duy nht s tr ca cc mch so snh v mch m ho. * M ho PCM thc t : Khi m ho PCM ( Pulse Code Modulation.- Bin iu m xung ) trong thc t c xy dng theo s khi cc phn trc. Hu ht u c t trong mt IC. * B lng t ho m c xem l b chuyn i A/D hai ng dc. Mu c t ra mt mch tch phn trong mt khong thi gian c nh. Output th t l vi tr mu. Sau input c chuyn n mt tr in th tham kho ( ngc du vi mu ), counter bt u v output ca mch tch phn c so snh vi zero. Counter s stop khi ng dc output ca mch tch phn t n zero. L7126 l mt IC CMOS, cho php lng t ho m nh hnh 7.8.

units

display tens

hundreds
thousand polarity (minus)

tens hundreds display

Hnh 7.8: Lng t ha m IC L7126. Cc chn t 2 n 25 c dng ra hin th. IC c cu to thc trc tip mn hnh tinh th lng (LCD), v n bao gm cc mch gii m 7 on v cc mch thc 1 LCD. Display l 3 digit, c ngha l n c th ch nhng s vi bin cao nh 1999. 2 Nhng ng ra 7 on hin th Unit c nh ch s A1 n G1, hin th chc nh ch s 2 v hin th trm nh s 3. Hin th ngn c ch s AB4 v ch c mt chn c 1 cn v digit ny hoc l 0 hoc l 1 ( cho mt hin th 3 digit ). 2

Trang VII.8

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Input analog c a vo chn 30 v 31. Hot ng ca IC tin hnh trong 3 pha. * Th nht l autozero, nhng input analog c tch ri ra ni tt bn trong vi common ( chn 32 ). Output ca mch so snh b ni tt vi ng v o ca mch tch phn. * Pha th 2 xy ra khi tr tn hiu vo b tch phn trong mt thi gian tng ng vi 1.000 xung clock. * Cui cng, trong pha th 3, in th tham kho tch tr trong mt t ( c u gia chn 33 v 34 bn ngoi ) c dng to ng dc th hai. Khong tr gi ca input xc nh tr cn thit ca in th tham kho ( c a vo chn 36 reference Hi ). Nu input ny l 1V, chip c kh nng chuyn i in th vi cc bin cao nh 1999. Xung clock c th ly t cc chn 38, 39 v 40. Ta cng c th dng hoc mt mch dao ng bn ngoi hoc l mt tinh th thch anh gia cc chn 39 v 40 hoc l mt mch RC ngang qua cc chn ny. Mt mch A/D ton b ca mt tn hiu mu cn 4.000 s m. Tn hiu c tch phn cho 1/4 ca chu k ny, tc l 1.000 s m. Mt tch phn th hai l autozero cn gi 3.000 s m. Xung clock bn trong c pht trin bng cch chia dao ng input cho 4. Vy, th d, nu ta mun thc hin 10 chuyn i/sec, ng v phi l 160 kHz. Linh kin ny khng c kh nng chuyn i nhanh v s c dng cho nhng tn hiu bin thin chm ( nhp ly mu chm ) hoc input DC. Hnh 7.9: IC ADC0804 Lng t ha ni tip.
9
VREF/2 VIN(+) CLKIN CLKR
WR

VCC MSB B7 B6 B5 B4 B3 B2 B1 LSB B0

20

6
4 19
3

11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

5
1 2 7 8 10

INTR
CS RD VIN(-) AGND DGND

- IC ADC0804 l mt th d v mt IC i A/D kiu ni tip, ( i khi cn gi l " chuyn i xp x lin tip " ). Hnh 7.9. y l linh kin 8 bit, bao gm mt s mch FlipFlop, ghi dch, mt mch gii m v mt mch so snh. C 8 xung clock bn trong. Xung clock ni c cho bi s chia tn hiu clock ti cc chn 4 v 19 cho 8. Th d, vi mt tn hiu 64 kHz trn nhng chn ny, IC c th thc hin mt chuyn i trong 1msec. ADC 0804 c kh nng i mt mu trong khong 120sec, nn ta khng dng n ly mu vi vn tc nhanh. Cc output digital t Bo n B7 ra cc chn in t 11 n 18. IC ny tng thch vi mt microprocessor, nn l l do gi tn cc chn, nh bng sau:

Trang VII.9

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Chn

Nhn
VAA
+5V Analog supply
0.2mF

Nhim v
24 21 16 3 1 2

B0 (LSB)
B1
B2
B3

+5V

VIN

Analog input
VIN
1K

clock
.

CLK
0.01mF

18

4 5

7406 open collector TTL

Digital output
B4
B5
B6
B7(MSB)
O.F.
VDD (+5V
CE2 (+5V

1K
+6.4V REF

+R
0.2mF

6 22 7 23 8

R1

3/4R
R2

CA3310
1/2R
R3

9 12

20 13 14 10 19 11 15 17

Digital supply

CE1
PHASE

1/4R
R4

DGDN

-R

AGDN

L ban u, H khi bt u chuyn i. Xung L ch p sn sng nhn d liu. L bt u. H khi bt u chuyn i. Ng v dao ng bn ngoi hoc ni in t gia 4 v 19 t tn s dao ng. 5 INTR (Interrupt) Xung L bo cho p rng d liu sn c dng. 6,7 Vin (+);Vin () Ng v phn k vi sai. 9 VREF/2 in th tham kho ( mt na ) Hnh 7.10: IC CA3308 lng t ha song song. - IC C43308 l mt th d v IC chuyn i A/D kiu song song, 24 chn, v Hnh 7.10. IC c th chuyn i mt mu trong 66,7 nsec. N cha mt ngn hng mch so snh. Tn hiu analog vo cc chn 16 v 21. Cc in th tham kho p vo chn 10, 15, 20, 22 v 23. Tn hiu digital ra c c t cc chn ( pins ) 1 n 8.

1 2 3 4

CS (chip select) RD ( Ready ) WR (Write) CLK

Trang VII.10

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

II. CHUYN I S -TNG T DAC (Digital analog converter)

Mt tn hiu digital c chuyn i thnh analog nh mch DAC. thc hin vic chuyn i, ta ch cn kt hp mt mc mu vi mi t m nh phn. V t m biu din cho mt khong cc tr mu, nn tr thc s c chn cho s chuyn i, thng l im gia ca khong. Nu A/D conv c thc hin nh m t trn y, th s hot ng ngc li tng ng vi vic phn chia mt trng so cho mi v tr bit. Xem trng hp mt t nh phn 4 bit. Ta gi s rng mu Analog th c chuan hoa (Normallized, ngha l n nm trong khong gia 0 v 1V ) v dng s m ho ln lt. S chuyn i v tr Analog c thc hin bng cch i s nh phn thnh thp 1 phn, chia cho 16 v cng . Th d, m 1101 biu din s thp phn 13, vy ta i n 32 13 1 27 . thnh + = 16 32 32 Hnh 7.11 v c ch chuyn D/A. Nu 1 xut hin v tr MSB th mt pin 1/2V c a vo mch ( S1 h ). Bit th nh kim sot mt pin 1/4V v c th. Mch gii m l tng hnh 7.11 tng t vi mt mch lng t ho ni tip v mi bit kt hp vi mt thnh phn ring ca tr mu.
S1
S2
S3

S4

s1 closed if b3=0
1/2
1/4

1/8

1/16

1/32

s2 closed if b2=0
s3 closed if b1=0

Vanalog

s4 closed if b0=0

Hnh 7.11: Chuyn i D/A Mch i D/A kiu m th phc tp hn, nh hnh 7.12. Mt clock a vo mch to bc thang ( Staircase ) v mch Counter cng lc. Tn hiu ra ca Counter c so snh vi input digital ( nh phn ). Khi so em bang vi t ma a vao, mch to bac thang se stop. Tn hiu ra ca mch to bc thang c ly mu v gi cho cho n khi tr mu k tip t c. Kt qu xp x bc thang cui cng c lm phng nh mt lc LPF, hi phc li mt tr xp x vi tn hiu gc.

Trang VII.11

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 7.12: DAC kiu m DAC Thc T :

Gi s mt mch DAC cn phi hot ng theo bng s tht H.10.4. in th ra V0 tng tng bc t 0 n 6v. Mi s tng ca s m nh phn lm tng in th ra 0,4v.
Hnh H.10.5 trnh by mch logic ca DAC ny. Mch gm hai mch: mng in tr v mch khuch i tng. in th vo t ln mng in tr thng qua cc ngt in D, B,C, A. Cc ngt in ny ng khi bit vo tng ng =1 v m khi bit vo tng ng = 0. in th vo Vi=3v v in th ra, d nhin, phi tun theo bng s tht. Lu R4, in tr tng ng vi MSB, c tr nh nht. R3 (in tr tng ng vi bit c trng s 4) c tr gp i R4. R2 gp i R3 v R1 gp i R2. D thy rng, cho DAC chnh xc, tr gi cc in tr cn tht chnh xc.

Hng 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Vo Ra nh phn Tng t D C B A V0 Hng 9 0 0 0 0 0 10 0.4 0 0 0 1 11 0.8 0 0 1 0 12 1.2 0 0 1 1 13 1.6 0 1 0 0 14 2.0 0 1 0 1 15 2.4 0 1 1 0 16 2.8 0 1 1 1 Bng s tht ca mt DAC

Vo Nh phn D C B A 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1

Ra Tng t V0 3.2 3.6 4.0 4.4 4.8 5.2 5.6 6

Trang VII.12

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Vo nh phn 8
C
1 1

B
1

A
1

ng khi bit=1

M khi bit=0

Rf
1

3V
2

R1 18.7K

R2 37.5K

R3 75K

R4 150K

20K 10K
-

V0

Hnh 7.13. S
Khi s nh phn vo l 0000, c 4 ngt in u m (ng vi hng 1 ca bng s tht). Vi=0 nn V0=0. By gi ta xem hng 2 ca bng s tht, s nh phn vo l 0001, ch c ngt A ng. li tng ng l: Rf 20k Av = = = 0.133 Ri 150k in th ra: V0 =Vi xAv =3x0.133= 0.4v. Tng t, nu s nh phn vo l 0010 (hng 3 ca bng), ch c ngt B ng: Rf 20k Av= = = 0.266 Ri 75k in th ra: V0 =Vi xAv=3x0.266=0.8v. Xem hng 7 ca bng s tht, s nh phn vo 0110, hai ngt C v B u ng. Chng u song song, nn trong trng hp ny Ri l: R xR 37.5 x75 = 25k Ri = 3 2 = R3 + R2 37.5 + 75 Rf 20k = = 0.8 Av= Ri 25k V0 =Vi x Av=3x0.8=2.4v Cui cng, ta xem hng 16: 1 Ri = . 1 / R4 + 1 / R3 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R1 D dng tnh kt qu V0=6v. thay i thang in th ra, ta ch cn thay i tr gi ca in tr hi tip Rf.

Trang VII.13

Mng in tr

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

III. VIN THNG M HA( coded communication).

Ta thy, mt tn hiu digital bao gm mt danh mc cc s, trong mi s c th ly ch mt s hu hn ca cc tr gi. Danh mc cc s khng chnh xc bng vi cc tr mu gc, m ch l nhng phin bn lm trn ca cc tr ny. Nh vy, khi chuyn i t analog thnh digital, tn hiu kt qu khng th dng ti to mt cch hon ton tn hiu analog nguyn thy. Vy ti sao ta mun i mt tn hiu analog thnh digital ? Phn sau y s tr li vn quan trng ny. Ting trng hay khi ca th dn Chu M l mt trong nhiu th d v vin thng digtal. Tn hiu trng truyn i xa hn ting ni v ni tip nhn ch cn phn bit mt loi m thanh trn nhiu nn ( background noise ). Nhng tn hiu audio phc tp s kh phn bit hn trn mi nn nhiu dc theo ng truyn. in tn vi nhng chui chm v gch nh vn cho mt t c truyn, l mt dng vin thng digital. My thu d phn bit nhng thi khong ( Duration ) di ngn khc nhau ca tn hiu. in tn hin nay dng k thut m ho v gii m tn hiu, nh mt Operator. Operator c ( hay nghe ) bn tin v i mi ch thnh m Morse. my thu, khi nhn mt bn tin, operator s thc hin ngc li. Vn tc truyn c kim sot cn thn khng vt qu vn tc gii hn ca keyer. C 3 l do chnh cn phi m ho thng tin : 1. Knh truyn ( thng l khng kh ) b nhim bi qu nhiu tn hiu in, khin cho s thng tin " t do nhiu " ( noise - free ) tr nn rt kh khn. Tn hiu lun b lm sai lc do nhiu v cc dng giao thoa khc. Nhng k thut sa sai s mo do nhiu thng khng hiu qu nhiu. Vy khi thu c mt tn hiu b lm thay i bi nhiu v cc tn hiu khc, phi c nhng bin php tch nhiu ra khi tn hiu. iu ny cn n vic tn hiu phi c nhng dng c trng phn bit. Nhng hu ht tn hiu Analog khng c dng nh th. 2. L do th hai cho s nhn mnh ln na v vin thng m ho digital l s thay i qui cch ca cc tn hiu thng tin. Nhiu nm trc y, tn hiu tn hiu thng tin chim u th l tn hiu audio ( c tn s b gii hn trong di tn thnh cm ca tai ngi ). Nhng ngy nay, ta c th thy nhng thit b truyn d liu t ni ny n ni khc vi nhng thng tin khc bit xa vi sng audio. Nn nhng yu cu t ra cho 1 h thng vin thng hin nay th phc tp hn rt nhiu so vi h vin thng truyn tn hiu ting ni. 3. Mc d vic xy dng mt mch Analog th d hn so vi mt mch digital, nhng so vi tin b ca ngnh in t bn dn v cng ngh IC lm o ngc li. L do th ba, khng ch v cc mch digital th ng tin cy hn m trong nhiu trng hp rt r hn. Vic ch to d dng cc IC digital cho cc mch phc tp m ra nhng kh nng bao qut hn. Trong mt h thng vin thng m ho, ta truyn mt "t" t mt t vng ( dictionary ) ca cc t bn tin c th chp nhn c. T ( word ) thu c khng chnh xc ging nh t trong t vng, v khi truyn n b tc ng bi s mo v nhiu. Nu s sai lc khng ln lm, ta th phng nh vi t m t vng gi. l im cn bn ca thng tin m ho. Ting ni con ngi c nhiu tnh cht ging mt h thng tin digital. Khi ta ni, mi gi nng lng ( gia nhng ln tm dng ) trnh by mt tn hiu ly ra t mt t vng khong 25.000 t ( tu vo s t trong vn ng vng ca tng ngi ). Gi s ta truyn

Trang VII.14

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

mt t n mt ngi khc, ci m kia nhn c khng phi l mt bn sao hon ho ca t trong t vng. Tn hiu c th b mo, bi sai lch do nhiu chen vo. Ngi nhn s nhanh chng so snh n vi 25.000 t trong t vng v chn mt t gn ging vi n nht. Bng cch , nhiu sai st c th c sa. ( Ta n gin ho kh nng ca " my tnh ngi ". Thc ra khng ch c th, ta cn xem xt tn hiu nhn c trong mch vn ca nhng thng tin nhn c trc ). Loi m ho thng tin thng dng nht l nh phn. Ta i tn hiu cha tin Analog thnh mt chui cc bit 1 v 0 ( m ta bit cch thc hin phn trc ). Xem knh m ng v ca n l hoc 0 hoc 1 v ng ra l 0 hoc 1 ( Hnh 7.14 ). Bn tri l ng v. Bn phi, ng ra. Nhng ng ngang ch s thu ng bit, cn nhng ng cho ch bit - error.

Hnh 7.14: Knh nh phn Trn mi ng ta ch mt xc xut. Pij l xc xut ca s thu nhn i khi j c gi i. Th d, P10 l xc xut khi mt 0 c truyn v nhn sai my thu l 1. Nu ta gi mt 1, my thu phi nhn hoc 0 hoc 1. Tng t nh vy nu ta gi mt 0. Vy: P10 + P00 = P01 + P11 = 1. D nhin ta s thch c mt knh m P10 = P01 = 0 ( V hu qu l P11 = P00 = 1 ). Phn ln cc h vin thng digital u c tnh cht l P10 = P01 ( v hu qu, P11 = P00 ). iu ny ch rng xc xut ca s truyn 1 c nhn sai l 0 th bng vi xc xut ca s truyn 0 v c nhn sai l 1. Mt knh c tnh cht c gi l knh i xng nh phn. ( Binary Symetric Channel - BSC ). Hnh 7.14b ch t P10 = P01 = P ri, P00 = P11 = 1 - P. Gi s ta mun truyn mt tn hiu n mt khong cch xa. Trong vin thng Analog, ta s t nhiu mch khuch i dc theo ng truyn. T s S/N ti ng ra ca mi mch khuch i th khng ln hn ti ng v (thc t, n nh hn l do nhiu cng thm vo). Vy, nhiu ngy cng ln hn khi khong cch gia tng. By gi, ta gi s i tn hiu Analog thnh digital gm mt chui bit gm 0 v 1. Hn na, gi s rng ta c th m hnh ha knh nh l BSC. Ta tm xc xut ton th ca error ( cn gi l nhp sai bit ): Pe = P [ PR(1) ] + P [ PR(0) ] (7.1) PR(1) l khong thi gian khi gi 1. S hng th nht ca phng trnh l khong thi gian m ta gi 1 v nhn 0. S hng th hai l khong thi gian truyn khi ta gi 0 v nhn 1. ch l 2 cch x l bit error. V PR(1) + PR(0) = 1. Ta c: Pe = P [ PR1(1) ] + P [ PR(0) ] = P (7.2)

Trang VII.15

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

By gi gi s P khng c cao. Mt cch ci thin l lm gim khong cch gia i pht v my thu. Gi s ta t mt trm gia hai trm gc. Ta s c mt v tr nh hnh 7.15.

Hnh 7.15: Ni tip i 2 BSC P' l xc xut error cho mi BSC mi. V khong cch l phn na, P' s nh hn P. Lin h gia khong cch v bit error th phi tuyn, nn s ct khong cch lm hai s ct bit error bi mt h s ln hn 2. Trm gia gi l mt Repeater. Xc xut ton th ca bit error ca h thng " hai bc nhy " l tng ca xc xut ca mt error trn bc th nht v error trn bc th nh. Nu ta lm hai error ( mt error cho mi bc ) th bit error c cho bi : Pe = 2p' ( 1 - p' ) (7.3) Xc sut error i vi mt bc nhy duy nht th thng b. Nhng s tiu biu t p' = 10- 3 n p' = 10-10. Phng trnh (7.3) th c tnh xp x: Pe 2P' (7.4) P V P' thng nh hn 2 , ta ci thin bit error bng cch cng thm Repeater. Phng trnh (7.4) c th tng qut ho cho s bc nhy (hop) bt k, v cc bc khng cn c nhp error bng nhau. Mt cch tng qut, error ton th trong 1 h nhiu bc th xp x bng vi tng ca cc error thnh phn. Khi nim v repeater l s phn bit ln nht gia vin thng analog v vin thng digital.

IV. BIN IU M XUNG - PCM ( Pulse code modulation )

PCM l mt p dng trc tip chuyn i A/D. Gi s bin ca mi xung trong mt h PAM th c lm trn n mt mc c th. Gi s, trc ht hm thi gian gc (Analog) c lm trn cho dng sng hnh bc thang nh hnh 7.16. K , ta ly mu hm bc thang v truyn cc mu theo cch bin iu bin xung ( PAM ). S lm trn c hiu nh l s lng t ho, v n s gy ra mt error ( nhiu lng t ho ). l, s xp x bc thang th khng ging ht hm gc v s sai bit gia chng l mt error. Bng t vng cc cao ca xung PAM c thu gn ch bao gm cc mc lng t ring bit. Mt xung thu nhn c s so snh vi cc xung c th c truyn v n c gii m thnh t vng ging nht vi tn hiu thu c. Vi cch ny, nhng error nh c sa sai. Kh nng sa error l l do ln nht lng t ho tn hiu. Th d, gi s ta mun truyn mt tn hiu n mt khong cch xa trn cp ng trc. Nu tn hiu c truyn theo kiu PAM thng thng nhiu s chen vo theo ng truyn v nhiu cng thm

Trang VII.16

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

vo mi mch khuch i ( c nhiu mch khuch i cn n trn ng truyn chng li s suy gim dc theo ng ). Nu cng tn hiu , by gi ta truyn bng cch dng PAM lng t ho. Trong vi iu kin, hu ht error s c sa sai. Nu nhng repeater c t sao cho nhiu chen vo gia bt k hai trm th nh hn mt na ca c bc ca bc thang. Mi repeater s gi hm n dng bc thang gc trc khi khuch i v gi i. l, mi repeater s lm trn mi xung nhn c n mc gn nht c th chp nhn c v ri truyn i. S lng t ho lm trn cc mc dng lm bc thang ging tn hiu mong mun. S mc xc nh phn gii ( Resolution ) tn hiu. l, mt s thay i nh c no trong mc tn hiu c th c phn tch bng cch nhn phin bn lng t ho ca tn hiu. Nu cn phn gii cao, s mc lng t ho phi tng. Lc y, khong cch gia cc mc gim. V t vng cc t rt kht nhau, nhiu gim.

Hnh 7.16: Tin trnh lng t ho Nu phn gii c ci thin m khng lm tng c t vng ( khng di chuyn cc t kht nhau ), s sa error s c gi nguyn PCM l phng php thc hin iu . Trong mt h thng PCM, t vng ca cc tn hiu truyn ch cha hai, 0 v 1. Cc mc lng t ho c m ho thnh cc s nh phn. Vy, nu c 8 mc lng t ho, th nhng tr c m ho thnh cc s nh phn 3 bit. Ba xung s c cn gi mi tr lng t. Mi xung biu din hoc 0 hoc 1. iu ging nh khi nim ca ADC. Hnh 7.17 biu din s(t) v dng sng ca PCM 2 bit v 3 bit.

Trang VII.17

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 7.17: PCM Mt xung dng biu din cho bit 1 v mt xung Zero biu din bit 0. * Hon iu BCM th n gin l mt DAC. Khi bin iu v hon iu thng l IC LSI v c gi tn l CODEC ( coder decoder ). * Multiplexing chia thi gian ( TDM ): Khi nim TDM c trin khai chng 6. Ta ch cn ci bin mt t. V mi mu, thay v dng mt xung truyn, by gi cn mt s xung bng s bit ca s lng t ho. Th d, vi PCM 6 bit, 6 xung phi c truyn trong mi chu k ly mu.

Trang VII.18

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

V. LNG T HA KHNG IU N ( Nonuniform Quantization )

S(t) input

Lng t ho

Sq(t) ouput S1 S2 Sn

Hnh 7.18 s lng t ho Hnh 7.18a, v s lng t ho u n. Khong ca cc tr mu c chia thnh nhng vng lng t m mi vng c cng c vi cc vng khc. Th d, vi s lng t ho 3 bit ta chia ton th cc tr mu thnh 8 vng bng nhau. Trong mt vi trng hp, ta li c th dng s lng t ho khng u n. Cc khong lng t ho th khng hon ton cng c vi nhau. ( Hnh 7.18 b ). Hm lng t ho hnh 7.18b c tnh cht l cc khong cch gia cc mc lng t th khng u. V nhng mc output th khng phi l im gia ca mi khong. Gi s trong mt on nhc, in th ca tn hiu 1 nm trong khong -2 n +2. Nu 1 ta dng lng t ho u n 3 bit, th tt c in th gia 0 v V c m ho thnh 2 1 cng mt code word l 100. M ny tng ng vi output c ti to c tr l V. 4 Tng t, tt c cc mu nm gia 1,5 v 2 V c m ho thnh code word duy nht l 7 111, tng ng vi mt tr output c ti to l V. Vi nhc " Soft " tn hiu c th 4 1 khng vt qu V trong mt qung di, nn r ca nhc s b mt. S lng t ho 2 u n cho cng mt phn gii cc mc cao cng nh thp. Hnh 7.18b: Si: Vng lng t ha. Sqi: Tr lm trn. Ta thy ( phn sau ) mt khi cc vng lng t ha c chn, cc tr lm trn cng c chn, l trng tm ( center of gravity ) ca phn tng ng ca mt xc xut.

Trang VII.19

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 7.19 ch mt th d biu din cho hm mt xc xut ( ging nh mt Gauss ). Ta chia n lm 8 vng u nhau ( t S0 n S8 ). Nu cc vng lng t ha cho th cc tr lm trn s xp x gn nh l trng tm ca mi vng ( cc Sqi ).

Hnh 7.19: Mt xc xut tn hiu Mc d tai ngi km nhy i vi nhng thay i cc mc cao hn. p ng ca tai ngi th khng tuyn tnh. V vy, ta c th dng cch lng t ho khng u: Cc bc lng t ho nh nhng mc thp v cc bc lng t ho ln hn nhng mc cao hn. * Nn v gii nn (Companding) Dng ph bin nht ca LTH khng u n l " companding " thut ng ny ly t cc thut ng " compressing & expanding " ( nn & gii nen). Vic x l nh hnh 7.20. Tn hiu gc c nn bng cc dng 1 linh kin phi tuyn khng nh. Sau , tn hiu b nn c lng t ho u n. Sau khi c truyn i, tn hiu c gii m v phi c trng bng cch dng mt hm phi tuyn ngc li vi hm dng khi nn. Compression amplifier F(x) Uniform quantizer Decoder Expansion amplifier F-1(x)

Nonuniform Decoder quantizer Hnh 7.20: Companding - Trc ht, ta phn gii tin trnh nn. Trc khi LTH, tn hiu b lm bin dng bi 1 hm tng t nh thy hnh 7.21. N nn nhng tr ln ca input trong lc n lm tng nhng tr nh hn. Nu mt tn hiu analog a vo mch nn, ri output c LTH u n, th kt qu s tng ng vi s LTH vi cc bc bt u nh v dn ln hn i vi cc mc tn hiu cao hn ( hnh 7.21 ). Ta chia output ca mch nn lm 8 vng bng nhau. Hm c dng chuyn i cc gii hn ca nhng vng ny thnh honh ( biu din tn hiu vo khng b nn ). Nh l cc vng trn trc 1 bt u nh v ln hn khi nhng tr ca s gia tng.

Trang VII.20

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 7.21: Phng thc nn p dng tiu biu nht ca Companding l truyn ting ni. Bc M v Nht s dng mt ng cong chun, gi l " Compading " theo lut . Chu u c kiu khc hn, gi l Alaw Compading. Cng thc nn .law Ln ( 1 + s ) F(S) = sgn(s) Ln ( 1 + ) Hm ny c v cho vi tr chn la ca . Thng s nh ngha l cong ca hm. Tr thng dng nht: = 255.

Hnh 7.22: Nn theo lut . ( . Law Compeding ). * Mt cch s dng mch Companding 255 l m phng mt h phi tuyn c ng cong lin h vo/ ra ging nh ng cong 255. Ri cho nhng tr mu vo h thng v lng t ho u n tn hiu ra bng cch dng mt mch A/D 8 bit. * Mt cch khc l tnh xp x ng cong 255 bng cch tuyn tnh ho tng phn, nh hnh 7.23. Ta ch v phn dng ca input. ng cong l mt hm l. Ta tnh xp x phn dng ca ng cong bng 8 on thng. Ta chia phn output dng thnh 8 on bng nhau ( Hu qu l chia input thnh 8 vng khng bng nhau ). Trong mi on ny, ta lng t ho 4 bit. Vy mi vng ( ca 8 vng input ) c

Trang VII.21

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

chia lm 16 vng ph, tng cng l 128 vng cho mi pha ca trc. Vy ta c 256 ( =28 ) vng, tng ng vi s LTH 8 bit.

Hnh 7.23: S tnh xp x tuyn tnh ha tng phn 255. * K thut gi 1 tr mu l gi 8 bit m ho nh sau : - 1 bit c dng ch cc tnh ca mu: 1 cho dng v 0 cho m. - 3 bit dng nhn dng tr mu nm trong on tuyn tnh ho no. - 4 bit dng nhn dng mc LTH trong mi vng ly mu s quan h logarithm ca lut 255 a n s ph thuc th v gia 8 on: * Mi on trn trc input th rng gp i on bn tri ca n. phn gii ca on th nht, nh vy, s gp i on k tip. V c th. Vng th 6 ( k t gc ) trn trc input gm mt khong c phn gii cho cc tr mu bng vi phn gii ca LTH u n dng A/D 8 bit. phn gii ca vng bn tri ca n ging nh ca LTH u n 9 bit. Tng t, c dch v bn tri, mi vng c phn gii ca 1 mch LTH u n nhiu hn 1 bit so vi vng k cn.

Trang VII.22

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

VI. K THUT BIN IU LUN PHIN (alternate modulation techniques).

Trong k thut bin iu m ho ngun tin bng phng php PCM, mi tr mu c m ho bng mt s nh phn. M nh phn ny c kh nng biu din cc tr mu o c trong ton th phm vi ng ny. V d nh nu ta bt u vi mt tn hiu nm trong khong t 5 n +5 V, m phi c kh nng ch nh c cc tr mu trong khong 10 V. Kt qu nhiu lng t ph thuc vo khong ng ny. Nu ta c th bng cch no thu nh khong ng cp trn, tn hiu nhiu c th c ci thin (v d nh sai s lm trn c gim xung). Cc dng ngun tn hiu m ho thay i lun phin hot ng da trn nguyn l ny.

1. BIN IU DELTA (delta modulation)

Bin iu delta l mt k thut n gin thu nh khong ng cc s c m ho. Thay v truyn mi tr mu c lp, ta s truyn hiu s gia mt mu v mu trc . Nu vic ly mu vi nhp Nyquist, hiu s ny c mt khong ng rng gp i cc mu nguyn thu. Bi v vi nhp Nyquist, mi mu s c lp vi mu trc . Hai mu k nhau c th nm bin nh nht v ln nht. Tuy nhin, nu ta ly mu tc cao hn nhp Nyquyst, cc mu ny c lin quan vi nhau v khong ng ca s khc nhau gia hai mu, nh hn so vichnh bn thn ca mu . Nu kt qu ly mu mt tc nhanh hn (nhng thu nh khong ng), ta c th truyn thng tin bng cch dng mt vi bt nh phn (ging nh lng t ho nhiu). Bin iu Delta lng t ho hiu s ny bng cch ch s dng mt bit. V d nh bt 1 s c gi nu hiu s l dng v bt 0 c gi nu hiu s l m. S khc nhau gia hai mu c m hoch bng mt trong hai mc. Ta gi hai kh nng l + hoc - . Ti mi thi im ly mu, dng sng c lng t ho ch c th hoc l tng hoc l gim bng s . Hnh 7.24 trnh by mt dng sng analog in hnh v kt qu lng t ho ca n. V dng sng c lng t ho, ch c th hoc l tng hoc l gim bi ti mi im ly mu nn ta ly gn ng cc tr bc thang cho dng sng analog. Ta s kim tra vic la chn tc ly mu v kch thc c bc trong phnsau. Nu bc thang di tr mu analog, ta s tng chiu dng (v c gi l mt bc ln). Nu nc thang trn tr mu, ta s tng theo chiu m (c gi l mt bc xung). Cc bit c truyn trong v d trn hnh 7.24 l: 111110000111111100000

Hnh 7.24 Bin iu delta

Trang VII.23

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

H thng thu s ti to li bc thang gn ng trc tip t thng tin nh phn nhn c. Nu nhn c gi tr1, khi hon iu s tng ln mt bc theo chiu dng. Cn nu nhn c gi tr 0, s gim mt bc tng ng (tng theo chiu m). S din gii trn dn n mt b lng t ho n gin s dng b so snh (comparator) v khi pht hm bc thang (staircase generator). B bin i A/D c trnh by nh hnh 7.25. Hnh 7.25 Khi bin iu DM s(t)
Mch pht tn hiu bc thang

mu

a so snh b

a>b a<b

+ step

- step Cha kho dng bin iu delta c hiu qu l s chn la thng minh hai thng s: c bc (size step) v tc ly mu. Nhng thng s ny phi c chn sao cho tn hiu bc thang gn vi dng sng analog thc t. Bi v tn hiu c mt tn s trn xc nh, nn ta bit c tc nhanh nht khi n thay i. Tuy nhin, tnh ton tc nhanh nht c th ca tn hiu, tn s ly mu v/hoc c bc phi tng. Vic tng tn s ly mu dn n kt qu trong dng sng bin iu delta phi kh bng rng hn. Tng c bc s lm tng sai s lng t ho. Hnh 7.26 trnh by hu qu ca c bc sai. Nu cc bc qu nh, ta s gp mt iu kin qu ti dc (slope overload) m cc bc thang khng th ln ra du vt ca nhng s thay i qu nhanh trong tn hiu analog. V th, dc ln nht m bc thang c th nhn ra l /Ts. Ngc li, nu cc bc ny qu ln, xy ra s qu ng k trong sut chu k khi tn hiu khng thay i nhanh. Trong trng hp , ta c nhiu lng t ha v c gi l nhiu ht (Granular Noise). Hnh 7.26 S la chn khng ng ca kch thc trong DM Bin iu delta s dng tin trnh m ho ngun tin, v n s dng b nh gim s(t) Lng t ho Lng t ho s(t)

t t Bc qu nh khong ng. Trong mtvi bi cnh, chng c th lu tr cc mc ging nhau nh PCM vi mt vi bit c truyn trong mi giy. Tuy nhin, v h thng c b nh nn cc li truyn bit s c ci thin. Trong PCM, mt li bit truyn gy ra mt li trong vic sp
Trang VII.24

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

xp li cu trc gi tr mu c lin quan. Li ch nh hng ln mu c sp xp li. Nu mt li bit xy ra trong bin iu delta, b bin i A/D trong h thng thu s bc ln thay v bc xung (hoc ngc li) v tt c cc gi tr sau cha mt li offset gp i c bc. Nu mt li bit xy ra theo hng ngc li, li offset b trit. V nu li offset c vn , h thng cn thit khi ng li t mc tham chiu (thng l zero).

2. BIN IU DELTA THCH NGHI (adaptive delta modulation).

Ta trnh by c bc thch hp s dng trong bin iu delta ph thuc vo yu t: lm sao tn hiu thay i nhanh t mu ny sang mu k tip. Khi tn hiu thay i nhanh, c bc ln hn s trnh c qu ti. Cn khi tn hiu thay i chm, c bc nh hn s thu nh bc qu (overshoot) v nh th gim nhiu ht. Bin iu delta thch nghi l mt phng php cho php iu chnh c bc ph tu vo cc c im ca tn hiu tng t. Tiu ch ca n l, h thng thu c kh nng thch nghi vi cc c bc mt cch chnh xc ging nh h thng pht. Nu khng, thit b thu khng hi phc tn hiu c pht gc lng t ho(hmbc thang). V s truyn mtchui bit nh phn lin tip, c bc phi c tt t chui bit ny (ngoi tr trng hp ta gi mt tn hiu iu khin ring bit). Nu trong chiu di chui bit cha s lng cn bng gia cc bit 1 v cc bit 0, ta c th gi s rng bc thang giao ng xung quanh mt tn hiu analog thay i chm. Trong nhng trng hp nh th, ta nn gim c bc. Ngc li, nu cc bit 1 hoc 0 vt qu trong chui bit, c ngha l bc thang ang c gng ui bt hm. Trong nhng trng hp nh vy, ta nn tng c bc ln. Trong thc t, kim sot c bc c thc hin bi b tch hp s (digital intergrator). B tch hp ny s tnh tng s bit qua mt s chu k nht nh. Nu tng b lch khi s cn bng cc bit 0 v 1, c bc s c tng ln. Thc cht tng cc bit s c i sang mt gi tr in th tng ng ri chuyn sang b khuch i c li thay i. li c gi tr nh nht khi in th vo tng ng vi s cn bng ca bit 1 v 0 trong chu k. V ta ni rng y l b khuch i iu khin c bc. Hnh 7.27 Thut ton Song.

= c bc nh nht C vi thut ton bin iu delta thch nghi, n gin hn nhng g m ta va cp. l thut ton Song v thut ton Space Shuttle.

Trang VII.25

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Thut ton Song so snh bit truyn vi bit trc . Nu hai bit ny ging nhau, c bc tng ln mt lng c nh . Cn nu hai bit ny khc nhau, c bc gim i mt lng tng ng . V th c bc lun thay i v n c th rt ln khng gii hn nu cn thit. Ta s minh ho iu ny cho mt hm bc ng vo hnh hnh 7.27. Mt hm bc ng vo trnh by trng hp c bit v s khng xy ra trong thc t bi v mt hm bc c tn s hu hn. Ch rng mt giao ng tt dn xy ra, s ko theo s thay i nhanh chng trong tn hiu. Nu mt tn hiu tng t ch c nhiu s chuyn t ngt ging nh hm bc, cc giao ng tt dn sau thut ton Song c th c vn . Nhng bc nh v cc vt th chi tit c th c nhiu cch chuyn nh vy v chng c qut (scan) cho vic truyn ( l s thay i nhanh t trng sang en). Thut ton Space Shuttle l s ci bin ca thut ton Song hn ch giao ng tt dn. Khi mt bit hin ti ging vi bit trc , c bc s tng mt tr c nh . iu ny ging nh thut ton Song. Tuy nhin, khi cc bit ny khc nhau, c bc o li tc, n mt gi tr nh nht ca n l . iu ny, tng phn vi thut ton Song m kch thc bc gim hng v zero ti mi chu k ly mu t l vi . Thut ton Space Shuttle c minh ho hnh 7.28 cho hm dc ng vo ging nh hnh 7.27.

Hnh 7.28 Thut ton Space shuttle Ngoi PCM, DM, ADM cn c nhng phng php khc m ho thng tin tng t sang dng s. Mc ch ca mi h thng l gi thng tin vi tin cy ln nht v bng thng nh nht. By gi ta gii thiu ba trong nhiu phng php: bin iu m ho xung delta DPCD (delta pulse code modulatuion), PCM vi phn, bin iu m ho xung vi phn thch nghi ADPCM (adaptive differential pulse code modulation). Trong bin iu delta, ta phng nh mt dng sng lin tc thnh mt sng bc thang. ti mi thi im ly mu, ta pht trin s hng li (error term). l hiu s gia tn hiu v hm bc thang. Ta lng t ho li ny pht trin thnh mt s hng ng (correct term) ri c cng thm vo hmbc thang. Trng hp bin iu delta c bn, vic lng t ho c thc hin trong n v 1 bit. Trong bin iu PCM delta (DPCM) ta m ho li thnh nhiu hn mt bit v cng s hng ny vo gi tr bc thang trc nh trnh by hnh 7.29. V th, thay v cc bc thang ch c mt bin th by gi chng c th c cc c l mt trong 2, 4, 8 hoc bt c gi tr no l lu tha 2. ti mi thi im ly mu, by gi ta phi gi nhiu hn mt bit thng tin, cc bit thay i th hin m PCM cho biu thc li. Thun li ca DPCM so vi PCM thng thng l s

Trang VII.26

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

chn la thch hp ca chu k ly mu v li c lng t c mt khong ng nh hn tn hiu gc. Nh vy vi cng s bit lng t ho ta c phn gii tt hn, ci gi phi tr l s phc tp ca b bin iu. Ci kh ca ta l s bin iu. Nu tn hiu lun tn s ln nht (mt cch xc nh tc ly mu trong PCM), DCPM cng ging nh PCM. Tuy nhin, bi v cc tn s tn hiu thng c phn b tron mt khong, nn cc mu gn nhau thng c mi tng quan vi nhau v c th thc hin tt t h thng ny hn l t h thng PCM vi cng mt tc truyn bit.

clock

Mch to bc thang

C bc

s(t) +

Mch LT ho

output

Hnh 7.29 Delta PCM. PCM vi phn l mt k thut truyn thng tin khc v s thay i trong cc mu hn lchnh gi tr mu ca n. Cch tip cn ny bao gm cc bc thm vo m n khng l mt phn ca PCM delta. B bin iu ny khng gi s khc nhau gia cc mu gn nhau. Nhng n li gi s khc nhau gia mt mu v gi tr on trc ca mu . S tin on ny da trn c s ca cc mu trc . iu ny c minh ho hnh 7.30. K hiu s (nTs) c dng biu th gi tr tin on s(nTS). Hnh thc n gin nht ca s tin on khi c lng l mt hm tuyn tnh ca cc gi tr mu trc . V th, nu ch s dng mt mu ta c.
^
^

s (nTs) = As[(n 1)Ts] Trong A l hng s. Khi tin on trong hnh 7.30 l mch nhn ca gi tr A.
+

Tin on
+

s (nTs )
Lng t ho

s(t)

s (nTs ) s (nTs )

nTs

output

Hnh 7.30 PCM khc bit (differential PCM). Vic kh khn l chn gi tr A to c s tin on tt n mc c th. Ta nh ngha mt sai s tin on nh s khc nhau gia cc mu v gi tr c lng ca n. Do ,

Trang VII.27

C S Vin Thng
^

Phm Vn Tn

E(nTs) = s(nTs) s (nTs) = s(nTs) As[(n 1)Ts] Gi tr trung bnh bnh phng ca li l: mse = E[e2(nTs)] = E[s2(nTs) + A2E[s2((n 1)Ts] 2AE[s(nTs)s((n 1)Ts] = R(0)[(1+A2) 2AR(Ts)] Trong R(t) l hm t tng quan ca s(t). C th lm li nh li bng cch ly o hm ca mse theo A v cho gi tr ny bng zero. d(mse)/dA = 2AR(0) 2R(Ts) = 0 (7.7) Hoc E[s(n - 1)Ts(s(nTs) As((n-1)Ts)] = 0 R (Ts ) A= V cui cng ta c: R ((0) Biu thc (7.7) cho ta mt cch nhn trc gic. N chng t rng tr mong mun tch ca li vi mu c o l zero. Th th, li khng c thnh phn no trong cch nhn hai i lng l trc giao (orthogonal). Nu li c mt thnh phn trong cch nhn , ta c th gim c thnh phn ny tin ti zero bng cch iu chnh li hng s A. B tin on trong hnh 7.30 mang gi tr mu gn nht (n hnh thnh bng cch cng gi tr tin on vi s hng hiu s v c ln R(Ts)/R(0). Ta gi s rng vic x l ng vo c xem nh lu c th c lng tnh t tng quang ca n. V d 7.4: Tm ln lin h vi mt b tin on hot ng trn hai mu gn y nht. Hy c lng cch thc hin. Gii: s tin on c cho bi cng thc sau
^

s (nTs) = As[(n-1)Ts] + Bs[(n-2)Ts] Trong , mc tiu ca ta l chn gi tr thch hp nht cho A v B. Cch tt nht cho s chn la ny l li khng c thnh phn no trong lng o trc tip. V th ta c: E([s(nTs) As[(n-1)Ts] Bs[(n-2)Ts]]s[(n-1)Ts]) = 0 E([s(nTs) As[(n-1)Ts] Bs[(n-2)Ts]]s[(n-2)Ts]) = 0 Khai trin biu thc ny ta c: R(Ts) AR(0) BR(Ts) = 0 R(2Ts) AR(Ts) BR(0) = 0 Gii h phng trnh trn ta tm c kt qu ca A v B nh sau: R(Ts )[ R(0) R(2Ts )] A= R 2 (0) R 2 (Ts )
B= R (0) R (2Ts ) R 2 (Ts ) R 2 (0) R 2 (Ts ) Vy li bnh phng l:
^

mse = E([s(nTs) s (nTs)]2)

^

= E(s (nTs)) E( s (nTs)s(nTs))

Trang VII.28

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

R 2 (0) R 2 (Ts ) Gi s rng hm t tng quan ca s(t) c trnh by nh hnh 7.31 v chu k ly mu l 1 giy., kt qu ca mse = 1.895.
R(t)

R (0)

R (0) R 2 (Ts ) + R 2 (2Ts ) 2 R (2Ts ) R 2 (Ts )

10

10

10

Hnh 7.31 T tng quan (Autocorrelation) cho v d 7.4. so snh, nu ta khng xc nh s[(n-1)Ts] v s[(n-2)Ts] m ch tin on mt cch n gin nht ti gi tr trung bnh hoc zero, trung bnh bnh phng ca li s l R(0) hoc 10. i vi tn hiu ting ni, mt h thng PCM vi phn s dng s tin on trn mu gn nht c th tit kim mt bit/mu, nn h thng PCM vi phn c th c li tng ng nh h PCM nhng t hn mt bit/ mu. V th, nu ta ngh mt knh ting ni i hi lng t ho 8 bit PCM, nhp truyn s l 64kbps. PCMvi phn ch cn 7 bit/ mu. V th n s gim nhp truyn xung cn 56kbps v gii phng knh cho vic khc. Trong DPCM thch nghi, h s tin on khng l hng s trong ton b s truyn. V mi nhm (group) c chiu di ca cc mu l n, nn ta c th tnh ton mt ma trn [Rij]. Ta s dng ma trn ny tm ra cc h s tin on. Khi cc h s tin on khng cn l hng s na, phi c cch m bo rng bn h thng thu cng s dng cng cc h s nh vy. Phng php tng qut nht cho vic thit lp ny l gi cc h s cp nht nh mt overhead( thng thng c nhn vi mt thng tin mu).

VII. NHIU LNG T (quantization noise).

Trang VII.29

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

output

111 110 101 100 011 010 001 000

input 1 1 3 1 5 3 7 1 8 4 8 2 8 4 8 Hnh 7.32 Mi quan h vo ra ca lng t ho. Ta bt u nghin cu nhiu lng t trong k thut PCM bng cch kim tra li mi quan h vo ra lng t ca hnh 7.32. Nhiu lng t hay li, c nh ngha nh mt hm thi gian m thc cht l hiu gia sq(t) (dng sng lng t) v s(t). Li ny c cho bi: e(nTs) = s(nTs) sq(nTs) Hnh 7.33 minh ho mt hm thi gian tiu biu l s(t) v kt qu lng t ca hm thi gian l sq(t). Trong khi ta minh ho hm thi gian, iu quan trng nht cn ch l cc gi tr mu c lm trn khng ging nh hm thi gian tng t. V th, nhng gi tr c ngha ca sq(t) l nhng gi tr ti nhng thi im gian ly mu nTs. Hnh hnh 7.33 b trnh by li lng t ho e(t) nh l hiu ca s(t) v sq(t). Ch rng ta ch quan tm nhng gi tr ca hm li ny ti nhng thi im ly mu. Bin biu thc ca tn hiu li, khng vt qu mt na khong ca cc mc lng t. Hnh 7.33 Li lng t. Ta mong mun s tm ra c cc thng k trung bnh ca li. lm c iu ,
sq(t)

s(t)

4s 3s 2s s
e(t)

(a)

s 2 t (b) s 2 u tin ta phi tm hm mt li c th xy ra. Hnh 7.34 minh ho li nh mt hm gi tr mu ng vo. ng cong li bt u ti -S/2 tc ti ng bin di ca mi khong lng t v tng tuyn tnh n gi tr +S/2 ti ng bin trn. Nu by gi
Trang VII.30

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

ta bit c hm mt xc sut ca nhng tr mu, vn s tr nn n gin cho vic tm hm mt xc sut ca e. y l mt ng dng ca hm c bin ngu nhin. Kt qu l: p(s i ) p (e) = de i / ds i i Si l cc gi tr thay i ca s tng ng vi e. Nu ta t e bng mt gi tr xc nh nh trong hnh 7.34,, c mt s gi tr ca s (bng vi s cc vng lng t) chnh l gi tr ca e. Bin hm dc, lun l 1. V th biu thc 7.9 c th vit li l p (e ) = p ( s i ) (7.10)
i

Gi tr th nht ca si bn phi so vi gi tr gc l: e + S . si = 2

s 2
s
s(nTs)

s 2

Hnh 7.34 Gi tr mu khng li. Tt c cc gi tr khc ca si c th tm bng cch cng hoc tr thm mt lng S t gi tr ny. Nu cc mu c phn b u nhau trn dy gi tr, cc s hng trong biu thc tng 7.10 s tr thnh hng s tc l chiu cao ca hm mt gc. Kt qu l mt li ng u nh c trnh by hnh 7.35. By gi ta gi s rng cc mu c mt hnh tam gic nh c trnh by hnh 7.36. Kt qu vn l mt li ng u ca hnh 7.35. Tht vy, khi e tng, tng si ca biu thc 7.10 cng tng mt lng tng ng. Trong mt hnh tam gic, mi gi tr tng gim xung, gi tr khc s tng ln mt lng ging nh vy. Mt i s tng t nh vy c th dng cho bt c mt no m n tng ng gi tr tuyn tnh qua phm vi vng lng t n. V th, mt ng u ca hnh 7.35 c coi nh gn ng trn phm vi rng ca cc tn hiu ng vo.

Trang VII.31

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 7.35 Mt xc sut li.

p(en)

Hnh 7.36 Mt xc sut tam gic.

p(s)

1 s

1 s max

s 2

s 2

en s -smax smax

By gi nu ta bit mt li, ta c th tm c trung bnh bnh phng ca n: + 1 S / 2 2 S 2 2 mse = p (e n )e n de n = e n de n = S S / 2 12 Kt qu ny cho tr trung bnh bnh phng ca li trong mt mu ca hm thi gian. tm nguyn nhn gy ra li l vn cn thit so snh gi tr ny vi trung bnh bnh phng ca mu c thi gian khng i. iu ny rt quan trng cho t s tn hiu trn nhiu lng t. Ta c: s 2 12s 2 12 Ps SNR = = = 2 S 2 s 2 en Trong , ps l cng sut tn hiu trung bnh, biu thc 7.12 l mt kt qu cc k quan trng m ta s dng nhiu trong cc phn sau. V d 7.5: xem mt tn hiu m thanh c dng sin s(t) = 3 cos500t. a. Tm t s nhiu lng t khi dng lng t ho PCM 10 bit. b. Cn bao nhiu bit lng t c t s tn hiu trn nhiu lng t nh nht l 40 dB? Gii: a. Biu thc 7.12 c dng tm t s nhiu lng t. Ch cc tham s cn thit c c lng l cng sut tn hiu trung bnh v kch thc vng lng t. Bin nh l 6V. v th kch thc ca mi khong thi gian l 6/210 = 5.86x10-3. Cng sut tn hiu trung bnh l 32/2=4.5w. T s tn hiu trn nhiu lng t l: 12 x 4.5 SNR = = 1.57 x10 6 (5.86 x10 3 ) 2

Trang VII.32

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

SNR=10log(1.58x106)=62dB. b. Gi tr nh nht ca t s tn hiu trn nhiu l 40dB. Gi tr ny tng ng vi 4 10 . Ta s dng biu thc 7.12 vi S l gi tr cha bit. 12 x 4.5 > 10 4 S < 7.35 x10 2 2 S By gi ta ch n khch thc dc l S=6/2N. Trong N l s bit lng t. Ta cn phi chn gi tr ca N m S khng vt qu 7.35x102. V th, ta c: 6 < 7.35 x10 2 N 2 V 2N>81.6 Ta c th ly logarithm tm ra N nhng iu , khng cn thit. Nu N=6, v tri bng 64. Nu N=7, v tri l 128. Do , ta ch cn 7 bit lng t c c t s tn hiu trn nhiu nh nht l 40dB. Ta thy rt r l mi bit lng t thm vo s lm gim S i mt gi tr l 2. iu ny s lm tng t s tn hiu trn nhiu ln mt gi tr l4. Gi tr 4 ny tng ng vi 6dB v 10 log 4 6. V th, mi bit lng t ho thm vo s lm tng t s SNR ln 6dB. Biu thc 7.12 trnh by rt c th cch tm t s tn hiu trn nhiu lng t nh mt hm tn hiu v kch thc bc lng t. Tht l hu dng c c kt qu tng qut dng cho vic bt u thit k h thng. Gi s ta c tn hiu s(t) c phn b ng u gia -Smax v +Smax nh trnh by trong hnh 7.37. Trong trng hp c bit ny, biu thc 7.12 s a n mt cng thc rt n gin. Ta ch cn 2 i lng gii quyt biu thc ny. l xc sut tn hiu trung bnh v kch thc ca bc. Xc sut c tm t l thuyt c bn l: S max 2 S max 1 2 2 p s = s p( s )ds = s ds = 2S max S 3 max Kch thc bc c cho bi:
S = 2 S max 2
N

Nu ta mun biu din chng di dng decibels, ta ly logarithm thp phn ca gi tr ny v nhn vi 10. Ta c:

S max 2 N 1

Biu thc 7.12 s tr thnh:

SNR =
2 max

(7.13) S /2 Ch rng gi tr c bit ca Smax khng nh hng n t s tn hiu trn nhiu SNR. Khi Smax thay i, c cng sut tn hiu v cng sut nhiu lng t s thay i mt lng ging nhau.
2 N 2

2 4 S max

= 2 2N

Trang VII.33

C S Vin Thng p(s)

Phm Vn Tn

1 2 s max
s

s max

s max

Hnh 7.37 Tn hiu phn b ng u. Ta c th i t s tn hiu trn nhiu ca biu thc 7.13 sang decibels vi kt qu nh sau: SNRdB = 10 log (22N) = 20N log (2) = 6N dB (7.14) Kt qu ny th hin im bt u tht tt ngay c khi tn hiu phn b khng ng u. Trong cu b ca v d 7.5 ta yu cu ch ra s bit lng t c c t s tn hiu trn nhiu SNR nh nht l 40dB. Nhng 6N ln hn 40, N ti thiu phi l 7. Nh vy kt qu ny cng ging nh ta tm trong v d 7.5. Nhng ta hy cn thn khi s dng biu thc (7.13) v (7.14). Hu ht cc tn hiu trong i sng thc t, khng c phn b ng u v nhng biu thc ny ch p dng cho cc trng hp phn b ng u. Nu ta p dng khng ng biu thc 7.14 cho mt tn hiu khng ng u, ta s gp rc ri trong khi thit k h thng vi gi tr N sai. Nu s dng mt gi tr nh hn gi tr cn thit, ta s khng thy c trng hp c bit ca t s tn hiu trn nhiu SNR. Ngc li, nu s dng mt gi tr qu ln, ta phi chi cho mt khong tin ln v yu cu vic truyn nhiu bit trn giy hn lyu cu thy nhng trng hp c bit.

1. NHIU LNG T: LNG T HO KHNG U N.

Trong nhng trng hp m cc mu vo khng c phn b ng u, c th c c cc t s tn hiu trn nhiu ln hn bng cch s dng lng t ho khng u n. Ta bt u bng cch gi s rng cc mu c phn b tu theo mt xc sut p(s) nh c trnh by trong hnh 7.38. Mc d iu ny tng ng vi nh l Gausse nhng c ngha l hm mt xc sut ti hin li v kt qu m ta s thy khng ph thuc vo bt c dng c bit no ca tn hiu. Ta minh ho lng t ho 3 bits to ra 8 vng c nh du bi cc ng bin si v bi cc gi tr c lm trn sqi. Li lng t trung bnh bnh phng c cho bi biu thc: mse = E([s(nTs) sq(nTs)]2) = ( s s q ) 2 p ( s )ds =
i si +1 si

( s s qi ) 2 p ( s )ds

Trong biu thc (7.15), cc gi tr sqi l cc mc lng t c lm trn khc nhau v p(s) l hm mt xc sut ca cc mu tn hiu. Ta s tr li biu thc ny trong phn tip theo khi ta kim tra cc h thng c nn. Cn by gi, ta s s dng biu thc ny chng minh cu pht biu cp trc v v tr tt nht cho cc gi tr lm trn. Ta gi s rng cc vng c xc nh (si l gi tr cho trc) v ta mun tm v tr ti u ca cc gi tr lm trn sqi. Ta dng t ti u theo ngha l nhng gi trny lm cho trung bnh bnh phng ca li gim n mc nh nht. lm c iu , tm s khc nhau gia biu thc 7.15 vi sqi v gi tr t zero. Ta c:

Trang VII.34

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

si +1

si

( s s qi ) p( s )ds = 0

p(s)

sq1

sq2

sq8 s

s0

s1

s2

s3

s4

s5

s6

s7

s8

Hnh 7.38 Mt xc sut ca cc mu. Biu thc (7.16) ch ra rng mt khi cc vng lng t ho c lm trn, c chn gia trng tm ca phn tng ng trong mt xc sut. V th, mc lng t thay v gia ca mi khong, b lch v pha xc sut ln hn ca mi khong thi gian. y l cch nhn trc gic. V d 7.6: gi s hm mt ca s(t) l mt mt theo nh l Gausse ti gi tr zero vi s khc bit l 1/9. Bi v kh nng ca ca mt mu vt qu bin 1, nh hn 1% ( l im 3), gi s rng ta lng t ho vng gia 1 v +1 ( l cc gi tr trn bin 1 s bo ho ti gi tr hoc 000 hoc 111). y ta s dng lng t ho 3 bit. a. Tm li lng t bnh phng, gi s rng ta s dng lng t ho u n. b. ngh mt s m cc vng lng t ho c chn c din tch bng nhau di hm mt xc sut qua mi vng. l xc sut ca hm trong bt k khong thi gian rin no u ging nhue trong nhng khong thi gian khc. Hy chn v tr thch hp nht cho cc gi tr lm trn v tm li bnh phng. Gii: a. Ta dng cng thc tng ng ca (7.11) tm li bnh phng trong trng hp lng t ho u n. Kch thc ca mi khong l 2/8 = . Li c cho bi: 1 S 2 mse = = = 5.2 x10 3 12 192 b. u tin ta phi tm cc ng bin ca cc vng lng t. Ta chia phn ny ra tm on bng nhau. V th mt ca mi vng l 1/8. Tham chiu n bng cc hm li ta thy tr ca si l: -1, -0.38, -0.22, -0.1, 0, 0.1, 0.22, 0.38, 1 Biu thc (7.16) by gi c dng tm cc tr lm trn l sqi. Biu thc ny c rt gn li l: s qi = 8
s i +1 si

sp ( s )ds

iu ny c c lng bng cng thc gn ng hoc tng ng. Kt qu ca cc sqi c cho bi:

Trang VII.35

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

-0.54, -0.3, -0.16, -0.05, 0.05, 0.16, 0.3, 0.54 cui cng, li bnh phng c tm bng biu thc 7.15 l: mse = 5.3 x 10-3 iu ny ni ln lng t ho u n, tt hn lng t ho khng u n. Tuy nhin, vi mt Gausse v ch lng t ho 3 bit, biu thc 7.11 khng tng ng vi li bnh phng. Biu thc ny i hi mt phi tuyn tnh qua cc vng khc nhau. Cu tr li chnh xc cho cu a c th p dng biu thc 7.15. Kt qu s l 6.2 x 10-3, v v th lng t ho khng khng u n khng cung cp mt tin trin trong qu trnh thc hin. V d ny ngh mt thut ton kh thi cho vic chn la trong cc vng lng t ho. Tht s, y khng phi l thut ton tt nht khi so snh vi lng t ho u n trong mt s trng hp. Biu thc li bnh phng nhn mnh xc sut bnh phng ca s sai lch t gi tr c lng t trc khi tch phn. Mt cch tng qut, vn l lm gim thiu li ca biu thc 7.15 nh mt hm hai bin si v sqi. Cc gi tr sqi bt buc tho mn biu thc 7.16. Ngoi tr mt xc sut c th c tnh ton bng cng thc gn ng. Vn ny, tnh ton khng n gin. Ta c th s dng biu thc 7.15 c c s tng ng nhm ci tin s bit lng t tng. Qui lut sau y cho php chn la vng lng t ho: chn la vng lng t ho ph hp tnh u n. (si+1 -si)2 p(im gia) = hng s. (7.17) phn ny ta s nghin cu su cui chng.

2. H THNG NN V GII NN (companded systems)

Biu thc tng ng bng mt hm nn c bit c so snh vi lng t u n. Kt qu, tng ng, v s tng ng ny s lm ci tin s bit lng t tng. V th cc vng lng t tr nn nh hn. Ta gi s rng cc tr lm trn, gia mi khong thi gian. y l cch chn tt nht nu mt c th c gi s l hng s qua rng ca mi khong. Gi s rng hm mt tng ng qua tng khong gi tr ca n ti cc tr lm trn. Biu th 7.15 c vit li l:
mse =
i i +1 si

( s s qi ) 2 p ( s )ds = p ( s qi )

( s s qi ) 3 3

i +1

(7.18)
si

V by gi ta ly sqi l khong gia ca mi khong s + s i +1 s qi = i 2 Biu thc 7.18 s tr thnh: (s s ) 3 mse = p( s qi ) i +1 i (7.19) 12 i Tht s nu kch thc cc bc u n ca S c thay vo trong biu thc 7.19 kt qu ch cn l S2/12. Nu khng ri vo trng hp ny, ta phi kim tra li s thay i tm ra li.

Trang VII.36

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Ta c th lin kt kch thc mi khong si+1 - si n dc ca ng cong c nn.Nu ng ra nn c lng t ho u n vi c bc l S, c bc tng ng ca dng sng cha nn tng ng vi hnh 7.38. S ( s i +1 s i ) ' F (si ) Ta cn gii hn tng ny khi cc khong thi gian cng ngy cng nh. lm c iu , ta tch bnh phng ca mi khong t ton hng lu tha 3 trong biu thc 7.19 v vit li s hng bnh phng ny bng cch s dng o hm hm. 1 mse = p( s qi )( s i +1 s i ) 2 ( s i +1 s i ) 12 i p ( s qi ) S 2 1 ( s i +1 s i ) (7.20) = 12 i [ F ' ( s i )] 2 tnh gii hn tr thnh: p(s) S 2 ds mse = 12 s [ F ' ( s )] 2 Li bnh phng cho mt lng t ho u n xut hin trong biu thc 7.21. Nu tch phn trong biu thc ny nh hn 1, b nn v gii nn s l ln t ho u n. Ta mun so snh h thng nn v gii nn u n. Trong s so snh ny, ta s chn lng t ho 8 bit bi v y l cch thng dng nht trong vic truyn m thanh. Nu ta gi s rng cc mu tn hiu c phn b khng u n, t s tn hiu trn nhiu lng t l 48dB khi dng lng t ho 8 bit. Gi s rng cng sut tn hiu gim nhng cc mc lng t, khng thay i (ta khng thit k li b bin i A/D). Min sao tn hiu lp y t nht mt vng c lng t (-S/2 n +S/2), v cng sut nhiu trung bnh cn li khng thay i. V th, khi cng sut tn hiu gim, t s tn hiu trn nhiu SNR cng gim cng mt t l. Ta c th v SNR nh mt hm cng sut ng vo nh c trnh by bng ng tuyn tnh ca hnh 7.39. Khi tn hiu tng vt qu phm vi ca cc mc lng t (trong trng hp qu ti), cng sut nhiu tng ln kh nhanh. iu ny l ng bi v cc mu ln hn s lm bo ho h thng v nhiu s khng gii hn v bin n S/2 na. Vi bt k SNR no, phn ng cong trn mc ny th hin vng lng t ho ng. V d nu ta cn SNR t nht l 28dB, khong ng ny s i t 20 n khong +3dB trong trng hp y ti nh th hin trn s .

Trang VII.37

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

SNR (dB) N=8

48 40 30 20 10 -50

overload

-40

-30

-20

-10

Input signal power (dB)

Hnh 7.39 Ngun tn hiu khng SNR. H thng nn-gii nn thc hin tt hn h thng lng t ho u n i vi cc tn hiu nh. iu ny ng bi v, cc khong nh hn, kch thc mu gim.

N=8 46 =255 36 26 16 -60 -50 -40 100 40 15

5 0 -30 -20 -10 0

Input power (dB relative to full load)

Hnh 7.40 Hot ng ca h thng nn. Ta c th c lng s th hin h thng nn-gii nn v so snh n vi h lng t ho u n. Trong hnh 7.40 thc hin iu cho mt tn hiu u n v nn-gii nn theo lut (cc gi tr thay i ca m bao gm -255). Cc ng cong ca hnh 7.39 c lp li trong hnh ny khi so snh. Ch rng h thng nn-gii nn thc hin tt hn lng t ho u n cho cc mc tn hiu thp nh mong mun. V d nh, nu ta mong mun t s tn hiu trn nhiu t nht l 28dB, khong ng s i t 50dB n khong +3dB khi ti nh ch ra trong s .

Trang VII.38

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

NHIU LNG T TRONG BIN IU DELTA (quantization noise in delta modulation)

Mt ln na ta nh ngha li lng t l hiu s gia tn hiu gc v s lng t tng ng (hmb thang): e(t ) = s(t ) s q (t ) Gi s rng tc ly mu v kch thc tng bc, c chn trc trnh qu ti. Vi nhng iu kin ny, bin ca nhiu lng t khng bao gi vt qu kch thc bc. n gin, ta gi s tt c bin tn hiu th bng nhau, ta kt lun rng li c phn b u n qua phm vi gia - v + nh c trnh by hnh 7.41. Gi tr trung bnh bnh phng ca nhiu lng t c cho bi: 1 2 2 mse = e de = 2 3 Trong cc h thng vin thng s ang xy dng, mt cu hi hp l t ra l s dng PCM hay DM trong k thut m ho ngun. Ta s lo lng v nhiu yu t: tc bit truyn i hi v bng thng h thng, tin cy, nhiu lng t v s nh hng ca li truyn. Ta nhn thy cng thc n gin ca SNR lin h vi PCM v vi DM. ng thng di y l nhng trng hp chc chn m DM s cung cp SNR ging nh PCM vi tc truyn bit thp. Trong nhng trng hp khc, iu ngc li vn ng. Bin iu delta thch nghi cng thm thng s khc vo phn tch. Hnh 7.41 Mt li lng t cho DM
p(e)

1 2
e

Ta bt u phn tch bng cch gii quyt li lng t bnh phng ti ng ra ca b thu bin iu delta. S hon iu bao gm b lc h thng LPF lm phng cc hm bc thang tr thnh mt ng cong lin tc. Do ta phi tm cc c tnh tn s ca nhiu lng t. y khng phi l bi ton phn tch n gin m n i hi mt dng c th m ta phi chp nhn cho s(t). Ta gi s rng tn hiu gc s(t) l mt sng hnh rng ca. y l v d n gin nht v dng sng c phn b u n. Tc l dng sng vi phin bn lng t ca n v cho ra kt qu nhiu lng t nh c trnh by trong hnh 7.42. Ch rng hm nhiu, hu nh tun hon vi chu k Ts (chu k ly mu). Nhiu tun hon chnh xc c chu k bng vi dng sng phng nu chu k l mt tch phn nhn vi Ts. Ta gi s rng kch thc bc v chu k ly mu c chn trnh qu ti cho trng hp ny c tnh i xng hon chnh. Mt ph cng sut ca sa(t) c th tnh mt cch chnh xc. Cng thc ca n l: sin4 f/f4 v bin i Fourier ca hm rng ca cho ra dng sin2 f/f2. Zero u tin ca mt ph cng sut ca dng sng tam gic l f=1/Ts. Cc phn nh ln bn kia ca im ny, b gim cng sut i 1/f. V th, c mt t cng sut vt ngoi

Trang VII.39

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

dc chnh. Ta gi s rng tt c cng sut c tp trung dy tn thp vi tn s f=1/Ts. V ta gi s rng ly mu bin iu delta xy ra ti tc trn tc Nyquist (c th l ln hn 7 ln tc Nyquist). S zero u tin ca ph xy ra ti tn s f=1/Ts. Tn s ny ln hn nhiu so vi tn s fm. B lc thng thp LPF vi tn s ct l fm ch cho qua mt lng nh c lin quan n phn nh ln chnh ca ph cng sut nhiu. iu ny c minh ho hnh 7.43. c c kt qu tng ng, ta gi s rng ph, tht phng qua phm vi tn s t 0 n fs. Tng cng sut nhiu l li bnh phng c tm ra trong cc phn trc l 2/3. V ta gi s l ph phng nn phn cng sut qua b lc h thng LPF l Tsfm hay fm/fs. Cng sut nhiu ng ra, c cho bi: 2 f m Nq = 3 fs Trong fs l s cc mu trn giy. Hnh 7.42 Bin iu delta ca dng sng hnh rng ca.
e(t) sq(t) Ts sq(t) t

2 2

Ts

V d 7.7: Mt tn hiu m thanh c dng s(t) = 3 cos 1000t c lng t bng DM. Hy tm t s tn hiu trn nhiu lng t. Gii: u tin ta chn c bc v tn s ly mu cho dng sng ny. Nhp Nyquist l fs= 1000mu/s. Gi s v l do no , ta chn ln hn 8 ln so vi nhp Nyquist ta fs= 8000mu/s. S lng ln nht ca hm c th thay i trong 1/8ms tng ng vi 1V. Nu kch thc bc ca 1V c chn, hm dc s khng qu ti. Cng sut lng t ho nhiu c cho bi: 2 f m Nq = = 41.7 mW 3 fs Cng sut tn hiu l 32/2 hay 4.5 W. Cui cng t s tn hiu trn nhiu c cho bi: 4 .5 SNR = = 107 hay 20.3 dB 0.042 Gi tr ny nh hn nhng g c c nu s dng PCM cho v d ny.
G q (f Gq(f) )

fm

f s=1/T s
Ts

f
f

1 ng sua Hnh 7.43 Mfm a t o pho t nhie u l ng t . f s =co

Trang VII.40

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

VIII. GII THIU V M HO ENTROPY V NN D LIU.

Ch chnh ca cc phn trc thuc chng ny l m ho tn hiu ngun. l k thut chuyn i mt tn hiu tng t sang tn hiu s. Phn chnh trong phn ny l m ho entropy. y l phng php kt hp mt t dng s vi mi thng tin c truyn i. Ta s thy s lin kt ny c thc hin trong phng cch lm gim thiu chiu di thng tin c truyn. Trong phn 7.8, ta s nghin cu v m ho kim sot li. Phng php ny th khc so vi m ho entropy. Ngay c trong trng hp khng c nhiu thm vo, cc m ho entropy cng phi c thit k cn thn trnh nhiu li trong khi gii m. Vn s mt lin quan n khi nim ny l s gii on duy nht. Gi s rng c 4 bn tin cn c truyn v nhng bn tin ny c m ho sang s nh phn nh sau: M1 = 1 M2 = 10 M3= 01 M4 = 101 Gi s by gi ta ang h thng thu v nhn c kt qu l 101. Ta s khng bit kt qu ny l ca M4 hoc thng tin ghp ca M2 v M1 hoc M1 v M3. Do s la chn ca cc t m ny cho ra mt m m khng c s gii on m duy nht. Mt m c th gii on mt cch duy nht c nu khng c t m to nn bt u (c xem nh tin t) ca bt k t m no khc. V th, 4 m thng tin sau y l mt v d gii on duy nht. M1=1 M2=01 M3=001 M4=0001 c tnh gii hn tin t l y nhng khng cn thit cho kh nng gii m duy nht. V d kh, m: M1=1 M2=10 M3=100 M4=1000 L c th gii on duy nht c, mc d mi t m l tin t ca mi t m khc bn phi ca n. S khc nhau chnh yu gia v d ny v v d trc l ch khng t m no c th hnh thnh nh l s t hp ca nhng t m khc. Tuy nhin y l iu bt li. M th c th gii on duy nht c nhng khng xy ra lp tc. Gi s rng ta ang my thu v nhn c m 10. n khi ta thy hai bit c nhn k tip, ta khng bit khi no nhn c thng tin M2, M3, M4. V d 7.8: Nhng m no sau y l gii on duy nht? Hy xc nh chng khi no xy ra. a. 0, 01, 001, 0011, 101 b. 110, 111, 101, 01 c. 0, 01, 011, 0110111 Gii: a. y khng l gii on duy nht v t u tin v t sau cng khi gi i thnh chui 0101 v c th din gii l 01 v 01. l hai ln truyn ca t th hai. b. y l gii on duy nht v tt c nhng t bt u vi mt s 1 v u c chiu di l 3. Nu mt chui 3 bit khng bt u vi s 1, ta bit rng n ch l mt t c hai bit. M ny, cng xy ra tc th v khng t m no l tin t ca t khc.

Trang VII.41

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

c. y l gii on duy nht v tt c nhng t bt u vi mt s zero, s zero ny khng lp li trong bt c t no l t hp ca nhng t khc. N khng xy ra lp tc v mi t trong ba t u tin l mt tin t ca mt t sau cng khc.

1. M HO ENTROPY (entropy coding)

Vn ta quan tm y l tm ra cc m c th gii on duy nht c vi chiu di nh nht. iu ny s cho php truyn vi tc ln nht trn knh. Vic kim tra cc m c trnh by r rng hn trong phn ny. Nhng bn tin khc nhau c m ho thnh nhng t c chiu di khc nhau. Khi ni v chiu di ca mt m, ta phi ch ra chiu di trung bnh ca nhng t m. Tr trung bnh ny c tnh ton bng cch ly xc sut ca mi bn tin. R rng rt thun li khi gn nhng t m ngn hn cho hu ht nhng bn tin c th c. M Morse theo quy lut ny bng cch gn t m ngn nht bng k t E. Mt nh l cn bn tn ti trong thuyt m ho khng c nhiu. nh l ny c pht biu rng: i vi cc ch ci m hobng s nh phn, chiu di t m trung bnh, ln hn hoc bng vi entropy. Ngi ta nh ngha entropy l 1 H = p i log 2 p i i Trong pi l xc sut ca bn tin th i. Gi tr log2(1/pi) c hiu nh l ni dung ca thng tin v n v ca n l bit. Entropy l lng tin trung bnh trn bn tin. Gi chiu di t trung bnh l n, nh l ny c xc nh bng cng thc sau: nH
V d 7.9: Tm chiu di trung bnh nh nht ca mt m vi 4 bn tin vi xc sut ln lc l 1/8, 1/8, v . Gii: Theo m ho entropy ta c: 1/8 x 3 + 1/8 x 3 +1/4 x 2 + x 1 = 1.75 bits y cng l chiu di trung bnh nh nht ca m ny. Ta ch rng m c th l: M1 = 000, M2 = 001, M3=01, M4 =1 M ny c th gii on c v c chiu di trung bnh l 1.75 bits.

2. CC M C CHIU DI THAY I (variable length codes)

Nu cc bn tin truyn i vi xc sut khng bng nhau tc cc t m c chn c chiu di khng bng nhau, chiu di m trung bnh ngn hn. V d gi s rng ta c 4 bn tin vi xc sut ln lc l 1/8, 1/8, , v (ging nh v d 7.9). Mt phng php m ho nhng bn tin ny sang cc t nh phn l s dng 00, 01, 10 v 11 gi 4 bn tin c th vi chiu di trung bnh l 2 bit. Chiu di trung bnh c cho bi: 1/8 x 3 + 1/8 x 3 +1/4 x 2 + x 1 = 1.75 bits

Ta c th m ho nhiu bn tin sang nhng t m ngn hn. Trong trng hp c bit ny chiu di t trung bnh hp vi entropy. V th ta khng th tm ra mt m vi chiu di trung bnh nh hn.

Trang VII.42

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Mt phng php bt ngun t cc m c chiu di thay i l bt u vi nhng m c chiu di thay i v nhiu nhm con m rng. V d bt u vi m 1 bt ta c hai t m l 0 v 1 v m rng cho n l: 100, 101, 110 v 111. Nm t m ny l: 0 100 101 110 111 Mt phng php khc bt u vi t m 2 bit 00, 01, 10, 11 v m rng cho mt trong 4 t m ny sang hai t. Nu 01 c chn cho vic m rng, ta s c m 5 t. 00 010 011 10 11 Cu hi by gi l lm sao c nhiu cch thc hin m rng m n s cho kt qu vi chiu di trung bnh nh nht. Ta trnh by hai cch tm mt cch c hiu qu nhng t m c chiu di thay i. l dng m Hufman v m Shannon-Fano. M Huffman cung cp mt k thut t chc cho vic tm t m c chiu di thay i cho mt tp cc bn tin. Ta trnh by cc bc thc hin nh v d sau y: Gi s rng ta mun m ho 5 t s1, s2, s3, s4, v s5 vi xc sut ln lc l 1/16, 1/8, , 1/16, v . Trnh t m Huffman c thit lp qua 4 bc sau y: Bc 1: Sp xp cc bn tin theo xc sut gim dn. Nu c nhng xc sut bng nhau, chn bt c t no trc cng c.
T S5 S3 S2 S1 S4 Xc sut 1/8 1/16 1/16

Bc 2: K t y ln, t hp hai xc sut cui thnh mt xc sut mi vi xc sut l tng ca hai xc sut cn ghp. Ta s sp xp li khi c c xc sut mi nu thy cn thit. V ta cng sp xp theo s gim dn.
T Xc sut Xc sut mi S5 S3 S2 1/8 1/8 S1 1/16 1/8 S4 1/16 Ch rng xc sut cui ca ct bn phi l s t hp ca s1 v s4. Bc 3: Tip tc kt ni nh bc 2 cho n khi ct bn phi cng ch cn hai xc sut.

Trang VII.43

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

T S5 S3 S2 S1 S4

Xc sut 1/8 1/16 1/16

Xc sut 1/8 1/8

Xc sut

Xc sut mi

Bc 4:Gn nhng t m bng cch bt u bn phi vi MSB (the most significant bit). Di chuyn sang bn tri v gn cho nhng bit khc nu c s phn chia xy ra. Nhng bit c gn , c gch di nh bng sau:
T S5 S3 S2 S1 S4 Xc sut 1/8 1/16 1110 1/16 1111 Xc sut 1/8 110 1/8 111 Xc sut 10 11 Xc sut mi 0 1

Cui cng cc t m c xc nh nh sau: S1 -> 1110 S2 -> 110 S3 -> 10 S4 -> 1111 S5 -> 0 Ch rng ti mi im c th c hai cch gn. Nu c ba hoc nhiu xc sut thp nht bng nhau, vic chn la t hp l tu . Chiu di trung bnh l: L = 4 x 1/16 + 3x 1/8 +2x +4 x 1/16 + 1 x = 15/8 Nu m ho khi c s dng, ta cn 3 bit cho mt bn tin v chiu di trung bnh s l 3. Entropy ca m c xc nh: H= 2/16 log(16) + 1/8 log(8) + log(4) + log(2) = 15/8 bits Kt qu ny cng ging nh chiu di trung bnh ca m Huffman. V th, th tc Huffman sinh ra mt m c hiu qu cao. iu ny to ra kt qu bi v tt c cc xc sut bn tin l bi ca . iu bt li ca m Huffman l ta khng th bt u gn t m cho n khi ton b tin trnh t hp c hon tt. l mt trong nhng ct phi c khai trin trc khi t m u tin c gn. Tin trnh m ho thng c thc hin bng mt my vi tnh chuyn dng. M Shannon-Fanno cng ging nh m Huffman. S khc nhau ch yu l cc thao tc thng tin hn l li. V th cc yu cu lu tr, c xem nh l th gin v m thc hin d hn. N thng dn n chiu di trung bnh ging nh m Huffman. Cc kt qu m ho Shannon-Fano th khng lun lun tt nh m Huffman.

Trang VII.44

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Ta s minh ho li k thut ny bng mt v d. Ta dng mt v d ging nh m Huffman trnh by phn trc trong chng ny. Bc 1: Sp xp nhng bn tin theo xc sut gim dn. Nu c nhiu xc sut bng nhau, chn bt c t no trc cng c.
T S5 S3 S2 S1 S4 Xc sut 1/8 1/16 1/16

Bc 2: Chia nhng bn tin thnh nhng tp con c xc sut ngang nhau nht. Ta bt u ti nh hoc y v chia nhm ny ra hai tp hp. Ta tm xc sut tng cng ca tp hp trn v tp hp di. Ta chn ng chia sao cho kt qu nm trong xc sut gn nhau nht. Trong trng hp ny ng phn cch s nm di mu tin du tin. Kt qu xc sut cho cc mu tin trn v di l nh c minh ho di y.
T S5 S3 S2 S1 S4 Xc sut 1/8 1/16 1/16

0 1

By gi ta gn gi tr zero cho tt c cc phn t ca mt trong hai tp hp v gi tr 1 cho tt c cc thnh phn khc (y l s tu chn). Gi s rng ta chn 0 cho tp hp trn v 1 cho tp hp di. Nu mt tp hp ch cha mt mu tin, tin trnh x l cho tp hp kt thc. V th t m ho c dng gi s5 i l 0 v ta khng cn xem li tin trnh na. Ta tp trung vo tp hp khc v ;pkli tin trnh chia nh. Sau mt ln chia nh hn ta c:

T S3 S2 S1 S4

Xc sut 1/8 1/16 1/16

T m 10

11

Ch rng xc sut c phn trn ng phn cch v phn di ng y u l . Ta cng bit th hai cho cc t m (cng 0 cho t m trn ng phn cch v gi tr 1 cho di ng y). Bi v ch c mt mu tin trn ng phn cch nn ta kt thc v m ca s3 l 10. Tip tc chia nh vi tp hp di ng phn cch ta c:

Trang VII.45

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

T S2 S1 S4

Xc sut 1/8 1/16 1/16

T m 110

111

Cui cng ta chia nh tp hp phn di ng phn cch ra: T S1 S4 Kt qu ca t m l: S1 -> 1110 S2 -> 110 S3 -> 10 S4 -> 1111 S5 -> 0 Quan st kt qu trn ta thy hon ton ging vi kt qu khi dng vi m Huffman. Ta minh ho hai k thut rt ngn tp hp cc bn tin thnh m nh phn hiu qu nht. Ta gi s rng cc bn tin c cho v chng khng t hp thnh m c. Nu cc bn tin t hp c, s hiu qu hn nhiu. Ta minh ho iu ny bng mt v d vi hai bn tin. Gi s rng bn tin ny c xc sut ln lc l: S1 -> 0.9 S2 -> 0.1 Xc sut 1/16 1/16 T m 1110 1111

Th Entropy c tnh l: H= -0.9 log 0.9-0.1 log 0.1 = 0.47 bit V th ta hy vng s t c mt m c chiu di gn vi gi tr ny. Tuy nhin ta s dng hoc l k thut Huffman hoc l m Shannon-Fano s cho kt qul gn gi tr 0 vo mt trong cc t m v gi tr 1 cho t m khc. Chiu di trung bnh thng l mt bit trn mt bn tin. iu ny, nhiu hn hai ln Entropy. Gi s rng ta t hp cc bn tin thnh nhng cp. Sau ta c 4 tp hp ca hai bn tin. iu ny khng ph thuc vo cc bn tin. Cc tp hp c th v xc sut kt qu l: S1S1 0.81 S1S2 0.09 S2S1 0.09 S2S2 0.01 Nu s dng phng php Shannon-Fano ta gn nhng t m nh sau: S1S1 0.81 0 S1S2 0.09 10 S2S1 0.09 110 S2S2 0.01 111 Chiu di t trung bnh thng c xc nh nh sau: L = 1 x 0.81 + 2 x 0.09 + 3 x 0.10 = 1.29 bits V mi bn tin c t hp s th hin hai trong s nhng bn tin gc, ta chia s ny cho hai, tm ra c 0.645 bit c dng gi mt trong s nhng bn tin gc.

Trang VII.46

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

By gi gi s rng ta kt hp 3 bn tin cng mt thi im c c nhng xc sut bn tin v t m nh sau: S1S1S1 0.729 0 S1S1S2 0.081 100 S1S2S1 0.081 101 S1S2S2 0.009 11100 S2S1S1 0.081 110 S2S1S2 0.009 11101 S2S2S1 0.009 11110 S2S2S2 0.001 11111 Chiu di trung bnh ca cc m l 1.598 bits. V th chiu di trung bnh cho bn tin gc l: 1.598 L= = 0.533bit 3 Ch rng ta cng kt hp nhiu bn tin, chiu di trung bnh s tin gn n Entropy. Chiu di trung bnh ny s bng vi Entropy nu cc xc sut l nghch o bi ca 2. Khi cng nhiu cc bn tin c kt hp, cc xc sut cng tin n gn nhau.

3. NN D LIU (data compression)

Nn d liu l mt thut ng c dng rng ri trong cc k thut lm gim s bit truyn cho mt bn tin. M ho Entropy l mt dng ca nn d liu. S thnh cng ca cc k thut nn d liu, ph thuc vo cc thuc tnh ca thng tin. V d m ho Entropy tr nn hiu qu nht khi cc xc sut ca bn tin khng bng nhau. Nhng k thut khc m ta s m t ph thuc vo cc thuc tnh tun t ca bn tin. Tc chng ph thuc vo cc biu tng xy ra trong mt trt t c th tin on. By gi ta xem s m ho ca mt bc nh ti vi. Gi s, mt bc nh ti vi cha 426 im nh c th nhn thy (pixel) trong mt ng qut ngang. Nu ta ni v ti vi trng en ch cn gi sng ( chi) ca mi im nh. Gi s ta quyt nh truyn 7 bits thng tin. Th th, ta lng t sng bng 27 hoc 128 mc khc nhau. iu ny th hin cht lng ca phn gii cao. Ta cn 7 x 426 hoc 2982 bits truyn thng tin cho mi ng bng cch s dng PCM. Mt nh ti vi chun thng cha m chui cc im nh gn nhau vi cng sng. Khi ta theo du ca mt ng qut ngang ta c th thy hng trm im nh c sng ging nhau (gi s c mt hnh gia mn hnh v phng nn, ging nhau hoc gi s ta gi mt on vn bn trn mt nn ging nhau). Trong nhng trng hp nh th ta c th s dng k thut nn d liu (c hiu nh m run-length) lm gim s bit truyn tn hiu. Thay v gi sng cho mi im nh, ta gi v tr bt u v sng ca im nh u tin trong s cc im nh c cng sng vi cng mt sng. gi v tr ta cn 9 bits thng tin bi v 29 = 512 v c 426 v tr khc nhau. V th ta cn 9 bits cho v tr v 7 bits cho sng (tng cng l 16 bits). Th d nu 10 im nh ln cn c cng sng, ta cn 10 x 7 = 70 bits gi nhng thng tin ny mt cch c lp. Nhng ch vi 16 bit gi chng nu dng m runlength. Khi nim ny c th dn n tit kim hn nu c m rng sang hai hng. Mt trong nhng bt li ca m run-length l tn hiu d liu xy ra vi tc khng ng u. l nhng bit khng m ho c gi i vi tc khng i. Tuy nhin,
Trang VII.47

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

bng cch m ho cc vng sng u ln s cho kt qu d liu truyn vi nhp thp hn. V th h thng i hi mt vng m. Mt s thiu st na l cc li truyn i v h thng c b nh. Mt bit li trong mt h thng dng PCM gi ring thng tin tng im nh s gy ra mt li sng cho ring im nh . Nhng nu m run-length c dng, mt bit li c th nh hng n ton b sng ca ng qut. Ta c th dng s tin on trong cc dng nn d liu. Nu cc gi tr ca d liu tip theo c th c tin on t cc gi tr hin ti v cc gi tr trc th khng cn gi tt c d liu. Ch cn cc gi tr d liu hin ti cng thm mt s thng s chnh gip cho vic tin on.

IX. GII THIU V SA LI TIP CHUYN (forward error correction).

Ta s c gng thit k mt h thng lm gim thiu xc sut ca cc bit li. Tuy nhin, trong mt mi trng nhiu thng, khng th lm gim li n mc c th chp nhn c. iu ta cn lm l tng cng sut tn hiu n gii hn thc t. Lm gim t l li l yu cu truyn thng mt tc thp kh c th chp nhn. C mt s la chn khc ci tin vic thc hin mt h thng truyn thng s. M kim sot li (error control coding) c th c dng ci tin cu trc tn hiu. Cu trc ny c th nhn ra cc li ti h thng thu. S pht hin li (error detection) l tin trnh cung cp cu trc . Do h thng thu s bit c khi no li xy ra. Nu cu trc thm vo y nh v chnh xc v tr ca cc li ny, m l mt m sa li (error correcting) v n c th sa ng cc li ti h thng thu m khng yu cu phi truyn li. S sa li gi l sa li tip chuyn (forward error correction). Sa li tip chuyn thng yu cu thm vo mt s bit khi truyn tn hiu i. Do ta gi nhiu bit hn yu cu. Ta xem hai loi m rng ca m iu khin li l m ho khi (block coding) v m ho chng (convolutional coding).

1. M HO KHI TUYN TNH (linear block coding):

Trong m ho khi tuyn tnh cc nhm ca bn tin c chiu di khng i c mho sang cc nhm bit m ho c chiu di c nh. Nhm cc bit hnh thnh s bn tin mong mun. Chng hn nh bng cch kt hp cc nhm 3 bits, ta c th hnh thnh nn 8 bn tin c t mnh sau: 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111. Mi mt trong 8 t bn tin ny c th c m ho sang mt trong 8 t m khc. Cc t m khng cn thit phi c chiu di bn tin ging nh t bn tin gc. Tht vy, iu khin c li, cc t m phi di hn t bn tin gi l phn d (redundancy). Ta c th kim tra kh nng sa li cho cc li c phn b ngu nhin. Ta gi s rng cc bit thc t o ngc trong khi truyn i, c phn b mt cch ngu nhin trong sut bn tin. y khng phi l trng hp cc li ngu nhin (burst error) m y xc sut li bit cao xy ra trong s cc bit ln cn.

Trang VII.48

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

2. KHONG CCH GIA CC T M

Khong cch gia hai t nh phn c chiu di bng nhau c nh ngha nh s v tr bit khc nhau gia hai t ny. V d nh khong cch gia 000 v 111 l 3 trong khi khong cch gia 010 v 011 l 1. Khong cch gia bt c t no vi t c hnh thnh bng s thay i mt bit l 1. Gi s by gi ta truyn mt trong 8 t m 3 bit. V ta truyn trn mt knh b nhiu v c mt bt v tr nhn sai v mi t hp 3 bt c dng cho mt bn tin, nn thu c chnh l mt trong cc t m v mt li c to ra. Chng hn nh nu gi tr 101 c truyn v c mt li xy ra trong bit th ba nn h thng thu c s l 100. By gi gi s rng t vng ca cc t m l khong cch gia bt c hai t m no t nht l hai. Tm t m sau y c tnh cht trn: 0000, 0011, 0101, 0110, 1001, 1010, 1100, 1111 By gi ta truyn mt trong 8 t m v mt bit li xy ra trong khi truyn. V khong cch gia t nhn c v t truyn l 1, t nhn c khng th ghp bt c t no trong t vng. V d nh gi tr 0101 c truyn v bit li xy ra bit th 3, h thng thu nhn c 0111. y khng phi l mt trong 8 t trn. Khng th sa li c nu t m truyn l mt trong cc tr sau: 0011, 0101, 0110, 1111. By gi ta s v cc t m trong mt khng gian n chiu, 8 t m tr thnh cc gc ca hnh khi n v nh trnh by trong hnh 7.44.Bt u ti mi gc ca hnh khi, nu mt li bit c to ra, ta s di chuyn mt trong nhng cnh n mt gc k bn vi khong cch l mt n v. V th khong cch gia hai t l s cnh nh nht phi c xoay quanh trc di chuyn t mt t n nhng t khc.

010 011 000 001 101 111

110

100

Hnh 7.44 M ho 3 bit trong khng gian 3 chiu. Trong v d trn vi cc t m 4 bit ta cn mt hnh v vi 8 im th hin cc t m 4 chiu. y l mt hnh khi trong mt khng gian 4 chiu. Ta tm t nht hai cnh c xoay quanh mt trc t mt t n nhng t khc. Trong trng hp tng qut nu khong cch nh nht gia hai t m l 2, cc t m c chia t nht l hai cnh trong mt khng gian n chiu. Ta s minh ho iu ny trong hnh 7.45. Trong hnh ny ta ch ra3 trong s cc t m t v d trn. Khi cu n chiu vi bn knh n v bao gm tt c cc t vi khong cch bng 1 c tnh t tm.

0011

d=1 Trang VII.49 0000

0110

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hnh 7.45 Khng gian 4 chiu. Gi s by gi khong cch nh nht gia cc t m c tng ln bng 3. Ta thy rng nu mt li c to ra, t nhn c c khong cch bng 1 t mt t m ng v t nht 2 n v so vi khong cch t mi t m khc. Ta s gii m vi t gn nht c th chp nhn c. V th m ny c kh nng sa li mt bit li. Nhng khi truyn chc g khng xy ra hai bit li. i vi trng hp ny, tin trnh m ho ca ta s dn n cu tr li khng ng. Tuy nhin xc sut ca 2 bit li, nh hn xc sut ca mt bit li. V d nu ta truyn cc t 5 bits v xc sut ca bit li l 10-4, xc sut ca mt bit li c xc nh nh sau: 5 x 10-4 x (1-10-4)4 = 5 x 10-4 V xc sut ca 2 bit li s l: 10 x (10-4)2 x (1-10-4)3 = 10 x 10-8 V th mt bit li, nhiu hn khong 500 ln so vi 2 bit li. V th chin thut ca ta c mt kt qu trung bnh gia vic c lng 500 ln li c sa ng v mt ln c lng sa li khng ng. Tng qut nu khong cch nh nht gia cc t m l Dmin, ta c s cc li l Dmin 1. chuyn t t m c truyn sang t m c th chp nhn khc t nht l Dmin li c to ra, ta c th nhn ra nu c nhiu hn s li c to ra. Nu ta sa li bng cch di chuyn n t gn nht c th chp nhn, ta sa (Dmin 2)/2 li cho Dmin chn v (Dmin - 1)/2 li cho Dmin l.

3. CC M S HC (algebraic codes)
Gi s rng t bn tin ca ta bao gm k bits v ta thm phn d vi m bits thm vo. Lc chiu di ca mi t m vo l n = k + mbits. V th mi t thng tin k bits c lin quan n mt t m n bit. Nu t thng tin xut hin r nh mt phn ca t m, ta qui c cho iu ny nh mt m h thng. Nu ta biu th cc bit thng tin ny l ui v cc bit thm vo l ci, t m c th c vit nh sau: c1c2 . . . cmu1u2 . . . uk Ta t cc bit thng tin phn kt thc ca t m. iu ny, khng cn thit v chng c th xut hin bt c u trong t. Mt m ton hc l mt m m cc t m v t thng tin c lin h bng mt biu thc ma trn. v = u[G ] Trong u = [1 x k] l vector thng tin. v = [1 x n] l vector t m. [G] = [k x n] l ma trn pht. y l mt m tuyn tnh (n, k) trong n l chiu di ca cc t m. V d 7.10: T m tuyn tnh A(4, 3) c pht bi ma trn:

1 1 0 0 [G ] = 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1

Trang VII.50

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Hy tm cc t m lin quan vi mi t thng tin. Gii: M A(4, 3) c cc t thng tin vi chiu di 3 bits v cc t m c chiu di 4 bits. Nh vy ta c 8 t m thng tin 3 bits. Ta nhn mi t m cho ma trn pht tm cc t m nh sau:

Thng tin 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

T m 0000 1001 1010 0011 1100 0101 0110 1111

Trc khi qua v d ny ta c mt s ch . Ch u tin l 3 bit m cui cng ghp vi t thng tin. V th m ny l m h thng. iu ny xy ra khi v phi ca ma trn [G] l mt ma trn 3 chiu. Ta cng ch rng cc bit d thm vo l mt parity bit c chn cung cp cho parity chn. Cc bits thm vo trong m s hc, lun lun l cc bit kim tra parity. M y ta chn k hiu ci cho cc bits d ny. V d 7.11: M tuyn tnh A(7, 4) c pht bi ma trn [G]: 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 [G ] = 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 Hy tm cc t m lin h vi mi t thng tin v tm khong cch nh nht cho m ny. Gii: Vi m A(7, 4) c 4 bits thng tin 3 bits parity. Cc t thng tin v t m lin quan, c cho nh sau:
Thng tin 0000 0001 0010 0011
Trang VII.51

M 0000000 1010001 1110010 0100011

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Thng tin 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111

M 0110100 1100101 1000110 0010111 1101000 0111001 0011010 1001011 1011100 0001101 0101110 1111111

Vic kim tra ca ma trn [G] cho thy rng: Bit parity u tin cung cp parity chn khi kt hp vi cc bit thng tin th nht th 3 v th t. Bit parity th hai cung cp parity chn khi kt hp vi cc bit thng tin th nht th hai v th ba. Bit parity th t cung cp parity chn khi kt hp vi cc bit thng tin th hai th ba v th t. Ta c th kim tra khong cch gia mi cp t m (c 120 cp kim tra). Nu ta lm nh th, ta tm khong cch nh nht ca 3 bit parity. M ny c th sa li mt bit hoc 2 bits. Vic kim tra 3 bits parity ca t nhn c cho php ta xc nh cc li bng php o c tam gic (triangulation). Kim tra cc khong cch trong v d 7.11 l mt tin trnh x l ton din. Mt s php ton to ra tin trnh hu nh n gin. Ta bt u nh ngha ln ca t m nh s s 1 cha trong t . Nu ta thm hai t (php ton modulo -2), tng cha mt s 1 trong mi v tr bit vi hai t khc nhau. V th khong cch gia hai t l ln ca tng. Ta c th nhn thy t biu thc 7.23 m tng ca cc t m l mt t m c th chp nhn c. Nu ta cng hai t thng tin vi nhau, kt qu t m l tng ca hai t m gc. y l mt thuc tnh c bn ca m ton hc. Xem li v d 7.11 tng ca bt k 2 trong s 16 vector m phi bng vi mt trong cc vector m khc. V th mt trong cc vector m nonzero th hin tng ca hai vector khc (vector zero l tng ca vector m vi chnh n). Khong cch nh nht gia cc t m chnh l ln nh nht ca cc t m nonzero. y l gi tr 3 cho v d trc m ta ch cn kim tra ln l 15 thay v 120 khong cch. Mi ma trn pht [k x n] c mt ma trn kim tra parity [(n - k) x n]c nh ngha l [H]. Ta thit lp ma trn ny bng ly hon v ca phn khng xc nh ca [G] v bin chng thnh ma trn xc nh. V th ma trn [H] tng ng vi ma trn [G] trong v d 7.11 l: 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 [H ] = 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1

Trang VII.52

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

Ma trn kim tra parity c thuc tnh l: v[ H ]T = 0 Bt c t m no c nhn vi chuyn v ca [H] tr thnh mt vector zero. V d hy chn t m th 3 trong v d 7.11 l 1001011. Ta tm c: 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 [1 0 0 1 0 1 1] 1 1 0 = [0 0 0] 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
By gi gi s rng ta truyn m vecotor v v c mt li xy ra trong v tr bit th t. y l biu thc c thm vo vector li. e = [0 0 0 1 0 0 0] Vi vector truyn v . Ta thu c vector r = v + e v nhn vi [H]T. Kt qu s l: (v + e)[ H ]T = v[ H ]T + e[ H ]T = e[ H ]T Nu e cha gi tr 1, e [H]T kt hp vi dng ca [H]T tng ng vi v tr li. Chng hn nh nu ta thay i bit th t trong v d trn, ta s nhn c 1000011. N c nhn vi [H]T to thnh [1 1 0]. y chnh l dng th t ca [H]T. Ta s nhn ra s ghp ni ca dng th t. Do ta bit c ni li xy ra v c th sa chng. Kt qa l vector nhn c vi [H]T l mt du hiu. Nu c nhiu hn mt li xy ra, du hiu l tng ca cc dng c lin quan n ma trn. Nu tng ny l duy nht (tc l n ch c th c c bng cch cng mt tp hp cc dng c bit li vi nhau), m c kh nng ng nhiu hn l li. Cc m Hamming l mt trong nhng v d quan trng ca cc m ton hc c kh nng sa mt li. Cc m Bose, Chaudhuri, Hocquenghem (BCH) l mt trong nhng v d quan trng ca m s hc c th sa c nhiu hn mt li.

4. CC M CHU KY (cyclic codes)

Cng c ca cc m s hc i hi kh nng v thc hin nhn ma trn v so snh kt qu vi nhng s nh phn bin i. Cc m ph bin nht, c h thng li nh cc mch tch hp. Cc m chu k l mt trng hp c bit ca cc m khi m n c th hnh thnh rt n gin. Chng c th trnh by nh mt b ghi li cc t m ca m s hc. Ta c cc m chu k nh cc a thc. V d nh mt t 1101 tng ng vi da thc 1 + X + X3. Mi v tr trong t nh phn c lin h vi mt bin X. V m ny tng trng cho a thc pht v cc t m bt ngun t vic nhn a thc vi vector thng tin to thnh a thc pht.

Trang VII.53

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

5. M PN (pseudonoise)
Mt lp c bit ca a thc pht hnh thnh mt tp hp cc m chu k vi cc thuc tnh khong cch mong mun. Nhng iu ny c hiu nh cc a thc ti gin cc i. Kt qu m ho t cc a thc ti gin c hiu nh m PN hay pseudonoise. Pseudonoise l mt dy s nh phn vi cc thuc tnh ging nh nhiu bch (white noise). M c pht vi cc thanh ghi dch hi tip. Ta minh ho iu ny bng mt v d vi s khi hnh 7.46. Ta cho gi tr ban u vo b pht bng hi tip trong dy s 3 bits. B pht bt u hot ng v pht mi bit thnh cng bng cch cng vo hai bit trc li vi nhau. Gi s rng ta thm vo b pht 3 bit 010., ng ra s l: 010111001011100101110. . .
out R2 R1 R0 Initiating sequence

Hnh 7.46 B pht m PN. Ch rng iu ny lp li vi chu k 7 bits. Nu ta ly bt c 7 bits lin tip no trong dy s ny, ta c mt t m mi. V th nu ta thm vo dy s gi tr 101, kt qu t m s l 1011100. V kt qu ny trng ging nh t 2 n 8 bit trong dy s ny. Ta c th nhn ra 7 t m nonzero nh sau: 0111001 1110010 1100101 1001011 0010111 0101110 1011100 Nhng t ny c thuc tnh khong cch bng nhau. Khong cch gia bt c hai t lun lun l 4. Cc dy s PN di hn c cc thuc tnh ging nhau. Nu ta xy dng mt b pht vi mt t bo lu tr nhiu hn trong thanh ghi dch v cc tip im hi tip ph hp, cc dy s thm vo s c chiu di 4 bits v cc t m s tng chiu di ln 15 bits. Bt c hai trong s 15 t m khc nhau s c mt khong cch cch gia chng l 8. Tng qut cc m PN vi cc dy s thm vo c chiu di n, s c cc t m vi chiu di 2n 1 v khong cch gia hai t m l 2n-1. iu ny cho ta mt k thut n gin v vic pht cc dy s di vi thuc tnh khong cch ph hp. Khi dch bt c t m no s cho kt qu bng mt t m khc, khong cch gia bt c t no v bn sao ca chnh n l 2n-1. iu ny to cho cc m PN hu dng trong cc ng dng iu ho thi gian. V d nh khi mt t m 127 bit PN, c so snh vi chnh n, c 127 i s bng nhau. Vi mt s dch ch mt v tr, s i s gim xung cn 63.

Trang VII.54

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

6. M HO CHNG (Convolutional Coding)

S ci tin trong thc hin li cho m ho khi l khi phn d c thm vo. l cc bit parity c thm vo bn tin tng khong cch gia cc t m. Bng cch s cung cp cho s pht hin li v hoc sa li. gia tng kh nmg sa li, phi gia tng s phn d thm vo. S la chn cho m ho khi l m ho chng. Trong loi m ny ta khng xem cc khi bit c lp nh cc t m na. Thay v mt dng thng tin cc bits lin tc c hot ng trn hnh dng ca bn tin m ho. Ngun ny pht mt chui ca bn tin lin tc cc bit 1 v 0 v dy s truyn c pht t dy s ngun ny. Dy s c pht c th hoc khng th di hn dy s ca bn tin. K thut ny khng thm cc bit d. N s gi li kh nng sa li bng cu trc b nh trong h thng. K thut pht dy s truyn l ly chng dy s ngun vi dy s nh phn c nh. V th mt bit truyn c bit tn c pht t s kt hp ca cc bits, sn, sn-1, sn-2,. . ., sn-k tu theo biu thc chng. t n = s k hn k (7.24)
k

Gi tr h trong biu thc 7.24, hoc l 1 hoc l 0 v thm vo mt mch cng modulo-2. Biu thc ny c th c thit lp li vi mt thanh ghi dch v mt mch cng modulo-2. Hnh 7.47 trnh by cch thit lp tng qut ca biu thc 7.24. Cc cng tc trong hnh ng nu gi tr h trong biu thc 7.24 l 1 v m nu gi tr h l 0. Trong ng dng ca m ho chng ta thng truyn nhiu hn mt bit cho mi ng vo 1 bit. Trong hnh 7.47 ta c th dch mt bit ng vo t cc cng tc tng ng vi tp gi tr ca h v pht bit ng ra u tin. Trc khi cho vo mt
Shift register input

hn

h0

output

Hnh 7.47 Pht m PN. bit ng vo khc ta reset cc cng tc tng ng vi tp gi tr th hai ca h v truyn mt bit th hai. Nu hai bit ng vo c truyn cho mt bit ng vo, m c gi l m chng vi t l (rate convolutional code). Trong khi truyn m chng vi t l t l , ta thng chn mt bit trong mi cp truyn c xc nh ch ra dy s thng tin. y l mt m h thng.

Trang VII.55

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

V d 7.12: Hnh 7.48 trnh by mt b pht cho m chng t l . Ta a ra hai qui c ca vic v thanh ghi dch. Hnh 7.48 a v 7.48 b trnh by h thng gng nhau. Dy s ng vo cng c ch ra, bit ng vo u tin cng c ch ra bn tri v bit ng vo cui cng (gn nht ) bn phi. Hy tm dy s ng ra. Gii: Ta cho h thng c thm vo vi mt chui cc s zero ph hp n vic nhn bit u tin ca dy s ng vo v bit cui cng l mt chui s zero., ng ra s l: 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0. . . Ng ra ca gii m chng ph thuc vo bit ng vo hin ti v cc bit ng vo trc . Trong v d 7.12 ta cn bit ng vo hin ti v hai ng vo trc tm ng ra. Mt cch hu dng c bit ca vic trnh by m chng l mt s trng thi. Trng thi ca h thng c nh ngha bng hai ng vo gn nht. V th h thng c th l mt trong 4 trng thi tu thuc vo hai ng vo l 00, 01, 10, 11. Khi h thng trong mt trng thi c bit v nhn mt bit ng vo hai vic ny c th xy ra tu thuc vo bit ng vo l 1 hoc 0. Khi ng vo tip theo c nhp vo h thng,, h thng s to ra mt sn phm ng ra v cng di chuyn n mt trng thi mi. Ta c th xem li h thng pht ca hnh 7.48 v pht trin tnh s trng thi. Hai ng vo trc tp trung vo cc bc 1 v 2 ca thanh ghi dch. Ng vo tip theo dch mi th sang bn tri mt v to ra sn phm ng ra. Trng thi mi c ch ra bi cc ni dung mi ca trng thi 1 v 2.
+

+
Data in Stage 3 Stage 2 Stage 1 Data in 1101001

111011010110110

+ (b)

+
(a)

Hnh 7.48 B pht m ho chng cho v d 7.12. Trong tnh trng ny ta pht trin s trng thi ca hnh 7.49. Trong trng thi a c bc 1 v 2 u cha cha gi tr 0 trong khi trng thi d u cha gi tr 1. Trng thi b xy ra khi bc 1 cha mt gi tr 1 v bc 2 cha gi tr 0 cn bc c v tr ca bc b. C hai ng ri khi mi trng thi n th hin cc ng xy ra bi h thng khi ng vo hin ti hoc l 0 hoc l 1. Kt qu ng ra (l hai bit khi t l l ) c ch ra trong ngoc n trn mi ng trc tip.

Trang VII.56

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

V d 7.12 C th gii bng bng cch kim tra s ng s trng thi. Cho mi ng vo c ch ra cc trng thi kt qu 1101001 (gi s ta bt u trng thi a) l: bdcbcabcaaaaa... Ng ra c c bng cch kim tra t s v hon ton ph hp vi li gii ca v d 7.12. Hnh 7.49 Lc trng thi ca b pht cho hnh 7.48.

Thch thc tht s ca m ho chng l vic gii m h thng thu. Ta c th thit lp trng thi yu cu gii m trong cc s hng ca s trng thi m kt qu trong mt t m gn nht nhn c. S ng dn c th gia tng vi s bit nhn c. Chng hn nh vi hai bit nhn c s c hai ng dn qua lc (gi s ta bt u trng thi cui cng). Vi 4 bit nhn c s c 22 hoc 4 ng. Vi 6 bit nhn c s c 23 hoc 8 ng. iu ny s xut hin mt tin trnh kt thc cho chiu di cc dng bit v thc s n khng phi l thut ton Vertibi. Thut ton ny rt ngn s ng cn thit c dng cho s gii m. N to ra v tr xy dng cc b gii m n gin.

Trang VII.57

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

NHNG CP BIN I FOURIER

1. NHNG TNH CHT TNG QUT:
+

s ( f ) = s (t )e j 2ft dt s (t ) = S ( f )e e 2ft df
+

Function s(t-t0)
e e 2f 0t s (t )
ds dt

Fourier transform
e j 2ft 0 S ( f )

S(f-f0)
1 [S ( f f 0 ) + S ( f + f .0 )] 2

s( )d

j 2fS ( f )

r(t)*s(t) r(t)s(t) s(at)

1 t s( ) a a

s( f ) j 2f

R(f)*S(f)
1 f S( ) a a

S(af)

Trang i

C s vin thng

Phm Vn Tn

2.NHNG CP BIN I CHUYN BIT:

Funtion
e at U (t ) te at U (t )

Fourier Tranform
1 a + j 2f ,a > 0

1 ,a > 0 (a + j 2f ) 2

e at

2 f exp a a
1
2

, a > 0

2 2 f

sin at t

1 0

, khi f < a , khi f a

2 2

1 t <T 2 0 otherwise t 1 T 0

sin 2fT 2fT

sin 2 fT T 2 f 2
2a a + 4 2 f
2

t <T otherwise e
a t

sgn(t) (t) 1
e j 2f 0 t

1 jf
1

(f )
( f f0 )
1 [ ( f f 0 ) + ( f + f 0 )] 2

cos2f0t sin2f0t U(t)

j [ ( f + f 0 ) ( f f 0 )] 2
1 1 (f )+ 2 j 2f

Trang ii

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

MC LC
CHNG I. TIN TC V H THNG THNG TIN. I. LCH S PHT TRIN CNG NGH VIN THNG IN T. II. PHN LOI CC NGUN TIN TC V CC H THNG THNG TIN. III. S NG XC NH V SNG NGU NHIN. IV. S KHI MT H VIN THNG. 1. KHI X L TN HIU: 2. KHI SNG MANG: 3. CC KNH TRUYN: V. S PHN CHIA CC VNG TN S (FREQUENCY ALLOCATIONS). VI. S TRUYN SNG IN T. VII. S O TIN TC. VIII. CC H THNG TIN L TNG. IX. M HA (CODING). I.1 I.2 I.3 I.4 I.5 I.5 I.5 I.6 I.6 I.8 I.11 I.13 I.13

CHNG II. PHN TCH TN HIU. II.1 I. XEM LI CHUI FOURRIER. II.2 1. MT HM BT K S(T) C TH C VIT: ( DNG LNG GIC ). II.2 2. DNG CNG THC EULER, C TH A DNG S(T) TRN V DNG GN HN ( DNG HM M PHC ). II.2 II. PH VCH. II.4 III. BIN I FOURRIER: II.5 IV. CC HM K D: ( SINGNLARITY FUNCTIONS ). II.7 1. V D 4. BIN I FOURRIER CA HM CNG ( GATING FUNCTION ): II.7 2. HM XUNG LC ( IMPULSE ). II.9 3. HM NC N V ( UNIT STEP FUNCTION ). II.13 V. PHP CHNG (CONVOLUTION) II.14 VI. PHP CHNG HNH ( GRAPHICAL CONVOLUTION ). II.18 VII. NH L PASEVAL II.23 VIII. NHNG TNH CHT CA BIN I FOURRIER II.24 1. THC / O - CHN / L. II.24 2. DI THI GIAN ( TIME SHIFT). II.24 3. DI TN S ( FREQUENCY SHIFT ). II.25 4. S TUYN TNH. II.26 IX. NH L V S BIN IU. II.27 X. CC HM TUN HON. II.29 CHNG III. CC H TUYN TNH. I. I CNG: II. HM H THNG: III. HM CHUYN PHC: (COMPLEX TRANSFER FUNTION) IV. CC MCH LC: 1. LC H THNG L TNG. 2. LC DY THNG L TNG: 3. S MO DNG: V. CC LC THC T: 1. LC H THNG: 2. LC DY THNG. VI. CC LC TC NG. VII. TCH CA THI GIAN V KH BNG . VIII. CNG SUT V NNG LNG. IX. PHN TCH PH: CHNG IV BIN IU BIN . I. I CNG . II. S BIN IU ( MODULATION). III.1 III.2 III.3 III.4 III.4 III.5 III.6 III.8 III.11 III.11 III.16 III.18 III.20 III.23 III.23 IV.1 IV.2 IV.3

Trang vi

C S Vin Thng III. BAND IV. V. VI. 1. 2. VII. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. VIII. 1. 2. IX. X. XI.

Phm Vn Tn

BIN IU BIN SNG MANG B NN 2 BNG CNH: (DSB SCAM) ( DOUBLE - SIDE SUPPRESSED CARRIED AMPLITUDE MODULATION ). IV.3 BIN IU BIN SNG MANG C TRUYN 2 BNG CNH IV.7 HIU SUT IV.10 CC KHI BIN IU: IV.11 BIN IU CNG: IV.12 BIN IU THEO LUT BNH PHNG. IV.14 CC KHI HON IU ( DEMODULATORS) IV.19 HON IU CNG: IV.20 HON IU BNH PHNG: IV.21 S HI PHC SNG MANG TRONG TCAM. IV.24 TCH SNG KHNG KT HP ( INCOHERENT DETECTION ). IV.26 IV.27 TCH SNG CHNH LU: TCH SNG BAO HNH. (ENVELOPE DETECTION) IV.28 BIN IU V HON IU BNG IC. IV.30 TRUYN MT BNG CNH (SINGLE SIDEBAND) SSB. IV.31 KHI BIN IU CHO SSB: IV.33 KHI HON IU CHO SSB: IV.34 BIN IU AM TRC PHA: IV.36 BIN IU BNG CNH ST ( VESTIGIAL SIDEBAND ) VSB. IV.38 AM STEREO. IV.40 V.1 V.2 V.3 V.5 V.6 V.8 V.8 V.9 V.15 V.17 V.18 V.20 V.22 V.24 VI.1 VI.2 VI.5 VI.5 VI.6 VI.6 VI.6 VI.7 VI.12 VI.12 VI.14 VI.14 VI.15 VI.17 VI.21 VII.1 VII.2 VII.2 VII.3 VII.5 VII.6 VII.10

CHNG V. BIN IU GC. I. TN S TC THI. II. BIN IU TN S (FREQUENCY MODULATION). III. BIN IU PHA. IV. FM BNG HP (NARROW BAND FM). V. PM BNG HP. VI. FM BNG RNG (WIDE BAND FM). VII. HM BESSEL. VIII. KHI BIN IU. IX. KHI HON IU. 1. TCH SNG PHN BIT. (DISCRIMINATOR) 2. VNG KHA PHA (PHASE - LOCKLOOP). X. FM STEREO. XI. SO SNH CC H. CHNG VI. BIN IU XUNG. I. LY MU (SAMPLING). II. ERROR TRONG S LY MU. 1. LY MU VI TN S KHNG CAO: 2. LY MU TRONG MT KHONG THI GIAN C GII HN: 3. TRONG CC H THNG TIN DIGITAL: III. BIN IU XUNG: IV. BIN IU BIN XUNG: PAM. 1. KHI BIN IU. 2. KHI HON IU. V. MULTIPLEXING PHN THI GIAN - TDM (TIME - DIVISION MULTIPLEXING). 1. MULTIPLEXING NHNG KNH C NHP LY MU GING NHAU: 2. MULTIPLEXING NHNG KNH C NHP LY MU KHC NHAU: VI. BIN IU RNG XUNG PWM: (PLUSE WIDTH MODULATION). VII. BIN IU V TR XUNG -PPM (PULSE POSITION MODULATION). CHNG VII. VIN THNG S. I. I CNG. II. CHUYN I TNG T S ADC (ANALOG-DIGITAL CONVERTER). A. LNG T HO M: B. LNG T HO NI TIP: C. LNG T HO SONG SONG: III. CHUYN I S-TNG T DAC (DIGITAL ANALOG CONVERTER). Trang vi

C S Vin Thng IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X.

Phm Vn Tn VII.13 VII.16 VII.18 VII.22 VII.29 VII.40 VII.48

VIN THNG M HO ( CODED COMMUNICATION. BIN IU M XUNG- PCM ( PULSE CODE MODULATION). LNG T HO KHNG U N ( NONUNIFORM QUANTIZATION). K THUT BIN IU LUN PHIN (ALTERNATE MODULATION TECHNIQUES). NHIU LNG T (QUANTIZATION NOISE). GII THIU V M HO ENTROPY V NN D LIU. GII THIU V SA LI TIP CHUYN (FORWARD ERROR CORRECTION).

Trang vi

C S Vin Thng

Phm Vn Tn

TI LIU THAM KHO

1. MARTIN S.RODEN -Analog And Digital Communication Systems- Prentice-Hall Inc. Third Edition 1991. 2. RICHARD A.WILLIAMS - Communication Systems Analysis & Design-Prentice Hall Inc. international Editions 1987. 3. LEON W.COUCH II - Digital And Analog Communication System. Mac Millan Publising Company - Third Edition-1990. 4. HAROLD B. KILLEN - Digital Communication. Prentice-Hall Inc -1988.

Trang vi