C o t e n t s

I n tr o d u c ti o n
B asi c p r i n c i p l es
P l an e T ab l e S u r v ey i n g
C h ai n S u r v ey i n g
l ev el l i n g
T ab l es
p ag e
1
3
8
1 1
' 9
3 3
P I N
EQUIPMENT
B O A T L E V E L
A L l D A D E
o
T R I P O D
P L U M B B O B
F i g 1
PLANE TABLE SURVEY
R A D I A T I O N M E T H O D
F ac to r y
------
,,\
M A R T I N S L A N E
A P L A N O F A T Y P I C A L S I T E
F i g 2
I D
CHAIN SURVEYING
Chai n Sur veyi ng has l ong been est abl i shed as t he easi est
an basi c f or m of l and mea$ur ement and i s st i l l i n common use.
3 ased on t r i angul at i on and consi st i ng of car r yi ng out t he
sur vey i n t he f i el d and pl ot t i ng t he sur vey t o scal e i n t he
dr awi ng of f i ce f r om r ecor ded measur ement s i n t he f i el d book.
~t i s a j ob f or t wo peopl e t he sur veyor and hi s assi st ant .
Ther e ar e sever al possi bl e i naccur aci es whi ch may occur
' . ' hencar r yi ng out a chai n sur vey and gr eat car e shoul d be
~aken t o avoi d t he, . The most common bei ng conf usi ng t he
- ~l l i es, mi scount i ng t he l i nks, t he chai n havi ng knot s i n
i nk j oi nt s, bent l i nks, t he chai n not bei ng l ai d out i n a
st r ai ght l i ne bet ween st at i ons, i ncor r ect booki ngs, mi scal l ed
i ensi ons and booki ng of f set s at wr ong poi nt s. Pr act i ce i n
~he f i el d wi l l hi ghl i ght some of t hese pr obl ems as t her e i s
~o subst i t ut e f or exper i ence i n t he use of a chai n.
E Q U I P M E N T
The basi c equi pment f or chai n sur veyi ng i s t he met r i c
chai n 20met r es i n l engt h wi t h 100 l i nks each . 20met r es i n
_ e. t h. Ever y t ent h l i nk i s mar ked by a br ass t ag or t el l er
' - i t : - ti nt er medi at e t ags f or ever y l i nk. The chai n i s made of
E eel wi r e and gr eat car e shoul d be t aken when f ol di ng so as
~o avoi d ent angl ement and bendi ng t he l i nks. When t he chai n
i s t o be used and l ai d out i t i s done by gr aspi ng bot h
: a~dl es of t he chai n and t hr owi ng i t out i n one oper at i on and
~. en st r ai ght ened out ensur i ng al l l i nks and j oi nt s ar e
out str et ched pr oper l y.
Ther e ar e t wo ot her chai ns used t hese bei ng t he Gunt er
Chai n whi ch i s 66 f eet i n t ot al l engt h wi t h 100 l i nks of
7. 9 2 i nches, and t he Engi neer s Chai n 100 f eet i n l engt h and
: . ~E_ 00 l i nks each a f oot l ong and mar ked at 10 f oot
i : r : t er val sv: it h t al l i es acc or d. ingL y,
T a p e s
These ar e made of st eel bei ng t he most accur at e and bei ng
r -e I ' er -r -e d t o l i nen t apes. They ar e co r n mo n .l y i n l engt hs of 10,
20 and 3 0 met r es and ar e used t o measur e of f set s t o t he mai n
chci . nl i ne.
1 1
EQUIPMENT
90
T H E M E T R I C C H A I N
T A P E
C H A I N A R R O W S
" g 3
( (
R A N G I N G P O L E S
P O L E S U P P O R T /
.,. e'
1 2
A r m l W S
.-.. 0':c ar e used t o mar k t he end of each chai n l i ne and ar e
J OOmm t o 450r mTli n l engt h and car r -y a r ed cl ot h
so t hat t hey can be easi l y spot t ed on t he gr ound.
p o l e s
: ~ese er e usual l y 2 met r es i n l engt h of wood or met al
. : n bands al t er nat el y i n r ed, whi t e and bl ack.
b o o k
: : : " e_ d oak appr oxi mat el y 100mm x 200mm wi t h ent r i es
at t he back cont i nui ng t o t he f r ont so t hat t he
_ ._:~~c ar e r ecor ded i n t he same di r ect i on as t he Sur veyor
c. : : ' -:':::F' al ong t he chai n.
-C~~~::.~ C. r e ent er ed i n t he book such as hedge" ' , f ence8,
~~~ coundar i es, bui l di ngs, t r ees, manhol es and pol es
et c.
e af or e ment i oned ar e i l l ust r at ed i n Fi g. J .
or ocedur e i E t o make a r econnai sance of t he si t e
t he f , ener ~l shape and l ayout and any ot her
o be sur veyed. Then deci de on t he f r amewor k of
- . : : . - - -- a i on and dr i ve i n st at i on pegs A. B. C. as shown i n
. . : ~st at i ons t o be f i xed by t aki ng t wo t i c l i nes t o
: ~o t hat i t can be r e- l ocat ed i f a r et ur n vi si t i s
C " ~:.~S> I f t he di st ance bet ween t he st at i ons exceed a
: : ' e: : : - t h l i ne i n wi t h an i nt er medi at e r angi ng pol e as
f . 5. Then by p~oceedi ng up t he chai n l i ne f r om
. easur e wi t h 9 0 of f set s, f eat ur es as bef or e
u~t i l you have r eached t he end of t he l i ne A- B,
::. - " ;;0" n al l t he r el evant i nf or mat i on. Thi s i s t hen
- E' ~or B- C and C- A. I f t he 9 0
0
of f set s exceed 9 met r es
- ~~. t en an Opt i cal squar e can be used t o gi ve gr eat er
r.=-'''''-:'_'''''''~:' or t he J : 4: 5 Tr i angl e r ul e empl oyed usi ng a t ape.
r act i cal nat ur e of t he sur vey has been car r i ed
- ~r _ e: : ul l v checki ng t hat al l t he i nf or mat i on r equi r ed has
. ' : " not ed and l oeged t he Eur vey can be dr awn t o scal e
:!f:..'.'.in[; of f i ce.
1 3
R E C O N N A I S S A N C E & S E T T I N G O U T S T A T I O N S
T h e S e
_.ClllJjAP ,.(~~. _
F i g 4
1 4
CHAIN SURVEYING
i n ter med i ate r an g i n g
p o l e
S E T T I N G U P C H A I N L I N E F ig 5
1 5
C L I N O M E T E R
_ ~s ~ st r ument i s used f or measur i ng sl opes of 3' or
i s si mpl y i l l ust r at ed bel ow. By f i r st l y vi ewi ng
~nst r ument on t he hor i zont al pl ane t he i nst r ument
and f ocussed ont o t he r angi ng pol e up t he
ope wi t h t he count er wei ght i n t he ver t i cal posi t i on
- ~ ~_ evat i on can be r ead on t he di al , i n t hi s case 3 0
0

- st r ument i s hand hel d and i s most usef ul f or

sl opes qui ckl y and easi l y gi vi ng i nst ant r eadi ngs
1 6
CHAIN SURVEY
S L O P I N G S I T E S
To measur e " Leg" sl opes gr eat er t han
o
3 , measur e conveni ent hor i zont al
di st ances, pl umb down t o gr ound l evel
t o f i x poi nt f r om whi ch t o t ake next
measur ement .
B
A
~e of sl ope wi t h CLI l WJ : : ETER ''0(11
Tr i gonomet r y AB=AC Cose{.
measur e sl ope
---
---
- ----
-- ---
>--
....---- -
--- ---
---
R A N G I N G O V E R H I L L S
----
-
CLES
c
---
-
--
f t and B. Assi Et ant ~i t h pol e 2t D l i nes i n sur veyor
" t C on l i ne AD. Sur veyor l i nef ' i n pol e at D on l i ne
sequence ~i t h f our pol es i n l i ne.
1 7
b d e
B
E
cai n l i ne t hr ough A. B. C. set out equal of f set s t o a. b. c.
i ~ d. e. Set of f set s of l engt h as bef or e t o f i x D &E.
~~ cont i nuat i on of mai n l i ne t hr ough F. G. et c.
'~------~------~------~------~D
1 I l :dl l "\I I W l G A C R O S S A R I V E R
-----
__ ~_------=rtI V E R -
: es at A &B on chai n l i ne. AD at Rt . 1s t o AB. Pol e C
-!: n a tAC=CD. DE at Rt . 1s t o AD, wi th E. C. B. on st r ai ght
: : " enAB =DE.
E Y O F L A K E O R W O O D
- - ~ f r aJ ewor k of chai n l i nes
_= ar ea and t r i angul at e
- _ - i es acr oss t he cor ner s
_:'e'; C :- I N T RAVE RS I NG.
1 8
I T R O D U C T I O N
Thi s book has been set out t o i l l ust r at e t he f undament al
basi s of l and measur ement and pr ocedur es t o adopt when
sur veyi ng ar eas of l and. The act ual pr act i ce of car r yi ng
out sur veys has not changed much over t he year s wi t h onl y
per haps t he r ef i nement and advanced equi pment now i n use.
Wost of t he pr ocedur es det ai l ed i n t hi s publ i cat i on ar e i n
cor r ~on pr act i ce and wi l l gi ve a good gr oundi ng t o
Ar chi t ect ur al , Sur veyi ng and Bui l di ng st udent s.
I t i s emphasi sed t . at onl y pr act i ce i n t he f i el d wi l l
gi ve a good and t hor ough under st andi nG of t he met hods
out l i ned her e and t he key bei ng accur acy i n per f or mance.
1
LEVELLING
_ _ _ ~asi c i nst r ument f or l evel l i ng i s t he sur veyor s
.-:;,_<::;;:;.=- __e ' ! hi chi s an adapt i on of Kepl er s t el escope ernp l oyang
-__ -ex L enses whi ch pr oduce a r eal i mage and l i ne of
_ l i ne of col l i mat i on ( i . e. pr i nci pal axi s) and wi l l
- seus sed i n mor e det ai l l at er . The ot her pi ece of
_ ~- ~~- used i n conj unct i on wi t h t he l evel i s t he
_ ~~- _ ~c _ evel l i ng st ave i n 4 met r e and 5 met r e hei ght s.
- ~ : s ar e t aken usi ng t he si ght l i ne t hr oueh t he t el escope
-_ '= : : " e' . - el ont o t he st af f wl r i ch i s col l i mat ed i n met r es and
Readi ngs of cour se wi l l be i nver t ed, t hi s wi l l be
at er .
_.::!: =o: : " _ o' t i ng st at ement s ar e accur at e f or most pr act i cal
=_ : : : ' onof t r anspar ent mat er i al bounded by ei t her pl ane
e: ' sur f aces.
_ : ==er e~t t ypes i n use: ( Fi g. l . )
{fJR/A./CIA9L IlxIs
Or al ..5 .
F i g 1
fJL!J,UO COA./c4V
r i ght angl es t o t he t wo par al l el t angent c: of t he
ur f aces of t he l ens.
r e
on t he pr i nci pal axi s whose di st ance f r om t he t RO
_ : ' s pr opor t i onal t o t hei r r adi i .
1 9
- - ~~c~~ f r o. one t r anspar ent mat er i al t o anot her
- - ~~ec~i on. For exampl e, a st i ck par t l y i mmer sed i n
- _ ear s t o be shar pl y bent at t he sur f ace of t he wat er
r -o r above t he wat er sur f ace. Thus, i n passi ng
: e~s t he r ays of l i ght wi l l be bent or r ef r act ed as
e - . ' ; ; i t h a convex l ens t he r ays of l i ght wi l l
~ _ assi ng t t r ough i t .
co_ _ea e l ens t he r ays wi l l di ver ge on passi ng t hr ough
l ens i s sui t abl e as a bur ni ng gl ass whi l e
t hr ough a convex l ens wi l l conver ge on a
he pr i nci pal axi s cal l ed t he " pr i nci pal f ocus"
- : : '~: : :" . The di st ance f r om t hi s poi nt t o t he opt i cal
-::e : ens i s t er med t he " f ocal l engt h" of t he l ens.
F i g 2
ib.I S,
~ c ~ ex l ens ~i l l pr oduce an i mage on a scr een
T_ i s i mat ; ei s t er med a " Real I mage" .
ens however causes t he l i ght r ays t o di ver ge
p r -o d u c ed backwar ds t o t he pr i nci pal f ocus.
i " . c. gev: i l l be seen on a scr een at " F" and t hi s i s
' , - i r t ualI mage" .
l en t h of a convex l ens i s posi t i ve (+)
l engt h of a concave l ens i s negat i ve ( - )
i on of di f f er ent shaped l enses wi l l pr oduce a
~ocal l engt h r el at ed t o t hei r i ndi vi dual f ocal
- _ , eexpr essi on
I
+ +
+
: - C~_ l engt h of t he combi ncat i on, or , compound l ens,
- ~!" " ov: nas t he "ji o we r " of t he l ens.
I et c.
fJ'
t he f ocal l engt h of i ndi vi dual
l enses.
2 0
P r o d u c t i o n o f a n i m a g e
An obj ect bei ng vi ewed t hr ough a l ens i s consi der ed t o
consi st of a number of connect ed poi nt s, each r adi at i ng t V10
r ays of l i ght ; one r ay passi ng t hr ough t he opt i cal cent r e of
t he l ens wi t hout bei ng r ef r act ed, t he ot her , par al l el t o t he
pr i nci pal axi s, r ef r act ed t hr ough t he f ocal poi nt , bot h
i nt er sect i ng t o pr oduce an i nver t ed " r eal i mage" ( See Fi g. 3 . )
v
/t)/A ./T {)I ../
mtaBJlCT~~ ~a~~ ~KA
&JUc,
VltWD
f
F i g 3
~~D /M/lt;E CF
Po/AlT v WED (RlAL
/MIlGE)
f ocal l engt h f
U f or a l ens.
Ther e i s a def i ni t e r el at i onshi p bet ween t he
and t he obj ect di st ance V t o t he i mage di st ance
Thi s i s expr essed as:
I I I
f
= +
1 1
V
and
I 1 I
f
=
V U
f or a convex l ens.
f or a concave l ens ( wher e f i s
negat i ve)
As t he i mage must be pr oduced on t he same pl ane as t he cr OLS
hai r s of t he t el escope of sur veyi ng i nst r ument s, and t he
di st ance f r om obj ect t o l ens wi l l var y causi ng a pr opor t i onal
var i at i on i n val ue U, i t i s essent i al t o pr ovi de adj ust ment of
t he l ens by a f ocussi ng mechani sm.
A si ngl e l ens hov: ever possesses a number of f aul t s, t he t wo
i por t ant ones bei ng:
( a) Chr omat i c aber r at i on; v! hit e l i ght i s spl i t i nt o i t s
co ponent col our s on r ef r act i on, t er r - : ed" di sper si on" ,
and due t o di f f er i ng angl es of r ef r act i on f or each
col our t he i mage t ends t o be bl ur r ed and sur r ounded by
a hal o of col our s.
Thi s i s usual l y over come by usi ng t wo l enses of
di f f er ent mat er i al , e. g. one of cr own gl ass and one of
f l i nt gl ass.
( b) Snher i cal ber r at i onj Thi c i s caused by var i ous r ays of
l i Ght f I l i ng on t he l ens not bei ne; r -e f'r -ac ted t o pas s
exac t L y t hr - ough t he SC: . T: i e f ocal poi nt . ~' l ) i s f'auI t i s
cont r ol l ed by usi ng t hi n Ler i s es and r est r i ct i ne; t he
obj ect t o be vi ewed t o an ar ea cl ose t o t he pr i nci p~l
axi s of a f l c: . . t cur vat ur e l ens.
2 1
T h e t e l e s c o p e
The sur veyor s t el escope show~ i n Fi g. 4. pr ovi des a l i ne of
col l i mat i on passi ng t hr ough t he opt i cal cent r es of t he l enses
and t he cr oss hai r s. The e epi ece magni f i es bot h t he r eal
i mage and t he cr oss hai r s i n t he same pr opor t i on as t hese ar e
bot h on a common pl ane. The eyepi ece i s usual l y t he Ramsden
t ype, consi st i ng of t wo pI ano- convex l e~ses mount ed a shor t
di st ance apar t i n a sel f - cont ai ned case, which i s t hr eaded on
t he out si de t o al l ow i t t o be scr ewed f ' or war -d or back i n t he
t el escope body t o br i ng t he cr oss hai r s and i mage i nt o cl ear
f ocus. Thi s ar r angement of l enses r educes spher i cal aber r at i on.
The obj ect gl ass i s usual l y a compound l ens t o r educe
chr omat i c aber r at i on.
F o c u s s i n g
)
/MIlCr~ Fo.(?N/D
BY #' PI ECt.
I'12/AJC /P4L.. 4;<15.
j.!1../ e>,r COLJ.I MI 17I oA/
1..11./&o.t: SI (jI lr:
F i g 4
Two f or ms of f ocussi ng mechani sm ar e used t o br i ng t he
i mage ont o t he cr oss- hai r pl ane as t he di st ance of t he obj ect
f r om t he t el escope var i es. These ar e:
( a) Ext er nal f ocussi ng: The body of t he t el escope i s made
of t wo concent r i c cl ose f i t t i nG bar r el s, t he obj ect
gl ass mount ed i n one and t he eyepi ece and cr oss- hai r s
i n t he ot her . A r ack and pi ni on mechani sm oper at ed by
t he " f ocussi ng scr ew" advances or r et r act s one t ube i n
r el at i on t o t he ot her , t hus i ncr easi ng or r educi ng t he
di st ance bet ween obj ect gl ass and eyepi ece/ cr oss- hai r s.
Thi s met hod was common on ol der i nst r ument s and i s mor e
accur at e f or t acheomet r y pur poses, but has t he
di sadvant age t hat wear on t he t ubes may al l ow ent r y of
wat er , dust , et c. , and i mpai r t he ef f i ci ency of t he
i nst r ument .
Cb) I nt er nal f ocussi ng: A doubl e concave l ens mount ed on ( )
f r ame i s f i t t ed i nsi de a one pi ece t el escope body
bet ween t he obj ect and eyepi ece l enses. The f r ame
poci t i on i s adj ust abl e by means of a r ack and pi ni on,
as bef or e, whi ch sl i des t he l ens t ov: ar ds or away f r om
t he obj ect gl ass.
2 2
The concave l en di sper ses t he l i ght r ays f r om t he
obj ect gl ass t o gr eat er or l esser degr ee dependi ng on
t he posi t i on of t he l ens and t hus al l ows f ocus si ng of
t he i mage on t he cr oss- hai r s. The di sadvant age of t hi s
met hod i s t he l oss of br i l l i ance due t o t he ext r a l ens.
C r o s s - h a i r s
Or i gi nal l y, spi der s yeb was used, but t hese br oke easi l y
and wer e di f f i cul t t o r epl ace. Today, ver y f i ne l i nes ar e
et ched on a pi ece of ver y t hi n opt i cal gl ass f ast ened t o a
" r et i cul e" , f or mi ng an i nt er changeabl e capsul e whi ch f i t s
i nt o a f l anged met al r i ng cal l ed t he " di aphr agm" , hel d i n t he
t el escope bar r el by f our capst an headed scr ews - whi ch shoul d
onl y be t ouched when changi ng or maki ng maj or adj ust ment s t o
t he cr oss- hai r s.
P a r a l l a x
Thi s t er m r ef er s t o r el at i ve mot i on bet ween t he obj ect and
t he cr oss- hai r s when t he eye i s moved t o and f r o acr oss t he
eyepi ece, and means t hat t he i mage and cr oss- hai r s ar e not on
t he same pl ane. To el i mi nat e par al l ax a pi ece of whi t e paper
i s hel d i n f r ont of t he obj ect l ens and t heeye- pi ece moved i n
or out unt i l t he cr oss- hai r s st and out cl ear and bl ack. The
t el escope i s t hen f ocussed on t he obj ect and t est ed f or
par al l ax agai n, t he pr ocedur e bei ng r epeat ed i f necessar y
unt i l t he par al l ax i s el i mi nat ed.
T h e s p i r i t l e v e l
Cor mnonl y f ast ened t o t he b a.r -r -e I of t he t el escope on a
l evel l i r i g i nst r ument , but usual l y on t he t op pl at e of a
Theodol i t e. The mor e sensi t i ve spi r i t - l evel s ar e bar r el
shaped cur ved gl ass t ubes, wi t h t he l ess sensi t i ve onl y a
por t i on of t he sur f ace i s cur ved, when t hee' t er med non-
r ever si bl e l evel s. The gl ass t ube i s f i l l ed wi t h et her or
al cohol wi t h a sm2. 11ai r space l ef t t o f or m a bubbl e. These
f l ui ds ar e l ess vi scous t han wat er , ~nd have a much l ower
f r eezi ng poi nt , but a gr eat er ey- pansi on, so t hat a l evel l ef t
i n ver y hot sun may bur st .
The t op sur f ace of t he t ube has gr aduat i ons et ched on i t
whi ch ai d i n cent r al i si ng t he bubbl e i n t he cent r e of i t s r un.
The sensi t i veness of t he bubbl e i s def i ned as t he amount t he
hor i zont al axi s of t he t ube has t o be t i l t ed t o cause t he bubbl e
t o move f r om one gr aduat i on mar k t o t he next , e .g . 1 di vi si on
) 0 sec. means a t i l t of ) 0 sec. of ar c above t he hor i zont al
v .Ll L cause a " r un" of one gr aduat i on.
2 3
The spi r i t l evel t u e i s e~c osed i n a met al case,
at t ached t o t he b o d y of ne L_ t r ur . ! entby one or t wo capst an
headed scr ews whi ch al L ov t he t ube t o be adj ust ed so t hat i t
l onei t udi nal axi s i s par al l e t o t he pr i nci pal axi s of t he
Tel escope.
By t hi s means one can adj ust t he i nst r ument so t hat t he
l i ne of col l i mat i on i s hor i zont al , i . e. at r i ght a~gl es t o t he
pl ane of gr avi t y act i ng at t he cent r e of t he i nst r ument : Do
not adj ust t he capst an scr ews unl ess maki ng a maj or
cor r ect i on.
The cent r al i si ng of t he bubbl e may be obser ved i n di f f er ent
ways. On some i nst r ument s t he t ube i s vi ewed i n a r ni r r or
hi nged t o an angl e of about 45
0
I n ot her cases an i nt er nal
mi r r or may be used, or a r i ght angl e pr i sm, t o gi ve t he
sur veyor an i mage of t he bubbl e i n t he eyepi ece so t hat he
does no~ have t o move r ound t he i nst r ument .
Anot her met hod pr esent s t wo hal f bubbl es i mages i n t he
f i el d of vi ew and t hese have t o coi nci de t o f or m one compl et e
bubbl e t o br i ng t he t el escope l evel .
The ci r cul ar or " cat s eye" bubbl e i s i nf er i or i n accur acy
t o t he l evel t ube but gi ves an appr oxi mat e l evel pl ane f or
i ni t i al " C' ui ckset " l evel l i ng pur poses.
T y p e s o f l e v e l s
DU. DV Level : The si mpl est f or m of l evel consi st s of a
bubbl e t ube at t ached t o a t el escope whi ch i s r i gi dl y f i xed
t o a hor i zont al l y r ot at i ng cent r e post and t op pl at e, i n i t s
t ur n connect ed t o a bot t om pl at e by t hr ee or f our l evel l i ng
f oot scr ews, whi ch can be adj ust ed t o br i ng t he spi r i t
l ev~l and t el escope axi s hor i zont al .
T~o condi t i ons ar e essent i al f or accur at e wor k.
1. The axi s of t he bubbl e t ube must be par al l el t o t he
axi s of t he t el escope, i . e. l i ne of col l i mat i on.
2. Bot h must be at r i ght angl es t o ver t i cal axi s of t he
i nst r u ent .
Ti l t i ng Level or Qui ckset Level : An i mpr ovement on t he
Dumpy as t he t el escope can be pi vot ed i n t he ver t i cal
pl ane by means of t he t i l t i ng scr ew under t he eyepi ece end
of t he t el escope. I t i s onl y necessar y t o set t he
i nst r ument t o an appr oxi mat e hor i zont al pl ane by
r ef er ence t o t he " cat s eye" bubbl e, t he t el escope bei ng
br ought l evel f or each si ght i ng by usi ng t he t i l t i ng scr e~.
)
e x a m p l e
24
Pr eci se Level : Thi s i s a devel opment of t he now al most
obsol et e Wye l evel and t he Ti l t i ng l evel .
The t el escope t ube may be t i l t ed and al so r evol ved i n i t s
mount i ngs so t hat b t aki ng t he mean of t wo r eadi ngs on
t he same st at i on a t r ue r eadi ng may be obt ai ned, t hi s
compensat i ng f or any er r or i n t he col l i mat i on of t he
i nst r ument .
e x a m p l e
T e r m s u s e d i n l e v e l l i n g
Bench r ar k: A f i xed poi nt on t he ear t h' s sur f ace whose
l evel above Or dnance dat um i s known.
Or dnance datu n .e r ~ean sea l evel t o whi ch al l ot her l evel s
and bench mar ks ar e r el at ed.
Back si ght : The f i r st si ght t aken f r om a gi ven l evel
posi t i on.
For esi ght : The l ast si ght t aken f r om a gi ven l evel posi t i on.
I nt er medi at e si ght : Any ot her si ght t aken f r om t hi s l evel
posi t i on.
Hei Ght of I nst r ument : ( H. of I ) . The hei ght of t he l i ne of
col l i mat i on above t he dat um. ( i . e.
si ht l i ne or pr i nci pal axi s of
t el escope. )
25
Reduced l evel : (R . = . . Cal cul at ed hei ght or l evel of a
poi n a 0 e or bel ow t he dat um.
Change Poi nt : The poi nt at wl r i c h bot h a f or esi ght and
t hen a backsi ght ar e t aken ( i . e. when t he
l evel changes posi t i on. )
M E T H O D
S e t t i n g u p t h e l e v e l
1. Open t r i pod l egs t o 60
0
and pr ess t he f eet f i r ml y i nt o
gr ound.
2. Not e how i nst r ument i s packed i n t he box bef or e
r emovi ng and l i f t out car ef ul l y, never by t he
t el escope t ube.
3 . Scr ew f i r ml y ont o t r i pod head; never cr ossi ng t he
t hr eads.
4. Roughl y l evel t he i nst r ument y adj ust i ng t he t r i pod
l egs, compl et e adj ust ment by means of t he f oot scr ews,
i . e. br i ng t he bubbl e t o t he cent r e of i t s r un.
p l a n
c :;
~. axi s at r i c; ht of
ent :
Check t hat t her e i s no pl ay on t he axi s of t he
i nst r ument . Tur n t el escope over a p~i r of f oot scr ews
o
and l evel - up. Then r ev r se t ube t hr ough 180 I f t he
bubbl e r uns of f cent r e br i ng i t hal f way back wi t h
f oot scr eVl s and t he bal ance of t he way wi t h t he capst an
he ded scr ews on t he bubbl e t ube.
26
C o r r e c t i o n s
Cur vat ur e: as t he ear t.h i s cur ved, a hor i zont al si ght
does not gi ve t he t r ue r el at i e hei ght s of t wo poi nt s over
a l ong si ght i ng di st ance. See F i g .6.
.
As C is so smal l cor . : par edt o 2R i t i s i gnor ed and t he
expr essi on i s wr i t t en t hus
X2
2R
= cor r ect i on.
Di st ance
2
d
2
i .e . cur vat ur e cor r ect i on
measur ed
or
Di amet er of Ear t h 2R
Ref r act i on: di f f er i n~ at mospher i c condi t i ons cause t he
r ays of l i ght ent er i ng t he t el escope t o be r ef r act ed, i .e .
bent , t owar ds t he ear t h' s sur f ace t o gr eat er or l esser
degr ee, so t hat on a l ong si ght t he r eadi ng seen on t he
st af f i s not on a t r ue hor i zont al l i ne but bel ow i t and
near er t o t he ear t h' s sur f ace t han i t i s bel i eved t o be.
Thi s er r or due t o r ef r act i on par t l y of f set s t he er r or
due t o cur vat ur e. As an aver age f i gur e i t i s assumed t hat
t he er r or due t o r ef r act i on i s 1/ 7 t hat of cur vat ur e and i n
t he opposi t e di r ect i on.
The combi ned cor r ect i on f or cur vat ur e
2
and r ef r act i on i s
usual l y quot ed as a deduct i on of 6 d
7 x 2R f r om. t he st af f
r eadl ng.
R
F i g 6
27
For shor t si ght s t : : &ci : : er e: ! 1cei s so smal l t 11Ci ti t D e.' be
i gnor ed, but i n exact I eve: l ~~ si ght s shoul d not exceef i a
quar t er of a mi l e t o a Ol : : " euncer t ai nt y caused by t hese
er r or s. By t aki ng back a. . f or e- si ght s t o st af f posi t i ons at
near l y equal di st ances f r o _ t : he l evel t hese f aul t s may be
consi ci er ed cancel l ed and ar e not cal cul at ed i n nor mal
l evel l i ng oper at i ons.
o
,,/1 /)/S7,tftJCc~ ~
r 1 ~ (y ----f,--..1 -J---./'{
Co J pound Level l i ng: i n whi . ch t he l evel s ar e obt ai ned onl y
by changi ng t he posi t i on of t he i nst r ument as one f ol l ows t he
undul at i ons of t he gr ound i n a l ong l i ne of l evel s, or t o
obt ai n cl ear si ght s whi ch <: : . r e ot her wi se obscur ed by obst acl es.
Ther ef or e t her e wi l l be:
F o r m s o f l e v e l l i n g
Si mpl e Level l i ng: i n whi ch al l l evel s ar e obt ai ned wi t h
t he i nst r ument i n one posi t i on, or , i n ot her wor ds:
( a) t her e i s onl T one l i ne of col l i mat i on.
( b) t he f i r st si ght i s t he onl y backsi ght .
( c) t he l ast si ght i s t he onl y For esi ght .
( d) Al l ot her si ght s ar e i nt er medi at e si ght s.
E
220 1/5. . 2-Se
---/ I '" '::" :::" _-!F 2~
B
c
I ,-
.,
( a) Kor e t han one l i ne of col l i Dat i on.
2'/0
F
( b) A bo; ; . cksi e; l 1t and f or esi ght f or each change i n i nst r ument
posi t i on.
A I " -,J F
_
y l. ~~~---~.--------~r--~O~~/~~~~~--~~~l----~~----l~ _
'( 1 1 '1 1
( c) Separ at e gr oups of i nt er medi at e si ght s r eI t ed t o
di f f er ent i nst r ument posi t i ons.
F i g 1
1-70
.--------
.{)O
2'00.
2 8
LAND SURVEYING
G E N E R A L L Y
The mai n f unct i on of car r yi ng out a pr act i cal l and
sur vey i s t o ascer t ai n as accur at el y as possi bl e t he si ze
and shape of bui l di ng si t es, f i el ds or ot her ar eas of l and
masses. They may have on t hem ponds, bui l di ngs or i ncl ude
ot her f eat ur es such as di t ches, st r eams and t r ees et c. whi ch
may need t o be r ecor ded and pl ot t ed on a sur vey dr avr i ng.
Thi s i s gener al l y known as l and measur ement .
I n addi t i on t o t hi s i nf or mat i on i t wi l l al so be
i mpor t ant t o know how t he si t e sl opes f or whi ch you wi l l
need t o car r y out a l evel sur vey. Basi cal l y i t i s f or mi ng
a t hr ee di mensi onal pi ct ur e of a par t i cul ar ar ea of l and
wi t h poi nt s of el evat i on mar ked on i t so t hat ver t i cal
can be t aken t hr ough showi ng pl anes of el evat i on.
Ther e ar e var i ous met hods of gat her i ng t hi s i nf or mat i on
whi ch wi l l be i l l ust r at ed and expl ai ned i n t hi s book. I t
wi l l be necessar y t o have knowl edge of geomet r y and a good
under st andi ng of mat hemat i cs i n or der t o pl ot and cal cul at e
i nf or mat i on gat her ed by t he pr act i cal sur vey.
Exper i ence and pr act i cal knowl edge can onl y be gai ned by
act ual l y car r yi ng out t he met hods and pr ocedur es descr i bed
i n t he f i el d.
Ther e ar e t wo basi c met hods of l and measur ement i n bui l di ng
Pl ane Tabl e Sur veyi ng and Chai n Sur veyi ng, t hese wi l l be
di scussed and i l l ust r at ed mor e f ul l y i n t he f ol l owi ng pages
of t hi s book.
Ot her met hods i ncl ude t he use of t he Theodol i t e whi ch i s
used f or measur i ng hor i zont al and ver t i cal angl es. Thi s i s
used mai nl : y i n Ci vi l Engi neer i ng wor k i . e. r oad
const r uct i on et c. wher e gr eat er l and masses and di st ances
ar e i nvol ved.
Over l ar ger ar eas of l and t he cur vat ur e of t he ear t h' s
sur f ace wi l l have t o be t aken i nt o account and i s known as
Geor ' i et i cSur veyi ne; . I t i s used i n Or dnance Sur vey wor k and
i s a speci al i sed br anch of l and sur vey wor k.
2
B O O K I N G
Ther e ar e t wo f or ms of booki ng down l evel r eadi ngs,
Col l i mat i on al so known as Hei ght of I nst r ument and Ri se and
Fal l met hod.
R i s e & F a l l M e t h o d
Usi ng Fi g. l . t o i l l ust r at e t hi s met hod t he r eadi ngs t aken
by t he l evel ar e ent er ed i nt o col umns of ei t her Ri se or Fal l
i . e. t he r eadi ng A dat um i s ent er ed i nt o t he back si ght
col umn wi t h r eadi ng B ent er ed i nt o t he f or esi ght col umn.
As B i s smal l er t han A t hi s denot es a Ri se and t he di f f er ence
i s ent er ed i nt o t he Ri se col umn and r ecor ded as such wi t h a
r educed l evel r eadi ng ent er ed by addi ng t o a dat um f i gur e
of 100. 00. f or l evel at B.
Any i nt er medi at e Si ght s ar e ent er ed i nt o t he appr opr i at e
col umn wi t h r educed l evel s accor di ngl y. Di st ances and
Remar ks Col umns ar e used t o r ecor d change poi nt s and l evel
poi nt s et c. Thi s met hod makes i t possi bl e t o check each page
by addi ng t he Ri se col umn and Fal l col umn, t he di f f er ence
shoul d equal t he di f f er ence bet ween t he backsi ght and
f or esi ght col umn as i l l ust r at ed bel ow.
R I S E & F A L L M E T H O D
S AC! ::
jA/T[J:(
rcRE-
R I SE
/"JJLL
R lI J/la~ /JI S1~E
R lMllR KS SI {H-I T srcrllT SJaI /T ,uy L
2-00
/00-00
(;1) Dc:Iv
M
k t/cl.
0-54
/ 40
/0/4{p
(B)Chq~t'-Po;I ) /.
2-30
;.70
{) 60
lo.2-0~
rq
2-$0
/-/0
It;OQ6
(q)
J-60
o-so 100 '/0
()ck "e 18 1711
/60
,2-00
0-4() q9-7~
er)
5-90
(0/ ,,- 2-06
(31-
/00-00
-- 9Cj-7{'
t9 -I I f
<;
.no
S.<fo
:2 -of
021-)/
0-24,,/ o-24
v
2 9
C O L L I M A T I O N M E T H O D
C o l l i m a t i o n M e t h o d
Agai n usi ng Fi g. l . t o i l l ust r at e t hi s met hod t he
succeedi ng r eadi ng i s subt r act ed f r om t he l ast cal cul at ed
col l i mat i on hei ght i .e . r eadi ng at A i s hei ght of i nst r ument
bei ng 102. 00 af t er dat um of 100. 00 i s added. Thi s wi l l t hen
gi ve a Reduced l evel at each st af f posi t i on.
To check add t he back si ght s and add t he f or esi ght s and
f i nd t he di f f er ence. B y f i ndi ng t he di f f er ence bet ween t he
l evel of dat um and t he l ast r educed l evel shoul d equal t he
di f f er ence bet ween t he backsi ght and f or esi ght t ot al s.
Al ways check i f possi bl e back t o t he dat um poi nt by
t aki ng f l yi ng l evel s t hi s wi l l avoi d a r et ur n vi si t t o t he
si t e.
84a:
/I ./ffR R JR E- /lE/aI/Tor
I?.EO(lCEf)
PIS1#WCE
13/v t/lRk $
3 ti /I T sasr
y,aIlT /AI .Jr.ep/'-f~T LErfL.
:2 . eo
/62 -co
roa-oo cJr4T/04/ (I t)
/)aIOM.
.,230
os4
10)-76 /0/.46
@) Cha~~!b/iJ!
/70
10206
CC)
280 /00 96 (P)
1"0
360
10;' 7 ~ /00./6
, Ck ~t!: 1(,//17.
:2 -co
qq7C,
F
3'90
6l !JZ --
/00.00
6/ i /-
9q7~
590
021/
o24
V
CJlECI.
ts
30
SOURCES OF ERROR I N LEVELLI NG:
I ncor r ect set t i ng- up of i nst r ument .
1. Bubbl e of f cent r e when t aki ng r eadi ng.
2. Movement of st af f f r om posi t i on when changi ng l evel
st at i on.
3 . St af f not hel d ver t i cal l y.
4. Par al l ax - adj ust .
5. I nst r ument knocked or moved dur i ng backsi ght - f or esi ght
r eadi ng.
6. St af f not pr oper l y ext ended and l ocked.
I NSTRUl mNT ERROR AND CORRECTI ON:
Ca) Col l i mat i on er r or ; check bef or e use and equal i se si ght s.
( b) Under sensi t i ve bubbl e.
( c) Er r or s i n st af f gr aduat i on; check.
( d) Loose t r i pod head.
( e) Tel escope not par al l el t o bubbl e t ube - Per manent
adj ust ment .
( f ) Tel escope not at r i ght angl es t o t he ver t i cal axi s -
Per manent adj ust ment .
L E V E L L I N G U S I N G A G R I D
Thi s met hod of l evel l i ng i s commonl y used and i s shown
set out i n Fi g. 6. A gr i d pat t er n of l Omet r e squar es i s set
up over t he si t e whi ch can be pegged out of f a chai n l i ne
and set t i ng up t he l evel at st at i on A and by t aki ng r eadi ngs
i n sequence a, b, c and d et c. an accur at e way of l evel l i ng a
si t e.
3 1
LEVELLING USING A GRID
r
0
" 7
k ,b11
m
~o.
/
f e d
- +- - - - ~- - - - ~- - ~~- - ~- - - - ~- - ~-
M ART I NS l ANE
F ig 6
3~
LAND MEASUREMENT
B A S I C P R I N C I P L E S
The basi s of al l l and measur ement i s t he use of a base
l i ne and f i xed poi nt s f r om whi ch measur ement s can be t aken.
The f ol l owi ng exampl es ar e used as basi c pr i nci pl es f or al l
sur ve; yi ng met hods.
1 . RI GHT ANGLE D C O-ORDI NAT E S . A
x z Y
K ~
Poi nt A i s l ocat ed or f i xed by t he di st ance XZ al ong t he
l i ne XY measur ed at r i ght angl es t o t he l i ne.
I t i s mai nl y used f or measur i ng boundar i es and bui l di ngs
al ong a chai n l i ne, and i s commonl y known as t aki ng r i ght
angl ed of f set s.
2 . F OC AL C O-ORDI NAT E S .
x y
Poi nt A i s l ocat ed or f i xed by measur i ng f r om X- A and
Y -A al ong a kn o wn chai n l i ne XY . Thi s i s qui t e of t en used
f or f i xi ng st at i on poi nt s i n or der t o set up anot her chai n
i . e. XA.
3
J . ANGULAR CO- ORDI NATES.
, 'A ' /
x z r Y
Poi nt A i s l ocat ed or f i xed by measur i ng t he angl es o l
and ' at poi nt s Z and R al ong a chai n l i ne XY . Wher e t he
angl es i nt er sect poi nt A i s l ocat ed. Thi s met hod i s used as
l i nes of i nt er sect i on i n Theodol i t e, pl ane t abl e and compass
sur vey wor k.
4. POLAR CO- ORDI NATES.
A
Y
Poi nt A i s l ocat ed or f i xed by a known poi nt Z al ong a
chai n l i ne XY and measur i ng t he di st ance ZA t oget her wi t h
angl eo( . A met hod used i n r adi at i ng l i nes on a pl ane t abl e
and l ocat i ng poi nt s gener al l y.
4
A R E A S & V O L U M E S
A R E A S
T r i a n g l e s
A r e a = b a s e x h e i g h t
2
Cor r monl y used i n sur veyi ng
when l engt hs of si des ar e
of t en onl y val ues S ~
kn o wn , 2
b
A r e a = / s ( s - a )(s - b )(S - C )
a
Lengt hs of t wo si des and i ncl uded known
ane; l e.
b
C
A
c
B
a
A r e a = ~ - a e s i n L = _ b e si n A
2 2 2
T r a p e z i u m
5
T h e p a r a l l e l o g r a m
a r e a = ( a x h )
D~ a~ ~
Si de8 i ncl uded ~ known but not h .
Ar ea = ab Si n A or ab Cos B.
I R R E G U L A R F I G U R E S
S i m p s o n s r u l e
A
a
B
~ssume t hat t he bound r i es ar e par abol i c i n shape and i s most
Eccur at e f or nor mal sur vey condi t i ons. Can be used f or VOLUJ l r : ES
i f ar eas ar e subst i t ut ed f or or di nat e l engt hs.
Y7
Odd number of or di nat es.
Even number of spaces.
j ( wi dt h of st r i p) x [S UP .1 of L s tand l ast or ( hm, t e]
+ ( t wi ce sum of ot her odd or di nat es) + ( 4 t i mes s ur,
of even or di nat es. )
Ar ea
Ar e
x [ (y + v ) + 2 (" +v ) + 4(V2 +Y A~+Y 6)J
_ '1 v 7 "3 v r .; er L !
3 ~ /
6
T r a p e z o i d a l r u l e
sed when t her e ar e any nu _ber of or -d inats or hei ght s ,
- ay be used f or vol umes i f ar e~s of sect i ons ar e subst i t ut ed
f or or di nat e l engt hs.
Ar ea = I nt er val ( hal f sum of 1st and l ast or di nat e + r emai ni ng
or di nat es. )
P r i s m o i d a l f o r m u l a
Al and A2 ar eas of ends.
Am ar e of mi ddl e 08ct i on.
L over al l di st ance bet ween end sect i ons.
7
PLANE TABLE SURVEYING
Pl ane Tabl e Sur veyi ng i s a oui ck met hod of measur i ng ar eas
or sect i ons of l and. Al l of t he wor k i s car r i ed out on ~i t e
by t he Sur veyor . I t i s not ver y of t en used as a pr act i cal
met hod of sur veyi ng f or r easons of gener al accur acy and
weat her condi t i ons i n t hi s count r y but i t i s ver y usef ul on
mor e dr i er cl i mat es. Ther e ar e f our mai n met hods a) Radi at i on,
b) I nt er sect i on, c) Resect i on, d) Tr aver si ng.
E Q U I P M E N T
To car r y out a Pl ane Tabl e Sur vey you wi l l need a dr awi ng
boar d on an adj ust abl e t r i pod wi t h r ot at i ng head. A smal l
l evel i .e . boat l evel wi t h a compass t o or i ent at e t he sur vey.
An Al i dade si ght i ng st r ai ght edge, pl umbi ng f or k and pl umb
bob wi t h st at i oner s pi n. Rangi ng pol es, pegs and ar r ows wi t h
st eel measur i ng t ape or chai n. Some of t hese i t ems ar e shown
i n F i g .1.
R A D I A T I O N M E T H O D
To i l l ust r at e t he met hod of Pl ane Tabl e Sur veyi ng Fi g. 2.
shows a t ypi cal bui l di ng si t e t o be sur veyed.
Set up t he Tabl e i n t he cent r e of t he si t e and l evel boar d
ensur i ng t hat al l aspect s of t he si t e can be seen. Locat e al l
ot her poi nt s i .e . change of boundar y l i nes, posi t i ons of
. anhol es, gat es, pol es, t r ees et c. Then usi ng t he Al i dade
si ght ont o t he f i xed poi nt s measur e t he di st ance f r om t he
cent r e peg mar ked on t he gr ound. By usi ng a sui t abl e scal e
dr aw i n t he r adi at ed l i ne on t he paper f i xed secur el y t o t he
boar d f r om t he cent r e pi n whi ch shoul d be di r ect l y pl umbed i n
over t he measur i ng peg on t he gr ound. When car r yi ng out t hi s
pr ocess t he boar d shoul d be cl ocked i nt o posi t i on unt i l
Ei Bht i ngs and measur ement s can be t aken i n sequence A, B, C et c.
f or t he whol e of t he si t e. I f t hi s pr ocedur e i s car r i ed out
car ef ul l y t hen a r epr oduct i on of t he si t e wi l l be r ecor ded t o
sc~l e ont o t he boar d.
8