PERSPECTIVES ON AIR POLLUTION AERODYNAMICS

R.N. Meroney, Professor

Civil Engineering
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, CO USA 80523
Plenary Session Paper
1
!"
In!erna!ional #in$ En%ineerin% Conferen&e
Copen"a%en, Den'ar(
)*ne +1,+-, 1...
Perspe&!i/es on Air Poll*!ion Aero$yna'i&s
R. N. Meroney
Civil Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
ABSTRACT: This review will examine the application of wind engineering and in particlar flid
modeling to air polltion aerodynamics. Since the !ndstrial Revoltion man has had to deal with the
pollting conse"ences of manfactring# mining# transportation# and power prodction. Air polltion
aerodynamics concerns the interaction of noxios aerosols# gases and particles emitted into the
atmosphere with srronding strctres# terrain and vegetation. This interaction can deflect materials
toward sensitive areas# concentrate species a$ove accepta$le levels# or even mitigate concentration levels
and enhance diffsion and dispersion.
% !NTR&'(CT!&N
%.% History
Man)ind has noted the impacts of air polltants
from the dawn of recorded history. !n *enesis
%+:,- of the &ld Testament# A$raham A beheld
the smoke of the country go up as the smoke of a
furnace.@ .liny the /lder is recorded to have
sffocated from volcanic fmes dring the 0+ A'
erption of Mont 1esvis as recorded $y
Tacits...hence the designation $y geologists that
an explosive erption of magma in a vertical 2et is
a A .linian /xplosion.@ !n /ngland dring the
reign of /dward ! 3%,0,4%5607# the no$ility
protested the se of highly slphros A sea
coal@ # and indeed dring /dward !! reign 3%5604
%5,07 a man was pt to tortre for the pestilential
odors of sch coal 38ar) et al. %++-7.
!n %99% :ohn /velyn# one of the fonders of
the Royal Society# wrote a paper on
A Fumifugation: or the ncoveneice of the !er
and Smoke of "ondon #issapated$ together %ith
Some &emedies Humbly 'roposed(@ By the %+
th
centry air polltion had $een identified as a
primary health ris). ;iller r$an smog incidents
de to disperse emission sorces occrred in
<ondon# (; in %-05 3,9- deaths7# *lasgow# (;
in %+6+# Mese 1alley# Belgim in %+56 396
deaths7# Manchester# (; in %+5% 3=+, deaths7#
'onora# .a (SA in %+>- 3,6 died %>#666 ill7 and
<ondon# (; in %+=, ? %+=9 3@>666 ? %666 died#
respectively7.
Specific s$stance releases also impacted and
endangered poplations. !n %+>= spills of li"id
natral gas 3<N*7 stored at the Cleveland
!llminating Company# (SA# )illed >> people and
cased A%, M damage 3largest (S indstrial
accident when ad2sted for inflation7. The %+0+
nclear incident at the Three Mile !sland reactor#
Barris$rg# .a# forced the p$lic to reconsider the
implications of nexpected accidents. !n %+-> the
disastros petrochemical releases in Bohpal# !ndia#
)illed thosands. Then the %+-9 release of
radioactivity dring the Cherno$yl reactor accident
exposed millions to significant radio nclides.
Bt while the large incidents ma)e headlines#
there have $een literally thosands of less
p$liciCed releases of efflents dring prodction#
transportation# handling and storage of varios
chemicals and fels 38ie)eman %+->7. !n most
cases the haCards of sch releases are limited from
a few meters to )ilometers from the sorce. !n
sch cases the initial sorce configration and its
relationship to near$y $ildings# vegetation and
terrain are critical 3<ees %+-67.
%., "andmarks in #iffusion )heory
1
The *erman .hysiologist# Adoph Dic) wrote
A Uber #iffusion@ in %-== in which he
recogniCed the moleclar natre of dispersion at
the microscopic scale $y adapting the
mathematical expressions for heat condction
proposed $y Dorier some years earlier. Bt
diffsion theory re"ired the s$se"ent adoption
of the concepts of tr$lence $y &s$orne
Reynolds in %--5 and the $ondary layer
concepts of <dwig .randt in %+6= to provide a
rationale analytic framewor) to consider even
idealiCed plme $ehavior.
!n %+,% the Meteorological 'epartment at the
Chemical 'efense /xperimentation Station
opened at .orton 'owns# (;. !nterest in gas
warfare dring 8orld 8ar ! led to many field
experiments there on the $ehavior of plmes and
pffs of different gases. S$se"ently# these data
provided the $ase for cali$ration of many models.
A few additional tests were carried ot dring the
%+>6 wartime years# $t remained classified ntil
the %+=6s 3e.g. ;alins)e %+>=a#$7. Between
%+== and %+06 many field tests were carried ot
associated with the concern a$ot dispersion
from radioactive accidents. These are
smmariCed in the monograph $y Slade 3%+9-7.
*.!. Taylor proposed his statistical theory of
tr$lent diffsion in %+,6# /. Schmidt and <.D.
Richardson proposed three4dimensional ; theory
plme soltions in %+,=# and in %+5, &.*. Stton
prodced an eddy diffsion theory $ased on
Taylor=s wor). Stton=s expressions provided
the primary fondation for calclating
concentrations 3sita$ility ad2sted $y ad hoc
corrections for stratification# near$y strctres#
complex terrain# etc.7 ntil the %+=6s 3Stton
%+=5E 8exler %+==E Slade %+9-7. Additional
analytic and statistical approaches have $een
derived 3<agrangian similarity theories# <angevin
e"ation and Monte Carlo approaches#
convective similarity approaches# etc.7 which
explain plme $ehavior in stratified atmospheric
environments# $t have not $een widely adopted
into any reglatory framewor) 3Csanady %+05E
.as"ill ? Smith %+-5E Randerson %+->7.
A A practical@ approach sggested $y D.
.as"ill in %+9% won wide acceptance among
reglators arond the world. !t sed a *assian
framewor) for dispersion# $t assigned dispersion
coefficients $ased on empirical crves derived
from crve fits to experimental data and a
designation of mixing conditions $ased on a
simple A4D sta$ility scale. 3S$se"ently this has
$een called the .as"ill4*ifford method after Dran)
*ifford added an additional very4sta$le * category7
3.as"ill ? Smith %+-57. Today there are many
variations on this theme adapted for
rralFr$anFcoastalFvalley pertr$ations sing
expressions regressed against additional field or
la$oratory data. These expressions have $een
integrated into large nmerical air4polltion
programs which consider details of local
climatology# release conditions# atmospheric
chemistry# etc. 3Banna %+-,E Trner %++>E
1en)atram ? 8yngaard %+--E Ganetti %++6 7.
!t is pro$a$ly worthwhile at this point to "ote a
few cynical remar)s $y Richard Scorer 3%+0-7
a$ot the vale of analytic and nmerical theories:
A *any authors have been taken in by diffusion
theory( )heir approach has been to develop an
analysis assuming that dispersion is
diffusion(((@
A (((sampling time al%ays affects the
concentration measured, so that the assumption
that eddy diffusion analysis is valid is simply
incorrect(@
A )he concepts of meteorology and fluid
mechanics are simple in the e+treme, but the
computing techni,ues may be very
sophisticated( )his is typical of the > indoor
culture= %hich thinks that our brains rather
than our fuel supply differentiates us from our
less rich ancestors(@
%.5 "andmarks in !ir 'ollution Control
!n %+%% the term SM&* was coined $y B.A. 'es
1oex in a report to the Manchester Conference of
the Smo)e A$atement <eage of *reat Britain. !n
%+>0 the <os Angeles Air .olltion Control 'istrict
was formed# and in %+== .$lic <aw ->4%=+
$ecame the first (S legislation aimed at air
polltion control. This initial excrsion in
legislative control was very narrow in scope
primarily $ecase of federal legislatre hesitancy to
encroach on state=s rights. The /nglish Clean Air
Act was enacted shortly afterwards in %+=9.
S$se"ent (S legislation is discssed in the $oo)
$y 8ar) et al. 3%++-7. The (S National Air
.olltion Control Administration 3NAC.A7 was
formed in legislation in %+90 and control was
transferred to the (S /nvironmental .rotection
Agency 3/.A7 in %+06.
%.> "andmarks in !ir 'ollution !erodynamics via
Fluid *odeling
2
Among the earliest stdies of plme $ehavior
near $ildings was that $y Sherloc) ? Stal)er
3%+>67 who stdied smo)e plmes emitted from
stac)s a$ove a model of the Crawford .ower
Station# Chicago !l. They com$ined their
evidence of downwash with local climatological
data to predict percent dration of downwash for
different wind and stac) exhast velocities.
Similarly# Bohenleiten ? 8olf 3%+>,7 reported
plme otlines for models depicting the Riverside
.ower Station# Baltimore# Md.
The earliest "antitative wind tnnel diffsion
stdy may have $een that performed $y Mc/lroy
et al 3%+>>7 who stdied a chimney 2et in a $ilt4
p area. They sed two models constrcted to
scales of %F,66 and %F>66 to stdy concentrations
expected within %=6 m of a %, m s"are# 00 m
high chimney discharging contaminated exhast
air from the proposed Broo)lyn4Battery tnnel.
1ales of emission velocities# 1# and wind
speeds# (# were varied to prodce a range of
ratios from 6.5 to %6. !sopleths of maximm
concentration ratio 3C
local
FC
sorce
7 were fond as
well as points on ad2acent $ildings. Athors
fond scale effects were a$sent# $t no attempt
was made to simlate the approach $ondary
layer.
'ring 88 !! stdies were performed $y
;alins)e et al 3%+>=a#$7 or Rose 3%+=%7 at the
(niversity of !owa to stdy the dosage and
maximm concentration at varios locations in a
:apanese r$an area as a reslt of exposre to a
wind4$orne gas clod which had $een created $y
a $om$ $rst in the area. A %F0, scale model of a
typical area was installed on the floor of a , m
wide x 9 m long x %.5 m high wind tnnel. The
maximm height $ilding was %66 mm# $t the
$ildings covered the entire tnnel floor. A
panca)e4shaped $rst was prodced $y emitting
gas throgh a graded set of holes in the floor.
8ind speeds were a$ot 5 mFs. S&
,
concentrations were measred horiContally and
vertically among the downwind $ildings and
reported non4dimensionally as C<
,
(FH# where (
was the ndistr$ed flow velocity a$ot ,=> mm
a$ove the floor and < prototype e"aled 6.56>-
m. Reslts were compared with field tests over a
fll4scale :apanese village at the 'gway .roving
*rond# (tah (SA. .hosgene and N&
,
gas4
filled $om$s were released at the field site# $t
test varia$ility made comparisons with the wind
tnnel reslts "estiona$le. The athors conclded
reslts were order4of4magnitde and "alitatively
similar. 8ind tnnel accracy was at least as good
as the accracy of single field experiments.
Transverse 2ets were stdied in low4tr$lence
wind tnnels $y Bryant 3%+>+7 and Bryant ?
Cowdrey 3%+==7. <i)e most early stdies plme
spreading and tra2ectories were determined visally
which led to difficlties in defining $ehavior far
downstream. !t was sally difficlt to see
differences $etween transitional and ltimates rise#
especially if the plmes were $oyant.
Between %+>= and %+== wind tnnel diffsion
wor) in the (SA was primarily active at the
(niversity of Michigan 3Sherloc) ? <esher %+==7
and at New Ior) (niversity 3Strom ? Balits)y
%+=>7. Most measrements involved photographic
examination of smo)e visaliCation a$ove power
station complexes.
!n the late =6s and 96s flid modeling stdies
were condcted in many contries. !n the (SA the
principle efforts were at Colorado State (niversity
3CS(7E Michigan State (niversity 3MS(7E and
New Ior) (niversity 3NI(7. The first tre
Bondary <ayer 8ind Tnnel was conceived at
Colorado State (niversity $y Cerma) ? Al$ertson
3%+=-7 and installed in the Dlid 'ynamics and
'iffsion <a$oratory. At CS( Cerma) and
cowor)ers stdied point# line# area# and volme
sorces in a tr$lent $ondary layer as well as
dispersion over $ildings Je.g. Children=s
Bospital# 8ashington '.C.E Rancho Seco Nclear
.ower Station# CaE 'enver Center of .erforming
ArtsE CoK# complex terrain Je.g. .oint Argello# CaE
San Brno Montain# CaE /l) Montain# 8IE
Stringfellow 'mp Site# Riverside# CaK #coastal
sites JAvon <a)e .ower Station# &BK # valleys
J8olf Cree) pass# C&E Colorado River# C&K#
islands JSan Nicolas !sland# CAK# dispersion in
vegetative canopies# infiltration into $ildings#
dispersion in stratified flows# dense gas dispersion#
and dispersion in r$an street canyons. At CS(
Martin 3%+9=7 investigated dispersion a$ot a
model nclear reactor $ilding and compared
model data with field experiments. At N( Strom
and cowor)ers stdied dispersion a$ot prismatic
and rond $ilding shapes Je.g. /AR4, reactor
complex at the National Reactor Test Station# !'E
the National !nstitte of Bealth# Bethesda# M'.K#
dispersion in stratified flows# and dispersion in
r$an street canyons.
3
!n /rope wor) $egan with the critical stdies
$y :ensen ? Dran) 3%+957 in 'enmar) which
identified the importance of srface roghness
and $ondary layer tr$lence strctre dring
flid modeling of the atmosphere. They extended
their model stdies of wind shelter phenomena
over scaled srface roghness 3inclding one
roghness de to a model city7 to diffsion from
isolated chimneys# diffsion from chimneys
monted a$ove ga$le roof $ildings# and the
effect of chimney cross4section on plme
$ehavior. They expressed concentration
measrements non4dimensionally $t as
CC
o
,
LFH# where C
o
is the roghness height and L
is the srface friction velocity.
Mi)io Bino 3%+9-7 in :apan carried ot
important nmerical and wind tnnel comparisons
of plme dispersion over complex terrain. The
model experiment was performed at a scale of
%:,=66 in a %.= m x 5.6 m x %6m long open4
circit /iffel type wind tnnel. The srface of the
model was covered with pe$$les to maintain
tr$lence and the $ondary layer# and tr$lence
grids were placed pwind. 8ind profiles
measred over the rgged terrain exhi$ited
speedp# separation# and stagnation regions.
/xperimental plmes were displaced $y the
terrain# and plme spread and srface
concentrations roghly followed trends predicted
$y his nmerical model.
The Dlid Modeling facility was fonded $y
/.A at /SR< in the %+06s where Snyder and
cowor)ers stdied a variety of pro$lems
associated with dispersion over idealiCed $ilding
shapes# stratified flow over complex terrain Je.g.
Rattlesna)e Ridge# ACE Cinder Cone Btte# !dK#
and stac) plme $ehavior.
!n /ngland the contri$tions of Barrett ? Ball
at the 8arren Springs <a$oratory# 'ept of
/nvironment and the wor) $y Castro and Ro$ins
at the Central /lectric *enerating Board
<a$oratories at <eatherhead and Sothampton
mst $e mentioned These grops developed
innovative measring e"ipment 3e.g. plsed4hot
wire anemometers# fast response gas
chromatography7 and improved $ondary layer
simlation methods 3e.g. elliptic Conihan spires7.
,.6 S!M!<!T('/ AN' D<(!' M&'/<!N*
C&NC/.TS
,.% Fluid *odeling of Stack 'lumes
!n the early %+66s tr$lent 2ets exhasting into
"iescent or cross4flow air streams were stdied in
wind tnnels. .lme $oyancy effects were
recogniCed $t not simlated# and $ac)grond flow
was laminar in character. Athors "ic)ly
recogniCed the importance of exhast to free
stream velocity ratio# $t did not generally examine
the importance of density ratio# Reynolds nm$er#
Drode nm$er# or momentm flx ratios.
Sherloc) ? Stal)er 3%+>67 noted plme $ifrcation
in the cross flow# $t attri$ted the effect to von
;arman vortices and dedced incorrectly the
horiContal vortices were rotating downward at
plme center. Bohenleiten ? 8olf 3%+>,7
conclded correctly there was an pward motion at
the center of the wa)e. Bryant 3%+>+7 and Bryant
? Cowdrey 3%+==7 examined the effects of $oth
velocity and temperatre of discharge on the shape
of smo)e plmes.
Among the first to directly address simlation
criteria for air polltion aerodynamics were Strom
? Balits)y 3%+=>7# Balits)y 3%+9,# %+9-# %+9+7#
Cerma) et al. 3%+997 and Mel$orne 3%+9-7.
Most experimentalists agreed that to simlate
plme or pff tra2ectory and mixing $ehavior
correctly in the la$oratory one mst have similarity
in approach wind profiles inclding tr$lent
$ehavior# a flly tr$lent exhast 2et# and e"ality
of density# momentm# and $oyancy ratios.
(nfortnately# simlation of the $oyancy
parameter 3Drode nm$er7 at reasona$le tnnel
scales implies very low model wind speeds with
poor tr$lent similarity. The search for an
accepta$le A partial@ simlation has led to many
proposals for distorted scaling of density# stac)
diameter# and exhast velocities which are not
always consistent. !symov ? Tana)a 3%+0+7
compared a nm$er of sch schemes# $t the
sggestions $y Snyder 3%+0,# %+-%7 are most often
accepted as the standard simlation criteria.
Stac) shape and velocity ratio were examined
$y :ensen ? Dranc) 3%+957 in their monograph on
wind engineering similarity. They examined
circlar# s"are# and rectanglar com$inations to
see the effects of mltiple fles and exhast velocity
on stac) downwash.
Bondary layer meteorological wind tnnels
were first extensively sed $y Cerma) and
cowor)ers to stdy point# line# area# and volme
sorces in the %+96s and %+06s 3Cerma) et al.
%+99E Cerma) %+0>7. The $ehavior of non4
stationary or instantaneos emissions in a tr$lent
shear layer were first measred with a laser4light
4
scattering pro$e $y Iang ? Meroney 3%+057.
These data have $een sed to cali$rate
<agrangian similarity models and characteriCe the
effects of shear on vertical and lateral transport.
,., Fluid *odeling of 'lumes nteracting %ith
Structures
Many early model dispersion stdies were
concerned with plme interaction with fossil4fel
power plant $ildings 3Bohenleiten ? 8olf %+>6E
Sherloc) ? Stal)er %+>,E Mc/lroy et al. %+>>E
Strom %+=57. They recogniCed the importance of
elevating the plme a$ove a minimm height to
avoid immediate entrainment and downwash and
the $roadening effects of wa)e tr$lence on the
downwind plme# $t they failed to ad2st for the
effects of approach wind profile on near $ilding
flow# separation# re4 attachment and the grond4
level horse4shoe vortex.
Strom ? Balits)y 3%+=>7 recogniCed the need
to simlate $ac)grond tr$lence# $t tried to
solve the pro$lem in an ad hoc manner with the
insertion of random hole tr$lence generator
$oards and laterally oscillating ta$le fans pwind
of their models. Needless to say# this prodced
enhanced tr$lence# $t of no "antifia$le
intensity or scale related to the atmosphere.
!ndeed# even the often "oted wor) $y Balits)y
3%+9-7 primarily reports measrements for
niform approach flow model stdies.
*olden 3%+9%7 proposed a minimm $ilding
Reynolds nm$er criteria for $ilding emission
stdies a$ove which near4$ilding concentration
distri$tions wold $e flow independent. Be
conclded one shold maintain Re M (
B
BF @
%%#666 where (
B
was approach speed at $ilding
height B. Strangely# this conclsion was $ased
on measrements in a niform approach flow
from a release at only one $ilding location and
data sampled at only one location on the $ilding
srface. Nonetheless# this reslt has $een almost
niversally "oted for nearly 5= years 3Slade
%+9-E Snyder %+-%7. More recently wor) $y
Castro ? Ro$ins 3%+007# Snyder 3%++,7# and
Meroney ? Neff 3%++97 have clarified this matter.
!t is now )nown that the criteria is affected $y
sorce location# $ilding orientation# and
measrement location. Simlations for
measrement locations in the middle to far wa)e
region 3x @ %B downwind7 may only re"ire Re @
5#666 if a trly tr$lent exhast plme exists.
Bowever# srface concentration distri$tions on
the $ilding srface itself may vary with wind
speed ntil Re vales exceed %=#666.
Meroney 3%+-,a7 smmariCed progress dring
the %+06s reslting from flid model stdies# and
he provides several simple formlae and figres to
calclate first order plmeFwa)e interaction effects
on concentrations. Bos)er 3%+-># %+-=# %++67 and
Bos)er ? .endergrass 3%+-07 smmariCe more
recent measrements related to near plme
entrainment# wa)e strctre# and the effects of
clsters of $ildings.
1alidation of any plme modeling methodology
mst depend on direct comparison with prototype
measrements. (nfortnately# sch 2oint stdies
are very limited. !n many cases acceptance of
reslts is $ased on only a few points or 2st the
o$servation of smo)e tracers in the field. The field
measrements made arond the .hoenix Memorial
Reactor at (. of Michigan when compared to wind
tnnel measrements $y Martin 3%+9=7 were among
the first to verify that la$oratory measrements
cold $e trsted to give relia$le predictions.
Batcher ? Meroney 3%+007 and Bowmeester et al.
3%+-%7 compared la$oratory and field concentration
measrements for plme dispersion near the
/xperimental &rganic Cooled Reactor# !d. and the
Rancho Seco Nclear .ower Station# Ca.. Tests
inclded cases with varia$le stratification and
nonstationary wind fields. A comparative analysis
showed that com$ining wind4tnnel measrements
with a statistically weighted algorithm method is >6
times more accrate than the conventional .as"ill4
*ifford formlae. *raham et al. 3%+0-7 compared
wind tnnel and aircraft measrements of terrain
indced tr$lence and dispersion from stac)s at
the ;ingston Steam .lant# TN. &ne participating
meteorologist told me that the reslts were so
similar A it %as probably not even necessary to
perform the field measurements.@
Dac)rell ? Ro$ins 3%+-,7# <i ? Meroney
3%+-5a#$7 and 8ilson 3%++=7 stdied intermittent
plme $ehavior a$ot $ildings $y measring the
concentration flctation statistics on $ilding
srface and in the wa)e sing fast response
concentration )atherometers. This led Meroney
3%+-=7 to propose a pro$a$ility $ased methodology
to calclate re4entrainment concentrations a$ot a
$ilding. More recently Shin et al. 3%++%7 have
extended these early measrements to
concentration flctations prodced $y dense gas
clods downwind of enclosre $arriers.
,.5 Fluid *odeling and -atural .entilation
5
Dlow visaliCation throgh model $ildings has
fre"ently $een sed to evalate the effect of
natral air movement throgh windows and doors
and forced circlation from heating and air vents.
Smith 3%+=%7 descri$es an air flow cham$er
constrcted to stdy fenestration flow patterns.
They compared flows throgh a %6 m fll scale
$ilding constrcted on a rotating trn ta$le to a
%F%= scale model. They fond to their srprise that
changes as small as 5mm in model window ledge
design cold completely change internal flow fields.
S$se"ently# many case stdies showing flows
arond and within different shape strctres were
reported $y Cadill et al. 3%+=%7# Cadill ? Reed
3%+=,7# 8hite 3%+=>7# and /vans 3%+=07.
1entilation stdies inside indstrial style $ildings
are recorded $y Batrin 3%+0,7.
&tdoor air moves throgh a $ilding either
de to intentional ventilation 3natral or forced7
or nintentionally de to infiltration 3and
exfiltation7. Net air exchange in $ildings is
typically modeled $y empirical models $ased on
statistical evalation of pressriCation tests or $y
semi4empirical models which sm contri$tions
from individal $ilding components. The local
$ilding srface pressres de to wind or thermal
effects 3stac)7 are estimated from wind tnnel
tests 3'ic) %+>+E Straaten %+90E Aynsley %+-=7.
(nfortnately# sch methods can not normally
accont for the effects of wind gstiness# internal
pressre flctations# or sheltering.
1entilation rates can $e determined from
model tests in wind tnnels either $y measring
the external pressre distri$tions and sing this
data for a theoretical prediction or $y
measrement of ventilation rates directly. A
strong argment for direct measrements is that
theory does not accont for effects of wind
tr$lence and internal air movements.
(nfortnately# it is hard to specify the actal
lea)age paths# and it is generally arged that it is
not possi$le to achieve fll4scale Reynolds
nm$ers in model crac)s at model scale.
Meroney et al. 3%++=7 descri$e an alternative
infiltration model strategy which permits
simlation of instantaneos flow rates as HF3A(7
for $oth infiltration and dominant opening flows.
<inden 3%+++7 reviews model wor) examining the
2oint effect of natral ventilation and $oyant air
flows within rooms.
,.> Fluid *odeling of 'lumes nteracting
%ith Comple+ )errain
!n %+,+456 airflow over the Roc) of *i$raltar
was stdied in a National .hysical <a$oratory
wind tnnel to determine safe ta)eoff and landing
patterns from the local airfield. S$se"ent
measrement of the actal flows arond the Roc)
of *i$raltar with pilot $alloons and )ites fond
that the model A closely forecast %hat occurred
in nature at /ibraltar, in regard to %ind directions
and the distribution of vortices and vertical
currents(@ 3Dield ? 8arden %+55E Briggs %+957.
Also in %+,+ A$e sed cold C&
,
s$limated from
dry4ice flowing over a %:=6#666 scale model Mt.
D2i# :apan to stdy montain wave clods.
1isaliCation photographs revealed wave li)e
motions near the model montain pea) which
correspond to the presence of laminar wave clods
seen over the actal volcano. Then in %+50
Theodore von ;arman conslted on wind tnnel
stdies of flow over a nm$er of montainos areas
in New /ngland at scales ranging from %:=666 to
%:-666 to identify good wind power sites to erect
the %=66 )8 wind tr$ine conceived $y .almer
.tnam 3%+>-7. (nfortnately# the researchers
failed to consider the effects of the atmospheric
shear layerE hence# the reslts failed to agree with
field measrements.
Among the first stdies to determine plme
$ehavior pertr$ed $y terrain were those of the
.oint Argello and San Nicolas !sland# Ca# naval
weapon test sites 3Cerma) et al. %+99E Meroney ?
Cerma) %+997. Concern was expressed that toxic
plmes emitted from roc)et engine test stands
might drift over poplated areas downwind. These
stdies were performed nder scaled atmospheric
$ondary layer conditions and inclded the effects
of sta$le stratification on plme dispersion. Sta$le
stratification enhanced plme channeling $y terrain
featres and diminished vertical mixing. /xtensive
field programs of plme motion at $oth sites were
completed. Measrements at .oint Argello
agreed "alitatively and "antitatively with wind
tnnel vales# $t the field measrement program at
San Nicolas island never recovered any sea$le
data.
:oint field and wind tnnel tests of dispersion
dring valley drainage flows were considered $y
Iingst et al. 3%+-%7. 'ispersion over the *eysers
*eothermal area# Ca. was simlated sing %:%+,6
scale models where srfaces were cooled with dry
ice. Reslts compared well for $oth netral and
drainage flow sitations. 8eil ? Cerma) 3%+-%7
6
examined dispersion from a paper plant in a river
valley nder sta$le stratification. They fond
compara$le vales of dimensionless concentration
in the field and la$oratory.
Meroney 3%+-6# %++67# Cerma) 3%+->7 and
Snyder 3%+-=7 reviewed the sccess of terrain
flow simlation and associated dispersion
experiments. /xperiments have $een performed
in $oth water and wind tnnels with and withot
thermal stratification. Simlation criteria and
tnnel siCe place a strong constraint on the ranges
of permissi$le scales and dispersion distances
examined. Dalvey ? 'odge 3%+007 performed a
ni"e experiment for estimating the dispersion
of grond4level generated weather modification
nclides over western Colorado $y acconting for
Coriolis effects in a stratified rotating water tan)
simlation. Their measrements explained the
nanticipated distri$tions fond dring prior
field experiments# which are associated with
Coriolis driven modifications to montain4valley
flows. Stdies inclded simlations of the
<eadville4Climax# San :an# and Sierra Nevada
regions in Colorado.
,.= Fluid *odeling of 'lumes nteracting
%ith .egetation
The earliest measrements of wind flow a$ot
vegetation were performed to evalate crown
form and $low down of yong tree plantations#
not atmospheric dispersion 3Tiren %+,07. <ater
tests were also performed to determine
vegetation effects on wind profiles related to
wind energy prospecting 3Meroney %++57. Bt
dring the %+96s the (S Army spported an
extensive wind tnnel program at Colorado State
(niversity of flow and dispersion within and
a$ove agricltral canopies 3e.g. .late ? Cerma)
%+95E .late ? Hareshi %+9=E ;awatani ?
Meroney %+067. Models were constrcted of
$oth stiff and flexi$le crops 3corn vs wheat7 sing
arrays of pegs and flexi$le plastic strips. Model
forests were represented $y artificial plastic trees.
The specific model trees were chosen $ased on
drag and wa)e profile measrements made a$ot
small live trees inserted into a wind tnnel
3Meroney %+9-7. Concentration measrements
were sed to develop analytic and nmerical
models to predict penetration of gaseos plmes
into and within canopies dring insect and
her$icide spray programs.
,.9 Fluid *odeling of 'lumes in Stratified
Environments: Stable and C0" Situations
Most dispersion incidents prodce maximm
srface concentrations dring either sta$le or
nsta$le stratification. Sta$le flows lead to plme
trapping# plme channeling in complex terrain#
plme impingement# and transport of ndilted gas
streams far downwind. (nsta$le flows lead to
plme fmigation# adverse descent of elevated
plmes to the grond and lift4off of grond level
plmes. A nm$er of wind tnnel facilities have
$een constrcted world4wide to focs on the
effects of stratification on dispersion 3Cerma)
%+0>E Meroney %++-a7. <a$oratory dispersion
tests performed in Astralia# /ngland# *ermany#
:apan and the (SA forceflly demonstrate the
extent and importance of sch phenomena.
Arya 3%+9-7 and &hya et al. 3%++07 defined the
character of sta$ly stratified $ondary layers $ased
on wind tnnel measrements of velocity profiles
and tr$lent spectra. The $ehavior of continos
gas plmes emitted into a sta$ly stratified $ondary
layer was stdied $y Chadhry ? Meroney 3%+057
who sed Arya=s $ondary layer configration.
Meroney et al. 3%+0=7 simlated the inflence of
sta$ly stratified flow over a heated shore line to
estimate plme fmigation downwind of a shoreline
power station. <ater# Avissar et al. 3%++67
examined conditions re"ired to permit 2oint
nmerical and la$oratory simlation of sea4$reeCe
type phenomena. ;othari et al. 3%+-=7 considered
the dispersion of gases released into the wa)e of a
model $ilding immersed in a sta$ly stratified flow
field. Stratification indced significant changes in
the plme entrainment and the growth of the
pertr$ed wa)e. &rgill 3%+-,7 predicted the
dispersion of silver4iodide weather modification
nclides in the Colorado River valley and near 8olf
Cree) .ass# Co. *rainger ? Meroney 3%++57
examined the dispersion in large open4pit coal
mines dring night4time inversions sitations.
Strong sta$le stratification cold lead to dangeros
fme trapping in the pit haCardos to mine
operations.
Althogh 8illis ? 'eardorff 3%+0>7 considered
convectively driven dispersion in their stratified
water $ox experiments# the inclsion of cross flows
and $ondary layer shear has only $een examined
fairly recently. 'ring the late %+-6s and %++6s
teams at Colorado State (niversity# (SAE (. of
;arlsrhe# *ermany# Monash (niversity and
CS!R&# Astralia have examined grond and
7
elevated sorce dispersion nder nsta$le
stratification convective $ondary layer 3CB<7
conditions in special wind tnnel and water
channel facilities. Meroney ? Mel$orne 3%++,7
presented simlation criteria for CB< sitations#
and they provided performance envelopes which
indicated appropriate simlation ranges for
different la$oratory facilities. These e"ipment
and measrements are descri$ed more flly in the
NAT& monograph on 0uoyant Convection in
/eophysical Flo%s 3.late et al. %++-7.
,.0 Fluid *odeling of 'lumes in Urban
Environments
The NAT& monograph on 1ind Climate in
Cities provides a good starting point to consider
the interaction of the r$an environment and
plme dispersion 3Cerma) et al. %++=a7. /arly
stdies considered generic arrangements of
$ilding clsters and streets to determine the
inflence of street and $ilding alignment on
traffic exhast dispersion 3Boydysh et al. %+0>E
8edding et al. %+007. Some experiments
inclded the option of mltiple moving vehicle
sorces 3Thompson ? /s)ridge %+-0E
;ita$ayashi et al. %+097. &thers chose to simlate
street level sorces with line sorces 3Meroney et
al. %++=# %++97.
Most sch model stdies are performed to
help design nmerical air polltion models
sita$le for calclating extreme air polltion
episodes de to com$ined fixed sorces and
vehiclar sorces. ;lein et al 3%++>7 designed a
stdy to monitor dispersion a$ot a (4shaped
$ilding specifically to criti"e modles in air
polltion models sed to ad2st for air polltion
aerodynamics. <eitl et al. 3%++07 compares the
reslts of varios model calclations against the
(4shaped $ilding la$oratory data.
,.- Fluid *odeling of #ense /as 'lumes
Bodrtha 3%+9%7 examined visaliCations of the
$ehavior of dense gas plmes in a wind tnnel
shear layer to evalate the plme tra2ectory and
dispersion of gas4relief valves. Boot ? Meroney
3%+0>7 measred concentration fields prodced
$y dense plmes emitted into "iescent air and
cross4flowing $ondary layers. They fit their data
to e"ations derived from integral plme analysis#
and proposed relations to calclate plme
tra2ectory# grond toch4down locations# and
s$se"ent srface concentrations 3See Bodrtha#
%+-67.
Concern a$ot safety isses associated with
the storage and transport of li"ified natral gas
3<N*7 led to an extensive field and la$oratory
program on dense gas dispersion dring the
%+06s and -6s. <arge field experiments were
performed at China <a)e Naval 8eapons Test
Center# CA and the (S 'ept. of /nergy Dield Site#
N1# as well as at .orton 'owns and Thorney
!sland# (;# and in The Netherlands. Many of these
tests were selected for co4simlation in world wind
engineering la$oratories 3CS(# (SAE 8arren
Springs# (;E /.A Dlid Modeling Dacility# (SAE
(. of ;arlshe and (. of Bam$rg# *ermanyE
TN&# The Netherlands7. A smmary of sch
experiments are descri$ed $y Meroney 3%+-,$#
%+-07 and Shin et al. 3%+-+7 A review of modeling
criteria necessary to simlate dense gas plmes
inclding $ildings and terrain may $e fond in
Meroney 3%+-9a#$ #%+--7.
The interaction of dense gas clods and water
spray crtains was examined $y Meroney et al.
3%+->7. The stdy sccessflly simlated releases
of dense C&
,
clods performed $y the Bealth ?
Safety /xective# (;. <ater Shin et al. 3%++%7
replicated the time4dependent dispersion o$served
dring the Dalcon Test Series inclding the 2oint
effects of $arriers and water4spray crtains.
<a$oratory stdies contine to $e a primary
sorce of data for safety analysis in the petro4
chemical indstry de to the cost and complicated
natre of sccessfl field experiments. Recent
references incorporating the reslts of flid
modeling related to air4polltion aerodynamics and
indstrial safety inclde DannelNp 3%++>7 and
Banna ? 'rivas 3%++97.
5.6 S(MMARI &D R/S/ARCB N//'S
5.% "imitations of Similitude
!t is important to remem$er that models are
A virtal@ reality and only as accrate or realistic
as or own imagination. 8hen we insist on
modeling at redced length scale ratios simlation
criteria often re"ire metrology decisions which
may enhance one flow characteristic while
degrading another. 8e will never flly $e a$le to
answer the "estion A 2ust ho% reliable are the
resultsO@ Simlation mst $e limited $y
8
ncertainties in or nderstanding of the physical
phenomena# ncertainties a$ot the initial or
$ondary conditions# ncertainties a$ot or
measring e"ipment# ncertainties a$ot or
prototype o$servations# and ncertainty a$ot
what we really want to )now.
8e mst also ta)e care that or search for
agreement and correlation does not itself lead to
A spurious@ errors and self deception 3Meroney
%++-$7. A data presentation sggested $y scaling
varia$les and simlation criteria may itself
misrepresent the reslts.
'espite the limitations noted a$ove# carefl
flid modeling is often still the $est and only
relia$le predictive tool availa$leP /very cation
which can $e applied to flid modeling mst also $e
applied to analytic and nmerical modeling. 8ind
tnnels are# in effect# analog compters which have
the advantage of A near4infinitesimal@ resoltion
and A near4infinite memory.@ A flid modeling
stdy employs A real flids@ not models of flidsE
hence# the flid model is implicitly non4hydrostatic#
tr$lent# incldes varia$le flid properties# non4
slip $ondary conditions# and dissipation. Real
flids permit flow separation and recirclation.. All
conservation e"ations are atomatically inclded
in their correct form withot trncation or
differencing errors# and there are no missing terms
or approximations.
5., !ir 'ollution !erodynamics in the 34
st
Century
The primary role of flid modeling dring the
next centry will not always $e the direct
measrement of data to $e sed dring
engineering design of specific facilities. Dlid
modeling is often not fast or flexi$le enogh to
perform the sensitivity stdies commonly re"ired
to ma)e engineering decisions a$ot very
complex systems. !nstead flid modeling shold
$e sed:
%. To explor e at mos pheri c disper si on
int er acti ons not yet fully
under s t ood,
,. To tune and justify turbul ence
model s incorpor at ed into !"
model s,
5. To de#ise ne$ anal ytic model s
suit abl e for inclusion in lar%er
numeri cal syst e ms , and
>. To #alidat e comput at i onal modul es
as they are incorpor at ed into
comput er desi%n codes&
The proliferati on of confer ence titles
and sessi ons focusin% on !" and
'ind (n%ineeri n% su%%es t s that this
refocus is already under$ay& onsider
the titles of recent confer ences and
$or)shops *e& %& +nt& ,ymposi um on
omput at i onal 'ind (n%ineeri n% + and
++ held in To)yo, -apan and !ort ollins,
o in 1..2 and 1..6, respect i #el y/&
!pology: *any outstanding scientists have contributed to
the gro%th of our understanding of !ir 'ollution
!erodynamics( Contributions have been recorded in many
5ournals, reports, and proceedings( *any are in languages
other than English and archived in limited locations( *y
presentation reflects my o%n e+perience, resources,
preferences and memory( t %as certainly not my intention
to ignore or forget anyone=s contribution, but the limited
scope of this revie% is evident( trust some value %ill be
found by every reader.
R/D/R/NC/S
A$e# M. %+,+. Montain Clods# Their Dorms and
Connected Air Crrents# .art !!. 0ull( Centr( *et( Obs(,
2apan( 0357:+54%>=.
Arya# S...S. %+9-. Structure of a Stably Stratified 0oundary
"ayer( .h.'. 'issertation# Civil /ngineering# Colorado
State (niversity.
Avissar# R.# M.'. Moran# *. 8# R.N. Meroney# ? R.A.
.iel)e %++6. &perating Range of Nmerical and
.hysical Models for the Simlation of Coastal Marine
Dlows. 0oundary "ayer *eteorology. =6:,,04,0=.
Aynsley# R.M. %+-=. /stimating Comfort Cooling from
Natral 8ind inside Bildings (sing Bondary <ayer
8ind Tnnels. !SH&!E )ransactions( +%3,7 .aper No.
B!4-=45= Q, pp. %5.
Batrin# 1.1. %+0,. Air Change. Fundamentals of
ndustrial .entilation( &xford: .ergamon .ress Ch. %5#
pp. ,-545>0.
Birdsall# :.B ? R.N. Meroney %++=. Model Scale and
Nmerical /valation of Tracer *as 'istri$tion 'e to
8ind Dorced Natral 1entilation. 1ind Engineering:
&etrospect and 'rospect( New 'elhi:8iley 8estern
<imited !1:%9+54%065.
Bodrtha# D.T. %+9%. The Behavior of 'ense Stac) *ases. 2(
!ir 'ollut( Control !ssoc( %%3+7:>5%4>50.
Bodrtha# D.T. %+-6. ndustrial E+plosion 'revention and
'rotection( New Ior): Mc*raw4Bill Boo) Co. pp. %-9.
.
Bowmeester#

R.:.B.# R.N. Meroney# ? ;.M. ;othari
%+-%. An Algorithm to /stimate Dield Concentrations
in the 8a)e of a .ower .lant Complex nder
Nonsteady Meteorological Conditions from 8ind4
tnnel /xperiments. 2ournal of !pplied *eteorology(
56:+,4%6%.
Briggs# :. %+95. !irflo% around a model of the &ock of
/ibraltar( Meteorological &ffice# Scientific .aper No.
%-# <ondon: BMS&.
Bryant# <.8. %+>+. The /ffects of 1elocity and
Temperatre of 'ischarge on the Shape of Smo)e
.lmes from a Dnnel or Chimney in a 8ind Tnnel.
Bryant# <.8. ? C.D. Cowdrey %+==. The /ffects of
1elocity and Temperatre of 'ischarge on the Shape
of Smo)e .lmes from a Tnnel or Chimney:
/xperiments in a 8ind Tnnel. 'roc( nst( *ech(
Eng( 6"ondon7( %9+:50%4>66.
Castro# !... ? A.*. Ro$ins %+00. The flow arond a
srface4monted c$e in niform and tr$lent
streams. 2( Fluid *echanics .0+3,7:560455=.
Cadill# 8.8.# S./. Crites ? /.*. Smith %+=%. Some
/eneral Considerations in the -atural .entilation of
0uildings( Texas /ngineering /xperiment Station
Research Report No. ,,# Texas A.? M. College# College
Station# TR pp. >9.
Cadill# 8.8. ? B.B. Reed %+=,. /eometry of Classrooms
as &elated to -atural "ighting and -atural .entilation(
Texas /ngineering /xperiment Station Research Report
No. 59# Texas A.? M. College# College Station# TR pp.
=0.
Cerma)# :./. %+0>. Applications of Dlid Mechanics to
8ind /ngineeringB A Dreeman Scholar <ectre.
2ournal of Fluids Engineering( +0:+45-.
Cerma)# :./. %+0-. #ispersion of 'ollutants in the Urban
Environment( ASC/ Spring Convention and /xhi$ition
.itts$rgh# .a. .reprint 5,9+ pp. ,+.
Cerma)# :./. %++=. .hysical Modelling of Dlow and
'ispersion over (r$an Areas. 1ind Climate in Cities(
Amsterdam: ;lwer Academic .$lishers pp. 5-54>65.
Cerma)# :./. %+->. .hysical Modelling of Dlow and
'ispersion &ver Complex Terrain. 0oundary8"ayer
*eteorology( 56:,9%4,+,.
Cerma)# :./. ? M.<. Al$ertson %+=-. (se of 8ind
Tnnels in the Stdy of Atmospheric .henomena. !ir
'ollution Control !ssociation. .aper No. =-45,#
Annal Meeting A.CA pp. %-.
Cerma)# :./.# A.*. 'avenport# /.:. .late ? '.R. 1iegas
3eds7 %++=. 1ind Climate in Cities. 'recht# the
Netherlands pp. 00,.
Cerma)# :./.# 1.A. Sand$orn# /.:. .late# *.B. Binder# B.
Chang# R.N. Meroney and S. !to %+99. Simulation of
!tmospheric *otion by 1ind8tunnel Flo%s( Civil
/ngineering Report C/R99:/C41AS4/:.4*:B4BC4
RNM4S!%0# Colorado State (niversity Dort Collins#
C& pp. %%%.
Chadhry# D.B. ? R.N. Meroney %+05. A <a$oratory
Stdy of 'iffsion in a Sta$ly Stratified Dlow.
!tmospheric Environment. 03>7:>>54>=>.
Csanday# *.T. %+05. )urbulent #iffusion in the
Environment( 'ordrecht# the Netherlands: '. Reidel
.$lishing Co. pp. ,=-.
'ic)# :.B. %+>+. /xperimental Stdies in Natral
1entilation of Boses. nstitution of Heating and
.entilating Engineers( %0 3%057: >,64>99.
/vans# B.B. %+=0. -atural !ir Flo% !round 0uildings(
Texas /ngineering /xperiment Station Research
Report No. =+# Texas A.? M. College# College
Station# TR pp. %9.
Dac)rell# :./. ? A.*. Ro$ins %+-,. Concentration
flctations and flxes in plmes from point sorces
in a tr$lent $ondary layer. 2( Fluid *ech( %%0:%4
,9.
Dalvey# B.T. ? R.A. 'odge %+00. !tmospheric Simulation
Using Stratified "i,uid *odels. Brea of Reclamation
Rept. R/C4/RC4004- (S 'ept. of the !nterior pp. +9.
DannelNp# T.;. %++>. Fluid *echanics for ndustrial Safety
and Environmental 'rotection. Amsterdam: /lsevier pp.
=>>.
Dield# :.B. ? R. 8arden %+,+. A Srvey of Air Crrents in
the Bay of *i$raltar# %+,+4%+56. /eophysics *emoirs(
No =+ <ondon:Ber Ma2esty=s Stationary &ffice# (; pp.
->.
*olden# :. %+9%. Scale *odel )echni,ues( M.Sc. Thesis#
College of /ngineering# New Ior) (niversity New
Ior) pp. >-.
*raham# N./.# *.B. Taylor# /.<. Bovind# R.<. .etersen# :./.
Cerma)# ? ..C. Sinclair %+0-. !n !nalysis of )errain8
nduced !erodynamic #isturbances -ear the 9ingston
Steam 'lant, 9ingston, )ennessee( North American
8eather Consltants Rept. No. AH40-4,, pp. %9+.
*rainger# C. ? R.N. Meroney %++5. 'ispersion in an &pen4
ct Coal Mine in Sta$ly Stratified Dlow. 2rnl( of
0oundary "ayer *eteorology( 95:%%04%>6.
Balits)y# :. %+9,. 'iffsion of 1ented *as Arond
Bildings. 2( !ir 'ollution Control !ssociation( %,3,7:
0>4-6.
Balits)y# :. %+9-. *as 'iffsion Near Bildings Ch. =4= of
*eteorology and !tomic energy 4:;<( (S Atomic
/nergy Commission T!'4,>%+6 &a) Ridge# TN Ch =4=:
,,%4,==.
Balits)y# :. %+9+. .alidation of Scaling 'rocedures for
1ind )unnel *odel )esting of #iffusion -ear
0uildings( New Ior) (niversity# 'ept. of Meteorology
? &ceanography Tech. Report No. TR49+4- pp. ,6=.
10
Banna# S. %+-,. &evie% of !tmospheric #iffusion *odels
for &egulatory 'urposes( 8orld Meteorological
&rganiCation Tech. Rept. No. =-% *eneva#
SwitCerland pp. >>.
Banna# S.R. ? ..:. 'rivas %++9. /uidelines for use of
.apor Cloud #ispersion *odels( ,
nd
ed. New Ior):
Center for chemical .rocess Safety# A!Ch/ pp. 56>.
Batcher# R.1. ? R.N. Meroney %+00. 'ispersion in the
8a)e of a Model !ndstrial Complex. .roceedings of
2oint Conference on !pplications on !ir 'ollution
*eteorology# AMS4A.CA# Salt <a)e City pp.
5>-45>9
Bino# M. %+9-. Compter /xperiment on Smo)e
'iffsion &ver a Complicated Topography.
!tmospheric Environment( ,: =>%4==-.
Bohenleiten# B.<. von ? /.D. 8olf %+>,. 8ind4Tnnel
Tests to /sta$lish Stac) Beight for Riverside
*enerating Station. )rans( !S*E( 9>: 90%49-5.
Boot# T. ? R.N. Meroney %+0>. The Behavior of
Negatively Boyant Stac) *ases. ;=th !'C!
'roceedings. 'enver# Colorado.
Bos)er# R... :r. %+->. Dlow and 'iffsion Near &$stacles.
Ch. 0 in !tmospheric Science and 'o%er 'roduction(
'. Randerson 3ed7 (S 'ept. of /nergy Tech. Report
'&/FT!C4,096% Ch. 0: ,>%45,9.
Bos)er# R... :r. %+-=. Dlow arond !solated Strctres
and Bilding Clsters: A Review. !SH&!E
)ransactions( +%: .t. , B!4-=45> No. pp. ,,.
Bos)er# R... :r. %++6. The /ffects of Bildings on <ocal
'ispersion: A Smmary. Second nterdisciplinary
Conf( On Urban !ir >uality. Bolder: C& &cto$er ,+4
5%# %++6 pp. ,%.
Bos)er# R... :r. ? 8.R. .endergrass %+-0. Flo% and
#ispersion -ear Clusters of 0uildings( (S N&AA
Tech. Memorandm /R<4AR<4%=5 Silver Spring#
M' pp. %69.
Boydysh# 8.*.# R.A. *riffiths ? I. &gawa %+0>. A Scale
Model Stdy of the 'ispersion of .olltion in Street
Canyons. ;=
th
!nnual *eeting of !ir 'ollution
Control !ssociation( .aper Q0>4%=0 pp. ,9.
!symov# N. ? B. Tana)a %+0+. 8ind Tnnel Modelling
of Stac) *as 'ispersionB 'ifficlties and
Approximations. 1ind Engineering: 'roceedings of
the ?
th
nt( Conf( &xford:.ergamon .ress ,:+-04%66,.
:ensen# M. and N. Dranc) %+95. *odel8Scale )ests in
)urbulent 1ind: 'art , 'henomena #ependent on the
1ind Speed: Shelter at Houses 8 #ispersal of Smoke(
Copenhagen: The 'anish Technical .ress pp. %6,.
;alins)e# A.A.# R.A. :ensen ? C.D. Schadt %+>=a. 1ind
)unnel Studies of /as #iffusion in a )ypical 2apanese
Urban #istrict( &SR' N'RC 'iv. %6 !nformal Rep.
No. %6.5A4>- <i$. of Congress# 8ash. '.C.
;alins)e# A.A.# R.A. :ensen ? C.D. Schadt %+>=$.
Correlation of 1ind )unnel Studies %ith Field
*easurements of /as #iffusion. &SR' N'RC 'iv. %6
!nformal Rep. No. %6.5A4>-A <i$. &f Congress# 8ash.
'.C. pp. %5.
;awatani# T. ? R.N. Meroney %+06. Tr$lence and 8ind
Speed Characteristics within a Model Canopy Dlow
Dield( 2ournal of !gricultural *eteorology.0:%>54%=-.
;ita$ayashi# ;.# ;. Sgawara ? S. !somra %+09. A 8ind
Tnnel Stdy of Atomo$ile /xhast *as 'iffsion in
an (r$an 'istrict. 'roc( @
th
nt( Clean !ir Congress(
To)yo# :apan pp. %+,4%+9.
;lein# .. M. Ra# R. RNc)le# ? /.:. .late %++>.
Concentration estimation arond point sorces located
in the vicinity of (4shaped $ildings and in a $ilt4p
area. 3
nd
nt( Conf( !ir 'ollution. Barcelona# Spain.
;othari# ;.M.# :.A. .eter)a and R.N. Meroney %+-=. 8ind
Dlow .atterns A$ot Bildings. 2( of 1ind Engineering
and ndustrial !erodynamics. ,%:,%45-.
<ees# D... %+-6. /mission and 'ispersion. Ch. %= of "oss
'revention in the 'rocess ndustries: HaAard
dentification, !ssessment and Control, .ol( 4. <ondon:
Btterworts .ress Ch. %=: >%54>09.
<eitle# B.# R.N. Meroney# .. ;lein ? M. Ra %++0.
Concentrations and Dlow 'istri$tions in the 1icinity of
(4Shaped Bildings: 8ind4tnnel and Comptational
'ata. 2( 1ind Engineering B ndustrial !erodynamics(
9049-:0>=40=9.
<i# 8.8. ? R.N. Meroney %+-5a. *as 'ispersion Near a
C$ical Model Bilding# .art !: Mean Concentration
Measrements. 2( of 1ind Engineering and ndustrial
!erodynamics. %,:%=455.
<i# 88 ? R.N. Meroney %+-5$. *as 'ispersion Near a
C$ical Model Bilding# .art !!: Concentration
Dlctation Measrements. 2( of 1ind Engineering and
ndustrial !erodynamics. %,:=4>0.
<inden# .D. %+++. The Dlid Mechanics of Natral
1entilation. !nn( &ev( Fluid *ech( 5%:,6%4,5-.
Martin# :./. %+9=. )he Correlation of 1ind )unnel and
Field *easurements of /as
#iffusion Using 9rypton8<? as a
)racer( .h.'. Thesis# (niv. of
Michigan# Ann Ar$or 3Also
Michigan .hoenix Memorial
<a$oratory MM.! Report ,0,7.
Mc/lroy# *./.# C./. Brown# <.B. Berger ? B.B. Schren)
%+>>. #ilution of Stack Effluents( (S Brea of Mines
Tech. .aper 9=0 (S *ov. .rint. &fc.
Mel$orne# 8.B. %+9-. 8ind Tnnel Modelling of Boyant
Chimney .lmes. C
rd
!ustralasian Conference on
Hydraulics and Fluid *echanics, )he nstitution of
Engineers, !ustralia( .aper No. ,95% pp. -%4-=.
11
Meroney# R. N. %+9-. Characteristics of 8ind and
Tr$lence in and a$ove Model Dorests. 2ournal of
!pplied *eteorology( >3=7:0-640--.
Meroney# R.N. %+-6a. .hysical Simlation of 'ispersion
in Complex Terrain and 1alley 'rainage Dlow
Sitations. 'roceedings of the 44
th
-!)O8CC*S nt(
)ech *eeting on !ir 'ollution *odeling and ts
!pplication( Amsterdam# the Netherlands pp. 5654
5,,.
Meroney# R.N. %+-6$. 8ind4Tnnel Simlation of the
Dlow &ver Bills and Complex Terrain. 2( of ndustrial
!erodynamics. =:,+045,%.
Meroney# R.N. %+-,a. Tr$lent 'iffsion Near
Bildings. Ch. %6 in Engineering *eteorology ed.
/.:. .late Amsterdam: /lsevier Ch %%: >-%4=,=.
Meroney# R. N. %+-,$. 8ind4tnnel /xperiments on
'ense *as 'ispersion. 2( of HaAardous *aterials( 9:
-=4%69.
Meroney# R. N. %+-=. *aspP 8heeCeP (ghP 8here is that
smell coming fromO Symposim on Air Dlow Arond
Bildings ASBRA/ Annal Meeting# .aper B!4-=45>
No. 5# !SH&!E )ransactions( +%3,7:%06-4%0,%.
Meroney# R.N. %+-9a. /uideline for Fluid *odeling of
"i,uefied -atural /as Cloud #ispersion: .ol( 4:
nstruction /uide( *as Research !nstitte Report No.
*R!4-9F6%6,.%# Chicago# !l. pp. 9,.
Meroney# R.N. %+-9$. /uideline for Fluid *odeling of
"i,uefied -atural /as Cloud #ispersion: .ol( :
)echnical &eport #ocument( *as Research !nstitte
Report No. *R!4-9F6%6,.,# Chicago# !l. pp. ,9>.
Meroney# R.N. %+-0. 1alidation of Dlid Modeling
Techni"es for Assessing BaCards of 'ense *as Clod
'ispersion. 2ournal of HaAardous *aterials .
%=:5004>%0.
Meroney# R.N. %+--. *idelines for Dlid Modeling of
'ense *as Clod 'ispersion. 2ournal of HaAardous
*aterials( %0:,54>9.
Meroney# R.N. %++6. Dlid 'ynamics of Dlow &ver Bills
and Montains: !nsights &$tained Throgh .hysical
Modeling. Ch.0 of Current #irections in !tmospheric
'rocesses Over Comple+ )errain. American
Meteorological Society Monograph ,53>=7:>=4%0,.
Meroney# R.N. %++5. 1ind8)unnel *odeling of Hill and
.egetation nfluence on 1ind 'o%er !vailability )ask
4: "iterature &evie%( for (S 8indpower# <ivermore#
Ca. Civil /ngineering Report C/R+,4+54RNM4% pp.
%=%.
Meroney# R.N. %++-a. 8ind Tnnel Simlation of
Convective Bondary <ayer .henomena: Simlation
Criteria and &perating Ranges of <a$oratory
Dacilities. 0uoyant Convection in /eophysical Flo%s(
/.:. .late# /./. Dedorovich# '.R. 1iegas# ? :.C.
8yngaard 3eds7 Amsterdam: ;lwer Academic
.$lishers pp. 5%545,9.
Meroney# R.N. %++-$. Sprios or 1irtal Correlation
/rrors Commonly /ncontered in Redction of
Scientific 'ata. 2( of 1ind Engineering and ndustrial
!erodynamics( 0040-:=>54==5.
Meroney# R.N. ? :./. Cerma) %+99. 1ind )unnel
*odeling of Flo% and #iffusion over San -icolas
sland( .acific Missile Range Report .MR4MR49-4%#
.oint Mg# California pp.%69.
Meroney# R. N.# :./. Cerma)# ? B.T. Iang %+0=.
Modeling of Atmospheric Transport and Dmigation
at Shorelines. 0oundary "ayer *eteorology(
+3%7:9+4+6.
Meroney# R.N.# './. Neff ? B. Birdsall %++=. 8ind4
tnnel Simlation of !nfiltration Across .ermea$le
Bilding /nvelopes: /nergy and Air .olltion
/xchange Rates. =th nternational Symposium on
*easurement and *odeling of Environmental Flo%s.
San Drancisco# CA# Novem$er %,4%0# %++= pp. -.
Meroney# R.N. ? './. Neff %++9. Reynolds Nm$er
!ndependence of the 8ind4tnnel Simlation of
Transport and 'ispersion a$ot Bildings.
3(np$lished internal memorandm7 ,% pp.
Meroney# R.N.# './. Neff ? *. Bes)estad %+->. 8ind4
tnnel Simlation of a (.;. Bealth and Safety /xective
8ater Spray Crtain 'ense *as 'ispersion Test.
0oundary8"ayer *eteorology( ,-:%604%%+.
Meroney# R.N. ? 8.B. Mel$orne %++,. &perating Ranges
of Meteorological 8ind Tnnels for the Simlation of
Convective Bondary <ayer 3CB<7 .henomena.
0oundary8"ayer *eteorology. 9%:%>=4%0>.
Meroney# R.N.# M. .avagea# S. Rafailidis ? M.
SchatCmann %++9. Stdy of <ine Sorce Characteristics
for ,4' .hysical Modelling of .olltant 'ispersion in
Street Canyons. 2( 1ind Engineering B ndustrial
!erodynamics( 9,:504=9.
Meroney# R.N.# S. Rafailidis ? M. .avagea %++=.
'ispersion in !dealiCed (r$an Street Canyons. !ir
'ollution *odeling and ts !pplication D( S./. *ryning
? D.A. Schiermeier 3eds7 NAT& Challenges of Modern
Society# New Ior): .lenm .ress ,%:>=%4>=-.
&hya# R.# './. Neff ? R.N. Meroney %++0. Tr$lence
Strctre in a Stratified Bondary <ayer nder Sta$le
Conditions. 0oundary "ayer *eteorology( -5:%5+4%9%.
&rgill# M.M. %+0%. "aboratory Simulation and Field
Estimates of !tmospheric )ransport8#ispersion Over
*ountainous )errain( .h.'. Thesis Civil /ngineering#
Colorado State (niversity pp. 5,0.
.as"ill# D. ? D.B. Smith %+-5. !tmospheric #iffusion( 5
rd
ed. New Ior): :ohn 8iley pp. >50.
.late# /.:. ? :./. Cerma) %+95. nvestigations to #evelop
1ind )unnel )echni,ues for *easuring !tmospheric
12
/aseous #iffusion in *odel .egetative Surfaces(
Civil /ngineering Report C/R95/:.4:/C,- Colorado
State (niversity pp. %==.
.late# /.:. ? A.A. Hareshi %+9=. Modeling of 1elocity
'istri$tions !nside and A$ove Tall Crops. 2( of
!pplied *eteorology( >357:>664>6-.
.late# /.:.# /./. Dedorovich# '.R. 1iegas# ? :.C.
8yngaard editors %++- 0uoyant Convection in
/eophysical Flo%s Amsterdam: ;lwer Academic
.$lishers pp. =6>.
.tnam# ..C. %+>-. 'o%er From )he 1ind( New Ior):
1an Nostrand Reinhold Company pp. ,59.
Randerson# '. 3ed7. !tmospheric Science and 'o%er
'roduction( (S 'ept. of /nergy Report '&/FT!C4
,096% pp. -=+.
Rose# B. %+=%. Air4Tnnel Stdies of 'iffsion in (r$an
Areas. *eteorological *onograph( 1ol. ! No. >: 5+4
>%
Scorer# R.S. %+0-. Environmental !erodynamics. <ondon:
:ohn 8iley ? Sons pp. >--.
Sherloc)# R.B. ? /.:. <esher %+==. 'esign of Chimneys
to Control 'own48ash of *ases. )rans( !S*E( 00:%4
+.
Sherloc)# R.B. ? /.A. Stal)er %+>6. The Control of *ases
in the 8a)e of Smo)e Stac)s. *echanical Engineering(
=,:>==4>=-.
Shin# S.B.? R.N. Meroney %+-+. Srface .attern
Compara$ility of 8ind4tnnel Simlations of the
Thorney !sland 'ense *as 'ispersion Trials. !ir
'ollution *odeling and ts !pplication .( B. van 'op
3ed7. New Ior):.lenm .ress pp. 004--.
Shin# S.B.# R.N. Meroney ? T. 8illiams %++%. 8ind
Tnnel 1alidation for 1apor 'ispersion from 1apor
'etention System. nternational Conference and
1orkshop on *odeling B *itigating the Conse,uences
of !ccidental &eleases of HaAardous *aterials. New
&rleans# <A# May ,%4,># %++%.
Slade# '.B. %+9-. *eteorology and !tomic energy 4:;<( (S
Atomic /nergy Commission T!'4,>%+6 &a) Ridge# TN
pp. >==.
Smith# /.*. %+=%. )he Feasibility of Using *odels for
'redetermining -atural .entilation( Texas /ngineering
/xperiment Station Research Report No. ,9# Texas A.?
M. College# College Station# TR pp. ,9.
Snyder# 8.B. %+0,. Similarity Criteria for the Application
of Dlid Models to the Stdy of Air .olltion
Meteorology. 0oundary8"ayer *eteorology( 5:%%54%5>.
Snyder# 8.B. %+-%. /uideline for Fluid *odeling of
!tmospheric #iffusion( (S /nvironmental .rotection
Agency Report /.A4966F-4-%466+ pp. %++.
Snyder# 8.B. %+-=. Dlid Modeling of .olltant
Transport and 'iffsion in Sta$ly Stratified Dlows
&ver Complex Terrain. !nn( &ev( Fluid *ech.
%0:,5+4,99.
Snyder# 8.B. %++,. Some &$servations of the !nflence of
Stratification on 'iffsion in Bilding 8a)es.
nstitute of *athematics and ts !pplications,
*eeting on Stably Stratified Flo%s( Sept. ,%4,5# %++,#
(. of Srrey# *ildford# (; pp ,=.
Straaten# :.D. van %+90. Natral 1entilation. )hermal
'erformance of 0uildings( Amsterdam:/lsevier Ch.
%>:,,+4,+0.
Strom# *.B. %+=5. 1ind )unnel Study of !ir 'ollution by
!von 'lant( for Cleveland /lectric !llminating
Company 3Contained as Appendix within //R< Tech
Rept. %65 New Ior) (niversity May %+0%7 pp. %+.
Strom# *.B. ? :. Balits)y %+=>. !mportant Considerations
in the (se of the 8ind Tnnel for .olltion Stdies of
.ower .lants. !ir &epair. >3,7: ,= pp. 3Also .aper No.
=>4SA4>%# ASM/ Semi4Annal Meeting# .itts$rgh#
.a.# :ne ,64,># %+=>7.
Stton# &.*. %+=5. *icrometeorology( New Ior):
Mc*raw4Bill Boo) Co. pp. 5>5.
Thompson# R.S. ? R./. /s)ridge %+-0. Tr$lent
'iffsion Behind 1ehicles: /xperimentally
'etermined !nflence of 1ortex .air in 1ehicle 8a)e.
!tmospheric Environment( ,%3%67: ,6+%4,6+0.
Tiren# <. %+,0. /inige !nterschngen o$er die Schaftform.
*eddel( Statens Skogsforsoksanstalt( ,>3>7:-%4%=,.
Trner# '.B. %++>. 1orkbook of !tmospheric #ispersion
Estimates: !n ntroduction to #ispersion *odeling( ,
nd
/d. Boca Raton: <ewis .$lishers of CRC .ress pp. %0>.
1en)atram# A. ? :.C. 8yngaard 3eds7 %+--. "ectures on
!ir 'ollution *odeling( Boston: American
Meteorological Society pp. 5+0.
8ar)# ;.# C.D. 8arner ? 8.T. 'avis %++-. !ir 'ollution:
ts Origin and Control( 5
rd
ed. Menlow .ar)# Ca:
Addison48esley pp. =->.
8edding# :.# '.:. <om$ardi ? :./. Cerma) %+00. A wind4
tnnel stdy of gaseos polltants in city street canyons.
2( !ir 'ollution Control !ssociation( ,0:==04=99.
8eil# :.C. ? :./. Cerma) %+-%. .lme 'ispersion a$ot the
8indward Side of a Bill at Short Range: 8ind Tnnel
vs Dield Measrements. 'roceedings of ?
th
Symposium
on )urbulence, #iffusion and !ir 'ollution( Boston:
American Meteorological Society pp. %=+4%96.
8exler# B. %+==. *eteorology and !tomic energy( 8eather
Brea# (S 'ept. of Commerce pp. %0%.
8hite# R.D. %+=>. Effects of "andscape #evelopment on the
-atural .entilation of 0uildings and )heir !d5acent
!reas( Texas /ngineering /xperiment Station Research
Report No. >=# Texas A.? M. College# College Station#
TR pp. %0
13
8ie)eman# B.:. %+->. 1apor Clod /xplosionsB An
analysis Based on Accidents. 2( HaAardous *aterials(
-: ,+>45%%.
8illis# *./. ? :.8. 'eardorff %+0>. A la$oratory model
of the nsta$le planetary $ondary layer. 2( !tmos(
Sci( 5%:%,+04%560.
8ilson# '.:. %++=. Concentration Fluctuations and
!veraging )ime in .apor Clouds( New Ior): Center
for Chemical .rocess Safety# A!Ch/ pp. %-+.
Iang# B.T. ? R.N. Meroney %+0,. On #iffusion from an
nstantaneous 'oint Source in a -eutrally Stratified
)urbulent 0oundary "ayer %ith a "aser light
Scattering 'robe( (S &ffice of Naval Research#
.ro2ect TB/M!S Tech. Report No. ,6# pp. ,59.
Iingst# :.C.# R.N. Swanson# M.<. Mooney# :./. Cerma)#
? R.<. .etersen %+-%. Review of Dive 8ind4Tnnel
Modeling Reslts in Complex Terrain. 'roceedings of
?
th
Symposium on )urbulence, #iffusion and !ir
'ollution( Boston: American Meteorological Society
pp. %>-4%>+.
Gannetti# .. %++6. !ir 'ollution *odeling: )heories,
Computational *ethods and !vailable Soft%are. New
Ior): 1an Nostrand Reinhold pp. >=>.
14