Application of EPRI/B&W Developed EMAT Systems for Assessing Boiler Tubes

G.J. Nakoneczny R.D. Murphy Babcock & Wilcox Barberton, Ohio, U.S.A. R.M. Tilley Electric Power Research Institute Charlotte, North Carolina, U.S.A.

Presented to: ICOLM (International Conference on Life Management and Life Extension of Power Plant) May 2000 Xian, P.R. China

BR-1693

Abstract
Boiler tube failures continue to be the main cause of boiler forced outages.[1] This fact is not surprising considering the miles of linear feet of boiler tubing in the furnace enclosures and convection passes that are subject to deterioration from both normal and abnormal wear. One of the emerging technologies to address the assessment of boiler tubes is Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducers or EMATs. Although the concept and theory of EMATs was first demonstrated many years ago, it is only in recent years that field-portable applications have been developed and deployed to help the power industry. Babcock & Wilcox working with EPRI on a project to develop advanced nondestructive testing (NDT) techniques for the assessment of boiler components developed a versatile EMAT testing system, named the FST-GAGE test system by B&W. The FST-GAGE, or Fast Scanning Thickness Gage, was developed specifically to scan boiler tubes and provide a continuous measurement of tube wall thickness. Early generations of the device, first introduced in 1994, proved to be a very effective NDT system for detection of isolated inside diameter (ID)-initiated tube damage such as hydrogen damage and under deposit corrosion. Experience after scanning more than one million linear feet of tubing has proven the benefits and allowed boiler owners to find and selectively replace only damaged material. Responding to the need of boiler owners to find cracking as well as thinning, modified probes for the FST-GAGE have been developed which detect ID tube cracking. In 1998 the next generation of the EMAT tube thickness system which incorporated electronic data acquisition and storage was completed and tested. This latest advancement of the FST-GAGE allows for continuous thickness mapping of boiler tubing.

Continuing the development of applications using the EMAT technology, EPRI sponsored a separate project to develop a system for the detection of cracking in boiler tubes associated with corrosion fatigue. The system developed for corrosion fatigue has unique characteristics that enhance its ability to scan past welds and attachments and scan the full circumference of the boiler tube. The corrosion fatigue EMAT system has proven very effective for crack detection under laboratory conditions and is now being deployed for testing under field conditions. Presented below are the applications of EMATs for boiler tube assessment and the experience gained from deployment of the FST-GAGE and corrosion fatigue testing systems.

Introduction
Ultrasonic-based techniques for nondestructive measurement and volumetric examination have been around for more than half a century. Ultrasonic testing is an indispensable part of nondestructive examinations in support of quality control in manufacturing, as well as evaluation of materials exposed to service to assess their integrity and fitness for continued use. Historically, ultrasonic testing utilizes piezoelectric transducers to develop the ultrasonic wave in the test material, in which an electrical field is applied to a piezoelectric crystal and converted into a mechanical pulse. To impart this mechanical pulse from the transducer into the test material requires a couplant such as water, oil, grease or one of the commercially available gel-type couplants. The requirement of a couplant can hinder inspection applications where scanning is required to cover large areas. An alternate technique for introducing ultrasonic waves into a test material called Electromagnetic Acoustic Transduc-

Babcock & Wilcox

Magnet

Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducers (EMAT)

Magnetic field (B) interacts with eddy currents (J), producing Lorentz force (F=JxB), generating a mechnical wave Ultrasonic (mechnical) wave propagates through material detecting flaws

Eddy Current Coil

J (Eddy Currents) Conducting Material F (Lorentz Force) B (Magnetic Force) Ultrasonic Wave

Figure 1

Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT).

ers or EMATs was first introduced more than thirty years ago. EMATs have unique advantages over piezoelectric transducers for certain applications. In the 1990s advances in computers and electronics made it commercially feasible to develop portable EMAT-based systems for nondestructive testing in field applications. The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), Babcock & Wilcox (B&W) and McDermott Technologies, Inc. 1 (MTI) developed a boiler tube inspection system which utilizes EMAT technology. The new system, named the FST-GAGE system by B&W, has been used to provide commercial testing services since 1994. The inherent advantage of the FST-GAGE test for boilers is its ability to rapidly scan large areas of the tubing to detect isolated damage. Prior to the development of this system, testing of boiler tubes was primarily limited to spot checks of wall thinning using conventional ultrasonic thickness gauges during outages. This resulted in only a small fraction of the tube wall area being tested. With EMATs, the FST-GAGE system can, if necessary, scan the entire furnace to detect thinning and a variety of other boiler tube failure mechanisms such as pitting and hydrogen damage. Experience in more than seventy boiler surveys in which well over one million feet (> 300 km) of tubing was tested has proven the value of this system to boiler owners. Building on the success of the FST-GAGE instrument development, efforts continue on EMAT-based systems and applications for detecting boiler tube cracking associated with mechanisms such as corrosion-fatigue and stress-assisted corrosion.

itself and does not require intimate contact with the material. Since the ultrasonic pulse is developed in the material to be tested, EMAT can only be used on electrically conductive materials. The FST-GAGE instrument is designed specifically for testing of ferromagnetic material, which requires unique instrument design parameters as opposed to systems that are designed to test strictly non-magnetic materials. The basics of the EMAT are illustrated in Figure 1. A strong magnetic field (B) is produced at the surface of the test piece by using an electromagnet or permanent magnet. Eddy currents (J) are induced in the surface of the test material. An RF current flow introduced in a wire, in the presence of the magnetic field (B) generates a Lorentz force (F), which in turn produces a stress wave in the material.

FST-GAGE System
In practice, the operation of the FST-GAGE instrument is more complex (see Figure 2). The system is comprised of three basic componentsthe probe, the display panel, and the instrument box. The instrument box houses the power supplies, digitizer, timing circuits and processor. The display panel or operator interface allows the operator to set up, adjust and calibrate system parameters in a Windows program environment. The display also provides output to the operator during the inspection. The probe is the working end of the system with its major components being the pulse magnet along with separate transmit and receive EMAT coils. A strong pulsed magnet is used to produce a magnetic field (B). RF currents (4 to 5 Megahertz) are produced in the transmit EMAT coil by the EMAT pulse circuitry. A separate receiver coil is synchronized with the transmit pulse to effectively receive the return pulse in the test material. By using the two EMAT coils the FST-GAGE operates in a pitch-catch mode. To set up the FST-GAGE for thickness measurement, the transit time for the ultrasonic wave to travel from transmitter EMAT coil through the tube material back to the receiver EMAT coil is calibrated on a known thickness stan-

Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducers

An EMAT, in contrast to piezoelectric transducers, generates and transmits an ultrasonic wave into the test material through electromagnetic acoustic interaction with the test piece
1 McDermott Technologies, Inc., formerly called the Babcock & Wilcox Research Division.

Babcock & Wilcox

Figure 2

FST-GAGE instrument system.

dard. The FST-GAGE measures tube wall thickness with an accuracy of 0.005 (0.127 mm) on thicknesses from 0.1 (2.54 mm) to 0.5 (12.7 mm), and diameters between 0.875 (22.2 mm) to 3 (76.2 mm) OD. Prior to 1998 the first generation FST-GAGE was used primarily for surveys to identify isolated tube damage. Many inspections were performed on units that had experienced failure due to hydrogen damage or internal corrosion and where the owner needed to isolate the damaged tube material for selected replacement. The early generation FST-GAGE did not have data acquisition and storage capability, which limited its use for thickness surveys. In 1998 the second generation FSTGAGE was built and deployed. The newest systems incorporate improved software, the addition of an encoder on the FSTGAGE probe to indicate position on the tube, and data storage capability. The current FST-GAGE instrument is therefore well suited to perform boiler thickness mapping surveys in addition to the role of scan and detect surveys. To perform an inspection, the FST-GAGE probe is manually scanned along individual boiler tubes. System sampling at rates greater than 65 samples per second supports rapid scanning of tubes. During a scan, the system provides an immediate display and disposition of tube wall thickness. At the conclusion of each scan, a complete record of each inspection is electronically stored and traceable to each unique boiler tube and position.

FST-GAGE Service Experience

Hydrogen Damage Detection
Hydrogen damage is a serious failure mechanism that continues to affect many boilers in the electric utility industry. Hydrogen damage is a potential problem found in waterwall tubes of drum-type boilers. The problem is most often associated with waterside deposits (a dirty boiler) coupled with an

abnormally corrosive environmentmost often a low pH excursion in the boiler water chemistry. Deregulation in the U.S. electric utility industry has, more than ever, placed a premium on lowering the O&M costs. One effect has been to extend the time between chemical cleaning of the boilers. As a result the potential for hydrogen damage and other waterside damage due to corrosion has increased in many instances. For hydrogen damage to occur, corrosion occurs beneath waterside deposits. This corrosion process releases atomic hydrogen that diffuses into the metal structure of the tube, reacts with the carbides in the carbon steel and forms methane (CH4). The large methane molecules, trapped in the grain structure of the metal, produce intergranular cracking and embrittlement of the tube wall. Failures tend to be sudden and catastrophic with a blow out of material. B&W has years of experience in inspection of boilers to detect hydrogen damage using FHyNES, a patented inspection method based on ultrasonic testing. [2] Hydrogen damage in tube material reduces (attenuates) an ultrasonic signal passing through the affected material. This attenuating effect is the basis of past ultrasonic detection techniques as well as the EMAT technique. Hydrogen damage normally occurs in a random pattern. After a failure has occurred it is imperative to locate the affected material for replacement if repeat failures are to be avoided. Since EMAT does not required a fluid or gel-type couplant, scanning can be done much faster than UT-based techniques. Additionally, EMAT testing is more tolerant of tube surface conditions such that tube cleaning requirements may be less demanding than for UT. The ability of the FST-GAGE system to detect hydrogen damage was verified in the laboratory. Two boiler tube samples with hydrogen damage were examined with the instrument and it was shown that damaged areas could be detected by signal attenuation (see Figures 3 and 4). Forty-two (42) FST-GAGE surveys have been conducted for detection of hydrogen damaged tubes in boilers. In all of the

Babcock & Wilcox

Start of scangood tube Hydrogen Damage Amplitude 86% Thickness.259

Figure 3 EMAT scan away from area of hydrogen damage.

Start of hydrogen damageacceptable thickness, unacceptable amplitude loss Hydrogen Damage Amplitude 51% Thickness.245
Figure 4 EMAT scan on hydrogen damage.

surveys, the indications were confirmed by UT, visual, and/or destructive testing. Table 1 gives a sampling of boilers tested, the time it took to perform the test and the number of indications identified. The EMAT system has proven to be very sensitive for detection of damaged tubes while maintaining scan rates more than five times those of previous ultrasonic techniques such as FHyNES.

Detection of Pitting or Wall Loss

The FST-GAGE instrument has also demonstrated good sensitivity for the detection of pittinganother isolated damage mechanism that is very difficult to detect when scanning by conventional UT-based methods. Just as with hydrogen dam-

age, pitting is a result of corrosion. Pitting is generally associated with boilers that have experienced ingress of excessive oxygen in the boiler water, or, sustained idle periods with inadequate storage provisions. Less severe, from the standpoint of detection, is wall loss from caustic gouging. Similar to pitting, caustic gouging is associated with corrosion and wall loss but affects a larger area of the tube and is therefore less difficult to detect and quantify. As part of the development work on the system, the ability of the FST-GAGE to detect pitting on tube ID surfaces was evaluated. Six different samples having both real and simulated pitting were tested using three different EMAT coil configurations. In general, pits with a diameter of 0.125 (3.2 mm) or

Table 1 FST-GAGE Surveys for Hydrogen Damage Detection Test reference, region and unit number Survey A Southern U.S.A., Unit 2 Survey B Eastern U.S.A., Unit 3 Survey C Southwestern U.S.A., Unit 3 Survey D Northeastern U.S.A., Unit 4 Survey E Southern U.S.A., Unit 3 Survey F Southwestern U.S.A., Unit 3 Hours for test 80 24 16 96 144 32 Linear feet (meters) examined 5,400 (1,646) 17,200 (5,243) 9,800 (2,987) 79,600 (24,262) 43,400 (13,228) 25,850 (7,879) Indications identified 144 158 9 91 900 54 Indications confirmed Verified initial cutouts All confirmed Same as above Same as above Same as above Same as above Same as above

Babcock & Wilcox

larger were detectable as indicated by a decrease in signal amplitude. Although the system can effectively detect pitting, sizing (determination of remaining wall) of the pits is difficult. Just as with normal ultrasonic testing, sizing of pits was strongly influenced by the shape and depth of the defect as well as the calibration range of the instrument. For example, it was typically easier to size a flat bottom hole (FBH) than a hole with a conical or spherical shape due to the scattering of sound by the latter shapes. Laboratory tests indicated that the threshold for sizing was a pit size of approximately 0.25 (6.4 mm) diameter or larger. Accuracy in sizing was not within typical thickness measurements, 0.005 ( 0.127 mm). However, in almost all cases, there was sufficient accuracy to enable an operator to determine whether the pitting depth was a significant fraction of the total tube wall. It was noted that the calibration of the instrument has an effect upon sizing capability since the smallest thickness of the calibration standard used sets a lower limit on the thickness readings of the EMAT system. In practice, the FST-GAGE is used to scan and detect areas of pitting. Sizing, if required, is done in follow up with either the EMAT test or UT thickness methods. A utility in the southeastern U.S.A. was experiencing forced outages due to furnace wall pitting. The pitting was caused by copper layout that resulted from an ineffective chemical cleaning. The FST-GAGE was used to inspect the boiler five (5) times over a four (4) year period reducing their forced outages from water wall failures from five (5) per year prior to inspection to no water wall leaks by the third year. Table 2 gives the results of the inspections and the subsequent tube leaks during the year after the inspections.

Table 2 Campaign for Mitigation of Failures due to Pitting March 1995 95/96 March 1996 96/97 March 1997 97/98 March 1998 98/99 March 1999 99/present Detected by FST-GAGE and removed Leaks repaired from 3/95 to 3/96 Detected by FST-GAGE and removed Leaks repaired from 3/96 to 3/97 Detected by FST-GAGE and removed Leaks repaired from 3/97 to 3/98 Detected by FST-GAGE and removed Leaks repaired from 3/98 to 3/99 Detected by FST-GAGE and removed Leaks repaired from 3/99 to present

23 9 28 4 15 0 12 0 8 0

Corrosion Fatigue
Waterside corrosion fatigue is a serious boiler tube failure mechanism. The failures usually occur close to attachments such as buckstay welds or windbox attachment welds. The combination of thermal fatigue stresses and corrosion leads to ID-initiated cracking that is oriented along the tube axis. The result can be a tube leak on the external side of the boiler wall. If failures occur in enclosures such as the windbox, vestibules or penthouse, there is the potential for pressurization and failure of the casing as well. Corrosion fatigue cracking can also occur on the fire side of the tubes and is dependent upon boiler design, stresses and stress cycles, as well as water chemistry.

of boiler tube in a membrane panel with tubes having a diameter of 1.25 (31.75 mm) and a wall thickness of 0.188(4.8 mm). In Figure 6, the notch has been scanned multiple times to verify the repeatability of the measurement. As shown, the signal to noise ratio of this simulated defect was very good. With the corrosion fatigue configuration, one scan will detect cracks on the crown of the tube. Additional scans can detect cracks along the membrane welds. This technique proved that the FST-GAGE equipment can be used for the detection of one type of corrosion fatigue damage. The technique has been used successfully in commercial inspections. The largest scope inspection with this variation of the FST-GAGE was done at a West Coast utility that was experiencing tube failures due to corrosion fatigue at the membrane area in their waterwall tubes. The FST-GAGE , with the modified EMAT coils, was used to scan approximately 98,000 linear feet (29,870 m) of membrane tube welds. Numerous indications were found on all four walls. A representative sample was removed for verification of system sensitivity. The system was capable of identifying internal corrosion fatigue with a through-wall depth of 0.015 (0.381 mm).

EPRIDedicated EMAT Technique for Detection of Corrosion Fatigue Damage

McDermott Technology, Inc., under contract with EPRI has developed an EMAT technique for detection of corrosion fatigue cracks from the opposite tube wall, i.e. detect cold side (boiler external) cracks from the fire side (boiler inside furnace) tube surface. The great advantage of and advancement in this technique is that boiler tubes experiencing the cold side attachment cracking due to corrosion fatigue can be examined nondestructively from the hot side of the tube where access is readily available. The system under development will provide greater than 180 coverage of the tube cold side (boiler external) surface. This technique uses a unique instrumentation platform which, unlike the FST-GAGE , utilizes toneburst signal generation. The toneburst EMAT signal generation allows the use of horizontally polarized shear waves (SH waves). A full discussion of wave modes has been presented previously[3], however, a unique feature of SH waves is that they are much less susceptible to mode conversion at weldsa critical requirement

FST-GAGE Application
One detection method, based on EMAT technology, was developed as a modified use of the FST-GAGE system. Special coils and filtering were adapted to the FST-GAGE for detection of corrosion fatigue cracking that is oriented axially along the tube crown or adjacent to the tube membrane. The FSTGAGE is applicable for detection of damage where tube access is available on the same side of the tube as the damage occurs. For this special application EMAT coils are modified as illustrated in Figure 5. The pitch-catch coils are located between the poles of the magnet and oriented in a side angle. The signal from the transmitter coil propagates as shown in Figure 5. Without a flaw, there is no received signal. If a flaw is present, sound is reflected into the receiver coil and an indication is observed on the instrument display. Figure 6 illustrates a typical indication. The indication is from an EDM notch with dimensions 1 (25.4 mm) long x 0.050(1.27 mm) deep on the ID of the crown

Babcock & Wilcox

Poles of Pulsed Magnet

Sound Path

Transmitter Coil

Flaw Receiver Coil

Poles of Pulsed Magnet

Tube

Figure 5

Thickness gauge modified to detect corrosion fatigue.

Figure 6 Corrosion fatigue; scan of an EDM notch 1 (25.4 mm) long x 0.050 (1.27 mm) deep on the ID of the crown of a tube in a membrane panel.

for the system to detect cracking adjacent to external tube attachment welds. The prototype of this system have been developed and tested by MTI in the laboratory with excellent results. Table 3 illustrates evaluation of the system and probe on 3 (76.2 mm) diameter tubes with 1 (25.4 mm) long EDM notches that vary in depth at 0.020 (0.50 mm), 0.050 (1.27 mm), and 0.100 (2.54 mm). In all cases the system scanned past membrane welds to detect notches on the opposite side of the tube. Currently the system is scheduled for field trials under actual boiler conditions to determine its detection capabilities.

tise to apply the EMAT technology to applications where its unique properties have an advantage over conventional UT techniques. An example of an application in which an EMAT test was developed by MTI and then implemented by MTI and B&W includes the following.

Surface wave EMAT testing of tubes

In 1998, B&W was asked by one of its customers if an EMAT test was available for detection of surface indications including axially oriented cracks in boiler tubes. The customer has three heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) boilers that were experiencing surface cracking on the tube crown due to thermal fatigue. Conventional surface nondestructive test methods were unsatisfactory because they lacked adequate sensitivity and had slow production rates for testing of large areas. B&W worked with its R&D group at MTI to test whether a suitable application was available. MTI determined that a tone burst EMAT technique would meet the need and developed a system for the test. Testing was successfully performed on the customers unit 2A in which 6,550 linear feet (1,996 m) of tubing were examined. The test uses a bi-directional focused surface wave EMAT that works at 1 MHz frequency. The surface wave is generated in the tube and follows the tube surface circumferentially until the signal is reflected back from a longitudinally oriented OD crack. The test is capable of detecting axially oriented surface indications as small 0.005 (0.127 mm) depth at scanning rates of up to 6 inches per second (152 mm/sec). Based upon the success of the testing on unit 2A, the customer contracted B&W to perform testing during three subsequent outages on the HRSG units (see Table 4).

Tube Thickness on Composite Tubes

As noted above, the current generation FST-GAGE instrument can efficiently measure and save data for wall thickness on conventional carbon steel tube materials found in boiler furnaces. The thickness gauge, in its usual configuration, relies upon the presence of magnetostriction within a distance of one electromagnetic skin depth from the surface of a ferromagnetic conductor. When there is a cladding overlay of a nonferromagnetic material on the tube (as with a composite tube), then EMAT transduction with a pulsed magnet cannot occur. Since composite tubes are used extensively in industries such as pulp and paper, the ability of the FST-GAGE to measure tube wall thickness through a stainless steel layer was addressed in the design. Instead of the pulsed magnet, a permanent magnet probe is used for tubes having a nonferromagnetic cladding. This type of probe has proven to be very effective for measuring the thickness of composite tubes with the same degree of accuracy as found on carbon steel tubes. The system configured for composite tubes can measure wall thickness in the range of 0.100(0.254 mm) to 0.500(1.27 mm), with 0.005 ( 0.127 mm) accuracy.

Summary
EPRI-sponsored development has led to an EMAT system (FST-GAGE ) that has been proven under field conditions to effectively measure and map boiler tube wall thickness. The system has also been shown to be effective in detection of hydrogen damage, pitting, and axial ID cracking. Modifications to the EMAT coil configuration allow wall thickness measure-

Other EMAT Applications

Just as with ultrasonic testing, as EMAT techniques are delivered in field-portable systems other applications have been investigated to address unique problems. The researchers at McDermott Technologies, Inc. have the equipment and exper-

Babcock & Wilcox

Table 3 Evaluation of 3 (76.2 mm) Corrosion-Fatigue Probe Description Notch Depth Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 0.100" (2.54mm) 0.050" (1.27mm) 0.020" (0.50mm) Notch Location Crown Crown Crown EMAT Side Location Opposite Opposite Opposite Notch Detectable? Yes Yes Yes Relative Signal Strength % Full Screen Height 100 70 40 Approximate Angular Offset* 174 189 193

*The EMAT transmits a multiple skip wave around the tube circumference. Angular movement of the probe is done to optimize the relative signal strength.

Table 4 Surface Wave EMAT Tests Unit Number 2A 3A 1A 2A Date Tested September 1998 October 1998 December 1998 April 1999 Linear Feet Examined 6,550 (1,996 m) 18,580 (5,663 m) 16,170 (4,929 m) 17,200 (5,243 m) Indications Found 33 57 40 17 Confirmed Cracks* 2 7 13 0

*Axial cracks were confirmed by visual. Test sensitivity also detected indications associated with small pits, surface dents, weld splatter, etc. on tube surfaces.

ment in composite or bimetallic tubes. This versatility provides the system with a wide range of uses from a single instrumentation platform. EPRI and MTI have developed an EMAT-based test system designed specifically for detection of cracking associated with corrosion fatigue. The unique characteristics of the SH shear waves generated by this system make possible the detection of cracks adjacent to welds. Having been proven under laboratory test conditions, the corrosion fatigue system is now scheduled to undergo field trials under actual boiler test conditions. As EMAT techniques are delivered to the field in portable systems, other applications will be identified and developed. The first of these new applications has been demonstrated and applied commercially for surface inspection of tubes.

tract WO 1890-11, Improved Boiler Inspection Systems. Development of the Corrosion Fatigue EMAT test system has been funded through EPRI Contract WO 4674-01, Development of NDT Techniques for Detection and Sizing of Corrosion-Fatigue Cracks in Boiler Tubes.

References
1. R.B. Dooley, P. Chang, The Current State of Boiler Tube Failures in Fossil Plants, EPRI. International Conference on Boiler Tube Failures in Fossil Plants, Nashville, TN, 1997. 2. P.J. Latimer, et. al., A NDE Method for Hydrogen Damage Detection in Fossil Boiler Tubes, EPRI Conference on Life Extension and Assessment of Fossil Plants, Washington D.C. 1986. 3. P.J. Latimer, et. al., Electromagnetic Transducers for Generation and Detection of Ultrasonic Waves, Acousto-Ultrasonics, Plenum Publishing Corp. 1988.

Acknowledgments
Primary funding for development, testing and commercialization of the FST-GAGE has been provided by EPRI on Con-

Copyright 1999 by The Babcock & Wilcox Company, a McDermott company. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be published, translated or reproduced in any form or by any means, or incorporated into any information retrieval system, without the written permission of the copyright holder. Permission requests should be addressed to: Market Communications, The Babcock & Wilcox Company, P.O. Box 351, Barberton, Ohio, U.S.A. 44203-0351. Disclaimer Although the information presented in this work is believed to be reliable, this work is published with the understanding that The Babcock & Wilcox Company and the authors are supplying general information and are not attempting to render or provide engineering or professional services. Neither The Babcock & Wilcox Company nor any of its employees make any warranty, guarantee, or representation, whether expressed or implied, with respect to the accuracy, completeness or usefulness of any information, product, process or apparatus discussed in this work; and neither The Babcock & Wilcox Company nor any of its employees shall be liable for any losses or damages with respect to or resulting from the use of, or the inability to use, any information, product, process or apparatus discussed in this work.

Babcock & Wilcox