PROJECT TITLE: AUTOMATED LIGHTING FOR AUTOMOBILE HEADLIGHT

PRESENTED BY:SAMWEL ESOKON EGIALAN

INDEX NUMBER:5031111820

INSTITUTION:KITALE NATIONAL POLYTECHNIC

SUPERVISOR: MARGARET MAMBIRI

PRESENTED TO:KENYA NATIONAL EXAMINATION COUNCIL (KNEC) IN

PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR AWARD OF DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL AND
ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING (POWER OPTION)

DATE:06/06/2022
 Declaration

I samwel esokon egialan declare that this project is my original work and that nobody has
submitted the same for engineering coursework.its complete and ready for evaluation by Kenya
national examination council (KNEC).

CANDIDATE:SAMWEL ESOKON EGIALAN

SIGN:

DATE:

SUPERVISOR:MARGARATE MAMBIRI

SIGN:

DATE:

1.0 CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Statement of the problem

Due to the increasing accidents encountered in Kenyan roads during the night, it is high time that
something has to be done especially in enhancing clear visibility of the drivers at night, since
most of these accidents are caused by arrogant drivers failing to switch to down light on
approaching an oncoming vehicle thereby compromising clear visibility of the other driver hence
losing control of the vehicle. This results in loss of lives and property.

1.2 Problem justification

Adaptive lighting system for automobiles is very useful for safety of the vehicle owners. It
automatically switches the headlight to lower beam when there is a vehicle coming from front at
night. Once the vehicle is passed it will automatically switch the headlight to higher beam. We
can save the valuable human lives by using this system in the vehicles due to road accidents at
night due to high flash lights.
DECLARATION

I samwel esokon egialan declare that this project is my original work and that nobody has
submitted the same for engineering coursework.its complete and ready for evaluation by Kenya
national examination council (KNEC).

CANDIDATE:SAMWEL ESOKON EGIALAN

SIGN:

DATE:

SUPERVISOR:MARGARATE MAMBIRI

SIGN:

DATE:
1.3 Project objectives

 To realise a potential divider circuit using a LDR and a variable resistor with the
resistance of the LDR being determined by light intensities (LEDs are used as the sources
of light which would imply the light of the front coming vehicle).

 To obtain a DC power supply of 12 V from an AC power supply using a transformer.

 To feed the voltage drop across the LDR to a comparator in order to produce an output
voltage proportional to the light intensity falling on it.

 To realise an optimum lighting intensity due to the interaction of two sources of light.

 To acquire a sensitivity using a variable resistor.

 To realise a circuit that has low power consumption.

1.4 Limitations

 Due to the system dependence on LDR (light dependent resistor) switching to down light
on approach to pedestrians is not possible leading to blinding effect to them.

 LDR may respond to streetlights dimming the front lamps are necessary.
1.5 Methodology

The objectives are achieved by using a timer that is IC LM358 which is connected as a
comparator.

Light dependent resistor(LDR) and light source I used to detect the presence of an object.
Resistance of an LDR depends on the brightness of light. It has a resistance of about 1 mega ohm
in total Darkness but a resistance of about 5 kilo-ohm when brightly illuminated.

A potential divider circuit is realised using LDR connected in series with a 10 kilo Ohm variable
resistor.

Since voltage is directly proportional to conductance, low voltage is obtained when LDR is
illuminated while High Voltage when LDR experience Darkness.

The variable resistor is adjusted so that it causes a half potential In Darkness and fall below half
potential in light.

Sensitiveness can be adjusted by varying the resistance of the variable resistor.

2.0 CHAPTER TWO

2.1 literature Review

Earlier research has tried to automate the switching of lights, although they have achieved the
same, they haven't exactly come up with systems which can also switch headlights to down
lights during the night.

Overview of these earlier automatic systems is as follows:

Automatic light/On and off system

Light on-and-off is an automatic lighting system that switches on the headlights as soon as the
light becomes poor and switches them off again when sufficient light is restored.

Functions

 Motorists encounter reduced light in many everyday motoring situations: tunnels,

underground car parks, sudden changes in the weather (storms, fog), nightfall etc.

 In these conditions, visibility can be reduced without the driver noticing. Poor visibility is
a real danger for motorists and for other road users:

 Risk of hitting another vehicle, a pedestrian or an obstacle,

 Risk of being hit by another vehicle that did not see you.

 By automatically controlling the vehicles head and tail lamps, light on and off helps to
reduce the dangers caused by poor perception by the driver due to light conditions.

 Moreover, forgetting to switch on the light when entering a tunnel or by night is an

offence in certain countries.

Principle of operation of automatic light on and off system

It utilizes an optical sensor, fitted on the windscreen inside the vehicle; this optical sensor
permanently detects light levels.

When light drops to less than 1000 lux, the electronic control unit activates the vehicle's low-heat
and side lights automatically.

When the light returns to 3000 lux, the lights are automatically switched off in less than 20
seconds.

The sensor can easily be switched off to return to manual mode using the on/off switch on the
sensor.
Significant advantages to the motorists

Ensures good mutual visibility see and be seen

Offers clear visibility in all circumstances

Immediate reactivity the light come on as soon as the vehicle enters a tunnel.

2.2 Introduction

Adaptive lighting system for automobiles is very useful for safety of the vehicle owners.

It automatically switches the headlight to lower beam when there is a vehicle coming from front
at night. Once the vehicle has passed it will automatically switch the headlight to higher beam
from Lower beam we can save human lives and loss of property by using this system in the
vehicles due to road accidents at night due to High flashlights.

Implementation of this project eliminate the manual operation of switching on and off headlight
down light when there is a vehicle coming from front at night.

It detect whether there is light from front coming vehicle or not. When there is light from front
coming vehicle it automatically switches to the down lights and when the vehicle passes it
automatically switches back to headlight.

Sensitiveness of the adaptive lighting system for automobiles can be adjusted. In this project we
have used four LED for indication of headlight/down light but for high power lamp switching
one can connect Relay at the output of pin 1 of I.C LM358. Then it will be possible to turn
ON/OFF high power headlight/down light of the vehicle.

2.3 Component used

1) Voltage regulator 7812

2) 12V transformer

3) Diode IN4007

4) LM358

5) Relay

6) Switch

7) General-purpose PCB (Printed circuit board)

8) LED's

9) Variable resistor
 10) Resistor, capacitors

11) Bulb

2.3.1 Power supply

For 12V power supply we used 12V step-down transformer, Bridge rectifier 12v regulator.

2.3.2 Switch

Any general-purpose which can be used. Switch is used as circuit breaker. It breaks the control
circuit from the controlled part.

2.3.3 L.D.R

Light depending Resistance is a special type of resistor whose value depends on the brightness of
light which is falling on it. It has high resistance (depending on its ratings) in total Darkness but
the resistance reduces to lower levels when brightness illuminated on it. It responds to a large
part of light spectrum.

2.3.4 P.C.B( Printed circuit board)

Which the help of PCB it is easy to assemble circuit with neat and clean end product.

PCB is made of Bakelite with surface pasted with copper track layout for each components leg,
hole is made. Connection pin is passed through the hole and is soldered.

2.3.5 L.E.D

A diode is a component that only allows electricity to flow one way. It can be thought as a sort of
one way street for electrons. Because of this characteristic, diodes are used to transform or
rectify AC voltage into a DC voltage.

Diodes have two connections, an anode and a cathode. The cathode is the End on the schematic
with the point of the triangle pointing towards a line. In other words the triangle point towards
that cathode.The anode is of course the opposite end. Current flows from the anode to the
cathode. Light emitting diodes,or LEDS, differ from Regular diode in that when voltage is
applied they emit light.

This light can be read( most common) green yellow orange blue( not very Common) or
infrared.LEDs are used as indicators transmitters etc. Most likely,a LED will never burn out like
a regular lamp will and requires many times less current. Because LEDs act like regular diodes
and will form a short if connected between +and -, a current limiting resistor is used to prevent
that very thing. LED may or may not be drawn with the circle surrounding them.

2.3.6 Variable resistance

A resistor is a device that limits or resists current. The current limiting ability or resistance is
measured in ohms represented by the Greek symbol for Omega. Variable resistors (also called
potentiometers or just"pots") are resistors that have a variable of resistance. You adjust the
resistance by turning a shaft. This shaft moves a wiper across the actually resistor element. By
changing the amounts of resistor between the wiper connection and the connections of the
resistor element you can change the resistance. You will often see the resistance of resistors
written with K (kilohms) after the number value. This means that there are many thousands of
ohms. Resistors are also rated by their power handling capability.This is the amount of heat the
resistor can take before it is destroyed. The power capability is measured in W (Watts).

Common wattages for variable resistors are 1/8W, 1/4W, 1/2W and 1W. Anything of a higher
wattage is referred to as a rheostat.

2.4 Power supply

Circuit diagram of power supply.

2.4.1 Transformer

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through
inductively coupled conductors- the Transformer's coilings of "windings". Except for Air core
Transformers, the conductors are commonly wound around a single iron-rich core, or around
separate by magnetically coupled cores. A varying current in the first or"primary" winding
creates a varying magnetic field in the core (or cores) of the transformer.This varying magnetic
field induces a varying electromotive force( EMF)or "voltage “in the "secondary" winding.This
effect is called mutual induction.

If a load is connected to the secondary circuit, electric charge will flow in the secondary winding
of the transformer and transfer energy from the primary circuit to the load connected in the
secondary circuit.
The secondary induced voltage Vs, of an ideal transformer, is scaled from the primary VP bio
Factor equal to the ratio of the number of turns of wire in their respective Windings.

Vs/Vp=Ns/Np

By appropriate selection of the number of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating voltage
to be stepped up- by making Ns more than Np-or stepped down by making Np more than Ns.

a)Basic parts of a transformer

In its most basic form a transformer consists

 A primary or winding

 A secondary or winding

 A core that supports the coils or windings.

Referring to the transformer circuit in figure on the next page, the primary winding is connected
to a 60 Hz AC voltage source. The magnetic field (flux) builds up (expands) and collapses
(contracts) about the primary winding. The expanding and contracting magnetic field around the
primary Winding catch the secondary winding and induces an alternating voltage into the
Winding. This voltage causes alternating current to flow through the load. The voltage may be
stepped up or down depending on the design of the primary and secondary Windings.

b) The components of a transformer

Two coils of wire (called windings) are wound on some type of core material. In some cases the
coils of wire are wound on a cylindrical or rectangular cardboard form. In effect, the core
material is air and the transformer is called an Air core transformer. Transformers used at low
frequencies, search such 60 Hertz and 400 Hertz require a core of low reluctance magnetic
materials usually iron. This type of transformer is called an iron core transformer. Most power
Transformers are of the Iron core type.

The principle parts of a transformer and their functions are:

 The COREwhich provides a path for the magnetic lines of flux.

 The PRIMARY WINDING, which receives energy from the AC source.

 The SECONDARY WINDING, which receives energy from the primary winding and
delivers it to the load.

 The ENCLOSURE which protects the above components from dirt, moisture and
mechanical damage

2.4.2 Bridge rectifier

A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement to achieve full wave
rectification. This is a widely used configuration both with individual diodes wired as shown and
with single component Bridges where the Diode Bridge is wired internally.

a) Basic operation

According to the conventional mode of current flow originally established by Benjamin Franklin
and still followed by most engineers today, current is assumed to flow through electrical
conductors from the positive to the negative Pole. In actuality, free electrons in a conductor
nearly always flow from the negative to the positive Pole. In the vast majority of applications,
however, the actual direction of current flow is irrelevant. Therefore in the discussion below the
conventional model is retained.
In the diagrams below, when the input connected to the left corner of the diamond is positive,
and the input connected to the right corner is negative, current flows from the upper supply
terminal to the right along the red(positive)path to the output, and returns to the lower supply
terminals where the blue( negative)path

When the input connected to the left corner is negative, and the input connected to the right
corner is positive, current flows from the lower supply terminal to the right along the red path to
the output and returns to the upper supply terminal via the blue path.

In each case, the upper right output remains positive and lower-right output negative. Since this
is true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit not only produces a DC output from an AC
input, it can also provide what is sometimes called" reverse polarity protection". That is, it
permits normal functioning of DC powered equipment when batteries have been installed
backwards,or when the leads(wires) from a DC power source have been reversed,and protects
the equipment from potential damage caused by reverse polarity.

Prior to availability of integrated electronics,such a bridge rectifier was always constructed from
discrete components. Since about 1950,a single four- component containing the four diodes
connected in the bridge configuration became a standard commercial component and is now
available with various voltage and current ratings.

b) Output smoothing

For many applications, especially with single phase AC where the full wave Bridge serves to
convert an AC input into a DC output the addition of a capacitor may be desired because the
bridge alone supplies and output of fixed polarity but continuously varying or "pulsating"
magnitude.

The function of this capacitor, known as a reservoir capacitor (smoothing capacitor) is to lessen
the variation in (or 'smooth') the rectified AC output voltage waveform from the Bridge. One
explanation of 'smoothing' is that the capacitor provides a low-impedance path to the AC
component of the output, reducing the AC voltage across, and AC current through the resistive
load.

In less technical terms, any drop in the output voltage and current of the bridge tends to be
cancelled by loss of charge the capacitor.this charge flows out as additional current through the
load. Thus the change of load current and voltage is reduced relative to what would occur
without the capacitor. Increases of voltage correspondingly store excess charge in the capacitor,
thus moderating the change in output voltage/current.

The simplified circuit shown has a well-deserved reputation for being dangerous, because, in
some applications, the capacitor can retain a lethal charge after the AC power source is removed.
Is supplying a dangerous voltage, a practical circuit should include a reliable way to safely
discharge the capacitor. Is the normal load cannot be guaranteed to perform this function,
perhaps because it can be disconnected, the circuit should include a bleeder resistor connected as
close as practicals across the capacitor. The resistor should consume a current large enough to
discharge the capacitor in a reasonable time but small enough to minimise unnecessary power
waste.

Because a bleeder sets a minimum drain, the regulation of the circuit, defined as percentage
voltage change from minimum to maximum load is improved. However in many cases the
improvement is of insignificant magnitude.

The capacitor and the Lord's Resistance have a typical time constant given as;

=RC

Where C and R capacitance and load resistance respectively.

As long as the load resistor is large enough so that this time constant is much longer than the
time of one triple cycle, the above configuration will produce a smooth DC voltage across the
load.

In some designs, a series resistor at the load side of the capacitor is added. The smoothing can
then be improved by adding additional stages of capacitor resistor pairs, often done only for sub
supplies to Critical high gain circuits that tend to be sensitive to supply voltage noise.

The idealized waveform shown previously are seen for both voltage and current when the load
on the bridge is sensitive. When the load includes a smoothing capacitor, both the voltage and
the current waveforms will be greatly changed. While the voltage is smoothed as described
above, current will flow through the bridge only during the time when the input voltage is greater
than the capacitor voltage. For example if the load draws an average current of n Amps, and the
diode conducts for 10% of the time, the average diode curst during conduction must be 10n
Amps.

This non-sinusoidal current leads to harmonic distortion and a poor power factor in the AC
supply.

In a practical circuit, when a capacitor is directly connected to the output of a bridge, Bridge
diodes must be sized to withstand the current surge that occurs when the power is turned on at
the peak of the AC voltage and the capacitor is fully discharged. Sometimes a small series
resistor is included before the capacitor to limit this current, though in most applications the
power supply transformer's resistance is already sufficient.
Output can also be smoked using a choke and second capacitor. The choke tends to keep the
current (rather than the voltage) more constant. Due to the relatively high cost of an effective
choke compared to a resistor and capacitor this is not employed in modern equipment.

Some early console radio created the speaker's constant field with the current from the high
voltage ("B+") power supply which was then routed to the consuming circuits, (permanent
magnets were then too weak for good performance) to create the speaker's constant magnetic
field the speaker field coil thus pperformed two jobs in one: it acted as a choke filtering the
power supply and it produced the Magnetic Fields to operate the speaker.

2.4.3 Regulator IC (78XX):

It is a 3-pin IC used as a voltage regulator. It converts unregulated DC current into regulated DC

current.

Normally we get fixed output by connecting the voltage regulator at the output of the filtered DC
(see in above diagram). It can also be used in circuit to get a low DC voltage from a high DC
voltage (for example we use 7805 to get 5v from 12V).There are two types of voltage regulators;

1. Fixed voltage regulators (78xx, 79xx)

2. Variable voltage regulators (LM317)

In fixed voltage regulators there is another classification,

1. Positive voltage regulators

2. Negative voltage regulators

Positive voltage regulators include78xx voltage regulators. The most common used ones are
7805 and 7812. 7805 gives fixed 5V DC voltage if input voltage is in (7.5V, 20V).

2.4.4 The capacitor filter

The simple capacitor filter is the most basic type of power supply filter. The application of a
simple capacitor filter is very limited. It is sometimes used on extremely high voltage, low
current power supply for cathode ray and similar electron tubes, which require very little load
current from the supply. The capacitor filter is also used where the power supply ripple
frequency is not critical; this frequency can be relatively high. The capacitor (C1) shown in
figure below is a simple filter connected across the output of the rectifier in parallel with the
load.
When this filter is used, the RC charge time of the filter capacitor (C1) must be short and the RC
discharge time must be long to eliminate ripple action. In other words, the capacitor must charge
up fast, preferably with no discharge at all. Better filtering also results when the input frequency
is high;therefore; the full wave rectifier output is easier to filter than that of the half wave
rectifier because of its higher frequency.

For better understanding of the effect that filtering has on Eavg, a comparison of a rectifier circuit
with a filter and one without a filter is illustrated in views A and B of figures on the next page.

The output waveforms in the first figure represent the unfiltered and filtered outputs of the half
wave rectifier circuit. Current pulses flow through the load Resistance (RL) each time a diode
conducts. The dashed line indicates the average value of output voltage. For the half wave
rectifier,Eavg is less than half ( for approximately 0.3 18) of the peak output voltage. This value is
still much less than that of the applied voltage. Which no capacitor connected across the output
of the rectifier circuit, the waveform in view Ahas a large pulsating component (ripple)
compared with the average or dC component.

When a capacitor is connected across the output (view B), the average value of output voltage
(Eavg) is increased due to the filtering action of capacitor C1.

HALF –WAVE RECTIFIER WITH AND WITHOUT FILTERING

UNFILTERED
 FILTERED

FIG 4.16

The value of the capacitor is fairly large(several microfarads), that it provides a relatively low
reactance to the pulsating current and its stores are substantial charge.

The rate of charge for the capacitor is limited only by the resistance of the conducting diode,
which is relatively low. Therefore the RC charge time of the circuit is relatively short.

As a result,when the pulsating voltage is first applied to the circuit, the capacitor charges rapidly
and almost reaches the peak value of the rectified voltage within the first few Cycles. The
capacitor attempts to charge to the peak value of the rectified voltage anytime a diode is
conducting and tends to retain it's charged when the rectifier output Falls to zero. (The capacitor
cannot discharge immediately.) The capacitor slowly discharges to the load resistance
(RL)during the time the rectifier is non-conducting.
The rate of discharge of the capacitor is determined by the value of capacitance and the value of
the load resistance. If the capacitance and load resistance values as large, the RC discharge time
for the Circuit is relatively long.

A comparison of the wave shown in figure 4.16 (view A and view B) illustrate that the addition
of C1 to the circuit results in an increase in the average of the output voltage(Eavg) and a
reduction in the amplitude of the ripple component(Er), which is normally present across the
load resistance.

Now let's consider a complete cycle of operation using a half wave rectifier, a capacitive
filter(C1), and a load resistor(Rl).As show in view A of figure 4.17, the capacitive filter (C1) is
assumed to be large enough to ensure a small reactance to the pulsating rectified current. The
resistance of RL is assumed to be much greater than the reactance of C1 at the input frequency.
When the circuit is energized, the diode conducts on the positive half cycle and current flows
through the circuit, allowing C1 to charge.C1 recharge to approximately the peak value of the
input voltage. (The charge is less than the peak value because of the voltage drop across the
diode (D1)). In viewA of the figure l, the heavy solid playing on the waveform indicate the
charge on C1. As illustrated in view B, the diode cannot conduct on the negative half cycle
because the anode of D1 is negative with respect to the cathode. During this interval, C1
discharges through the load resistor (Rl). The discharge of C1 produces the downward slope as
indicated by the solid line on the waveform view B. In contrast to the abrupt fall of the applied
AC voltage from peak value to zero, the voltage across C1 (and thus across Rl) during the
discharge period gradually decreases until the time of the next half cycle of rectifier operation.
For good filtering, the filter capacitor should charge up as fast as possible and discharge as little
as possible.
Since practical values of C1 and RL ensure a more-or-less gradual decrease of the discharge
voltage, a substantial charge remains on the capacitor at the time of the next half cycle of
operation. As a result, no current can flow through the diode until the rising AC input voltage at
the anode of the diode exceeds the voltage on the charge remaining on C1. The charge on C1 is
the cathode potential of the diode. When the potential on the anode exceeds the potential on the
cathode(the charge on C1),the diode again conducts,and C1 begins to charge to approximately
the peak value of the applied voltage.

After the capacitor has charged to its peak value, the diode will cutoff and the capacitor will
start to discharge. Since the fall of the AC input voltage on the anode is considerably more rapid
than the decrease on the he capacitor voltage,the cathode quickly becomes more positive than the
anode and the diode ceases to conduct.

Operation of the simple capacitor filter using a full wave rectifier is basically the same as that
discussed for the half wave rectifier. Referring to figure you should notice that because one of
the diodes is always conducting on alteration, the filter capacitor charges and discharges during
each half cycle. (, note that each diode conducts only for that portion of time when the peak
secondary voltage is greater than the charge across the capacitor.

Another thing to keep in mind is that the ripple component(Er) of the output voltage is an AC
voltage and the average output (Eavg) is the DC component of the output.Since the filter capacitor
offers alternatively low impedance to AC, the majority of the AC component flows through the
filter capacitor.

The ac component is therefore bypassed (shunted) around the load resistance and the entire dc
component (or Eavg) flows through the load resistance. This statement can be clarified by using
the formula for Xc in a half-wave and full-wave rectifier. First you must establish some values
for the Circuit.

As you can see from the calculations, by doubling the frequency of the rectifier, you reduce the
impedance of the capacitor by one-half. This allows the AC component to pass through the
capacitor more easily. As a result, a full wave rectifier output is much easier to filter than that of
a half wave rectifier. Remember the smaller the Xc of the filter capacitor with respect to the
Load Resistance the better the filtering action.Since

XC=1/2fC

The largest possible capacitor will provide the best filtering

Remember, also, that the load Resistance is an important consideration. Is load Resistance Is
Made small the load current increases, and the average value of output voltage (Eavg)
decreases.The RC discharge time constant is a direct function of the value of the current through
the load. The greater the load current the more rapid the discharge of the capacitor, and the lower
the average value of output voltage. For this reason the simple capacitive filter is seldom used
with rectifier circuits that must supply a relatively large load current. Using the simple capacitive
filter in conjunction with a full wave or Bridge rectifier provides improved filtering because the
increased ripple frequency decreases the capacitive reactance of the filter capacitor.

2.4.5 Voltage comparator LM358

The lm1458 series consists of two independent High gain, internally frequency compensated
operational amplifiers which were designed specifically to operate from a single power supply
over a wide range of voltages. Operation from split power supplies is also possible and the low
power supply current drain is independent of the magnitude of the power supply voltage.

Application areas include transducer amplifiers, DC game blocks and all convectional OP amp
circuits, which now can be more easily implemented in single power supply system.For example,
the LM158 series can be directly operated off of the standard +5V power supply voltage, which
is used in digital systems and will easily provide the required interface electronics without
requiring the additional ± power supplies. The LM358 and LM2904 are available in a chip sized
pack-age (8-Bump micro SMD) using National's micro SMD pack-age technology.

Unique Characteristics

 In the linear mode the input common-mode voltage range includes ground and the output
voltage can also swings to ground, even though operated from only a single power supply
voltage.

 The unity gain frequency is temperature compensated

 The input bias current is also temperature compensated

Advantages

 To internally compensated op amps

 Eliminates need for dual supplies

 Allows direct sensing near GND and VOUT also goes to GND

 Compatible with all forms of logic

 Power drain suitable for battery operation.

Features

 Available in 8-bump micro SMG chip sized voltage

 Internally frequency compensated for unity gain

 DC voltage gain: 100dB

 (Temperature compensated)

 Wide power supply range

 Single supply: 3V to 32V

 Or dual supplies:± 1.5V to ±16V

 Very low supply current drain essentially (500mA)

 Independent of supply voltage

 Low input offset voltage:2mV

 Input common-mode voltage range includes ground

 Differential input voltage range equal to the power

 Supply voltage

 Large output voltage swing

2.4.6 Relay

The relay takes advantage of the fact that when electricity flows through a coil it becomes an
electromagnet. The electromagnetic coil attracts a steel plate which is attached to a switch.
Switches motion on and off is controlled by the current flowing to the coil (ON) or when there is
no current flowing through at all (OFF).A useful feature of a relay is that it can be used to
electrically isolate different parts of a circuit. It will allow a low-voltage circuit (e.g.5VDC) to
switch the power in High Voltage circuit (e.g. 100 VAC or more).

The relay operates mechanical, so it cannot operate at high speed. The internal circuitry of a
relay is as shown below.

There are different types of relay. You can select one according to your needs. The various
things to consider when selecting a relay are is size, voltage and current capacity of the contact
points, Drive voltage, impedance, number of contacts, resistance of the contacts, etc.
The resistance voltage of the contacts is the maximum voltage that can be conducted at the point
of contact in the switch. When the maximum is exceeded the contacts will spark and melt,
sometimes fusing together.The relay will fail. The value is printed on the relay.

2.4.7 Diodes

A diode is a semiconductor device which allows current to flow through it in Only One
Direction.

Also a transistor is also a semiconductor device, it does not operate the way a diode does.A diode
is specifically made to allow current to flow through it in Only One Direction. Some ways in
which the diode can be used are listed below

A diode can be used as a rectifier that converts AC (alternating current) to DC (Direct current)
for a power supply device.

Diodes can be used to separate the signal from radio frequencies.

Diodes can be used as an on-off switch that controls current.

This symbol is used to indicate a diode in a circuit diagram.the meaning of the symbol is
(Anode) (cathode). Current flows from the anode side to the cathode side. Although all diodes
operate with same general principles, they're different types suited to different applications. For
example the following devices are best used for the application noted.

Voltage regulation diode (zener diode)

The circuit symbol is used to regulate voltage by taking advantage of the fact that zener diodes
tend to stabilize at a certain voltage when that voltage is applied in the opposite direction.

Light emitting diode.

This type of diode Emits light when current flows through it in forward Direction (forward
biased)

Fig. Characteristics of Diode

The graph above shows the electrical characteristics of a typical diode. When a small voltage is
applied to the diode in the forward Direction, current flows easily. Because the dad has a certain
amount of resistance, the voltages will drop slightly as current flows through the diode.A a
typical diode causes a voltagedrop of about 0.6-1v(vf)( in the case of silicon diode,almost 0.6v)

This voltage drops needs to be taken into consideration in a circuit which uses many diodes in
series. Also, the amount of current passing through the diodes must be considered.

When voltage is applied in the reverse Direction through a diode, the diode will have a great
resistance to current flow. Different diodes have different characteristics when reverse_baised. A
given diode should be selected depending on how it will be used in the circuit. The current that
will flow through a diode biased in the reverse direction will vary from several mA to just mA,
which is very small.

The limiting voltages and Currents permissible must be considered on a case-by-case basis. For
example, when using diodes for rectification, part of the time they will be required to withstand a
reverse voltage. If diodes are not chosen carefully, they will break down.

2.4.8 Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Light-emitting diodes must be chosen according to how they will be used, because there are
various kinds. The diodes are available in several colours. The most common colours are red and
green but there are even blue ones. The device on the far right in the photograph combines red
LED and green LED in one package. The component lead in the middle is common to both
LEDs. As for the remaining two leads, one side is for the green and the other for the red LED.
When both are turned on simultaneously,it becomes orange.

When an LED is new out of the package, the polarity of the device can be determined by looking
at the leads. The longer you side is the anode side, and the shorter one is the cathode side.

The polarity of an LED can also be determined using a resistance meter, or even a 1.5V battery.

When using a test meter to determine polarity, set the meter to a low resistance measurement
range. Connect the probes of the meter to the LED. If the polarity is correct, the LED will glow.

If the LED does not glow, switch the meter probes to the opposite leads on the LED. In either
case, the side of the diode which is connected to the black meter probe when the LED glows, is
the Anode side. Positive voltage flow out of the black probe when the meter is set to measure
resistance.

It is possible to use an LED to obtain a fixed voltage. The voltage drop (forward voltage or Vf)
of an LED is comparatively stable at just about 2V.

2.4.9 Resistors
The resistor's function is to reduce the flow of electric current. There are two classes of resistors;
fixed resistors and the variable of resistors. They are also classified according to the material
from which they are made. The typical resistor is made of either carbon film or metal film. There
are other types as well but these are the most common. The resistance value of a resistor is not
the only thing to consider when selecting a resistor for use in a circuit. The "tolerance" and the
electric power ratings of the resistor are also important. The tolerance of a resistor donates how
close it is to the actual rated resistance value. For example, a ±5% tolerance would indicate a
resistor that is within±5% of the specified resistance value.

a) Fixed resistors

A fixed resistor is one in which the value of its resistance cannot change.

b) Carbon film resistors

This is the most general purpose cheap resistor. Usually the tolerance of the resistance value
is±5%. Power ratings of1/8W, 1/4W and 1/2W are frequently used.

Carbon film resistors have a disadvantage; they tend to be electrically noisy.

Metal film resistors are recommended for use in analogue circuits. However I have never
experienced any problems with this noise. The physical size of different resistors is as follows.

C) Variable resistors

There are two general ways in which variable resistors are used. One is the variable resistor
which value is easily changed, like the volume adjustment of Radio. The other is semi fixed
resistor that is not meant to be adjusted by anyone but a technician. It is used to adjust the
operating condition of the circuit by the technician. Semi-fixed resistors are used to compensate
for the inaccuracies of the resistors and to fine-tune a circuit. The rotation angle of the variable
resistor is usually 300 degrees.Some variable resistors must be turned many times to use the
whole range of resistance they offer. This allows for very precise adjustment of their value.
These are called "potentiometers"or "trimmer potentiometers"

In the photographs to the left, the variable resistor typically used for volume control can be seen
on the far right. It's value is very easy to adjust. The four resistors at the centre of the photograph
are the semi-fixed type. These ones are mounted on the printed circuit board.

The two resistors on the left are the trimmer potentiometers.

There are three ways in which a variable resistor's value can change according to the rotation
angle of its axis.

When type "A"rotates clockwise at first, the resistance value changes slowly and then in the
second half of its axis it changes very quickly. Type "A" type variable resistor is typically used
for the volume control of a radio,for example. It is well suited to adjust a low sound subtly. It
suits the characteristics of the ear. The ear hears low sound changes well,but isn't as sensitive to
small changes in loud sounds a larger change is needed as the volume is increased.These 'A' type
visible resistors are sometimes called audio taper potentiometers.

As for type "B", the rotation of the axis and the change of the resistance value are directly
related. The rate of change is the same,or linear, throughout the sweep of the axis. This type suits
a resistance value adjustments in a circuit balance sheet and so on

They are sometimes called linear paper potentiometers. Type C changes exactly the opposite way
to type "A". In the early stages of the rotation of the axis, the resistance value changes rapidly,
and in the second half the change occurs more slowly. This type isn't too much used. It is a
special use. As for the variable resistor most are type "A" or type "B".

x) Capacitors

The capacitor's function is to store electricity or electrical energy. The capacitor also functions as
a filter passing alternating current(AC) and blocking direct current(DC)

This symbol 'F' is used to indicate a capacitor in a circuit diagram. The capacitor is constructed
with two electrode plates facing each other, not separated by an insulator. When DC voltage is
applied to the capacitor, an electric charge is stored on each electrode. While the capacitor is
charging up, current flows. The current stop flowing when the capacitor has fully charged.

Types of capacitors.

a) Breakdown voltage

When using a capacitor, we must pay attention to the maximum voltage which can be used. This
is the breakdown voltage. The breakdown voltage depends on the kind of capacitor being
used.We must be especially careful with electrolyte capacitors because the breakdown voltage is
comparatively low. A breakdown voltage of electrolytic capacitors is displayed as working
voltage. The breakdown voltage is the voltage that when exceeded will cause the
dielectric(insulator) inside the capacitor to break down and conduct.When this happens the
failure can be catastrophic.

b) Electrolytic capacitors (electrochemical type capacitors)

Aluminum is used for the electrodes by using a thin oxidation membrane. Large values of
capacitance can be obtained in comparison with the size of the capacitor because the dielectric
used is very thin. The most important characteristic of electrolytic capacitors is that they have
polarity. They have a positive and a negative electrode (polarised). This means that it is very
important which way round they are connected. If the capacitor is subjected to voltage exceeding
its working voltage, or if it is connected with incorrect polarity, it may burst. It is extremely
dangerous because it can quite literally explode.

Make absolutely no mistakes. Generally in a circuit diagram the positive side is indicated by
a"+" plus symbol. Electrolytic capacitors range in value from about 1mF to thousands of mF.
Mainly this type of capacitor is used as a ripple filter in a power supply circuit, or as a filter to
bypass low-frequency signals etc. Because this type of capacitor is comparatively similar to the
nature of a coil in construction, it isn't possible to use for high frequency circuits. (It is said that
the Frequency characteristic is bad).

The photograph on the left is an example of the different values of electrolytic capacitors in
which the capacitance and voltage differ.

From the left to right:

1F (50 V) [diameter 5mm, high 12mm]

47 F (16V) [diameter 6mm, high 5mm]

100F (25 V) [diameter 5 mm, high 11mm)
220F (25 V) [diameter 8mm, high 12mm]
1000F (50V) [diameter 18mm, high 40mm]
The size of the capacitor sometimes depends on the manufacturer. So the sizes shown here on
this page as just for examples.

c) Ceramic capacitors

Ceramic capacitors are constructed with materials such as titanium acid barium used as the
dielectric.Internally, these capacitors are not constructed as a coil, so they can be used in high-
frequency applications. Typically they are used in circuits which bypass high-frequency signals
to ground. These capacitors have the shape of a disc. The capacitance is comparatively small.
The capacitor on the left is 100pF capacitor with a diameter of about 3 mm. The capacitor on the
right side is printed with 103, so 10x 10-3 of becomes 0.01 mg. The diameter of the disc is about
6 mm. Ceramic capacitors have no polarity. Remix capacity should not be used for analogue
circuits because they can distort the signal.

d) Variable capacitors

Variable capacitors are used for adjustment etc. of frequency mainly. On the left in the
photograph is a
"trimmer" which uses ceramic as the dielectric. Next to it on the right is one that uses polyester
film for the dielectric. The pictured components are meant to be mounted on a printed circuit
board.

When adjusting the value of a variable capacitor, it is advisable to be careful. One of the
components leads is connected to the Adjustment screw of the capacitor. This means that the
value of the capacitor can be affected by the capacitance of the screwdriver in your hand. It is
better to use a special screwdriver to adjust these components.

e) Light dependent resistors

LDR or light dependent resistors are very useful especially in light or dark sensor circuits.
Normally the resistance of an LDR is very high, sometimes as high as 1 000 000 ohms, but
when they are illuminated with light resistance drops dramatically.

3.0 CHAPTER THREE:

3.1 Design of the system:

Design specification of the system is that it should be supplied with a 12 dc voltage supply as it
in the real powering of the vehicle,our objective is to realize the voltage divider circuit which
will analyse the two different input voltages according to the state of these input voltages , in the
case of light illuminated to the LDR and when there is no light to it .

The output of this voltage divider circuit then is fed to the comparator which will present two
states to the transistor depending on the inputs ,its output is either a high(1) or a low (0).If it is
high then the switching circuit will be activated and deactivated when it is a low .We simulated a
transistor as the switching circuit as it will be stipulated in the circuit diagram ,when the output
of the comparator is high then the transistor will get biased and it will start conducting therefore
connecting the negative terminal of the relay to the ground ,this will result in the coil of the relay
being magnetized therefore switching states from normally close to normally open resulting to
the switching of the headlamps to the downlight . The indicator bulb is fixed in the dashboard to
help the driver monitor the states.

3.2 Steps followed in the design process:

 Adhering to the standard specification of powering of motor vehicle circuitry.

 Realization a voltage divider circuit .
 Obtaining the datasheet of LM358IC and its pin connection to function as comparator
 Simulating a transistor as an automatic swichting system.
 Using a relay as the mechanical switch of states
 Connecting the relay pins to the lamp pins .

3.3 Block diagram

 POWER SUPPLY HEAD
LAMP

VOLTAGE COMPARATO SWITCHING

DIVEDER R CCT
SPST RELAY
CIRCUIT
12V

INDICATOR
BULB

3.3.1 Principle of operation

From the power supply to the lamp, the relay will be in the N/C state . The lamp
connection is to be in headlight at the point , this occurs when the voltage difference in
the voltage divider circuit is zero,when there is a voltage difference then the relay will be
activated hence swichtin to N/O state therefore switching headlights to downlights.

3.4 Circuit diagram

3.4.1 Component connection.
a) Resistors :
They were used to create voltage drops in the voltage divider circuit and also to limit
current flow in some components to avoid breakdown.
b) Diodes
In this circuit two types of diodes were used
 Light emitting diode and
 IN4007 diode

 The aim of the LED was to act as an indicator diode while the IN4007 diode
provide one direction flow of current . The other use of the IN4007 diode was to
act as a protection diode because they are used with relays to protect transistors
and ICs from brief voltage SPIKES produce when relay coil is switch off

c) Transistors
 BC547
This transistor is mainly used for amplification and switching purpose. It has
maximum current gain of 800. The input signal at the bass is amplified and taken
to the emmiter. For switching applications, the transistor is biased so that it
remains fully on if there is asignal at its base. In the absence of base signal, it is
completely off. The connections were done as follows;

 The base was connected to the output of the comparator via a resistor.
 The emitter was grounded
 The collector was connected to the cathode of the IN4007 diode
d) 12V SPST relay ;

Chosen because it is a single throw (change over ) switch its voltage

specification had to tally with the suplly voltage. The connections were as
follows;
 The normally closed (NC) terminal was connected to the positive
terminal of the headlight
 The normally open (NO) terminal was connected to the positive
terminal of the downlight
 The common terminal and the positive terminal of the coil were
connected to the power supply
 The negative terminal of the coil was connected to the transistor
collector.
f) LM385 PIN connection;

LM385 is an 8 pin IC, pin1 and 4 are grounded , pin 5,6 and 8 are
connected to the positive rail of the circuit, pin 2 being the positive input
and pin 3 being the negative input.

Lm385 connection diagram

3.4.2 principles of the circuit;

This circuit uses a popular timer I.C LM 385.It is connected as comparator with pin 6 connected
to the positive rail of the circuit ; the output goes high(1)when the trigger pin 3 is at lower
voltage than voltage level at pin no 2 .Conversely the output goes low (0)when its voltage level
is above pin no 2 level so small change in the voltage of pin 2 is enough to change the level of
output (1) from 1 to 0 and 0 to 1. The output as only two states high and low and cannot remain
in any intermediate stage. It is powered by a 12v power supply .The circuit is economical in
power consumption. Pin 4 is ground and pin 8 is connected to the positive supply and pin 1 is
grounded. To detect the presence of an oncoming vehicle, we have used LDR to detect the
intensity of light of the vehicle. LDR is a special type of resistor whose value depends on the
brightness of the light which is falling on it .It has resistance of about 1 mega ohm when in total
darkness , but a resistance of only 5 kΩ when brightness illuminated .It response to a large part
of light spectrum .

We have made a potential divider circuit with LDR and 10k variable resistors connected in
series. We know that voltage is directly proportional to conductance so we get from this divider
low voltage when LDR is getting light and high voltage in darkness .This divided voltage is
given to be in two of IC LM358 .Variable resistance is so adjusted that it crosses potential of 0.5
in darkness and fall below 0.5 in light . Sensitiveness can be adjusted by this variable resistance.
As soon as this LDR gets light the voltage of pin 2 drops off the supply voltage and pin 3 gets
high (1) and LED that is connected to the output gets activated.

When the output of the amplifier is high (1) the transistor is biased. Its activation makes it
conduct hence grounding the negative terminal of the relay. This leads to the relay coil being
magnetized resulting to change of state from N/C to N/O , therefore lighting the lamp in
accordance with how its connected with the relay the diode isolate the current flowing from the
negative rail to the positive rail ,it also acts a protection kit for the relay coil .

4.0 CHAPTER FOUR:

4.1 Test and Result :

a) Circuit testing:

The circuit was first simulated using circuit maker computer program to predict the expected
results and the circuit behavior.

The circuit was the tested at component level to make sure that the component used worked.The
components were then mapped onto the breadboard to form the complete simulation circuit.

Later,the circuit was implemented on a printed circuit board through soldering of components
onto the board while maintaining the connections requirements.During this procedure the
following precautions were observed;

4.1.1 Component precaution:

a) LDR used should be sensitive. Before using in the circuit it should be tested with millimeter.

b)IC should not be heated much while soldering ,too much heat can destroy the IC. For safety
and easy to replace ,use of IC base is suggested.While placing the IC, pin number 1 should be
made sure at the right hole.

c) Opposite polarity of battery can destroy IC so please check the polarity before switching on
the circuit .One should use diode in series with switch for safety since diode allows flowing
current in one direction only.

d)L.E.D glows in forward bias only so incorrect polarity of LED will not glow . Output voltage
of our project is 7.3 volt therefore 3 LED in series can be easily used without resistance .

e) Each component should be soldered neat and clean .We should check for any dry soldered

f)LDR should be so adjusted that it should not get light from streetlight itself.

4.1.2 During soldering:

 The bit of soldering iron should be kept clean with the help of file at time to time .
 The solder wire should be of small thickness .
 We should not use extra solder because it may be a cause of short circuit in the
conductive path
 The component should not be overheated .
 The leads of the component should be clean before soldering,by the send paper .
 The bit of a new soldering iron should be clean properly before soldering.
  The joint should be heated up to the required temperature by which, the solder melts and
comes around the joint . The joint should not be disturbed before setting the solder. The
good joint look pointed spot.
4.1.3 During using power supply:
 Switches and fuses should be used in a project circuit .
 Earthing is essential in wiring.
 We use insulated wires
 Power supply should be switch off,when it is not required
 If there is a fault in the circuit ,then first we should repair it. After repairing it connect
again the power supply.
4.1.4 During testing of project:

 Each component should be check before testing the project.

 Potentiometer should be adjusted at proper range .
 Battery of the testing equipment should be properly checked otherwise it will not
measure the actual reading .
 The components, which are not doing function properly, should be change as soon as
possible, otherwise other components may also be damage by it .
 Testing equipment should be in proper range when output measure at any point of the
circuit ,or component . Otherwise testing equipment may showed the wrong reading .
5.0 CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 Conclusions:
The project was set out to achieve various objectives.The attainment of these objectives
impacts into the realization of such systems in the real world to solve problems
stated.Many challenges were encountered but at last the system did work and the various
test successful. The main objectives and the aims of the project were met .The attainment
of the objectives outline earlier was a factor of time and also a factor of cost implications.
However, there are limitations associated with thus system when implemented in
automobiles. These limitations are stated below;
5.1.1 System limitations:

 Response of the system to other source of lights

 The system cannot switch to downlight in response to pedestrians.
5.2 Recommendations:

I would recommend that anybody wishing to carry further analysis on the system to
concentrate on obtaining a light dependent sensor which suits the desired the desired
requirement of responding to a certain intensity of light .This will involve fabrication of
the sensor while taking into account illumination characteristics.The other importance
aspect of the system to be analyzed is the sensitivity of the sensor and its location in a car

REFERENCES:

Classic British Car Electrical systems :your guide to understanding,repairing and

improving the electrical components and system that were typical of british cars
from 1950 to 1980 (Essential )by Rick Astley.

Electrical Circuits:An Introduction (Electrical Texts For Engineers and scientist) by

K C.A Smith and R.E Alley.

http://www.hbeonlabs.com/

http://www.automotto.com/

http://www.denso-europe .com/

http://www.allfreeessays.com/http://www.import-car.com/