Anexo de Practica 1: lecturas

http://www.angelfire.com/emo/tomaustin/Met/metinacap.htm
Advan. Physiol. Edu. 27: 120-129, 2003; doi:10.1152/advan.00055.2002
1043-4046/03 $5.00
ADV PHYSIO !D"# $%:&$'(&$)* $''+
2003 American Physiological Society
TEACHING IN THE A!"#AT"#$
COMPUTER SIMULATION OF INTRODUCTORY
NEUROPHYSIOLOGY
%a&' ()G*a+,
1
, #o-.*+ /&).*a
2
and 0a1n. 23i+,
2

&
School of ,iome-ical Sciences
$
School of Me-ical Practice an- Population Health*
.acult/ of Health* "ni0ersit/ of 1ewcastle* 1ewcastle* Australia $+'2
Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: P. c!rath" School of #iomedical Sciences"
$aculty of %ealth" &ni'. of (e)castle" (e)castle" Australia *+,mail: paul.mcgrath-at.ne)castle.edu.au
/

A computer,assisted learning *0A1/ pac2age" (euro1a3" de'eloped

for use 3y first,year
uni'ersity students underta2ing professional

programs in the health area" is descri3ed
and e'aluated. (euro1a3

is a simulation of a la3oratory" in )hich students are a3le

to
impale neurons to measure resting mem3rane potentials and

su3sequently underta2e
experiments including measuring resting

mem3rane potentials" determining threshold
potentials" measuring

refractory periods" and examining effects on mem3rane potential

through altering the mem3rane permea3ility to sodium and potassium

ions. Students
find the pac2age to 3e a )orth)hile learning

experience" )ith 41 5 2.26 reporting the
pac2age increased

their understanding of neuron function" and 74 5 2.86

expressing a
desire for more 0A1 pac2ages. +xposure to the pac2age

resulted in significantly higher
mean scores in a multiple,choice

question test on measuring neuron mem3rane
potentials compared

)ith those )ho )ere not exposed *mean scores out of 9 of 2.92

and
2.02" respecti'ely" P : 0.001/.

3e/ wor-s: neuron; mem3rane potential; action potential; threshold; refractory period;
mem3rane permea3ility
In+*od&)+ion

<ne of the difficulties for students of 3ioscience is that"

due to the complexity of 3ody
systems" real, life experiments

do not al)ays turn out as expected. =here is e'idence
that the

use of models can 3e more effecti'e than the use of real o3>ects

in helping
3eginning tertiary students understand complex concepts

*17/. 0omputer,assisted
learning *0A1/ pac2ages are an appropriate

option for physiology instruction" as
they are amena3le to modeling

complex systems and elucidating complex concepts
and are usually

considered a 'alua3le learning tool 3y students *1/. (ot unexpectedly"

many computer simulations ha'e 3een de'eloped and are a'aila3le

in the pu3lic domain
for use in teaching a3out the function

of neurons and the action potential in particular.

?n many instances" these can 3e accessed 'ia the @e3. Some of

these are concerned )ith
the original experiments of %odg2in

and %uxley on the squid giant axon *8" 4/" and
these and others

allo) manipulations of ion conductances *9/ or ion concentrations

*8/
as )ell as current and 'oltage clamp experiments to examine

effects on mem3rane
potential" current flo)s" and the shape

of the action potential )a'e *7" 14/. =he
emphasis )ith these

simulations is on the neurophysics of responses of neurons to

differing physiological conditions. 1ittle attention is gi'en

to pro'iding realistic
simulations of a physiological la3oratory.

Simulations on the @e3" )hich seem to 3e intended more for 3eginning

students"
sometimes fail to con'ey a sense of reality. ?n some

simulations *10/" the only acti'ity
underta2en 3y the user is

the clic2ing of the mouse. @ith each clic2 the next part of

the
operation or experiment is performed. =he continual clic2ing

detracts from the
perception of reality.

<ther simulations are distri3uted on 0As accompanying text3oo2s

*11" 12/. =hese
mainly ta2e the form of a tutorial in )hich

the content is presented in a descripti'e )ay"
and again through

simple mouse clic2ing the user o3ser'es phenomena displayed

in
front of them on the computer screen. =here is no genuine

attempt to allo) self,
disco'ery of facts and concepts 3y the

user" and" apart from ha'ing to guess true or false
or ans)er

some multiple,choice questions *0Bs/" there is little decision

ma2ing 3eing
demanded of the user.

Aescriptions of simulations in the literature re'eal genuine

attempts to simulate the
la3oratory situation of extracellular

recordings from neurons *18/ as )ell as intracellular
impalement

of neurons *2/. %o)e'er" )ith these and others *3/" some of

)hich are
specifically directed at medical students *C" D/"

the depth to )hich the information is
analyEed goes far 3eyond

)hat is presented in the present simulation.

Although all of the simulations reported a3o'e are 'alua3le

resources )ithin the context
in )hich they are deli'ered" they

are either too ad'anced or are presented in an
inappropriate

)ay for the target audience for )hich the present simulation

is intended"
that is" 3eginning uni'ersity students underta2ing

degrees in professional health courses.
=he ma>ority of these

students )ill not specialiEe in physiology and may not ha'e

a
primary interest in physiology.

=he aims of this report are to &/ descri3e a 0A1 pac2age *(euro1a3/

for use in the
teaching of introductory neurophysiology" $/

assess student satisfaction in using
(euro1a3" and +/ assess

)hether student learning is facilitated 3y (euro1a3.

NE4#"A!

(euro1a3 has 3een de'eloped at the $aculty of %ealth" &ni'ersity

of (e)castle in
Australia" to concentrate on the structure and

function of neurons. At the heart of (euro1a3 are
se'eral simulations

of experiments on the 3asic
functions of neurons. 0lassical

la3oratory exercises
utiliEing external recordings of ner'e

impulses" as is
commonly performed on frog sciatic ner'e
preparations"

sometimes mislead students a3out
)hat it is they are o3ser'ing.

#ecause in lectures
and in text3oo2s students are taught a3out

intracellular recording of a single action potential"
they sometimes

)rongly 3elie'e that they are o3ser'ing the acti'ity of >ust

one axon
)hen the intensity of stimulation applied to the sciatic

ner'e is increased and the
amplitude of the compound action

potential increases. Students" )ho )rongly 3elie'e
that they

are o3ser'ing intracellular e'ents" interpret this to mean that

the amplitude of a
single action potential can increase )ith

increasing intensity of the stimulus. ?t is
explicit in (euro1a3

that students are carrying out intracellular impalements of

neurons
so that these misconceptions do not arise.

=o engage studentsF interest and acti'e participation

in (euro1a3" )e paid close
attention to the graphic and instructional

design to create a realistic simulation of an
electrophysiology

la3oratory. $or example" )hen students use the microelectrode

to
impale the neuron" the electrode can 3rea2" pass right through

the neuron" or 3ecome
clogged at the tip or slip out of the

cell. <nly in 806 of attempts do they get a GgoodG
impalement.

=hese 'arious scenarios" as )ell as the need to manipulate the

cathode ray
oscilloscope and the stimulator in a 2no)ledgea3le

)ay" generate a strong sense of
realism throughout and" in turn"

encourage high,le'el interacti'ity 3et)een the student
and the

soft)are. As students )or2 through (euro1a3" they recei'e immediate

and
highly specific feed3ac2 from )ithin the pac2age a3out ho)

to use the equipment and
on the results they o3tain. =he feed3ac2

is deli'ered 3y )ay of audio" text3ox
information" and animations.

(euro1a3 has 3een placed on a ser'er in the &ni'ersity )ith

student access through a
computer la3oratory that contains 20

computers fitted )ith sound cards and adapters
that allo) t)o

students to )or2 at one terminal if necessary. A 0A of (euro1a3

*!4periments 5ith 1eurons/ has also 3een created and is a'aila3le

through Pearson
+ducation *Sydney" Australia/. +xtensi'e audio

instruction and feed3ac2 are pro'ided to
the user through headphones.

%eadphones also allo) many students to )or2 in the
la3oratory

)ithout distracting one another. $or the past fi'e years" a

one,hour session
has 3een scheduled into the course for groups

of a3out 30 students at a time *total of
C00 students/. +ach

station is independent of the others" so students can proceed

through
(euro1a3 at their o)n pace. (euro1a3 remains a'aila3le

on the ser'er after the
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scheduled sessions to allo) students

ready access to the soft)are on their o)n time.
Student use

of (euro1a3 outside of scheduled sessions )as not trac2ed.

(euro1a3 is introduced 3y GProfessor (euron"G an animated cartoon

character" )ho
explains )hat the students )ill 3e required to

do )hen using the pac2age and )ho acts
as a tutor to help them

)hen they are ha'ing difficulties *$igs. 1 and 2/.

9i.: 'a*;.* v.*5ion *113H/:
Iin this )indo)J
Iin a ne) )indo)J

$?!. 1 Screen capture of introduction to the
pac2age. GProfessor (euronG is sho)n here
addressing the student. Audio as )ell as text
displays are used throughout.

9i.: 'a*;.* v.*5ion *D7H/:
Iin this )indo)J
Iin a ne) )indo)J

$?!. 2 Screen capture from the pac2age. Student is
in'estigating the refractory periods of neurons.
=)o stimuli of threshold strength and separated 3y
7 ms ha'e 3een applied. #ecause the second
stimulus is outside the refractory period" a second
action potentials appears.

(euro1a3 uses the metaphor of a 3oo2 and is di'ided into se'en

chapters *=a3le 1/.
Students are a3le to 3ro)se any chapter

in any order.

9i.: +,i5 +a-'.:
Iin this )indo)J
Iin a ne) )indo)J

=a3le 1 Aescription of the content of neuro1a3

?n the exercises and simulated experiments descri3ed in =a3le 1"

the data that one
student o3tains )ill differ from those

of other students and so require independent
interpretation

and e'aluation of their 'alidity. After the students ha'e considered

the
accepta3ility of the data or determined the appropriateness

of results o3tained" they then
recei'e personaliEed ad'ice and

instruction on their decision ma2ing through specific
feed3ac2

pro'ided 3y (euro1a3.

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=)o methods )ere used to assess (euro1a3. =he
first in'ol'ed

student feed3ac2 a3out the soft)are"
and the second compared

student examination
scores.

Stu-ent .ee-6ac7
?n a period of three academic years" a total of 1"891 students

used (euro1a3. =he
students )ere enrolled in a 'ariety of courses"

including #iomedical Sciences" (ursing"
(utrition and Aietetics"

<ccupational =herapy" Physical +ducation" and Speech
Pathology.

<f these" a3out 1"099 *C46/ returned completed questionnaires

a3out the
course including specific questions a3out (euro1a3.

=he questions )ere )orded as
statements )ith a fi'e,category

1i2ert response scale *strongly agree" agree" neutral"
disagree"

strongly disagree/. =he statements )ere:

? found using this pac2age a satisfying learning experience.

? found using this pac2age increased my understanding of neuron

function.

? )ould li2e more of these computer,assisted learning pac2ages.

=he student responses to these statements are presented as percentages

in K+S&1=S" =a3le
1" )ith D86 confidence inter'als sho)n in

the a3stract.

Stu-ent !4amination Scores
=he students used in this study come from se'eral uni'ersity

degree programs" )hich
ha'e )idely different entry requirements

and" presuma3ly" students )ith a )ide range of
a3ilities. Students

from each program attend )ee2ly tutorials in groups of a3out

28.
=utorials are unstructured and are intended as sessions

in )hich students can see2 help
on )hat is co'ered in lectures.

All students attend the same mass lectures in %uman
#ioscience

1. $or the lectures on the ner'ous system" students )ere gi'en

quite detailed
explanations on methods of in'estigating the

electrical properties of neurons and" in
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particular" the )ay

in )hich resting mem3rane potentials and action potentials are

measured. ?ncluded in these explanations )ere descriptions of

the equipment used
*cathode ray oscilloscope" H0l,filled glass

microelectrodes" electrical stimulator" etc./.
=hey )ere also

directed to rele'ant diagrams in their text3oo2. ?n addition"

students
)ere sho)n a 'ideo in lectures of a styliEed neuron

3eing used to measure resting
mem3rane potentials and action

potentials.

Student tutorial groups )ere allocated to recei'e either the

one (euro1a3 session
including the usual tutorials *0A1/ or

the usual tutorials )ithout the (euro1a3 session
*non,0A1/.

<ne month after the 0A1 session" 3oth groups *0A1 and non,0A1/

)ere
assessed using 12 0Bs *t)o of )hich )ere trueLfalse questions/.

Se'en questions
related to neuron mem3rane potentials and ion

flo)s" one question to the structure of the
neuron" and four

questions to the use of equipment used in measuring and recording

mem3rane potentials *see APP+(A?M 1/. =he test )as not compulsory"

and students )ere
not gi'en ad'ance notice of this assessment.

=hey undertoo2 the test at the end of a
lecture. A3out one,half

of the students at the lecture stayed 3ehind to do the test.

Students )ere as2ed to mar2 on their ans)er sheets the degree

program that they )ere
doing and )hether or not they had done

the (euro1a3 session. After the test and 3efore
final assessment"

those )ho had not recei'ed the 0A1 session )ere scheduled for

their
session. Statistical significance of the test score differences"

)ithin each enrollment
category" 3et)een 0A1 and non,0A1 students

)as tested using StudentFs t,test *=a3le
3" K+S&1=S/.

Aifferences in o'erall scores and question topic scores 3et)een

those )ho
had underta2en the 0A1 pac2age and those )ho had not

)ere tested using analysis of
'ariance" ad>usting for program

enrolment *=a3le 9" K+S&1=S/.

9i.: +,i5
+a-'.:
Iin this
)indo)J
Iin a ne)
)indo)J

=a3le 3 0omparison of student exam performance 3et)een those
)ho had underta2en the 0A1 pac2age *0A1/ and those that had not
*non,0A1/" 3y program enrollment

9i.: +,i5
+a-'.:
Iin this
)indo)J
Iin a ne)
)indo)J

=a3le 9 0omparison of student exam performance 3et)een those )ho
had underta2en the 0A1 pac2age *0A1/ )ith those that had not *non,
0A1/" 3y question topic" ad>usted for program enrollment

#E24T2

Stu-ent .ee-6ac7
<'erall" (euro1a3 has 3een 'ery )ell recei'ed 3y the students.

=he ma>ority found it to
3e a satisfying learning experience

and" perhaps e'en more importantly" 3elie'ed that it
had increased

their le'el of understanding of neuron function *=a3le 2/. ?ndicati'e

of
their interest in the pac2age is that most students 3elie'ed

that more 0A1 pac2ages
should 3e de'eloped and made a'aila3le

to them *=a3le 2/.

9i.: +,i5 +a-'.:
Iin this )indo)J
Iin a ne) )indo)J

=a3le 2 Student e'aluation of the 0A1 pac2age

Stu-ent !4amination Scores
@hen the performances of students from the same program enrollment

group )ere
compared" it )as found that" in each case" the means

for the 0A1 students )ere higher
than those for the non,0A1

students *=a3le 3/.

After ad>ustment for program enrollment" 0A1 students performed

3etter o'erall than
non,0A1 students *=a3le 9/. %o)e'er" )hen

the test )as 3ro2en do)n into sections of
questions on similar

topics" the analysis sho)ed that 0A1 students performed
significantly

3etter than non,0A1 students on questions concerning la3eling

of neurons
as )ell as on questions relating to the use of equipment

and measuring of neuron
mem3rane potentials" 3ut they did not

perform significantly 3etter than non,0A1
students on questions

a3out neuron mem3rane potentials and ion flo)s *=a3le 9/.

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&sing the 0A1 pac2age *(euro1a3/ seems to
enhance student understanding

of the )ay in )hich
neuron mem3rane potentials are recorded

and
measured. 0A1 student performance on 0Bs
relating to the

use of equipment and methods of
measuring neuron mem3rane potentials

)as
significantly 3etter than the performance of non,
0A1 students

*=a3le 9/. =his result may reflect the
realism of the (euro1a3

simulation and the fact that students find (euro1a3 to 3e user,
friendly

and )ould li2e more of these 0A1 pac2ages *=a3le 2/.

?n terms of increasing understanding of physiological concepts

the results )ere less
clear. Although students 3elie'ed that

their understanding of neuron function had
impro'ed *=a3le 2/"

this has not 3een 3orne out in an analysis of student performance

on
0Bs concerning neuron mem3rane potentials and ion flo)s.

Although the mean result
of the 0A1 students for these questions

)as slightly higher than that of the non,0A1
students" this

difference )as not statistically significant *=a3le 9/. <nly

one question in
the 0B test related specifically to neuron

structure. 0A1 students performed much
3etter than the non,0A1

students on this question *=a3le 9/. =his may reflect the
additional

practice that 0A1 students o3tained in la3eling diagrams of

neurons in
(euro1a3. #ecause the students )ho undertoo2 the

test *=a3les 3 and 9/ 'olunteered"
there may 3e a selection

3ias in our results. =he potential for 3ias is mitigated to

some
extent 3ecause the test )as not ad'ertised; approximately

the same proportion of 0A1
and non,0A1 students undertoo2 the

tests" and the differences )ere consistent across
enrollment

programs.

As )ell as influences on student learning" (euro1a3 pro'ides

an opportunity for all
students to participate in all aspects

of the experiments. =his is not al)ays the case in
con'entional

la3oratory classes" )here students often )or2 in groups )ith

only one or
t)o 3eing acti'e participants. $urthermore" the

degree and le'el of assistance is
impro'ed. ?t is difficult

for academic staff to pro'ide much personaliEed assistance for

anything more than a fe) minutes at a time in a con'entional

la3oratory class of 30 or
more students. ?n (euro1a3" assistance

is regular and personaliEed.

Students ha'e to 3ecome 'ery intellectually in'ol'ed to )or2

through the pac2age
successfully. =hroughout" each student is

called upon to respond to questions" to la3el
diagrams" to underta2e

arithmetic calculations" and to collect and interpret data in

an
experimental situation. =he computer simulations of these

experiments pro'ide models
of the real thingNmodels that

can 3e manipulated and experimented on to yield
appropriate

information. =he complexity of interaction of 3ody systems can

3e a'oided.
As ichael *13/ has commented" G<ne of the things

that ma2es learning physiology
difficult is the fact that e'erything

ultimately is connected to e'erything else.
Aistur3ances to

one part of one system )ill gi'e rise to consequences that in'ol'e

many
organs or organ systems.G ?t is not al)ays clear to the

student )hy an experiment has
Ggone )rong.G =here is e'idence

in other fields of tertiary study that the use of models
can

3e more effecti'e than the use of real o3>ects in helping 3eginning

students
understand complex concepts *17/. Although our models

incorporate realistic data" they
do not present )hat might appear

to 3e conflicting or confusing information to the user.

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(euro1a3 has 3een de'eloped using the authoring system" Asymetrix

=ool3oo2.
=hrough the use of the programming language supporting

the authoring soft)are"
immediate audio and text3ox feed3ac2

is pro'ided to each student on ho) to use the
equipment and

on the results they o3tain as they )or2 through the pac2age.

=his
indi'idualiEed feed3ac2 helps put studentsF results

in context. ?t assists them to de'elop
mental models of neuron

function" there3y ma2ing neurophysiology more meaningful
and

significant to them *13" 19/. =he specificity and immediacy

of the feed3ac2 helps
correct misunderstandings. $rom o3ser'ation

of students in the computer la3oratory"
there is no dou3t that

students find this aspect of the pac2age 'ery 'alua3le to their

learning. =his result is consistent )ith other research on the

effects of feed3ac2 in
computer,assisted instruction *1/.

=here are also financial 3enefits. =o set up >ust one electrophysiology

la3oratory is 'ery
expensi'e. $urthermore" only one experimenter

at a time can use the equipment. =o
cater for large num3ers

of students is 'irtually impossi3le. =he use of a computer
simulation

o3'iates these difficulties and offers large num3ers of students

at the
&ni'ersity of (e)castle an opportunity to underta2e these

sorts of experiments.

C"NC42I"N

(euro1a3 is interacti'e. ?t ma2es extensi'e use of multimedia"

including animations"
audio" graphics" pictures" and text to

engage students. ?t has 3een de'eloped )ith the
nonspecialist

physiology student in mind. Students ma2e disco'eries for themsel'es

and recei'e specific and extensi'e feed3ac2 on their data collection"

their
interpretations" and their decision ma2ing throughout

the pac2age. =he instructional
design" the feed3ac2 pro'ided"

and the quality of the graphic design ha'e 3een )ell
recei'ed"

capturing the studentsF interest to the point of )anting

more such learning
tools. =hese factors enhance understanding

of measurement methods employed in
neurophysiology and facilitate

a disco'ery approach to the learning of physiology.

#.8.*.n).5

1. A<.v.do # and !.*na*d #. A meta,analysis of the effects of feed3ac2 in
computer assisted instruction. 8 !-uc #omput 9es 13: 111O127" 1DD8.
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