CONTENTS

1. Why a Project?
2. Introduction
3. Principle
4. Chronology
5. Circuit Detail
- Circuit Description & Woring
- Circuit !ayout
- Co"ponent !ist
#. PC$ Details
- PC$ Description
- PC$ !ayout
%. &sse"'ling
(. Conclusion
). *e+erence
1,. Ideas -hich could not 'e i"ple"ented
WHY A PROJECT?
& student specially technical student is e.pected to do so"e e.peri"entation
and research -or on the su'ject/ -hich he thought in the class te.t'oo during the
course o+ his studies. 0uch an e++ort -hen -ell organi1ed -ith a de+inite ai" or
purpose is called a project.
2he o'ject o+ a project is to en3elope technical thining and induced the
student to "ae an ordinary analysis to the situation +ollo-ing at hand so as to
search a de+inite conclusion.
$y doing project student display4s his spirit o+ in5uiring creating & critici1ing
-ay o+ sol3ing a pro'le" through understanding o+ e.isting situation/ independent
thining and a'ility to understand 'asic +act.
INTRODUCTION
In an auto"o'ile headlight/ a 6"eeting6 'ea" 7dip 'ea"8 is pro3ided in addition to
the dri3ing 'ea" 7high 'ea"8 so as to reduce the da11le +or those approaching
head9on to the 3ehicle.
2he &uto Dipping De3ice +or a head light is intended to auto"atically change the
:eadlight Circuit to either dri3ing 'ea" or dip 'ea" gi3en a particular set o+ road
conditions/ -ithout the inter3ention o+ the dri3er. 2he present practice is to operate
the dip s-itch "anually.
2he +unction o+ the headlight is to illu"inate the road ahead o+ the auto"o'ile so as
to re3eal o'jects ahead +ro" a sa+e distance; at the sa"e ti"e it should cause
"ini"u" disco"+ort and glare +or dri3ers co"ing +ro" the opposite side.
<anual dipping is not 'eing done satis+actorily in India due to a 3ariety o+ reasons/
-hich includes sheer physical strain in3ol3ed in operation o+ the dipper s-itch
hundreds o+ ti"es e3ery night. 72he total +or a single night -ill 'e 1,,, i+ -e
consider ( hours o+ tra3eling and one encounter e3ery one9"inute and could e.ceed
this nu"'er i+ one tra3els on roads -ith dense tra++ic8. 2he other reason includes a
general tendency o+ paying "ore attention to steering control at the cost o+ dipping
during a critical 3ehicle "eeting situation especially in the case o+ hea3y loaded
3ehicles. <ore reasons are the physiological and psychological state o+ a dri3er/
-hich is in+luenced 'y a 3ariety o+ +actors lie -oring hours/ econo"ic issues and
social +actors etc. &nother "ajor cause is 6ego pro'le"6/ -hich "aes each one -ait
till the other person initiates dipping/ -hich "ay not happen.
& +re5uent cause o+ accidents at nights is the glare caused 'y onco"ing 3ehicles
-hich "o"entarily 'linds the dri3er6s 3ision. It taes three to eight seconds +or a
person -ith good eyesight to reco3er +ro" the glare and during this ti"e the 3ehicle
-ill ha3e co3ered a long distance in utter darness and it -ill 'e sheer luc i+ it
escapes an accident.
2he o'ser3ations o+ the study group on road sa+ety 7Constituted 'y =o3ern"ent o+
India 3ide *esolution >o.1) 7148 #(/ ?une 3/ 1)#)8 regarding the conditions o+ our
national high-ays are@
The Indian roads are all essentially ery narro!" tort#o#s in their ali$n%ent
and s#&&er &ro% %any inade'#a(ies" is)*)is the +resent day %otor tra&&i(
!hi(h has re$istered a +heno%enal in(rease d#rin$ the +ost)Inde+enden(e
+eriod, The other (onditions o& the roads li-e +oor sho#lders" narro! (#lerts
and .rid$es" shar+ and n#%ero#s (#res and stee+ $radients !hi(h li%it the
si$ht distan(e" n#%ero#s lo! leel (a#se!ays and s#.%ersi.le .rid$es are
+erennial ha/ards, All the a.oe tell on the neres o& the drier" (a#sin$
&ati$#e and leadin$ to errors and %is0#d$%ent !hile driin$1,
&ll the a'o3e indicate the i"portance o+ dipping o+ headlights in a country lie India/
so as to a3oid the pro'le" o+ glare -hich i"pairs the 3isi'ility -hich is 3ital +or sa+e
dri3ing in a "eeting situation during the night. 2his leads to the conclusion that an
&uto Dipping De3ice can go a long -ay to-ards sa+ety enhance"ent.
WHAT IS AN AUTO DIPPER?
&n &uto Dipper is a de3ice capa'le o+ changing o3er the circuit o+ head light -ithout
the inter3ention o+ the dri3er gi3en a particular set o+ o'jecti3e road conditions. Its
pri"ary ai" is to reduce the da11le +or the o'ser3er approaching ahead o+ the
3ehicle -hile ensuring that the user -ill not 'e put to incon3enience.
THE 2UNCTIONA3 RE4UIRE5ENTS ON A DAR6 ROAD
2he 'asic +unction o+ an auto dipper is to "aintain the head la"ps in either dri3ing
'ea" or "eeting 'ea" auto"atically depending on the opposing tra++ic.
AUTO5ATIC DRI7IN8 9EA5
It has to 'ring into operation the dri3ing 'ea" i+ there is no onco"ing 3ehicle.
>ecessarily this "eans the auto dipper "ust 'e i""une to the signals +ro"; street
la"ps/ "oonlight/ road re+lectance/ solar radiation during the late dus and early
da-n.
AUTO5ATIC DIP 9EA5
It has to 'ring into operation the "eeting 'ea" +ro" 'oth headlights -hene3er an
onco"ing 3ehicle approaches to -ithin a'out say 25, "eters -ith its headlights in
dri3ing 'ea" until the 3ehicle is a'out to pass. 2he auto dipper/ a+ter 'ringing into
operation the dip 'ea"/ should logically 'e capa'le o+ continuing the operation o+
the headlights in dip 'ea"/ i+ the headlights o+ the onco"ing 3ehicle -ere also
shi+ted to the dip 'ea".
Aur project is designed 'ased on the a'o3e conceptual +ra"e-or and is 'elie3ed
to cater to the actual road conditions in a -ay con3enient to the user and is
e.pected to relie3e hi" +ro" the repetiti3e tas o+ operating the dipper s-itch. 2he
auto dipper is not to replace the hu"an judg"ent 'ut only to assist the user and the
ulti"ate control is le+t -ith the user.
PRINCIP3E
& circuit is designed -hich uses a !D*7light dependent resistor8 to sense the light
e"itted 'y the 3ehicle co"ing +ro" the opposite direction. 2his light sensed 'y the
!D* is used to send signals to the circuit to trigger the co""and to a upper or the
dipper circuit depending on the a"ount o+ light e"itted 'y the 3ehicle co"ing +ro"
opposite direction.
CHRONO3O8Y
2he +ollo-ing steps ha3e 'een +ollo-ed in carrying out the project@
1. 0tudy the 'oos on the rele3ant topic.
2. Bnderstand the -oring o+ the circuit.
3. Prepare the circuit diagra".
4. Prepare the list to co"ponents along -ith their speci+ication esti"ate .the
cost and procure the" a+ter carrying out "aret sur3ey.
5. Plan and prepare PC$ +or "ounting all the co"ponents.
#. Ci. the co"ponents on the PC$ and solder the".
%. 2est the circuit +or the desired per+or"ance.
(. 2race and recti+y +aults i+ any.
). =i3e good +inish to the unit.
1,. Prepare the project report.
CIRCUIT DETAI3S
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION : WOR6IN8;)
2his project is 3ery use+ul in car head light auto"atically. During night ti"e/ car head
light upper dipper changes auto"atically. 2he ) Dolt supply is +ed in a controlling
circuit o+ IC 555. In this project IC 555 is used as a s-itch. Ane light dependent
resistance 7!D*8 is also used to act -ith light intensity. 2he resistance o+ the !.D.*
increases or decreases on the intensity o+ light. When light +alls on !.D.* its
resistance decreases and in darness the resistance increases. In the circuit IC 555
is used as a ti"er. Pin >o.2 o+ the IC is earthed through 1, preset -hich eeps the
+lip9+lop syste" o+ the IC at a high state. Pin >o. 3 o+ the IC is the output pin and
re"ains at a lo- state. 2he IC does not operate until light +alls on the !D*. When
light +alls on !.D.*./ the resistance o+ the !.D.*. decreases/ as a result o+
-hich/ Pin >o. 2 o+ the IC gets positi3e 3oltage/ the Pin >o.2 is trigger pin -hich
can trigger the re5uired circuit A>. When light +alls on the !D* the Bpper circuit
gets s-itched ACC -hile the Dipper circuit gets s-itched A> and the 3ice9 3ersa
CIRCUIT 3AYOUT;)
CO5PONENT 3IST;)
Co%+onents Total 4ty, Details
$attery 1 )D
IC 1 555 2i"er
Capacitor 1 4.%Eoh"
*esistance 1 1,, Eoh"
Daria'le resistance 1 1, Eoh"
!D* 1 !ight dependent resistance
Wire 9 9
Ather "isc 1 $oard/ Wire/ 0ocet Cor
B1/ Case/ <ains Plug/ 0ocet
< 7O3T 9ATTERY;)
& nine93olt 'attery/ so"eti"es re+erred to as a PP3 'attery/ is shaped as a rounded
rectangular pris" and has a no"inal output o+ nine 3olts. Its no"inal di"ensions are
4( "" F 25 "" F 15 "" 7&>0I standard 1#,4&8. PP3 actually re+ers to the type o+
connection or snap that is on top o+ the 'attery . 2he PP3 connector 7snap8 consists
o+ t-o connectors@ one s"aller circular 7"ale8 and one larger/ typically either
he.agonal or octagonal 7+e"ale8. 2he connectors on the 'attery are the sa"e as on
the connector itsel+ 99 the s"aller one connects to the larger one and 3ice 3ersa.
2he 'attery has 'oth the positi3e and negati3e ter"inals on one end. 2he negati3e
ter"inal is +ashioned into a snap +itting -hich "echanically and electrically connects
to a "ating ter"inal on the po-er connector. 2he po-er connector has a si"ilar
snap +itting on its positi3e ter"inal -hich "ates to the 'attery. 2his "aes 'attery
polari1ation o'3ious since "echanical connection is only possi'le in one
con+iguration. 2he clips on the )93olt 'attery can 'e used to connect se3eral )93olt
'atteries in series. Ane pro'le" -ith this style o+ connection is that it is 3ery easy to
connect t-o 'atteries together in a short circuit/ -hich 5uicly discharges 'oth
'atteries/ generating heat and possi'ly a +ire. While this is a danger/ the sa"e thing
can 'e done -ith "ultiple ) 3olt 'atteries to create higher 3oltage 7they can snap
together8. 2he -iring usually uses 'lac and red -ires/ red +or positi3e/ and 'lac +or
negati3e.
Inside a PP3 there are ordinarily si. alaline or car'on91inc 1.5 3olt 7no"inal8 cells
arranged in series. 2hese are either &&&& cells/ or special +lat/ rectangular cells.
2he e.act si1e o+ the constituent cells 3aries +ro" 'rand to 'rand 99 so"e 'rands
are slightly longer than others 99 as does the "anner in -hich they are joined
together. 0o"e 'rands use soldered ta's on the 'attery/ others press +oil strips
against the ends o+ the cells.
Dery cheap 3ersions "ay contain only +i3e 1.5 3olt cells. *echargea'le >iCd and
>i<: 'atteries ha3e 3arious nu"'ers o+ 1.2 3olt cells. !ithiu" 3ersions use three
3.2 D cells 9 there is a rechargea'le lithiu" poly"er 3ersion. 2here is also a :y'rio
>i<: 3ersion that has a 3ery lo- discharge rate 7(5G o+ capacity a+ter 1 year o+
storage8. .
=== TI5ER IC;)
Ane o+ the "ost 3ersatile linear integrated circuit is the 555 ti"er. 2he IC -as
designed and in3ented 'y :ans *. Ca"en1ind. It -as designed in 1)%, and
introduced in 1)%1 'y 0ignetics 7later ac5uired 'y Philips8. 2he original na"e -as
the 0H555I>H555 and -as called J2he IC 2i"e <achineJ.
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2he 555 gets its na"e
+ro" the three 59oh" resistors used in typical early i"ple"entations. Depending on
the "anu+acturer/ it includes o3er 2, transistors/ 2 diodes and 15 resistors on a
silicon chip installed in an (9pin "ini dual9in9line pacage. 0ince its de'ut the
de3ice has 'een used in a nu"'er o+ no3el an use+ul application. & sa"ple o+ these
application includes "onosta'le and sta'le "ulti3'ratores dc9dc con3erters digital
logic pro'es -a3e+or" generators analog +re5uency "eters and tacho"eter
te"perature "easure"ent and control in+rared trans"itter 'urglar and to.ic gas
alar"s/ 3oltage regulator/ electric eyes and "ay other 2he 555 is "onolithic ti"ing
circuit that can produced accrued and highly sta'le ti"e delays an oscillation. 2he
ti"er 'asically operated in one o+ et t-o "odes either as "onosta'le 7one
shot8"ulti3i'rotor or as an sta'le 7+ree running 8"ulti3i'rator. 2he de3ice is a3aila'le
as an ( pin "etal can an "ini DIP o+ 14 pin DIP. 2he 0H555 is designed +or the
operation te"perature renege +ro" 55 degree to M5 to 1( 3 supply 3oltage in 'oth
+ree running 7asta'le 8 and onset 7"onosta'le8 "odes; it has an adjusta'le duty
cycle; ti"ing is +ro" "icroseconds through hours; it has ha high current output; it
can source o+ sin 2,,,"&;the output can dri3e 22! and has a te"perature sta'ility
o+ 5, parts per "illion7pp"8 per degree Celsius change in te"perature o+
e5ui3alently ,.,,5G per degree Celsius. !ie general9purpose op9a"ps the 555
ti"er is relia'le easy to use and lo- cost.
Internal S(he%ati(s;
S(he%ati( Sy%.ol;
Nr, Na%e P#r+ose
1 =>D =round/ lo- le3el 7,D8
2 2* & short pulse high N lo- on the trigger starts the ti"er
3 O During a ti"ing inter3al/ the output stays at MD
CC
4 *
& ti"ing inter3al can 'e interrupted 'y applying a reset
pulse to lo- 7,D8
5 CD
Control 3oltage allo-s access to the internal 3oltage
di3ider 72I3 D
CC
8
# 2:*
2he threshold at -hich the inter3al ends 7it ends i+ B.thr
N 2I3 D
CC
8
% DI0
Connected to a capacitor -hose discharge ti"e -ill
in+luence the ti"ing inter3al
( DM/ D
CC
2he positi3e supply 3oltage -hich "ust 'e 'et-een 3
and 15 D
S+e(i&i(ations @
0upply 3oltage 7D
CC
8
4.5 to 15
D
0upply current 7D
CC
P
M5 D8
3 to # "&
0upply current 7D
CC
P
M15 D8
1, to 15
"&
Autput current
7"a.i"u"8
2,, "&
Po-er dissipation #,, "W
Aperating te"perature , to %, QC
CAPACITOR;)
& capacitor or condenser is a passi3e electronic co"ponent consisting o+ a pair o+
conductors separated 'y a dielectric. When a 3oltage potential di++erence e.ists
'et-een the conductors/ an electric +ield is present in the dielectric. 2his +ield stores
energy and produces a "echanical +orce 'et-een the plates. 2he e++ect is greatest
'et-een -ide/ +lat/ parallel/ narro-ly separated conductors.
&n ideal capacitor is characteri1ed 'y a single constant 3alue/ capacitance/ -hich is
"easured in +arads. 2his is the ratio o+ the electric charge on each conductor to the
potential di++erence 'et-een the". In practice/ the dielectric 'et-een the plates
passes a s"all a"ount o+ leaage current. 2he conductors and leads introduce an
e5ui3alent series resistance and the dielectric has an electric +ield strength li"it
resulting in a 'reado-n 3oltage.
2he +unda"ental relation +or the capacitance 'et-een t-o +lat plates separate 'e a
dielectric "ateriel is gi3en 'y CP,.,((54E& -here
CP capacitance in p@+.
EP dielectric constant
&P&rea per plate in s5uare c".
DPDistance 'et-een t-o plates in c"
Design o+ capacitor is connected -ith the relation o+ the proper dielectric
"aterial -ith particular type o+ application. 2he dielectric "aterial used +or
capacitors "ay 'e grouped in the 3arious classed lie <ica =lass air cera"ic paper
&lu"inu" electrolytic etc. 2he 3alue o+ capacitance ne3er re"ains constant e.cept
under certain +iled condition it changed -ith te"perature +re5uency and aging. 2he
capacitance 3alue "ared on the capacitor strictly applies only at speci+ied roo"
te"perature and at lo- +re5uencies.
RESISTORS;)
& resistor is a t-o9ter"inal electronic co"ponent that produces a 3oltage across its
ter"inals that is proportional to the electric current through it in accordance -ith
Ah"6s la-@
D P I*
*esistors are ele"ents o+ electrical net-ors and electronic circuits and are
u'i5uitous in "ost electronic e5uip"ent. Practical resistors can 'e "ade o+ 3arious
co"pounds and +il"s/ as -ell as resistance -ire 7-ire "ade o+ a high9resisti3ity
alloy/ such as nicelIchro"e8.2he resistance are heat dissipating ele"ents and in
the electronic circuits they are "ostly used +or either controling the currents in the
circuit or de3eloping a 3oltage drop across it -hich could 'e utili1ed +or so
application 2here are 3arious types o+ resistance4s -hich can 'e classi+ied
according to a nu"'er o+ +actors depending upon 7I,8 <aterial used +or +a'rication a
resistance 7II8 Wattage an physical si1e 7III8 Intended application 7i38 &"'ient
te"perature rating 738 Cost 'asically the resistor can 'e splinted in to the +ollo-ing
+our parts -ith the construction 3ie- point 718 $ase728 *esistance ele"ent 738
2er"inals 748 Protecti3e "eans. 2he +ollo-ing characteristics are inherent in all
resistance4s an "ay 'e controlled 'y design considerations and choice o+ "aterial
I.e. 2e"perature coRe++icient Doltage coRe++icient o+ resistance high +re5uency
characteristics po-er rating and reseating tolerance 3oltage retting o+ *esistors
*esistance4s "ay 'e classi+ied as 718 Ci.ed 728 se"i3aria'le 738 Daria'le
resistance4s We ha3e used car'on resistance4s. *esistors can 'e integrated into
hy'rid and printed circuits/ as -ell as integrated circuits. 0i1e/ and position o+ leads
7or ter"inals8 are rele3ant to e5uip"ent designers; resistors "ust 'e physically
large enough not to o3erheat -hen dissipating their po-er.
Colo#r Code;
7ARIA93E RESISTORS;)
Daria'le resistors consist o+ a resistance trac -ith connections at 'oth ends and a
-iper -hich "o3es along the trac as you turn the spindle. 2he trac "ay 'e "ade
+ro" car'on/ cer"et 7cera"ic and "etal "i.ture8 or a coil o+ -ire 7+or lo-
resistances8. 2he trac is usually rotary 'ut straight trac 3ersions/ usually called
sliders/ are also a3aila'le.
Daria'le resistors "ay 'e used as a rheostat -ith t-o connections 7the -iper and
just one end o+ the trac8 or as a potentio"eter -ith all three connections in use.
<iniature 3ersions called presets are "ade +or setting up circuits -hich -ill not
re5uire +urther adjust"ent.
Daria'le resistors are o+ten called potentio"eters in 'oos and catalogues. 2hey are
speci+ied 'y their "a.i"u" resistance/ linear or logarith"ic trac/ and their physical
si1e. 2he standard spindle dia"eter is #"".
2he resistance and type o+ trac are "ared on the 'ody@
4E% !I> "eans 4.% linear trac.
1< !A= "eans 1 < logarith"ic trac.
0o"e 3aria'le resistors are designed to 'e "ounted directly on the circuit 'oard/
'ut "ost are +or "ounting through a hole drilled in the case containing the circuit
-ith stranded -ire connecting their ter"inals to the circuit 'oard.
Standard 7aria.le Resistor;
O+en Style Preset;
Closed Style Preset;
5#ltit#rn Preset;
3DR>3I8HT DEPENDENT RESISTOR?;)
& photo resistor or light dependent resistor or cad"iu" sul+ide 7Cd08 cell is a
resistor -hose resistance decreases -ith increasing incident light intensity. It can
also 'e re+erenced as a photoconductor.
& photo resistor is "ade o+ a high resistance se"iconductor. I+ light +alling on the
de3ice is o+ high enough +re5uency/ photons a'sor'ed 'y the se"iconductor gi3e
'ound electrons enough energy to ju"p into the conduction 'and. 2he resulting +ree
electron 7and its hole partner8 conduct electricity/ there'y lo-ering resistance.
& photoelectric de3ice can 'e either intrinsic or e.trinsic. &n intrinsic se"iconductor
has its o-n charge carriers and is not an e++icient se"iconductor/ e.g. silicon. In
intrinsic de3ices the only a3aila'le electrons are in the 3alence 'and/ and hence the
photon "ust ha3e enough energy to e.cite the electron across the entire 'and gap.
H.trinsic de3ices ha3e i"purities/ also called dopants/ added -hose ground state
energy is closer to the conduction 'and; since the electrons do not ha3e as +ar to
ju"p/ lo-er energy photons 7i.e./ longer -a3elengths and lo-er +re5uencies8 are
su++icient to trigger the de3ice. I+ a sa"ple o+ silicon has so"e o+ its ato"s replaced
'y phosphorus ato"s 7i"purities8/ there -ill 'e e.tra electrons a3aila'le +or
conduction. 2his is an e.a"ple o+ an e.trinsic se"iconductor.
Photo resistors co"e in "any di++erent types. Ine.pensi3e cad"iu" sul+ide cells can
'e +ound in "any consu"er ite"s such as ca"era light "eters/ street lights/ cloc
radios/ alar"s/ and outdoor clocs.
2hey are also used in so"e dyna"ic co"pressors together -ith a s"all
incandescent la"p or light e"itting diode to control gain reduction.
!ead sul+ide and indiu" anti"onite !D*s are used +or the "id in+rared spectral
region. =e@Cu photoconductors are a"ong the 'est +ar9in+rared detectors a3aila'le/
and are used +or in+rared astrono"y and in+rared spectroscopy.
3ED>3I8HT E5ITTIN8 DIODE?;)
&s there na"e indicated it is a +or-ard 'iased P9> junction -hich e"its 3isi'le
light -hen energi1ed. Charge carrier reco"'ination taced place -hen elections
+ro" the >9 side cross the junction and reco"'ine -ith the heeds on the P side >o-
electrons are in the higher conduction hand on the > side -hereas holes are in the
lo-er 3alance 'and on the P side During reco"'ination so"e o+ the energy
di++erence is gi3en up in the +or" o+ heat and light 7i.e.proton8 in the case o+
se"iconductor "aterials lie galliu" arsenate 7=a &s8 =alliu" phoshide 7=ap8 and
=alliu" arsenate phoshide 7=a&sP8 a greater percentage o+ energy is released
during reco"'ination and is gi3en out in the +or" o+ light !HD4s e"it no light -hen
the are re3erse 'iased.
& light9e"itting diode 7!HD8 is an electronic light source. 2he !HD -as +irst in3ented
in *ussia in the 1)2,s/ and introduced in &"erica as a practical electronic
co"ponent in 1)#2. Aleg Dladi"iro3ich !ose3 -as a radio technician -ho noticed
that diodes used in radio recei3ers e"itted light -hen current -as passed through
the". In 1)2%/ he pu'lished details in a *ussian journal o+ the +irst e3er !HD.
&ll early de3ices e"itted lo-9intensity red light/ 'ut "odern !HDs are a3aila'le
across the 3isi'le/ ultra3iolet and in+ra red -a3elengths/ -ith 3ery high 'rightness.
!HDs are 'ased on the se"iconductor diode. When the diode is +or-ard 'iased
7s-itched on8/ electrons are a'le to reco"'ine -ith holes and energy is released in
the +or" o+ light. 2his e++ect is called electrolu"inescence and the color o+ the light is
deter"ined 'y the energy gap o+ the se"iconductor. 2he !HD is usually s"all in
area 7less than 1 ""
2
8 -ith integrated optical co"ponents to shape its radiation
pattern and assist in re+lection.
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!HDs present "any ad3antages o3er traditional light sources including lo-er energy
consu"ption/ longer li+eti"e/ i"pro3ed ro'ustness/ s"aller si1e and +aster
s-itching. :o-e3er/ they are relati3ely e.pensi3e and re5uire "ore precise current
and heat "anage"ent than traditional light sources.
&pplications o+ !HDs are di3erse. 2hey are used as lo-9energy indicators 'ut also
+or replace"ents +or traditional light sources in general lighting and auto"oti3e
lighting. 2he co"pact si1e o+ !HDs has allo-ed ne- te.t and 3ideo displays and
sensors to 'e de3eloped/ -hile their high s-itching rates are use+ul in
co""unications technology.
SWITCHES;)
In electronics/ a s-itch is an electrical co"ponent that can 'rea an electrical circuit/
interrupting the current or di3erting it +ro" one conductor to another.
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2he "ost
+a"iliar +or" o+ s-itch is a "anually operated electro"echanical de3ice -ith one or
"ore sets o+ electrical contacts. Hach set o+ contacts can 'e in one o+ t-o states@
either 6closed6 "eaning the contacts are touching and electricity can +lo- 'et-een
the"/ or 6open6/ "eaning the contacts are separated and no conducting.
0ince the ad3ent o+ digital logic in the 1),,s/ the ter" has spread to a 3ariety o+
digital acti3e de3ices such as transistors and logic gates -hose +unction is to
change their output state 'et-een t-o logic le3els or connect di++erent signal lines/
and e3en co"puters/ net-or s-itches/ -hose +unction is to pro3ide connections
'et-een di++erent ports in a co"puter net-or. 2he ter" 6s-itched6 is also applied to
teleco""unications net-ors/ and signi+ies a net-or that is circuit s-itched/
pro3iding dedicated circuits +or co""unication 'et-een end nodes/ such as the
pu'lic s-itched telephone net-or. 2he co""on +eature o+ all these usages is they
re+er to de3ices that control a 'inary state@ they are either on or o++/ closed or open/
connected or not connected.
PC9 DETAI3S
PC9 DESCRITION;)
& printed circuit 'oard/ or PC$/ is used to "echanically support and electrically
connect electronic co"ponents using conducti3e path-ays/ or traces/ etched +ro"
copper sheets la"inated onto a non9conducti3e su'strate. It is also re+erred to as
printed -iring 'oard 7PW$8 or etched -iring 'oard. & PC$ populated -ith electronic
co"ponents is a printed circuit asse"'ly 7PC&8/ also no-n as a printed circuit
'oard asse"'ly 7PC$&8.
PC$s are rugged/ ine.pensi3e/ and can 'e highly relia'le. 2hey re5uire "uch "ore
layout e++ort and higher initial cost than either -ire9-rapped or point9to9point
constructed circuits/ 'ut are "uch cheaper and +aster +or high93olu"e production.
<uch o+ the electronics industry6s PC$ design/ asse"'ly/ and 5uality control needs
are set 'y standards that are pu'lished 'y the IPC organi1ation.
Conducting layers are typically "ade o+ thin copper +oil. Insulating layers dielectric
are typically la"inated together -ith epo.y resin prepreg. 2he 'oard is typically
coated -ith a solder "as that is green in color. Ather colors that are nor"ally
a3aila'le are 'lue/ and red.
PC9 3AYOUT;)
ASSE593IN8
2here are a +e- steps +ollo-ed 'e+ore really starting the asse"'ling process. 2hese
steps consists o+/
PC$ layout preparation
0creen Printing
PC$ Htching
Drilling
0oldering
PC9 3AYOUT PREPARATION;)
2here are 3arious so+t-ares a3aila'le +or designing o+ the PC$ layout. 0o"e o+
the" are listed 'elo-@
Dip trace
&ltiu"
H9C&D Pro
&do'e Page <aer
2he steps +ollo-ed in creating this layout is as +ollo-@
1. Darious co"ponents are a3aila'le in any so+t-are you choose. 0elect the
co"ponents -hich are contained in your circuit.
2. <ae sure that the co"ponents selected are o+ sa"e speci+ications as used.
3. 0i"ilarly select the other co"ponents +ro" the co"ponent li'rary o+ the
so+t-are 'eing used.
4. &rrange the co"ponents in such a -ay to create a design -hich loos lie
your circuit.
5. Chec the connections once "ore to ensure any discrepancy.
#. When the circuit is co"pletely ready +ollo- the procedure to con3ert this
circuit layout into the PC$ layout 7this process di++ers +ro" one so+t-are to
other so+t-are8.
%. Chec the PC$ layout once "ore co"paring it -ith your circuit.
(. Print the desired PC$ layout on a si"ple paper or a 'utter paper or a gelatin
paper.
SCREEN PRINTIN8;)
0creen printing is a printing techni5ue that uses a -o3en "esh to support an in9
'locing stencil. 2he attached stencil +or"s open areas o+ "esh that trans+er in as
a sharp9edged i"age onto a su'strate. & roller or s5ueegee is "o3ed across the
screen stencil/ +orcing or pu"ping in past the threads o+ the -o3en "esh in the
open areas.
0creen printing is also a stencil "ethod o+ print "aing in -hich a design is i"posed
on a screen o+ sil or other +ine "esh/ -ith 'lan areas coated -ith an i"per"ea'le
su'stance/ and in is +orced through the "esh onto the printing sur+ace. It is also
no-n as Jsil screeningJ or JserigraphyJ.
!ine art and te.t "ay 'e printed onto the outer sur+aces o+ a PC$ 'y screen printing.
When space per"its/ the screen print te.t can indicate co"ponent designators/
s-itch setting re5uire"ents/ test points/ and other +eatures help+ul in asse"'ling/
testing/ and ser3icing the circuit 'oard.
0creen print is also no-n as the sil screen/ or/ in one sided PC$s/ the red print.
!ately so"e digital printing solutions ha3e 'een de3eloped to su'stitute the
traditional screen printing process. 2his technology allo-s printing 3aria'le data
onto the PC$/ including seriali1ation and 'arcode in+or"ation +or tracea'ility
purposes.
PC9 ETCHIN8;)
Htching/ also no-n as che"ical "illing/ is the process o+ using acids/ 'ases or
other che"icals to dissol3e un-anted "aterials such as "etals/ se"iconductor
"aterials or glass. 2his process has 'een used on a -ide 3ariety o+ "etals -ith
depths o+ "etal re"o3al as large as 12"" 7,.5 in8. 0electi3e attac 'y the che"ical
reagent on di++erent areas o+ the -orpiece sur+aces is controlled 'y re"o3a'le
layers o+ "aterial called "asing or 'y partial i""ersion in the reagent. It has
applications in the printed circuit 'oard and se"iconductor +a'rication industries. It
is also used in the aerospace industry to re"o3e shallo- layers o+ "aterial +ro"
large aircra+t co"ponents/ "issile sin panels/ and e.truded parts +or air+ra"es.
2he process is no-n to ha3e 'een used 'y cra+ts"en in Hurope in the "iddle
ages/ -here it -as applied to the decoration o+ ar"our. Ane such cra+ts"an/ Daniel
:op+er 7circa 14%,9153#8 o+ &ugs'urg/ =er"any/ is credited -ith 'eing the +irst
person to apply the "ethod to print"aing.
2he 3ast "ajority o+ printed circuit 'oards are "ade 'y 'onding a layer o+ copper
o3er the entire su'strate/ so"eti"es on 'oth sides/ 7creating a J'lan PC$J8 then
re"o3ing un-anted copper a+ter applying a te"porary "as 7eg. 'y etching8/
lea3ing only the desired copper traces. & +e- PC$s are "ade 'y adding traces to
the 'are su'strate 7or a su'strate -ith a 3ery thin layer o+ copper8 usually 'y a
co"ple. process o+ "ultiple electroplating steps.
2here are three co""on Jsu'tracti3eJ "ethods 7"ethods that re"o3e copper8 used
+or the production o+ printed circuit 'oards@
1. 0il screen printing uses etch9resistant ins to protect the copper +oil.
0u'se5uent etching re"o3es the un-anted copper. &lternati3ely/ the in "ay
'e conducti3e/ printed on a 'lan 7non9conducti3e8 'oard. 2he latter
techni5ue is also used in the "anu+acture o+ hy'rid circuits.
2. Photoengra3ing uses a photo"as and che"ical etching to re"o3e the
copper +oil +ro" the su'strate. 2he photo"as is usually prepared -ith a
photoplotter +ro" data produced 'y a technician using C&</ or co"puter9
aided "anu+acturing so+t-are. !aser9printed transparencies are typically
e"ployed +or phototools; ho-e3er/ direct laser i"aging techni5ues are 'eing
e"ployed to replace phototools +or high9resolution re5uire"ents.
3. PC$ "illing uses a t-o or three9a.is "echanical "illing syste" to "ill a-ay
the copper +oil +ro" the su'strate. & PC$ "illing "achine 7re+erred to as a
6PC$ Prototyper68 operates in a si"ilar -ay to a plotter/ recei3ing co""ands
+ro" the host so+t-are that control the position o+ the "illing head in the ./ y/
and 7i+ rele3ant8 1 a.is. Data to dri3e the Prototyper is e.tracted +ro" +iles
generated in PC$ design so+t-are and stored in :P=! or =er'er +ile +or"at.
J&dditi3eJ processes also e.ist. 2he "ost co""on is the Jse"i9additi3eJ process. In
this 3ersion/ the unpatterned 'oard has a thin layer o+ copper already on it. &
re3erse "as is then applied. 7Bnlie a su'tracti3e process "as/ this "as
e.poses those parts o+ the su'strate that -ill e3entually 'eco"e the traces.8
&dditional copper is then plated onto the 'oard in the un"ased areas; copper "ay
'e plated to any desired -eight. 2in9lead or other sur+ace platings are then applied.
2he "as is stripped a-ay and a 'rie+ etching step re"o3es the no-9e.posed
original copper la"inate +ro" the 'oard/ isolating the indi3idual traces.
2he additi3e process is co""only used +or "ulti9layer 'oards as it +acilitates the
plating9through o+ the holes 7to produce conducti3e 3ias8 in the circuit 'oard.
DRI33IN8;)
:oles through a PC$ are typically drilled -ith tiny drill 'its "ade o+ solid tungsten
car'ide. 2he drilling is per+or"ed 'y auto"ated drilling "achines -ith place"ent
controlled 'y a drill tape or drill +ile. 2hese co"puter9generated +iles are also called
nu"erically controlled drill 7>CD8 +iles or JH.cellon +ilesJ. 2he drill +ile descri'es the
location and si1e o+ each drilled hole. 2hese holes are o+ten +illed -ith annular rings
to create 3ias. Dias allo- the electrical and ther"al connection o+ conductors on
opposite sides o+ the PC$.
When 3ery s"all 3ias are re5uired/ drilling -ith "echanical 'its is costly 'ecause o+
high rates o+ -ear and 'reaage. In this case/ the 3ias "ay 'e e3aporated 'y
lasers. !aser9drilled 3ias typically ha3e an in+erior sur+ace +inish inside the hole.
2hese holes are called "icro 3ias.
It is also possi'le -ith controlled9depth drilling/ laser drilling/ or 'y pre9drilling the
indi3idual sheets o+ the PC$ 'e+ore la"ination/ to produce holes that connect only
so"e o+ the copper layers/ rather than passing through the entire 'oard. 2hese
holes are called 'lind 3ias -hen they connect an internal copper layer to an outer
layer/ or 'uried 3ias -hen they connect t-o or "ore internal copper layers and no
outer layers.
2he -alls o+ the holes/ +or 'oards -ith 2 or "ore layers/ are plated -ith copper to
+or" plated9through holes that electrically connect the conducting layers o+ the PC$.
Cor "ultilayer 'oards/ those -ith 4 layers or "ore/ drilling typically produces a
s"ear co"prised o+ the 'onding agent in the la"inate syste". $e+ore the holes can
'e plated through/ this s"ear "ust 'e re"o3ed 'y a che"ical de9s"ear process/ or
'y plas"a9etch.
SO3DERIN8;)
0oldering is a process in -hich t-o or "ore "etal ite"s are joined together 'y
"elting and +lo-ing a +iller "etal into the joint/ the +iller "etal ha3ing a relati3ely lo-
"elting point. 0o+t soldering is characteri1ed 'y the "elting point o+ the +iller "etal/
-hich is 'elo- 4,, QC 7%52 QC8.
K1L
2he +iller "etal used in the process is called
solder.
0oldering is distinguished +ro" 'ra1ing 'y use o+ a lo-er "elting9te"perature +iller
"etal; it is distinguished +ro" -elding 'y the 'ase "etals not 'eing "elted during
the joining process. In a soldering process/ heat is applied to the parts to 'e joined/
causing the solder to "elt and 'e dra-n into the joint 'y capillary action and to 'ond
to the "aterials to 'e joined 'y -etting action. &+ter the "etal cools/ the resulting
joints are not as strong as the 'ase "etal/ 'ut ha3e ade5uate strength/ electrical
conducti3ity/ and -ater9tightness +or "any uses. 0oldering is an ancient techni5ue
"entioned in the $i'le
K2L
and there is e3idence that it -as e"ployed up to 5,,,
years ago in <esopota"ia
Ane o+ the "ost +re5uent applications o+ soldering is asse"'ling electronic
co"ponents to printed circuit 'oards 7PC$s8. &nother co""on application is
"aing per"anent 'ut re3ersi'le connections 'et-een copper pipes in plu"'ing
syste"s. ?oints in sheet "etal o'jects such as +ood cans/ roo+ +lashing/ rain gutters
and auto"o'ile radiators ha3e also historically 'een soldered/ and occasionally still
are. ?e-elry co"ponents are asse"'led and repaired 'y soldering. 0"all
"echanical parts are o+ten soldered as -ell. 0oldering is also used to join lead
ca"e and copper +oil in stained glass -or. 0oldering can also 'e used to e++ect a
se"i9per"anent patch +or a lea in a container cooing 3essel.
=uidelines to consider -hen soldering is that since soldering te"peratures are so
lo- a soldered joint has li"ited ser3ice at ele3ated te"peratures. 0olders generally
do not ha3e "uch strength so the process should not 'e used +or load 'earing
"e"'ers.
0o"e e.a"ples o+ solder types and their applications are tin9lead 7general
purpose8/ tin91inc +or joining alu"iniu"/ lead9sil3er +or strength at higher than roo"
te"perature/ cad"iu"9sil3er +or strength at high te"peratures/ 1inc9alu"iniu" +or
alu"iniu" and corrosion resistance/ and tin9sil3er and tin9'is"uth +or electronics.
2here are t-o "ain co"ponents used -hile soldering. 2hese are e.plained 'elo-.
SO3DER;
& solder is a +usi'le "etal alloy -ith a "elting point or "elting range o+ ), to 45, QC
72,, to (4, QC8/ used in a process called soldering -here it is "elted to join "etallic
sur+aces. It is especially use+ul in electronics and plu"'ing. &lloys that "elt 'et-een
1(, and 1), QC are the "ost co""only used.
2he -ord solder co"es +ro" the <iddle Hnglish -ord soudur/ 3ia Ald Crench
solduree and soulder/ +ro" the !atin solidare/ "eaning 6Sto "ae solid46. 0older can
contain lead and or +lu. 'ut in "any applications solder is no- lead +ree.
SO3DER IRON;
& soldering iron is a tool used +or applying heat to t-o adjoining "etal parts such
that solder "ay "elt and +lo- 'et-een those parts/ 'inding the" securely and
conducti3ely.
& soldering iron is co"posed o+ a heated "etal tip and an insulated handle. :eating
is o+ten achie3ed electrically/ 'y passing a current/ supplied through an electrical
cord or a 'attery/ through a heating ele"ent. &nother heating "ethod includes
co"'ustion o+ a suita'le gas/ -hich can either 'e deli3ered through a tan "ounted
on the iron 7+la"eless8/ or through an e.ternal +la"e.
0o"e heat up and cool do-n in a +e- seconds/ 'ut others tae "inutes.
The solderin$ +ro(ess is as des(ri.ed .elo!;
=ood soldering is a sill that is learnt 'y practice. 2he "ost i"portant point in
soldering is that 'oth parts o+ the joint to 'e "ade %#st 'e at the sa"e
te"perature. 2he solder -ill +lo- e3enly and "ae a good electrical and "echanical
joint only i+ 'oth parts o+ the joint are at an e5ual high te"perature. H3en though it
appears that there is a "etal to "etal contact in a joint to 'e "ade/ 3ery o+ten there
e.ists a +il" o+ o.ide on the sur+ace that insulates the t-o parts. Cor this reason it is
no good applying the soldering iron tip to one hal+ o+ the joint only and e.pecting this
to heat the other hal+ o+ the joint as -ell.
When the iron is hot/ apply so"e solder to the +lattened -oring end at the end o+
the 'it/ and -ipe it on a piece o+ da"p cloth or sponge so that the solder +or"s a
thin +il" on the 'it. 2his is tinning the 'it.
<elt a little "ore solder on to the tip o+ the soldering iron/ and put the tip so it
contacts 'oth parts o+ the joint. It is the "olten solder on the tip o+ the iron that
allo-s the heat to +lo- 5uicly +ro" the iron into 'oth parts o+ the joint. I+ the iron has
the right a"ount o+ solder on it and is positioned correctly/ then the t-o parts to 'e
joined -ill reach the solder6s "elting te"perature in a couple o+ seconds. >o- apply
the end o+ the solder to the point -here 'oth parts o+ the joint and the soldering iron
are all touching one another. 2he solder -ill "elt i""ediately and +lo- around all
the parts that are at/ or o3er/ the "elting part te"perature. &+ter a +e- seconds
re"o3e the iron +ro" the joint. <ae sure that no parts o+ the joint "o3e a+ter the
soldering iron is re"o3ed until the solder is co"pletely hard. 2his can tae 5uite a
+e- seconds -ith large joints. I+ the joint is distur'ed during this cooling period it
"ay 'eco"e seriously -eaened.
2he hard cold solder on a properly "ade joint should ha3e a s"ooth shiny
appearance and i+ the -ire is pulled it should not pull out o+ the joint. In a properly
"ade joint the solder -ill 'ond the co"ponents 3ery strongly indeed/ since the
process o+ soldering is si"ilarly to 'ra1ing/ and to a lesser degree -elding/ in that
the solder actually +or"s a "olecular 'ond -ith the sur+aces o+ the joint.
It is i"portant to use the right a"ount o+ solder/ 'oth on the iron and on the joint.
2oo little solder on the iron -ill result in poor heat trans+er to the joint/ too "uch and
you -ill su++er +ro" the solder +or"ing strings as the iron is re"o3ed/ causing
splashes and 'ridges to other contacts. 2oo little solder applied to the joint -ill gi3e
the joint a hal+ +inished appearance@ a good 'ond -here the soldering iron has 'een/
and no solder at all on the other part o+ the joint.
*e"e"'er it is "uch "ore di++icult to correct a poorly "ade joint than it is to "ae
the joint properly in the +irst place. &nyone can learn to solder/ it just taes practice.
PRINTED CIRCUIT ASSE593Y;)
&+ter the printed circuit 'oard 7PC$8 is co"pleted/ electronic co"ponents "ust 'e
attached to +or" a +unctional printed circuit asse"'ly/ or PC& 7so"eti"es called a
Jprinted circuit 'oard asse"'lyJ PC$&8. In through9hole construction/ co"ponent
leads are inserted in holes. In sur+ace9"ount construction/ the co"ponents are
placed on pads or lands on the outer sur+aces o+ the PC$. In 'oth inds o+
construction/ co"ponent leads are electrically and "echanically +i.ed to the 'oard
-ith a "olten "etal solder.
2here are a 3ariety o+ soldering techni5ues used to attach co"ponents to a PC$.
:igh 3olu"e production is usually done -ith "achine place"ent and 'ul -a3e
soldering or re+lo- o3ens/ 'ut silled technicians are a'le to solder 3ery tiny parts
7+or instance ,2,1 pacages -hich are ,.,2J 'y ,.,1J8 'y hand under a "icroscope/
using t-ee1ers and a +ine tip soldering iron +or s"all 3olu"e prototypes. 0o"e parts
are i"possi'le to solder 'y hand/ such as 'all grid array 7$=&8 pacages.
A+ten/ through9hole and sur+ace9"ount construction "ust 'e co"'ined in a single
PC& 'ecause so"e re5uired co"ponents are a3aila'le only in sur+ace9"ount
pacages/ -hile others are a3aila'le only in through9hole pacages. &nother reason
to use 'oth "ethods is that through9hole "ounting can pro3ide needed strength +or
co"ponents liely to endure physical stress/ -hile co"ponents that are e.pected to
go untouched -ill tae up less space using sur+ace9"ount techni5ues.
&+ter the 'oard has 'een populated it "ay 'e tested in a 3ariety o+ -ays@
While the po-er is o++/ 3isual inspection/ auto"ated optical inspection.
?HDHC guidelines +or PC$ co"ponent place"ent/ soldering/ and inspection
are co""only used to "aintain 5uality control in this stage o+ PC$
"anu+acturing.
While the po-er is o++/ analog signature analysis/ po-er9o++ testing.
While the po-er is on/ in9circuit tests/ -here physical "easure"ents 7i.e.
3oltage/ +re5uency8 can 'e done.
While the po-er is on/ +unctional test/ just checing i+ the PC$ does -hat it
had 'een designed +or.
2o +acilitate these tests/ PC$s "ay 'e designed -ith e.tra pads to "ae te"porary
connections. 0o"eti"es these pads "ust 'e isolated -ith resistors. 2he in9circuit
test "ay also e.ercise 'oundary scan test +eatures o+ so"e co"ponents. In9circuit
test syste"s "ay also 'e used to progra" non3olatile "e"ory co"ponents on the
'oard.
In 'oundary scan testing/ test circuits integrated into 3arious ICs on the 'oard +or"
te"porary connections 'et-een the PC$ traces to test that the ICs are "ounted
correctly. $oundary scan testing re5uires that all the ICs to 'e tested use a standard
test con+iguration procedure/ the "ost co""on one 'eing the ?oint 2est &ction
=roup 7?2&=8 standard.
When 'oards +ail the test/ technicians "ay desolder and replace +ailed co"ponents/
a tas no-n as Jre-orJ.
CONC3USION
2he relia'ility and accuracy o+ e5uip"ent is in3ersely proportional to the
nu"'er o+ co"ponents 'eing used. 2he less nu"'er o+ the co"ponents "ore
relia'ility and accuracy can 'e achie3ed al"ost o+ the electronic co"ponents are
te"perature and 3oltage 3ariation dependent. 0o "ore nu"'er o+ co"ponent "ore
the pro'le"/ you ha3e also it increase the "aintenance cost.
Aur e5uip"ent has 'een designed using the "ost "odern !0I chips
a3aila'le in the "aret -hich can tae the 3oltage +luctuation o+ greater degree.
RE2ERENCE
---.aaroncae.netIcircuits
---.-iepedia.co"
---.circuitstoday.co"
Ap9&"p and their linear integrated circuit9 $y *.&.=ai-ard
Hlectronic De3ices &nd Circuits9 $y >ashelsy & $oysted
>et-or &nalysis9 $y Dan Dalen'urg
Po-er Hlectronics9 $y P.C. 0en
---.alldatasheet.com
IDEAS WHICH COU3D NOT 9E I5P3E5ENTED
& circuit -hich -ould gi3e details a'out the 3ehicle co"ing +ro" the opposite
side. 2he detail lie it is at -hat distance +ro" the dri3er/ his speed o+
approaching and the intensity o+ the light.
& circuit -hich -ould auto"atically trigger the upper headlight circuit e3en i+
the 3ehicle is approaching hi" +ro" opposite side in case the other dri3er
does not gi3e response to our generosity.
& circuit -hich -ould send signals to the dri3er -hen he taes re3erse his
3ehicle and is a'out to hit so"ething.