List of Contents

List of contents
Chapter 0: Introduction
Chapter 1: 3-Phase AC Motors
Chapter 2: Frequency converters
Chapter 3: Frequency converters and Motors
Chapter 4: Protection and Safety
Appendix I: General Mechanical Theory
Appendix II: General AC Theory
Appendix III: Generally used Abbreviations
Literature reference
Index
4 LI ST OF CONTENTS
Li st of contents
CHAPTER 0: INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Advantages of i nfi ni tel y vari abl e speed regul ati on . . . . . . . . .10
Control or regul ati on? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
CHAPTER 1: 3-PHASE AC MOTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Asynchronous motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Stator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Magneti c fi el d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Sl i p, torque and speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Effi ci ency and l osses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Magneti c fi el d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Equi val ent ci rcui t di agram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Speed change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Changi ng the number of pol es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Sl i p control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Frequency regul ati on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
Motor data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
Types of l oad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
Synchronous motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
Rel uctance motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
CHAPTER 2: FREQUENCY CONVERTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
The recti fi er . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Uncontrol l ed recti fi ers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
Control l ed recti fi ers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
The i ntermedi ate ci rcui t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
The i nverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Transi stors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Pul se-Ampl i tude-Modul ati on (PAM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Pul se-Wi dth-Modul ati on (PWM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Si nus-control l ed PWM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
Synchronous PWM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
Asynchronous PWM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .75
Control ci rcui t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Danfoss control pri nci pl e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
VVC control pri nci pl e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
VVC
pl us
control pri nci pl e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
LI ST OF CONTENTS 5
Fi el d-ori ented (Vector) control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
V/f characteri sti c and fl ux vector control . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
VVC
pl us
sl i p compensati on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
Automati c Motor Adaptati on (AMA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
Automati c Energy Opti mi sati on (AEO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
Operati ng at the current l i mi t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96
Protecti ve functi ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
The mi crochi p i n general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
Computers for frequency converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
Communi cati on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
Seri al communi cati on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
Manufacturer-i ndependent communi cati on . . . . . . . . . . . .111
CHAPTER 3: FREQUENCY CONVERTERS AND MOTORS . . . . . .113
Operati onal condi ti ons of the motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
Compensati ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Load-dependent and l oad-i ndependent compensati on
parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Sl i p compensati on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
Motor torque characteri sti cs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
Current l i mi t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
Requi rements from advanced di gi tal frequency
converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
Si zi ng a frequency converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
Load characteri sti cs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
Current di stri buti on i n the frequency converter
(cos of the motor ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
Dynami c brake operati on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128
Reversi ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130
Ramps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131
Moni tori ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
Motor l oad and motor heati ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134
Effi ci enci es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
CHAPTER 4: PROTECTION AND SAFETY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
Extra protecti on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
Reset to zero (TN system) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140
Earthi ng (TT system) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140
Protecti ve rel ay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141
El ectromagneti c compati bi l i ty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
Basi c Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144
Generi c Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144
6 LI ST OF CONTENTS
Product Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144
Di spersal of i nterference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
Coupl i ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
Hard-wi red di spersal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148
Mai ns suppl y i nterference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148
Transi ents/over-vol tage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149
Radi o-frequency i nterference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151
Screened/armoured cabl es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153
Power Factor compensati on uni ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154
Sel ecti on of a frequency converter for
vari abl e speed dri ves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155
APPENDIX I: GENERAL MECHANICAL THEORY . . . . . . . . . . . .159
Strai ght-l i ne moti on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
Rotati ng moti on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
Work and power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
APPENDIX II: GENERAL AC THEORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162
Power factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165
3-phase AC current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166
Star or del ta connecti on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .167
APPENDIX III: GENERALLY USED ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . .168
LITERATURE REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170
CHAPTER 0: I NTRODUCTI ON 7
0. I ntroducti on
A stati c frequency converter i s an el ectroni c uni t whi ch provi des
i nfi ni tel y vari abl e control of the speed of three-phase AC motors
by converti ng fi xed mai ns vol tage and frequency i nto vari abl e
quanti ti es. Whi l st the pri nci pl e has al ways remai ned the same,
there have been many changes from the fi rst frequency con-
verters, whi ch featured thyri stors, to todays mi croprocessor-
control l ed, di gi tal uni ts.
Because of the ever-i ncreasi ng degree of automati on i n i ndustry,
there i s a constant need for more automati c control s, and a
steady i ncrease i n producti on speeds and better methods to fur-
ther i mprove the effi ci ency of producti on pl ants are bei ng devel -
oped al l the ti me.
Today el ectri c motors are an i mportant standard i ndustri al
product. These motors are desi gned to run at a fi xed speed and
work has been goi ng on for many years to opti mi se the control
of thei r runni ng speed.
Fig. 0.01
8 CHAPTER 0: I NTRODUCTI ON
I t was not unti l the stati c frequency converter was i ntroduced
that three-phase AC motors wi th i nfi ni tel y vari abl e speed coul d
be used effecti vel y.
The vast majori ty of the stati c frequency converters used by
i ndustry today to control or regul ate the speed of three-phase
AC motors are desi gned accordi ng to two di fferent pri nci pl es
(Fi g. 0.02):
frequency converters wi thout an i ntermedi ate ci rcui t (al so
known as di rect converters), and
frequency converters wi th a vari abl e or constant i ntermedi ate
ci rcui t.
Frequency converters wi th an i ntermedi ate ci rcui t have ei ther a
di rect current i ntermedi ate ci rcui t or a di rect vol tage i nterme-
di ate current and are cal l ed current-source i nverters and vol t-
age-source i nverters.
I ntermedi ate ci rcui t i nverters offer a number of advantages
over the di rect i nverter, such as:
better reacti ve current control
reducti on of harmoni cs
no l i mi tati ons wi th respect to output frequency (but there i s a
l i mi tati on to the control and properti es of the el ectroni c com-
ponents used. Frequency converters for hi gh output frequen-
ci es are mostl y i ntermedi ate ci rcui t i nverters.)
Frequency converters
w/o i ntermedi ate ci rcui t
Di rect current
i ntermed. ci rcui t
w/i ntermedi ate ci rcui t
Vari abl e Constant
Di rect vol tage
Di rect vol tage
Current-source Vol tage-source Vol tage-source
freq. converters freq. converters freq. converters
CSI -converters VSI -converters VSI -converters
Fig. 0.02 Converter principles
Di rect i nverters tend to be sl i ghtl y cheaper than i ntermedi ate
ci rcui t i nverters, though they typi cal l y suffer from poorer reduc-
ti on of harmoni cs.
As most frequency converters use a DC vol tage i ntermedi ate ci r-
cui t, thi s book wi l l focus mai nl y on thi s group of converters.
Advantages of infinitely variable
speed adjustment
Today, the frequency converter control l ed, three-phase AC
motor i s a standard el ement i n al l automated process pl ants.
Apart from i ts abi l i ty to use the good properti es of three-phase
AC motors, i nfi ni tel y vari abl e speed regul ati on i s often a basi c
requi rement because of the desi gn of the pl ant. I n addi ti on, i t
offers a number of further advantages:
Energy savings
Energy can be saved i f the motor speed matches requi rements
at any gi ven moment i n ti me. Thi s appl i es i n parti cul ar to cen-
tri fugal pumps and fan dri ves where the energy consumed i s
reduced by the cube of the speed. A dri ve runni ng at hal f speed
thus onl y takes 12.5% of the rated power.
Process optimisation
Adjusti ng the speed to the producti on process offers a number of
advantages. These i ncl ude i ncreasi ng producti on, whi l e reduc-
i ng rejecti on rates and decreasi ng materi al consumpti on and
wear.
Smooth machine operation
The number of starts and stops wi th ful l speed change can be
dramati cal l y reduced. Usi ng soft start-up and stop ramps,
shocks and i mpacts on the machi ne components can be avoi ded.
Fig. 0.03 Energy savings
Less maintenance
A frequency converter requi res no mai ntenance. When used to
control motor s, the l i fe-ti me of pl ants can be i ncreased. For
exampl e, i n water suppl y systems, the water hammer that
occurs wi th di rect mai ns connecti on of the pump motors di sap-
pears, and damage to the water pi pes i s avoi ded.
I mproved working environment
The speed of conveyor bel ts can be matched exactl y to the
requi red worki ng speed. For exampl e, bottl es on the conveyor
bel t i n a bottl e fi l l i ng l i ne make much l ess noi se i f the bel t speed
can be reduced when the bottl es are queui ng.
I f the speed of a fan i s adjustabl e, unnecessary noi se near the
fan can be reduced, as can the draught.
Fig. 0.04 I mproved working environment
Control or regulation?
Many peopl e use the terms control and regul ati on i nter-
changeabl y. However, they do have preci se defi ni ti ons l argel y
as a resul t of devel opments i n the fi el d of automati on.
The terms control and regul ati on depend on the type of
pl ant. Wi th speed control a si gnal whi ch i s expected to pro-
duce the requi red speed i s sent to the motor. Wi th speed regu-
l ati on a feedback si gnal i s gi ven from the process. I f the speed
does not correspond to the requi rements, the si gnal to the motor
i s regul ated automati cal l y unti l the motor speed i s as i t shoul d
be.
Fig. 0.05 Distinction between control and regulation
Control
Regul ati on
Actual val ue
P
r
o
c
e
s
s
1. Three-phase AC motors
The fi rst el ectri c motor, a DC uni t, was bui l t i n 1833. The speed
regul ati on of thi s motor i s si mpl e and ful fi l s the requi rements of
the many di fferent appl i cati ons and systems.
I n 1889, the fi rst AC motor was desi gned. More si mpl e and
robust than the DC motor, the three-phase AC uni t suffered
from fi xed speed val ues and torque characteri sti cs, whi ch i s
why, for many years, AC motors coul d not be used i n speci al -
duty appl i cati ons.
Three-phase AC motors are el ectromagneti c energy converters,
converti ng el ectri cal energy i nto mechani cal energy (motor
operati on) and vi ce versa (generati ng operati on) by means of
el ectromagneti c i nducti on.
The pri nci pl e of el ectromagneti c i nducti on i s that i f a wi re i s
moved through a magneti c fi el d (B), a vol tage i s i nduced. I f the
wi re i s i n a cl osed ci rcui t, a current (I ) wi l l fl ow. When the wi re
i s moved, a force (F), whi ch i s verti cal to the magneti c fi el d, wi l l
act on the wi re.
a) Generating principle(i nducti on by means of movement).
I n the generati ng pri nci pl e, movi ng a wi re i n the magneti c fi el ds
generates a vol tage (Fi g. 1.01a).
b) Motor principle
I n motors, the i nducti on pri nci pl e i s reversed and a current-con-
ducti ng wi re i s posi ti oned i n a magneti c fi el d.
The wi re i s then i nfl uenced by a force (F) that moves the wi re
out of the magneti c fi el d.
CHAPTER 1: THREE-PHASE AC MOTORS 13
N
S
N I
I
I F F I
F
B B
F
S
Fig. 1.01 Principle for electromagnetic induction
a) Generator principle b) Motor principle
I n the motor pri nci pl e, the magneti c fi el d and current-di stri b-
uted wi re generate the movement (Fi g. 1.01b).
The magneti c fi el d i n the motor i s generated i n the stati onary
part (the stator) and the wi res, whi ch are i nfl uenced by the el ec-
tromagneti c forces, are i n the rotati ng part (the rotor).
Three-phase AC motors can be di vi ded i nto two mai n groups:
asynchronous and synchronous motors.
The stators basi cal l y work i n the same way i n both types, but
the desi gn and rotor movement i n rel ati on to the magneti c fi el d
di ffers. I n synchronous (whi ch means si mul taneous or the
same) the speed of rotor and magneti c fi el d are the same and i n
asynchronous the speeds are di fferent.
Three-phase AC motors
synchronous asynchronous
Rotor wi th sal i ent pol es Sl i p ri ng rotor
Ful l pol e rotor Short-ci rcui t rotor
14 CHAPTER 1: THREE-PHASE AC MOTORS
Fig. 1.02 Types of three-phase AC motors
Asynchronous motors
Asynchronous motors are the most wi del y used and requi re
practi cal l y no mai ntenance. I n mechani cal terms, they are vi r-
tual l y standard uni ts, so sui tabl e suppl i ers are al ways nearby.
There are several types of asynchronous motors, al l of whi ch
work on the same basi c pri nci pl e.
The two mai n components of an asynchronous motor are the sta-
tor (stati onary el ement) and the rotor (rotati ng el ement).
Stator
The stator i s a fi xed part of the stati onary motor. I t consi sts of a
stator housi ng (1), bal l -beari ngs (2) that support the rotor (9),
beari ng bl ocks (3) for posi ti oni ng of the beari ngs and as a fi ni sh
for the stator housi ng, fan (4) for motor cool i ng and val ve casi ng
(5) as protecti on agai nst the rotati ng fan. A box for el ectri cal
connecti ons (6) i s l ocated on the si de of the stator housi ng.
I n the stator housi ng i s an i ron core (7) made from thi n (0.3 to
0.5 mm) i ron sheets. These i ron sheets have punched-out sec-
ti ons for the three phase wi ndi ngs.
5 4 3 2 10 9 2 1
6 7 3
Fig. 1.03 Build-up of an asynchronous motor
The phase wi ndi ngs and the stator core generate the magneti c
fi el d. The number of pai rs of pol es (or pol es) determi nes the
speed at whi ch the magneti c fi el d rotates. I f a motor i s connect-
ed to i ts rated frequency, the speed of the magneti c fi el d i s cal l ed
the synchronous speed of the motor (n
0
).
Magnetic field
The magneti c fi el d rotates i n the ai r gap between stator and
rotor. After connecti ng a phase wi ndi ng to a phase of the suppl y
vol tage, a magneti c fi el d i s i nduced.
The posi ti on of thi s magneti c fi el d i n the stator core i s fi xed, but
i ts di recti on changes. The speed at whi ch the di recti on changes
i s determi ned by the frequency of the suppl y vol tage. At a fre-
quency of 50 Hz the al ternati ng fi el d changes di recti on 50 ti mes
per second.
I f two phase wi ndi ngs are connected to each phase at the same
ti me, two magneti c fi el ds are i nduced i n the stator core. I n a
two-pol e motor, there i s a 120 degree di spl acement between the
two fi el ds. The maxi mum val ues of the fi el ds are al so di spl aced
i n ti me.
t
0
N S N
S N S
360 180
I
1

1
I
L
1
I
1
0 V
Fig 1.04 One phase results in an alternating field
Pol e pai rs (p) 1 2 3 4 6
Number of pol es 2 4 6 8 12
n
0
[1/mi n] 3000 1500 1000 750 500
Table 1.01 Pole pairs (p), pole number
and synchronous motor speed
Thi s resul ts i n the creati on of a magneti c fi el d that rotates i n the
stator. However, the fi el d i s hi ghl y asymmetri cal unti l the thi rd
phase i s connected.
The three phases generate three magneti c fi el ds i n the stator
core whi ch are di spl aced 120 degrees i n rel ati on to each other.
The stator i s now connected to the three-phase suppl y vol tage
and the magneti c fi el ds of the i ndi vi dual phase wi ndi ngs bui l d
a symmetri cal , rotati ng magneti c fi el d cal l ed the motor rotati ng
fi el d. The ampl i tude of the rotati ng fi el d i s constant at 1.5 ti mes
the maxi mum val ue of the al ternati ng fi el ds. Rotati on i s at:
(f 60)
n
0
= [1/mi n]
p
t
0 360 180 120 60 300 240
I
1

1
I
2

2
I
3

3
I
N
S
N
S
N
S
N
S
S
N
S
N
S
N
f = frequency
n
0
= synchronous speed
p = no. of pol e pai rs
t
0 360 180 120 300
I
1

1
I
2

2
I
N
S
S
N
S
N
N
S
N
S
Fig. 1.05 Two phases result in an asymmetrical rotating field
L
1
I
1
L
2
I
2
0 V
0 V
L
1
I
1
L
2
L
3
I
2
I
3
Fig. 1.06 Three phases result in a symmetrical rotating field
The speed therefore depends on the number of pai rs of pol es (p)
and the frequency (f) of the suppl y vol tage. The i l l ustrati on
bel ow shows the si ze of the magneti c fi el ds (F) i n three di fferent
peri ods.
The vi sual i sati on of the rotati ng fi el d wi th a vector and a corre-
spondi ng angul ar vel oci ty makes up a ci rcl e. As a functi on of
ti me i n a system of co-ordi nates, the rotati ng fi el d makes up a
si nusoi dal curve. The rotati ng fi el d becomes el l i pti c i f the ampl i -
tude changes duri ng a rotati on.
Rotor
The rotor (9) i s mounted on the motor shaft (10) (see Fi g. 1.03).
Li ke the stator, the rotor i s made of thi n i ron sheets wi th gaps
punched through them. There are two mai n types of rotor: sl i p
ri ng motors and short-ci rcui t motors the di fference bei ng
determi ned by changi ng the wi ndi ngs i n the gaps.
Sl i p ri ng rotors, l i ke the stator, have wound coi l s pl aced i n the
gaps and there are coi l s for each phase comi ng to the sl i p ri ngs.
After a short-ci rcui t of the sl i p ri ngs, the rotor wi l l functi on as a
short-ci rcui t rotor.
Short-ci rcui t rotors have cast-i n al umi ni um rods i n the gaps.
An al umi ni um ri ng i s used at each end of the rotor to short-ci r-
cui t the rods.
The short-ci rcui t rotor i s the more frequentl y used of the two.
Si nce the two rotors pri nci pal l y work i n the same way, onl y the
short-ci rcui t rotor wi l l be descri bed.
3
=
1
/2
max.
1
=
max.
3
=
max.
2
=
1
/2
max.
1
=
1
/2
max.
2
=
1
/2
max.
=
3
/2
max.
=
3
/2
max.
=
3
/2
max.
3
=
3
2

max.
1
=
3
2

max.
Fig. 1.07 The size of the magnetic fields is constant
When a rotor bar i s pl aced i n the rotati ng fi el d, a magneti c pol e
runs through the rod. The magneti c fi el d of the pol e i nduces a
current (I
W
) i n the rotor bar whi ch i s onl y i nfl uenced by force (F)
(Fi gs. 1.08 and 1.09a).
Thi s force i s determi ned by the fl ux densi ty (B), the i nduced cur-
rent (I
W
), the l ength (l ) of the rotor and the angl e (q) between the
force and the fl ux densi ty
I f i s assumed to be = 90, the force i s
The next pol e that goes through the rotor bar has the opposi te
pol ari ty. Thi s i nduces a current i n the opposi te di recti on. Si nce
the di recti on of the magneti c fi el d has al so changed, the force
acts i n the same di recti on as before (Fi g. 1.09b).
When the ful l rotor i s pl aced i n the rotati ng fi el d (see Fi g. 1.09c),
the rotor bars are affected by forces that turn the rotor. The
speed (2) of the rotor does not reach that of the rotati ng fi el d (1),
si nce at the same speed no currents are i nduced i n the rotor
bars.
I W
l
S
N
N
F
S
B
a) b) c)
S
F
N
1
N
2
S
B
Magneti c fl ux ()
Rotati ng fi el d
F
o
r
c
e

(
F
)
L
e
v
e
r

(
r
)
Fig. 1.08 Rotating field and short-circuit rotor
Fig. 1.09 I nduction in the rotor bars
F = B I
W
l si n
F = B I
W
l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.01
Slip, torque and speed
Under normal ci rcumstances, the speed of the rotor, n
n
, i s l ower
than the speed of the rotati ng fi el d, n
0
. The sl i p, s, i s the di ffer-
ence between the speed of the rotati ng fi el d and the speed of the
rotor:
The sl i p i s often expressed as a percentage of the synchronous
speed and i s normal l y between 4 and 11 percent of rated speed:
The fl ux densi ty (B) i s defi ned as the fl ux () per cross-secti on-
al area (A). From equati on 1.01 the fol l owi ng force can therefore
be cal cul ated:
The force at whi ch the current-conducti ng wi re i s moved i s pro-
porti onal to the magneti c fl ux () and the current (I
w
) i n the
wi re.
I n the rotor bars, a vol tage i s i nduced vi a the magneti c fi el d.
Thi s vol tage al l ows a current (I
w
) to fl ow through the short-ci r-
cui ted rotor bars. The i ndi vi dual forces i n the rotor bars combi ne
to set up a torque, T, on the motor shaft.
Fig. 1.10 The motor torque is force multiplied by lever arm
r
F
n
0
n
n
s = 100[%]
n
0
I
W
l
F = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.02
A
(f 60)
n
0
= [1/mi n]
p
p = no. of pol e pai rs
s = n
0
n
n
F ~ I
W
M
0 1
n
0
n
s
0
s
The rel ati onshi p between motor torque and speed has a charac-
teri sti c sequence whi ch vari es wi th the form of the rotor. The
motor torque resul ts i n a force whi ch turns the motor shaft.
The force ari ses, for exampl e, i n the ci rcumference of a fl ywheel
fi tted to the shaft. Wi th the force (F) and the radi us (r) of the fl y-
wheel , the motor torque
W = F r can be cal cul ated.
The work done by the motor expressed as: W F d where d i s
the di stance that a motor pul l s for a gi ven l oad, n i s the number
of revol uti ons:
d = n 2 p r
Work can al so be descri bed as power mul ti pl i ed by the ti me i n
whi ch thi s power i s acti ve: W = P x t.
The torque i s thus:
Thi s formul a shows the rel ati onshi p between the speed, n, the
torque T [Nm] and the motor power P [kW].
The formul a provi des a qui ck overvi ew when l ooki ng at n, T and
P i n rel ati on to the correspondi ng val ues at a gi ven operati ng
poi nt (nr, T
r
and P
r
). The operati ng poi nt i s normal l y the rated
operati ng poi nt of the motor and the formul a can be modi fi ed as
fol l ows:
I n thi s proporti onal cal cul ati on, the constant 9550 i s not
appl i ed.
T P n
i n whi ch T
r
= , P
r
=
and n
r
=
T
n
P
n
n
n
W (P t r)
= F r = r =
d n 2 r
P 9550
T = (t = 60 sec.)
n
P
r
T
r
=
and for P
r
= T
r
n
r
,
n
r
Example:
Load = 15% of the rated val ue, speed = 50% of the rated val ue.
The power generated i s 7.5% of the rated power generated, si nce
P
r
= 0.15 0.50 = 0.075.
I n addi ti on to the normal operati ng range of the motor, there are
two brake ranges.
I n the range where the motor i s pul l ed above the syn-
chronous speed and acts as a generator creati ng an opposi te
torque, whi l e at the same ti me gi vi ng an output back i nto the
mai ns suppl y.
I n the range of , braki ng i s termed regenerati ve braki ng.
I f two phases of a motor are suddenl y swapped, the rotati ng
fi el d changes di recti on. I mmedi atel y after thi s, the speed rati o
wi l l be
n
K
, T
K
n
N
, T
N
n
N
, I
N
T
0
, I
0
0, T
a
0, I
a
0
1
I
T
1
0
0
1
1
0
n
0
, 0
n
0
n
s
0
s
n
0
n
s
0
s
8 I
n
Fig. 1.11 Current and load characteristics of the motor
n
> 1,
n
0
n
< 0
n
0
n
= 1.
n
0
(Break-down torque)
(Rated torque)
The motor, previ ousl y l oaded wi th the torque T, now brakes wi th
a braki ng torque. I f the motor i s not swi tched off at n = 0, i t wi l l
conti nue runni ng, but i n the new di recti on of the rotati ng fi el d.
The motor works i n i ts normal range between .
The motor s worki ng range can be di vi ded i nto two areas: start-
up range and operati ng range .
There are some i mportant poi nts i n the worki ng range of the
motor:
T
a
i s the starti ng torque of the motor the torque that bui l ds up
the motor power when rated vol tage and rated frequency are
bei ng fed whi l e at standsti l l .
T
k
i s the stal l i ng torque of the motor. Thi s i s the l argest torque
the motor i s abl e to generate whi l e rated vol tage and rated fre-
quency are bei ng fed.
T
n
i s the rated torque of the motor. The rated val ues of the motor
are the mechani cal and el ectri cal val ues for whi ch the motor
was desi gned i n accordance wi th the I EC 34 standard. These
can be seen from the motor namepl ate and are al so referred to
as name-pl ate val ues. The rated val ues i ndi cate the motor s
opti mal operati ng poi nt for di rect connecti on to the mai ns sup-
pl y.
Efficiency and losses
The motor takes up el ectri cal power from the mai n suppl y. At a
constant l oad, the i nput i s l arger than the mechani cal output
that the motor i s abl e to provi de due to l osses or i neffi ci enci es
i n the motor. The rel ati on between output and i nput i s the
motor effi ci ency, .
The typi cal effi ci ency of a motor i s between 0.7 and 0.9, depend-
i ng on the si ze of the motor and the number of pol es.
n
k
n
< < 1
n
0
n
0
n
0 < < 1
n
0
n n
k
0 < <
n
0
n
0
P
2
Output power
= =
P
1
I nput power
There are four mai n causes of l osses i n the motor copper l oss-
es, i ron l osses, fan l osses and fri cti on l osses:
Copper losses occur i n the ohmi c resi stors of the stator and rotor
wi ndi ngs.
I ron losses, consi st of hysteresi s l osses and eddy current l osses.
Hysteresi s l osses occur when the i ron i s magneti sed by an AC
current and must be demagneti sed at a 50 Hz suppl y vol tage (v)
100 ti mes per second. Both magneti si ng and demagneti si ng
requi res energy. The motor takes up i nput power i n order to cov-
er the hysteresi s l osses whi ch i ncrease wi th the frequency and
the magneti c i nducti on.
Eddy current l osses occur because the magneti c fi el ds i nduce
el ectri c vol tage i n the i ron core and the wi re. These vol tages
resul t i n currents whi ch l ead to heat l osses and move i n ci rcl es
around the magneti c fi el ds.
By spl i tti ng up the i ron core i n thi n sheets, the eddy current
l osses are drasti cal l y reduced.
Fig. 1.13 The eddy currents are reduced by laminating the iron in
the motor.
P
2
P
1
Copper l oss
I ron l oss
Fan l oss
Fri cti on l oss
Shaft output
Fig. 1.12 Losses in the Motor
Fan losses occur due to the ai r resi stance of the motor fan.
Friction losses occur i n the bal l beari ngs of the rotor.
When determi ni ng the effi ci ency and motor output, the l osses
are cal cul ated usi ng a measured i nput.
Magnetic field
The motor has been desi gned for a fi xed vol tage and frequency
and the magneti sati on of the motor depends on the rel ati onshi p
between vol tage and frequency.
I f the vol tage/frequency rati o i ncreases, the motor i s over-mag-
neti sed, i f the rati o decreases, the motor i s under-magneti sed.
The magneti c fi el d of an under-magneti sed motor i s weakened
and the torque whi ch the motor i s abl e to devel op i s reduced,
possi bl y l eadi ng to a si tuati on i n whi ch the motor does not start
or remai ns at a standsti l l . Al ternati vel y, the starti ng ti me may
be extended, l eadi ng to a motor overl oad.
An over-magneti sed motor i s overl oaded duri ng operati on. The
power for thi s extra magneti sati on i s converted to heat i n the
motor and may damage the i nsul ati on. However, three-phase
AC motors and i n parti cul ar asynchronous motors are very
robust so the probl em of faul ty magneti sati on l eadi ng to l oad
damage wi l l onl y occur i n conti nuous operati on.
The way the motor runs i ndi cates whether the magneti si ng con-
di ti ons are poor si gns to watch for i ncl ude decl i ni ng speed at
varyi ng l oad, unstabl e or jerky operati on of the motor, etc ...
Equivalent circuit diagram
Pri nci pal l y, asynchronous motors consi st of si x coi l s: three coi l s
i n the stator and three coi l s i n the short-ci rcui t rotor (whi ch
magneti cal l y behaves as i f i t consi sted of three coi l s). By exam-
i ni ng a set of coi l s i t i s possi bl e to construct an el ectri c di agram,
whi ch expl ai ns how the motor works.
The stator coi l current i s not onl y l i mi ted by the ohmi c resi s-
tance of the coi l as each coi l i s connected to an AC vol tage, an AC
resi stance bui l ds up.
Thi s resi stance i s termed reactance (X
L
= 2 p f L) and mea-
sured i n Ohms [].
f i s the frequency and 2 f i s the angul ar frequency i n .
L i s the i nductance of the coi l and i s measured i n Henry [H]. The
effecti ve current i s l i mi ted by i ts dependence on the frequency.
L
2
L
3
L
1
I
1
B
L
1
R
1
X
1
X
1
I
1
L
1
I
2
R
2
X
2
I
1
L
1
R
1
R
Fe
X
h
I
2
I
2
R
2
/s X
2
B
Fig. 1.14b Equivalent circuit diagram of the motor
(applies to phase L1)
Fig. 1.14a Layout of stators and rotors
1
s
The coi l s mutual l y i mpact usi ng magneti c i nducti on (B). The
rotor coi l generates a current i n the stator coi l and vi ce versa
(Fi g. 1.14b). Thi s mutual i mpact means that the two el ectri cal
ci rcui ts can be connected vi a a common l i nk formed by R
Fe
and
X
h
, - the counter-resi stance and counter-reactance. The current
whi ch the motor draws for magneti si ng the stator and the rotor
fl ows through them. The vol tage drop across the common l i nk
i s cal l ed i nducti on vol tage.
Operating conditions of the motor
I n the exampl es di scussed so far, there has been no l oad on the
motor. I f the motor works wi thi n i ts normal operati ng range, the
rotor frequency i s l ower than the frequency of the rotati ng fi el d
and X
2
i s reduced by factor s (sl i p).
I n the equi val ent ci rcui t di agram, the effect i s descri bed by the
change i n the rotor resi stance R
2
by the factor of .
can be wri tten as where i s the
mechani cal l oad on the motor.
Val ues R
2
and X
2
represent the rotor. R
2
i s the cause of the rotor
heat l oss when the motor i s l oaded.
The sl i p, s, i s cl ose to zero, when the motor runs unl oaded.
Thi s means that i ncreases.
R
2
s
1 s
R
2
+ R
2

s
1 s
R
2
s
1
s
X
1
I
1
R
1
X
h
I
2
R
2
X
2

1 s
R
2
s
U
1
U
q
Fig. 1.15 equivalent circuit diagram for a motor under load
1 s
R
2
s
Consequentl y vi rtual l y no current i s abl e to fl ow i n the rotor.
I deal l y, thi s i s the si tuati on i n whi ch the resi stance (represent-
i ng the mechani cal l oad) i s removed from the equi val ent ci rcui t
di agram.
When the motor i s l oaded, the sl i p i ncreases, reduci ng .
The current, I
2
, i n the rotor al so i ncreases when the l oad i s
i ncreased.
The equi val ent ci rcui t di agram can therefore be seen to work for
asynchronous motors and, i n many cases, can be used to
descri be motor condi ti ons.
There i s a danger that the i nduced vol tage (U
q
) coul d be mi s-
taken for the motor termi nal vol tage. Thi s i s because the equi v-
al ent ci rcui t di agram i s si mpl i fi ed to provi de a better overvi ew
of the di fferent motor condi ti ons. However, i t shoul d be remem-
bered that the i nduced vol tage onl y comes cl ose to the termi nal
vol tage when the motor i s unl oaded.
I f the l oad i ncreases, I
2
and thus I
1
are i ncreased and the
vol tage drop needs to be consi dered. Thi s i s i mportant, parti cu-
l arl y when a motor i s control l ed by a frequency converter.
X
1
I
1
R
1
a)
X
h
R
2
X
2
s 0 :
1 s
R
2

s
U
1
U
q
X
1
I
1
I
2
R
1
X
h
R
2
X
2
s 1 :
1 s
R
2
0
s
U
1
U
q
b)
Fig. 1.16 Diagram of idle running (a) and blocked rotor (b)
1 s
R
2
s
Speed change
The speed, n, of the motor i s dependent on the speed of the rotat-
i ng fi el d and can be expressed as:
i n whi ch
The motor speed can therefore be changed by al teri ng:
the number of pol e pai rs, p, of the motor (e.g. pol e-swi tchabl e
motors)
the motor sl i p (e.g. sl i p ri ng motors)
the frequency, f, of the motor suppl y vol tage
Changing the number of poles
The speed of the rotati ng fi el d i s determi ned by the number of
pol e pai rs i n the stators. I n the case of a two-pol e motor, the
speed of the rotati ng fi el d i s 3,000 rpm for a 50 Hz mai ns sup-
pl y.
n
0
n
s =
n
0
(1 s) f
n =
p
Fig. 1.17 Different possibilities for changing motor speed
(1 s) f
n =
p
No. of pol e pai rs Sl i p
Rotor Stator vol tage
Resi stance
Frequency
Cascade coupl i ng
M
n
2
n n
1
Fig. 1.18 Pole changing motor torque characteristics
frequency of 50 Hz, and the speed of the rotati ng fi el d i n a four-
pol e motor i s 1,500 rpm.
Motors can be bui l t for two di fferent numbers of pai rs of pol es.
Thi s i s because of the speci al l ayout of the stator wi ndi ngs i n the
gaps ei ther i n the form of a Dahl ander wi ndi ng or as two sepa-
rate wi ndi ngs. I n a motor wi th several pol es, the types of wi nd-
i ng are combi ned.
The speed i s changed by swi tchi ng the stator wi ndi ngs to
change the number of pol e pai rs i n the stator.
By swi tchi ng from a smal l pol e pai r number (whi ch generates a
hi gh speed) to a hi gh number pol e pai r number, the actual speed
of the motor i s dramati cal l y reduced for exampl e from 1,500 to
750 rpm. I f the swi tch i s made qui ckl y, the motor runs through
the generator range exerti ng a consi derabl e l oad on the motor
and the mechani cs.
Slip control
Motor speed can be control l ed by the sl i p i n two di fferent ways:
ei ther by changi ng the stator suppl y vol tage or by i nterveni ng i n
the rotor.
Change of stator voltage
The speed of asynchronous motors can be control l ed by adjust-
i ng the motor suppl y vol tage wi thout changi ng the frequency
(for exampl e usi ng a softstarter). Thi s i s possi bl e because the
motor torque decl i nes by the square of the vol tage.
T
n
Fig. 1.19 Stator voltage (slip control) torque characteristic
T
n n
4
n
3
n
2
n
N
As i ndi cated by the torque characteri sti c, stabl e operati ng
poi nts can onl y be obtai ned i n the operati ng range (n
k
< n < n
0
).
Wi th a sl i p ri ng motor, stabl e operati ng poi nts can al so be
obtai ned i n the rampi ng-up range (0 < n < n
k
) by i nserti ng resi s-
tors i n the rotor wi ndi ngs.
Rotor control
There are two possi bl e ways of i nterveni ng i n the rotor. Ei ther
resi stance i s passed on to the rotor ci rcui t, or the rotor ci rcui t i s
connected to other el ectri cal machi nes or recti fi er ci rcui ts i n a
cascade connecti on.
Rotor control i s therefore onl y possi bl e wi th sl i p ri ng motors, as
they are the onl y desi gn where the rotor wi ndi ngs on the sl i p
ri ngs are accessi bl e.
Changing the rotor resistors
Motor speed can al so be control l ed by connecti ng the sl i p ri ngs
to resi stors and i ncreasi ng the power l oss i n the rotor whi ch
l eads to an i ncrease i n the sl i p val ue, and a decrease i n the
motor speed.
I f resi stors are connected to the rotor ci rcui t, the motor s torque
characteri sti c changes.
As shown by i l l ustrati on Fi g. 1.20, the stal l i ng torque retai ns i ts
val ue. At di fferent setti ngs, di fferent speeds occur at the same
l oad so the pre-set speed i s dependent on the l oad. I f the motor
l oad i s reduced, the speed i ncreases cl ose to the synchronous
speed.
n
T
Fig. 1.20 Rotor resistance torque characteristic
The resi stors are vari abl e and i t i s i mportant that the operati ng
temperature i s mai ntai ned.
Cascade couplings
I nstead of resi stors, the rotor ci rcui t i s connected vi a the sl i p
ri ngs to DC machi nes or control l ed recti fi er ci rcui ts.
DC machi nes provi de the rotor ci rcui t of the motor wi th an addi -
ti onal , adjustabl e vol tage maki ng i t possi bl e to i nfl uence the
speed and magneti sati on of the rotor. Thi s techni que i s used
mai nl y on el ectri c rai l way systems.
Control l ed recti fi er ci rcui ts can be used i nstead of DC machi nes,
i n whi ch case the fi el d of appl i cati on i s reduced to systems wi th
pumps, fans, etc.
Frequency regulation
Wi th a vari abl e suppl y frequency i t i s possi bl e to control motor
speed wi thout addi ti onal l osses. The rotati onal speed of the
magneti c fi el d changes wi th the frequency.
The motor speed changes proporti onal l y wi th the rotati ng fi el d.
To mai ntai n the motor torque, the motor vol tage must be
changed wi th the frequency.
3
Fig. 1.21 Typical; cascade circuit
For a gi ven l oad, the fol l owi ng appl i es:
For a constant rati o between motor suppl y vol tage and frequen-
cy, the magneti sati on i n the rated operati ng range of the motor
i s al so constant.
I n two cases, however, the magneti sati on i s not i deal : at the
start and at very l ow frequenci es, where addi ti onal magneti sa-
ti on i s requi red, and when operati ng wi th varyi ng l oads, where
vari ati on of the magneti sati on correspondi ng to the l oad must
be possi bl e.
Additional start-up magnetisation
I t i s i mportant to l ook at the vol tage drop U
s
i n connecti on wi th
the i nduced vol tage U
q
.
P 9550 3 U I cos 9550 U
T = = = k
n 60 f
f
p
U
T
f
T
1
0
0

V
/
1
2
.
5

H
z
2
0
0

V
/
2
5

H
z
3
0
0

V
/
3
7
.
5

H
z
4
0
0

V
/
5
0

H
z
25% 50% 75% 100% n
Fig. 1.22 Torque characteristic using the voltage/ frequency control
I
1
U
s
I
I
2
R
2
X
2
X
1
U
1
U
q
R
1
X
h

1 s
R
2
s
Fig. 1.23 Equivalent circuit diagram of the motor
Termi nal vol tage: U
1
= U
s
+ U
q
= U
R1
+ U
X1
+ U
q
Stator reactance: X
1
= 2 f L
The motor has been desi gned for i ts rated val ues. For exampl e,
the magneti si ng vol tage, U
q
, can be 370 V for a motor, at U
1
=
400 V and f = 50 Hz. Thi s i s where the motor has i ts opti mum
magneti sati on.
The vol tage-to-frequency rati o i s:
I f the frequency i s reduced to 2.5 Hz, the vol tage wi l l be 20 V.
Because of thi s l ower frequency, the stator reactance, X
1
, al so
becomes smal l er. The vol tage drop i s determi ned onl y by R
1
and
has no i nfl uence on the total vol tage drop i n the stator. R
1
cor-
responds approxi matel y to the rated val ues, roughl y 20 V, si nce
the motor current i s determi ned by the l oad.
The termi nal vol tage now corresponds to the vol tage drop across
the stator resi stor, R
1
. There i s no vol tage for magneti si ng the
motor and the motor i s not abl e to generate a torque at l ow fre-
quenci es i f the vol tage-to-frequency rati o i s kept constant
throughout the range. Consequentl y, i t i s i mportant to compen-
sate for the vol tage drop duri ng start-up and at l ow frequenci es.
Load-dependent magnetisation
After adapti ng the motor wi th the extra magneti sati on at l ow
frequenci es and duri ng start-up, over-magneti sati on wi l l occur
i f runni ng wi th a smal l l oad. I n thi s si tuati on, the stator cur-
rent, I
1
, wi l l decl i ne and the i nduced vol tage, U
q
, wi l l i ncrease.
The motor wi l l take up a hi gher reacti ve current and become
unnecessari l y heated. Magneti sati on thus depends on the vol t-
age to the motor changi ng automati cal l y i n response to motor
l oads.
For opti mum motor magneti sati on the frequency and the vary-
i ng l oad must be taken i nto account.
400 [V]
= 8
50 [Hz]
Motor data
Al l motors have a permanent namepl ate whi ch l i sts al l essenti al
data, further data i s usual l y avai l abl e i n the motor catal ogue.
Example
The namepl ate for a two-pol e 15 kW motor may have the fol -
l owi ng data:
1. The motor has three phases and i s for a mai ns suppl y wi th
a frequency of 50 Hz.
2. The rated output of the motor i s 15 kW, i .e. the motor i s abl e
to suppl y a shaft output of at l east 15 kW i f connected to the
mai ns suppl y as i ndi cated. The rated output of the asyn-
chronous motor has been wri tten i nto a standard. Thi s
al l ows the user a free choi ce of the di fferent motor makes
for vari ous appl i cati ons. The standard seri es has output
l evel s such as:
Horsepower (HP) i s not now a commonl y used uni t for mea-
suri ng motor output and i t can be converted as fol l ows:
1 HP = 0.736 kW.
1
2
3
8
7
6
4
5
Fig. 1.24 The motor nameplate
kW 0.06 0.09 0.12 0.18 0.25 0.37 0.55 0.75 1.10 1.50 2.20 3.00
kW 4.00 5.50 7.50 11.0 15.0 18.5 22.0 30.0 37.0 45.0 55.0 75.0
Table 1.02 Motor output series
3-4. The stator wi ndi ngs can be connected i n a star or del ta
formati on.
I f the mai ns vol tage i s 400 V, the wi ndi ngs must be con-
nected i n a star formati on. The motor current i s then 27.5
A per phase. I f the mai ns vol tage i s 230 V, the wi ndi ngs
must be connected i n a del ta formati on. The motor cur-
rent i s then 48.7 A per phase.
At start-up, when the current i s between 4 and 10 ti mes
hi gher than the rated current, the mai ns suppl y may be
overl oaded. Thi s has l ed suppl y compani es to i ssue regul a-
ti ons orderi ng the start-up current of l arge motors to be
reduced. Thi s can be achi eved by, for exampl e, havi ng the
motor start up i n a star connecti on and subsequentl y
swi tchi ng to a del ta connecti on.
Wi th the star connecti on power and torque are reduced to
1
/3
rd
, and the motor cannot start at ful l l oad.
A motor desi gned for star connecti on wi l l be overl oaded i f
there i s no swi tch-over to star connecti on for ful l -l oad ope-
rati on.
T/T
n
T
U U
U
T
3
2
1
0,5
I
I
I
n/n
N
I /I
n
3
I
3
I
3
U
Fig. 1.25 Motor torque and current in star () and delta ()
connections
5. The motor protecti on rati ng i ndi cates the degree of protec-
ti on provi ded by the motor encl osure agai nst the penetra-
ti on of l i qui ds and forei gn bodi es.
Fi g. 1.26 gi ves the desi gnati ons used i n the i nternati onal
standard I EC Publ i cati on 34-5.
Protecti on i s i ndi cated by the two l etters I P (I nternati onal
Protecti on) and two di gi ts.
These are used to speci fy the protecti on l evel agai nst con-
tact and forei gn bodi es (fi rst di gi t), and as l i qui d (second
di gi t). I f requi red, extra l etters can be added. The basi c l ay-
out of the I P code i s as fol l ows:
I P 2 3 C S
Code l etters
fi rst di gi t (from 0-6)
contact and forei gn bodi es protecti on
second di gi t (from 0-8)
water protecti on
suppl ementary l etter A, B, C, D
(opti onal )
compl ementary l etter H, M, S, W
(opti onal )
You shoul d al so note that:
I f a di gi t does not have to be stated, i t can be repl aced by
the l etter X.
Suppl ementary and/or compl ementary l etters can be
removed wi thout bei ng repl aced by anythi ng el se.
I f more than one compl ementary l etter i s requi red, the
al phabeti cal sequence must be fol l owed.
The opti onal suppl ementary l etter i ndi cates that peopl e are
protected agai nst access to hazardous components:
Back of hand Letter A
Fi nger Letter B
Tool s Letter C
Wi re Letter D
The opti onal compl ementary l etter i ndi cates that operati ng
pl ant i s protected and provi des compl ementary i nformati on
especi al l y on:
Hi gh-vol tage uni ts Letter H
Water test duri ng operati on Letter M
Water test duri ng standsti l l Letter S
Weather condi ti ons Letter W
I n case of operati ng pl ant protected agai nst dust (fi rst di g-
i t i s 5), dust penetrati on i s not compl etel y prevented; how-
ever, dust i s onl y al l owed to enter i n l i mi ted quanti ti es and
the uni t wi l l conti nue to operate wi thout i nterferi ng wi th
safety.
Water protecti on i s offered up to di gi t 6, whi ch means that
the requi rements for al l l ower numbers have al so been ful -
Di gi t fi rst di gi t second di gi t
Contact protecti on Forei gn body protecti on Water protecti on
0 no protecti on no protecti on no protecti on
1 protecti on agai nst protecti on agai nst protecti on agai nst
contact wi th the back sol i d forei gn bodi es verti cal l y dri ppi ng
of the hand wi th 50 mm di a. water
contact wi th the sol i d bodi es 12.5 mm water dri ppi ng at a
fi ngers di a. sl ope (15)
contact wi th tool s sol i d forei gn bodi es water sprayed to an
wi th 2.5 mm di a. angl e of 60 angl e
contact wi th a wi re sol i d forei gn bodi es water sprayed from
wi th 1.0 mm di a. al l di recti ons
5 protecti on agai nst dust protecti on protecti on agai nst
contact wi th a wi re beamed water
6 protecti on agai nst dust protecti on protecti on agai nst
contact wi th a wi re strongl y beamed
water
7 protecti on agai nst
temporary sub-
mersi on i n water
8 protecti on agai nst
permanent sub-
mersi on i n Water
Fig. 1.26 Listing of the protection of motors under I EC 34-5
fi l l ed. An operati ng uni t wi th the desi gnati on I PX7 (tempo-
rary submersi on) or I PX8 (permanent submersi on) need
not necessary al so compl y wi th the requi rements concern-
i ng protecti on agai nst water jets I PX5 or strong jets of
water I PX6. I f both requi rements are to be ful fi l l ed, the
operati ng uni t must be gi ven a doubl e desi gnati on to cover
both, e.g. I PX5/I PX7.
Exampl e: I P 65 says that the motor i s contact-safe and
hol ds ti ght agai nst dust and water jets.
6. The rated current, I
s
, whi ch the motor takes up, i s cal l ed
apparent current and can be di vi ded i nto two: an acti ve cur-
rent I
w
and a reacti ve current I
B
. Cos i ndi cates the share
of the acti ve current as a percentage of the motor current at
rated operati on. The acti ve current i s converted i nto shaft
output, whi l e the reacti ve current i ndi cates the power
requi red to bui l d up the magneti c fi el d i n the motor. When
the magneti c fi el d i s subsequentl y removed, the magneti s-
i ng power wi l l be fed back to the mai ns suppl y.
The word reacti ve i ndi cates that the current moves to and
from the wi res wi thout contri buti ng to the shaft output.
The apparent current i nput to the motor from the mai ns i s
not determi ned by si mpl y addi ng the acti ve current to the
reacti ve current; thi s i s because these two currents are di s-
pl aced i n ti me. The si ze of thi s di spl acement depends on the
frequency of the suppl y network. At a frequency of 50 Hz,
the di spl acement between the current i s 5 mi l l i seconds. A
geometri cal summati on i s thus requi red:
The currents can be seen as the si des of a ri ght-angl ed tri -
angl e, where the l ong si de equal s the square root of the sum
of the short si des squared (fol l owi ng Pythagorass geome-
try).
I
S
= I
2
W
+ I
2
B
i s the angl e between the apparent current and the acti ve
current and Cos i s the rati o between the si ze of the two
currents:
Cos can al so be shown as the rati o between the actual out-
put P and the apparent output S:
The phrase apparent power means that onl y part of the
apparent current generates power, i .e. the part termed I
w
,
the acti ve current.
7. The rated speed of the motor i s the motor speed at rated
vol tage, rated frequency and rated l oad.
8. El ectri c motors are desi gned for di fferent types of cool i ng.
Normal l y the cool i ng method i s stated i n accordance wi th
i nternati onal standard I EC Publ i cati on 34-6.
Fi g. 1.28 shows the desi gnati ons of thi s standard and I C
stands for I nternati onal Cool i ng.
I C01
Self-ventilated
The i nsi de of the motor i s
cool ed di rectl y by the sur-
roundi ng ai r
I C06
Externally ventilated
Motor for separate cool -
i ng ai r i nput
I C17
Motor wi th bui l t-on fan
for cool i ng ai r i nput
I C37
Motor for separate cool -
i ng ai r output and sepa-
rate cool i ng ai r i nput
Fig. 1.28 Motor cooling in accordance with I EC 34-6
I
S
I
W
I
B
Fig. 1.27 Connection between apparent, reactive and active
I
W
cos =
I
S
P
cos =
S
Motor sel ecti on must be determi ned by the appl i cati on as wel l
as the i nstal l ati on.
The i nternati onal standard I EC 34-7 gi ves the mounti ng type of
the motor i n the form of two l etters, I M (I nternati onal Mount-
i ng) and four di gi ts and Fi g. 1.29 shows some of the most com-
mon desi gns.
Usi ng the data from the motor namepl ate, other motor data can
be cal cul ated for exampl e, the rated torque of the motor can be
cal cul ated from the fol l owi ng formul a:
P 9550 15 9550
T = = = 49 Nm
n 2910
Machines with end plates, horizontal design
Mounti ng Expl anati on
Abbrevi ati on accordi ng to
Fi g. DI N 42 950 DI N I EC 34 Part 7 End Stator General Attachment
Code I Code I I pl ate (housi ng) desi gn or
mounti ng
B 3 I M B 3 I M 1001 2 end w/feet Mounti ng
pl ated on base
B 3/B 5 I M B 35 I M 2001 2 end w/feet Attach- Mounti ng
pl ates ment on base wi th
fl ange extra
fl ange
B 3/B 14 I M B 34 I M 2101 2 end w/feet Attach- Monti ng
pl ates ment base wi th
fl ange extra
fl ange
B 5 I M B 5 I M 3001 2 end ohne Fe Attach- Fl ange
pl ates ment mounti ng
fl ange
B 6 I M B 6 I M 1051 2 end w/feet Mounti ng Attachment
pl ates B3, end to wal l
pl ates feet l eft
turned seen from
90 dri ve si de
Fig. 1.29 Motor mounting according to I EC 34.7
The effi ci ency of the motor can be determi ned as the rati o
between the power rati ng and the el ectri cal i nput power:
The motor sl i p can be cal cul ated, si nce the namepl ate gi ves the
rated speed and frequency. These two data i tems i ndi cate a two-
pol e motor whi ch has a synchronous speed of 3,000 rpm.
The sl i p speed (n
s
) i s thus 3,000-2,910 = 90 rpm.
The sl i p i s normal l y stated as a percentage:
Of course the motor catal ogue contai ns some of the namepl ate
data. I n addi ti on other data i s gi ven as wel l :
Shaft output, speed, cos and motor current can be taken from
the namepl ate. Effi ci ency and torque can be cal cul ated on the
basi s of the namepl ate i nformati on.
Furthermore, the motor catal ogue says that the starti ng current
of the 15 kW motor, I
a
, i s 6.2 ti mes hi gher than the rated cur-
rent, I
N
. I
a
= 29 6.2 = 180 A.
P 15000
= = = 0.87
3 U I cos 3 380 29 0.9
n
s
90
s = = = 0.03 = 3%
n
0
3000
Rated operati on
Type Out- Speed Effi ci - cos Current I
a
T T
a
T
max
Torque Wei ght
put ency at
I T T
of
380 V i nerti a
kW mi n
1
% A Nm kgm
2
kg
160 MA 11 2900 86 0.87 25 6.2 36 2.3 2.6 0.055 76
160 M 15 2910 88 0.90 29 6.2 49 1.8 2.0 0.055 85
160 L 18.5 2930 88 0.90 33 6.2 60 2.8 3.0 0.056 96
Fig. 1.30 The motor catalogue contains additional data
The starti ng torque of the motor (T
a
) i s stated to be 1.8 ti mes the
rated torque T
a
= 1.8 49 = 88 Nm. Thi s starti ng torque requi res
a starti ng current of 180 A. The maxi mum torque of the motor,
the stal l i ng torque (T
K
) i s twi ce the si ze of the rated torque:
T
k
= 2 49 = 98 Nm.
Fi nal l y, the moment of i nerti a and the wei ght of the motor are
stated on the motor namepl ate. The moment of i nerti a i s used
for cal cul ati ng the accel erati on torque. The wei ght may be of
si gni fi cance i n connecti on wi th transportati on and i nstal l ati on.
Some motor manufacturers do not publ i sh the moment of i ner-
ti a, and use the fl ywheel effect WR
2
i nstead. However, thi s val -
ue can be converted as fol l ows:
g i s the accel erati on due to gravi ty
The uni t for the fl ywheel effect WR
2
i s [Nm
2
]
The uni t for the moment of i nerti a J i s [kgm
2
]
T [N
m
]
88
98
49
n
N
= 2910 n [mi n
1
]
Fig. 1.31 Motor torque and current
I
M
I
A
= 180
[A]
29
n [mi n
1
] n
N
= 2910
WR
2
J =
4 g
Types of load
When the motorshaft torque i s equal to the torque exerted by
the l oad, the motor i s stati onary. I n such cases the torque and
the speed are constant.
The characteri sti cs for motor and machi ne are stated as the
rati o between speed and torque or output. The torque charac-
teri sti cs have al ready been di scussed. The characteri sti cs of the
machi ne can be di vi ded i nto four groups.
The fi rst group (1) consi sts of machi nes for wi ndi ng materi al
under tensi on. Thi s group i ncl udes, for exampl e veneer cutti ng
machi nes and machi ne tool s.
Fig. 1.32 Typical load characteristics
T
n
T (n)~n
1
V
r
P
n
T
n
T (n) = k
V
r
n
P
n
m
1
m
2
T
n
T (n)~n
V
n
n
P
n
T
n
T (n)~n
2
n
P
n
1
2
3
4
Group (2) consi sts of conveyor bel ts, cranes, posi ti ve di spl ace-
ment pumps as wel l as machi ne tool s.
Group (3) consi sts of machi nes such as rol l ers, smoothi ng
machi nes and other processi ng machi nes.
Group (4) compri ses machi nes operati ng by centri fugal force,
such as centri fuges, centri fugal pumps and fans.
The stati onary state occurs when motor and machi ne torque are
i denti cal (Fi g. 1.33). The graphs cross each other at poi nt B.
When a motor i s si zed for a gi ven operati ng machi ne, the i nter-
secti on poi nt shoul d be as cl ose as possi bl e to poi nt N for the rat-
ed motor data.
A surpl us torque shoul d be avai l abl e throughout the range, from
standsti l l to the i ntersecti on poi nt. I f that i s not the case, opera-
ti on becomes unstabl e and the stati onary state may change i f
the speed i s too l ow. One of the reasons for thi s i s that the sur-
pl us torque i s requi red for accel erati on.
I n parti cul ar for machi nes i n groups 1 and 2, i t i s necessary to
take account of thi s starti ng condi ti on. These types of l oad may
have an i ni ti al starti ng torque whi ch i s same si ze as the start-
i ng torque of the motor. When the starti ng torque of the l oad i s
hi gher than the starti ng torque of the motor, the motor cannot
start.
T
B
N
n
Fig. 1.33 The motor needs a surplus torque for acceleration
Surpl us torque
T
100%
n
Fig. 1.34 The starting state may call for a particularly high torque
Synchronous motors
The stator bui l d-up of synchronous and asynchronous motors i s
the same.
The rotor of the synchronous motor (al so cal l ed a magnet wheel )
has sal i ent magneti c pol es and can be bui l t ei ther wi th perma-
nent magnets (for smal l motors) or el ectromagnets.
The rotor has two or more pai rs of pol es and can thus al so be
used for l ow-speed motors. A synchronous motor i s not abl e to
start usi ng just the mai ns suppl y. Thi s i s because of the rotor
i nerti a and the hi gh speed of the rotati ng fi el d. The rotor must
therefore be brought to the same speed as the rotati ng fi el d.
For l arger motors thi s i s usual l y done usi ng a pony motor or a
frequency converter.
Smal l motors are normal l y started usi ng starti ng wi ndi ngs
(dampi ng wi ndi ngs) whi ch cause the motor to behave as a squi r-
rel -cage motor.
After start-up, the motor turns synchronousl y wi th the rotati ng
fi el d. I f the motor i s subjected to a l oad, the di stance between
the rotor pol es and the rotati ng fi el d pol es i ncreases. The rotor
stays behi nd the rotati ng fi el d by the l oad angl e (v) and thus
behi nd the no-l oad posi ti on of the rotor (Fi g. 1.35).
Synchronous motors have a constant speed whi ch i s i ndepen-
dent of the l oad. The motor wi l l not tol erate a hi gher l oad than
the starti ng power between rotor and magneti c fi el d.
1
2
3
4
5
Fig. 1.35 (Synchronous motor rotors: permanent magnet)
1. Useful fl ux
2. Retai ned fl ux
3. Permanent magnet
4. Spacer sheet (unmagneti c)
5. Start-up cage
I f the l oad exceeds thi s starti ng power, the synchroni sm i s i nter-
rupted and the motor stops.
Synchronous motors are used for exampl e, i n paral l el opera-
ti ons where several mechani cal l y i ndependent uni ts are to be
operated synchronousl y.
N
I
1
I
2
2
S
0 90 180
M
T
K
b)
N
S
N
S
Fig. 1.36 Rotor with salient poles and torque characteristics
Fig. 1.37 Loading angle and operating torque as opposed to
rotor angle
Wi ndi ng
Load angl e ()
Di recti on of
rotati on
Stator fi el d vol tage
Ful l
Hal f
vol tage
Magnet wheel angl e
Cross-secti on
Magnet Stator
Rotors
T
N
T
K
T
0 n
d
n
Reluctance motors
Three-phase AC rel uctance motors devel op speed l i ke normal
squi rrel cage three-phase asynchronous motors, but then
become synchronous. Si nce rel uctance motors have a si mpl e
squi rrel cage wi ndi ng i n the rotor, they are sturdy, rel i abl e,
mai ntenance-free, do not generate radi o i nterference and are
rel ati vel y l ow-pri ced. The di sadvantages are that they have a
hi gh i nducti ve reacti ve output requi rement and that they are
i neffi ci ent whi ch i s why rel uctance motors are onl y general l y
used by i ndustry up to an output of about 15 kW.
Build-up
The stators of a three-phase AC rel uctance motor are the same
as a normal three-phase squi rrel cage AC asynchronous motor
and the rotor.
I t has a si mpl e squi rrel cage wi ndi ng. However, the rotor of a
rel uctance motor has the same number of sal i ent pol es as i t has
stators. The pol es are made by cutti ng pol e hol es at the ci rcum-
ference of the rotor metal pl ate set or si mi l ar pl ate structures
(see Fi g. 1.38a).
A fl exi bl e, magneti c resi stance (rel uctance) occurs at the rotor
ci rcumference through the pol e hol es, whi ch can be fi l l ed wi th
the same materi al the rotor cage the resi stance i s smal l est i n
the pol e area and l argest at the pol e gap area.
p = 2
Fig. 1.38a Reluctance rotor
cross-secti on, rotor
hol e
pol e
When connected to the three-phase AC suppl y, rel uctance
motors just l i ke normal squi rrel -cage motors devel op a
torque and run up cl ose to the synchronous speed val ue, provi d-
ed the motor torque i s hi gher than the l oad torque throughout
the run-up process. The starti ng current i s normal l y somewhat
hi gher and the starti ng torque somewhat smal l er than i n com-
parabl e squi rrel -cage motors, si nce there i s a wi der ai r gap i n
the pol e gap area. When the rotor has practi cal l y reached the
speed of the rotati ng fi el d, the magneti c coupl i ng of stator rotat-
i ng fi el d and rotor pol es resul ts i n a synchroni sati on torque
(reacti on torque) that dri ves the rotor i nto synchronous opera-
ti on. After thi s synchroni sati on process, the motor wi l l run at
synchroni sed speed despi te fal l i ng rotor regul ati on.
A synchroni sed rel uctance motor works i n more or l ess the same
way as a synchronous motor and i ts rotor turns synchroni cal l y
wi th the speed of the stator rotati ng fi el d. I n the same way as
the pol e of the stator rotati ng fi el d moves to affect the rotor
pol es, i n the rel uctance motor the magneti c fl ux of the stator
rotati ng fi el d tri es to acti vate the rotor i n the area of the sal i ent
pol es. The smal l ai r gap at these poi nts resul ts i n a smal l er mag-
neti c resi stance than i n the area of the pol e gaps. The effort of
the magneti c fl ux not to have to overcome the hi gher magneti c
resi stance i n the area of the pol e gaps creates a synchronous
torque whi ch i t mai ntai ns under l oad.
T
A
T
K T
s
T
ks
T
n
T/T
n
0
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
1,0
3
2
1
n
l
/n
f
Rated torque
Synchro-
ni sati on
Phase
swi ngi ng
O
v
e
r
-
l
o
a
d
R
e
l
i
e
f
S
t
a
r
t
i
n
g
Fig. 1.38b Torque graph of a reluctance motor
Because of the fal l i ng DC generati on i n the rotor, the synchro-
nous torque of a rel uctance motor i s consi derabl y l ower than
that of a comparabl e synchronous motor.
When synchroni sati on has been compl eted, rel uctance motors
have operati onal characteri sti cs si mi l ar to standard synchro-
nous motors. The rotor turns at the speed of the stator rotati ng
fi el d, whi ch depends on the mai ns frequency and the number of
pai rs of pol es.
The l oad angl e determi nes how far the sal i ent rotor pol es
remai n behi nd the stator rotati ng fi el d. I f the motor i s over-
l oaded phase swi ngi ng occurs and i t runs as an asynchronous
motor wi th a l oad-dependent speed (Fi g. 1.38b). The motor re-
synchroni ses when the l oad torque i s l ower than the synchro-
ni si ng torque. I f, however, the motor recei ves a l oad hi gher than
i ts asynchronous stal l i ng torque, i t wi l l stop.
Because of the i ncreased ai r gap i n the area of the pol e gaps i n
the ci rcumference of the rotor, rel uctance motors have rel ati ve-
l y hi gh di spersi on, whi ch l eads to a hi gh i nducti ve reacti ve pow-
er requi rement and a correspondi ng share. Thi s l eads to a l ow
power factor, of between 0.4 and 0.5 of rated operati on. When
desi gni ng dri ves wi th rel uctance motors, thi s reacti ve power
requi rement must be taken i nto account.
Three-phase AC rel uctance motors are used mai nl y i n mul ti -
task appl i cati ons where the speed of each axi s needs to be exact-
l y the same and where the use of a si ngl e motor wi th mechani -
cal transmi ssi on to each axi s woul d be too di ffi cul t or too
expensi ve.
Exampl es of such uses coul d be dri ves for spi nni ng machi nes,
pumps or conveyor systems.
52 CHAPTER 2: FREQUENCY CONVERTERS
2. Frequency converters
Si nce the l ate 1960s, frequency converters have undergone
extremel y rapi d changes, l argel y as a resul t of the devel opment
of mi croprocessor and semi -conductor technol ogi es and thei r
reducti on i n pri ces. However, the basi c pri nci pl es of frequency
converters remai ns the same.
Frequency converters can be di vi ded i nto four mai n compo-
nents:
1. The recti fi er, whi ch i s connected to a si ngl e/three-phase AC
mai ns suppl y and generates a pul sati ng DC vol tage. There
are two basi c types of recti fi ers control l ed and uncontrol l ed.
2. The i ntermedi ate ci rcui t. There are three types:
a) one, whi ch converts the recti fi er vol tage i nto a di rect
current.
b) one, whi ch stabi l i ses or smoothes the pul sati ng DC vol tage
and pl aces i t at the di sposal of the i nverter.
c) one, whi ch converts the constant DC vol tage of the
recti fi er to a vari abl e AC vol tage.
3. The i nverter whi ch generates the frequency of the motor vol t-
age. Al ternati vel y, some i nverters may al so convert the con-
stant DC vol tage i nto a vari abl e AC vol tage.
~
~
~
M
Fig. 2.01 Simplified frequency converter
Recti fi er I ntermed.
ci rcui t
I nverter
Control ci rcui t
CHAPTER 2: FREQUENCY CONVERTERS 53
4. The control ci rcui t el ectroni cs, whi ch transmi t si gnal s to
and recei ve si gnal s from the recti fi er, the i ntermedi ate ci r-
cui t and the i nverter. The parts that are control l ed i n detai l
depends on the desi gn of the i ndi vi dual frequency converter
(see Fi g. 2.02).
What al l frequency converters have i n common i s that the
control ci rcui t uses si gnal s to swi tch the i nverter semi -con-
ductors on or off. Frequency converters are di vi ded accordi ng
to the swi tchi ng pattern that control s the suppl y vol tage to
the motor.
I n fi gure 2.02, whi ch shows the di fferent desi gn/control pri n-
ci pl es:
1 i s a control l ed recti fi er,
2 i s an uncontrol l ed recti fi er,
3 i s a vari abl e DC i ntermedi ate ci rcui t,
4 i s a constant DC vol tage i ntermedi ate ci rcui t,
5 i s a vari abl e DC i ntermedi ate ci rcui t,
6 i s a PAM i nverter and
7 PWM i nverter.
Di rect converters, whi ch do not have an i ntermedi ate ci rcui t
shoul d al so be bri efl y menti oned for compl eteness. These con-
verters are used i n the Mega-watt power range to generate a
l ow-frequency suppl y di rectl y from the 50 Hz mai ns and thei r
maxi mum output frequency i s about 30 Hz.
1 2
3 4 5
7 6
Fig. 2.02 Different design/ control principles
Recti fi er
I nter-
medi ate
ci rcui t
I nverter
Current Source I nverter: CSI
(1 + 3 + 6)
Pul se-ampl i tude-modul ated converter: PAM
(1 + 4 + 7) (2 + 5 + 7)
Pul se-wi dth-modul ated converter: PWM/VVC
pl us
(2 + 4 + 7)
The rectifier
The suppl y vol tage i s a three-phase AC vol tage or a si ngl e-phase
AC vol tage wi th a fi xed frequency (e.g 3 400 V/50 Hz or 1
240 V/50 Hz) and thei r characteri sti c val ues can be i l l ustrated
as:
I n the i l l ustrati on the three phases are di spl aced i n ti me, the
phase vol tage constantl y changes di recti on, and the frequency
i ndi cates the number of peri ods per second. A frequency of 50 Hz
means that there are 50 peri ods per second (50 T), i .e. one peri -
od l asts for 20 mi l l i seconds.
The recti fi er of a frequency converter consi sts ei ther of di odes,
thyri stors or a combi nati on of both. A recti fi er consi sti ng of
di odes i s uncontrol l ed and a recti fi er consi sti ng of thyri stors i s
control l ed. I f both di odes and thyri stors are used, the recti fi er i s
semi -control l ed.
Uncontrolled rectifiers
t
U
t
U
A
I
K
U
T
a a) a b =
1
/3 T b b)
t
U
t
Fig. 2.03 Single- and three-phase AC voltage
Fig. 2.04 Diode mode of operation
Di odes al l ow current to fl ow i n one di recti on onl y: from the
anode (A) to the cathode (K). I t i s not possi bl e as i s the case
wi th some other semi -conductors to control the current
strength. An AC vol tage over a di ode i s converted to a pul sati ng
DC vol tage. I f a three-phase AC vol tage i s suppl i ed to an uncon-
trol l ed three-phase recti fi er, the DC vol tage wi l l conti nue to pul -
sate.
Fi g 2.05 shows an uncontrol l ed three-phase recti fi er, consi sti ng
of two groups of di odes. One group consi sts of di odes D
1
, D
3
and
D
5
. The other group consi sts of di odes D
2
, D
4
and D
6
. Each di ode
conducts
1
/3 of the peri odi c ti me (120). I n both groups, the
di odes conduct i n sequence. Peri ods i n whi ch both groups con-
trol are di spl aced by
1
/
6
of the peri odi c ti me T (60) i n rel ati on to
each other.
Di odes D
1,3,5
conduct when the posi ti ve vol tage i s appl i ed. I f the
vol tage of phase L
1
reaches the posi ti ve peak val ue, termi nal A
assumes the val ue of phase L
1
. Above the two other di odes are
reverse vol tages si zed U
L1-2
and U
L1-2
.
Thi s al so appl i es to di ode group D
2,4,6
. Here termi nal B recei ves
the negati ve phase vol tage. I f at a gi ven ti me L
3
reaches the neg-
ati ve threshol d val ue, di ode D
6
conducts. The two other di odes
are subject to reverse vol tages of si zes U
L3-1
and U
L3-2
.
The output vol tage of the uncontrol l ed recti fi er i s the di fference
val ue of the vol tages of the two di ode groups. The mean val ue of
the pul sati ng DC vol tage i s 1.35 mai ns vol tage.
U U
+(A)
(B)
L
1
L
2
D
1
D
3
D
5
D
2
D
4
D
6
L
3
t t
Fig. 2.05 The uncontrolled rectifier
Controlled rectifiers
I n control l ed recti fi ers, the di odes are repl aced by thyri stors.
Li ke the di ode, the thyri stor onl y al l ows the current to fl ow from
the anode (A) to the cathode (K). However, the di fference
between the two devi ces i s that the thyri stor has a thi rd termi -
nal Gate (G). Thi s gate must be control l ed by a si gnal before
the thyri stor conducts. When a current fl ows through the thyri s-
tor, the thyri stor wi l l conduct the current unti l i t becomes zero.
The current cannot be i nterrupted by a si gnal on the Gate.
Thyri stors are used i n recti fi ers as wel l as i n i nverters.
The si gnal to the Gate i s the control si gnal of the thyri stor,
whi ch i s a ti me del ay, stated i n degrees. The degree val ue i ndi -
cates the del ay between the vol tage zero crossi ng and the ti me
when the thyri stor i s conducti ng.
U
A
G
K
I

t
U
t
Fig. 2.07 Thyristor mode of operation
t
U
t
U
A-B
U
A
U
B
Fig. 2.06 The output voltage of the uncontrolled three-phase rectifier
I f symbol i s between 0 and 90, the thyri stor coupl i ng i s used
as a recti fi er, when i t i s between 90 and 300 the thyri stor i s
used as an i nverter.
The control l ed recti fi er i s basi cal l y the same as an uncontrol l ed
recti fi er except that the thyri stor i s control l ed by and starts
conducti ng from the poi nt where a normal di ode begi ns to con-
duct, up to a poi nt 30 behi nd the vol tage zero crossi ng.
Regul ati ng al l ows vari ati on of the val ue of the recti fi ed vol t-
age. The control l ed recti fi er suppl i es a DC vol tage wi th a mean
val ue of 1.35 mai ns vol tage cos .
t
t
U
A
U
U
A-B
U
B
Fig. 2.09 The output voltage of the controlled three-phase rectifier
t
U
L
1
L
2
T
1
T
3
T
5
T
2
T
4
T
6
L
3
t
U
Fig. 2.08 The controlled three-phase rectifier
Compared to the uncontrol l ed recti fi er, the control l ed recti fi er
causes major l osses and di sturbances i n the suppl y mai ns,
because the recti fi er draws a hi gher reacti ve current i f the
thyri stors conduct for a short ti me.
However the advantage of control l ed recti fi ers i s that energy
can be fed back i nto the mai ns suppl y.
The intermediate circuit
The i ntermedi ate ci rcui t can be seen as a storage faci l i ty from
whi ch the motor i s abl e to draw i ts energy vi a the i nverter. I t
can be bui l t accordi ng to three di fferent pri nci pl es dependi ng on
the recti fi er and i nverter.
On current-source i nverters the i ntermedi ate ci rcui t consi sts of
a l arge coi l and i s onl y combi ned wi th the control l ed recti fi er.
The coi l transforms the vari abl e vol tage from the recti fi er i nto a
vari abl e di rect current. The l oad determi nes the si ze of the
motor vol tage.
On vol tage-source i nverters the i ntermedi ate ci rcui t consi sts of
a fi l ter contai ni ng capaci tor and can be combi ned wi th both
types of recti fi er. The fi l ter smoothes the pul sati ng DC vol tage
(U
Z1
) of the recti fi er.
I n a control l ed recti fi er, the vol tage i s constant at a gi ven fre-
quency, and suppl i ed to the i nverter as pure DC vol tage (U
Z2
)
wi th vari abl e ampl i tude.
U
t
+
I
t
U
Z1
U
Z1
U
Z1
U
Z2
U
Z2
t
+
U
Z2
t
t t
Fig. 2.10 Variable DC intermediate circuit
Fig. 2.11 Constant DC voltage intermediate circuit
Current-source i nverters (I -converters)
Vol tage-source i nverters (U-converters)
control l ed
uncontrol l ed
vari abl e ampl i tude
constant ampl i tude
I n uncontrol l ed recti fi ers, the vol tage at the i nput of the i nvert-
er i s a DC vol tage wi th constant ampl i tude.
Fi nal l y, i n vari abl e DC vol tage i ntermedi ate ci rcui ts a chopper
can be i nserted i n front of a fi l ter, as shown i n fi gure 2.12.
The chopper has a transi stor, whi ch works as a swi tch to turn
the recti fi ed vol tage on and off. The control ci rcui t regul ates the
chopper by compari ng the vari abl e vol tage after the fi l ter (U
v
)
wi th the i nput si gnal . I f there i s a di fference, the rati o i s regu-
l ated by the ti me duri ng whi ch the transi stor i s conducti ng and
the ti me when i t bl ocks. Thi s vari es the effecti ve val ue and si ze
of the DC vol tage and can be expressed as:
When the chopper transi stor i nterrupts the current, the fi l ter
coi l makes the vol tage across the transi stor i nfi ni tel y hi gh. I n
order to avoi d thi s, the chopper i s protected by a free-wheel i ng
di ode. When the transi stor opens and cl oses as shown i n fi g.
2.13, the vol tage i s hi ghest i n si tuati on 2.
t
on
U
V
= U
t
on
+ t
off
U
U
t t
U
V
U
V
Fig. 2.12 Variable voltage intermediate circuit
Vari abl e DC vol tage i ntermedi ate ci rcui t
Chopper
The fi l ter of the i ntermedi ate ci rcui t smoothes the square wave
vol tage after the chopper. The fi l ter capaci tor and coi l keep the
vol tage constant at a gi ven frequency.
The i ntermedi ate ci rcui t can al so provi de a number of addi ti on-
al functi ons dependi ng on i ts desi gn, such as:
decoupl i ng of recti fi er from i nverter
reducti on of harmoni cs
energy storage to contai n i ntermi ttent l oad surges.
U
V
U
V
t
off
t
on
t
t
off
t
on
t
off
t
t
on
Si tuati on 1 Si tuati on 2
Fig. 2.13 The chopper transistor regulates the intermediate circuit
The inverter
The i nverter i s the l ast l i nk i n the frequency converter before
the motor and the poi nt where the fi nal adaptati on of the output
vol tage occurs.
The frequency converter guarantees good operati ng condi ti ons
throughout the whol e control range by adapti ng the output vol t-
age to the l oad condi ti ons. I t i s thus possi bl e to mai ntai n the
magneti sati on of the motor at the opti mal val ue.
From the i ntermedi ate ci rcui t, the i nverter ei ther recei ves
a vari abl e di rect current,
a vari abl e DC vol tage, or
a constant DC vol tage.
I n every case, the i nverter ensures that the suppl y to the motor
becomes a vari abl e quanti ty. I n other words, the frequency of
the motor vol tage i s al ways generated i n the i nverter. I f the cur-
rent or vol tage i s vari abl e, the i nverter onl y generates the fre-
quency. I f the vol tage i s constant, the i nverter generates the
motor frequency as wel l as the vol tage.
Even i f i nverters work i n di fferent ways, thei r basi c structure i s
al ways the same. The mai n components are control l ed semi -con-
ductors, pl aced i n pai rs i n three branches.
The thyri stors have now l argel y been repl aced by hi gh frequen-
cy transi stors whi ch can be swi tched on and off very rapi dl y.
Al though thi s depends on the semi conductor used, i t i s typi cal -
l y between 300 Hz to 20 kHz.
The semi -conductors i n the i nverter are turned on and off by si g-
nal s generated by the control ci rcui t. Si gnal s can be control l ed
i n a number of di fferent ways.
I n tradi ti onal i nverters, deal i ng mai nl y wi th vari abl e vol tage
i ntermedi ate current the i nverter consi sts of si x di odes, si x
thyri stors and si x capaci tors.
The capaci tors enabl e the thyri stors to swi tch on and off, so that
the current i s di spl aced 120 degrees i n the phase wi ndi ngs and
must be adapted to the motor si ze. An i ntermi ttent rotati onal
fi el d wi th the requi red frequency i s produced when the motor
termi nal s are peri odi cal l y suppl i ed wi th current i n turns U-V,
V-W, W-U, U-V..... Even i f thi s makes the motor current al most
square, the motor vol tage i s al most si nusoi dal . However, there
are al ways vol tage peaks when the current i s swi tched on or off.
The di odes separate the capaci tors from the l oad current of the
motor.
I ()
t
I
t
I
Fig. 2.14 Traditional I nverter for variable voltage intermediate
circuit current
I n vari abl e or constant i ntermedi ate ci rcui t vol tage i nverters
there are si x swi tchi ng components and regardl ess of the type of
semi -conductors used, the functi on i s basi cal l y the same. The
control ci rcui t swi tches the semi -conductors on and off usi ng a
number of di fferent modul ati on techni ques, thus changi ng the
output frequency of the frequency converter.
The fi rst techni que deal s wi th vari abl e vol tage or current i n the
i ntermedi ate ci rcui t.
The i nterval s duri ng whi ch the i ndi vi dual semi -conductors are
conducti ng are pl aced i n a sequence whi ch i s used to obtai n the
requi red output frequency.
Thi s semi -conductor swi tchi ng sequence i s control l ed by the si ze
of the i ntermedi ate ci rcui t vari abl e vol tage, or current. Usi ng a
vol tage-control l ed osci l l ator, the frequency al ways fol l ows the
ampl i tude of the vol tage. Thi s type of i nverter control i s cal l ed
Pul se Ampl i tude Modul ati on (PAM).
The other mai n techni que uses a fi xed i ntermedi ate ci rcui t vol t-
age. The motor vol tage i s made vari abl e by appl yi ng the i nter-
medi ate ci rcui t vol tage to the motor wi ndi ngs for l onger or
shorter peri ods of ti me.
U
t
U
t
t
I
t
I
t
I
Fig. 2.15 I nverter for variable or constant intermediate circuit volt-
age and the output current dependent on the switching fre-
quency of the inverter
Swi tchi ng frequency: l ow
Swi tchi ng frequency: medi um
Swi tchi ng frequency: hi gh
The frequency i s changed by varyi ng the vol tage pul ses al ong
the ti me axi s posi ti vel y for one hal f-peri od and negati vel y for
the other.
As the techni que changes the wi dth of the vol tage pul ses, i t i s
cal l ed Pul se-Wi dth-Modul ati on or PWM. PWM (and rel ated
techni ques such as si ne-control l ed PWM) i s the most common
techni que for i nverter control .
I n PWM techni ques the control ci rcui t determi nes the on and off
swi tchi ng ti mes of the semi -conductors at the i ntersecti on
between a del ta vol tage and a superi mposed, si nusoi dal refer-
ence vol tage (si ne-control l ed PWM).
Other advanced PWM techni que i ncl udes modi fi ed PWM such
as Danfosss VVC and VVC
pl us
.
These two pri nci pl es are descri bed from page 82.
Transistors
As transi stors can be swi tched at hi gh speeds, the magneti c
noi se generated by the pul se magneti sati on of the motor i s
reduced.
U
U
Z
U
Z
t
U
PAM PWM
t
Fig. 2.16 Modulation of amplitude and pulse width
Another advantage of the hi gh swi tchi ng frequency i s the fl exi -
bl e modul ati on of the output vol tage of the frequency converter
whi ch enabl es a si nusoi dal motor current to be generated as the
control ci rcui t onl y has to swi tch the i nverter transi stors off and
on.
The i nverter swi tchi ng frequency i s a bal anci ng act as hi gh fre-
quenci es can l ead to motor heati ng and hi gh peak vol tages. The
hi gher the swi tchi ng frequency the hi gher the l osses.
On the other hand l ow swi tchi ng frequency can l ead to hi gh
acousti c motor noi se.
Hi gh-frequency transi stors can be di vi ded i nto three mai n
types:
Bi pol ar (LTR)
Uni pol ar (MOS-FET)
I nsul ated-Gate-Bi pol ar (I GBT)
0
t
0
0
I
N
Fig. 2.17 Switching frequency influence of the motor current
f
p
= 1.5 kHz
f
p
= 3 kHz
f
p
= 12 kHz
I
N
0
0
0
t
Today I GBT transi stors are the most wi del y used as they com-
bi ne the control properti es of the MOS-FET transi stors wi th the
output properti es of the LTR transi stors and have the ri ght pow-
er range, conducti vi ty, swi tchi ng frequency and ease of control
for modern frequency converters.
Wi th I GBT transi stors both the i nverter components and i ts
control s are pl aced i n a moul ded modul e, cal l ed the I ntel l i gent
Power Modul e (I PM).
The tabl e bel ow gi ves the major di fferences between MOS-FET,
I GBT and LTR.
Semi -conductor
MOS-FET IGBT LTR
Properti es
Symbol
Design
Conductivity
Current conducti vi ty Low Hi gh Hi gh
Losses Hi gh I nsi gni fi cant I nsi gni fi cant
Blocking conditions
Upper l i mi t Low Hi gh Medi um
Switching conditions
Turn-on ti me Short Medi um Medi um
Turn-off ti me Short Medi um Low
Losses I nsi gni fi cant Medi um Gro
Control conditions
Power Low Low Hi gh
Dri ver Vol tage Vol tage Current
S
N+ N+
P
P+
N
S G
D
S
N+ N+
P
N+
N
S G
D
S
N+ N+
P
N+
N
S G
D
Fig. 2.18 Comparison of power transistors
Pulse-Amplitude-Modulation (PAM)
PAM i s used for frequency converters wi th vari abl e i ntermedi -
ate ci rcui t vol tage.
I n frequency converters wi th uncontrol l ed recti fi ers the ampl i -
tude of the output vol tage i s generated by the i ntermedi ate ci r-
cui t chopper and where the recti fi er i s control l ed, the ampl i tude
i s generated di rectl y.
kVA
kHz
I GBT
LTR
MOS-FET
Fig. 2.19 Power and frequency range of power transistors
Fig. 2.20 Voltage generation in frequency converters with
intermediate circuit chopper
?
+
Chopper
Actual val ue
Fi xed
DC vol tage
Vari abl e
DC vol tage
Control and regul ati on ci rcui t
I nput si gnal
The transi stor (chopper) i n Fi g. 2.20 i s swi tched on or off by the
control and regul ati on ci rcui t. The swi tchi ng ti mes depend on
the rated val ue (i nput si gnal ) and the measured (actual val ue)
vol tage si gnal . The actual val ue i s measured at the capaci tor.
Both the coi l and capaci tor act as a fi l ter that smoothes the vol t-
age ri ppl e. The vol tage peak depends on the openi ng ti mes of the
transi stor and i f the rated val ue and actual val ue di ffer, the
chopper i s regul ated unti l the requi red vol tage l evel i s reached.
Frequency Control
The output vol tage frequency i s vari ed by the i nverter duri ng
the change of peri od and duri ng the peri ods the semi -conductor
swi tchi ng uni ts are acti vated a number of ti mes.
The peri od l ength can be control l ed i s two ways:
1. di rectl y by the i nput si gnal , or
2. by the vari abl e DC vol tage whi ch i s proporti onal to the i nput
si gnal .
Fig. 2.21a Frequency control via intermediate circuit voltage
+
I nverter
Vari abl e
DC vol tage
Motor
3~
Control and regul ati on ci rcui t
Vol tage Frequency
Pulse-Width-Modulation (PWM)
PWM i s the most wi del y used procedure for generati ng a three-
phase vol tage wi th correspondi ng frequency.
Wi th PWM the ful l i ntermedi ate ci rcui t vol tage (2
U
mai ns
) i s
swi tched on or off by the power el ectroni c components. The
pul se-wi dth repeti ti on rate between the on and off swi tchi ng
ti mes i s vari abl e and causes the vol tage adjustment.
There are 3 mai n opti ons for determi ni ng the swi tchi ng pat-
terns i n an PWM control l ed i nverter.
1. Si ne control l ed PWM
2. Synchronous PWM
3. Asynchronous PWM
Each i nverter branch of a three-phase PWM i nverter can have
two di fferent posi ti ons (on or off).
The three swi tches generate ei ght possi bl e swi tchi ng combi na-
ti ons (2
3
) and, therefore ei ght di screte vol tage vectors at the out-
put of the i nverter or at the stator wi ndi ng of the connected
motor. As shown i n Fi g. 2.21b, these vectors 100, 110, 010, 011,
001, 101 are pl aced at the corners of a suspended hexagon, usi ng
000 and 111 as zero vectors.
Wi th swi tchi ng combi nati ons 000 and 111, the same potenti al i s
generated at al l three output termi nal s of the i nverter ei ther
a pl us or mi nus potenti al from the i ntermedi ate ci rcui t (see
Fi g. 2.21c). For the motor, thi s comes cl ose to the effect of a ter-
mi nal short-ci rcui t; the 0 V vol tage i s al so i mpressed on the
motor wi ndi ngs.
V
U
U V W
W
000
111
101
1
+
0 0
0 1 1
010
110 100
011 001
Fig. 2.21b Fig. 2.21c
Sine-controlled PWM
I n si ne control l ed PWM the control pri nci pl e uses a si nusoi dal
reference vol tage (U
s
) for each i nverter output. The peri od
l ength of the si nusoi dal vol tage corresponds to the requi red
basi c frequency of the output vol tage. The three reference vol t-
ages are superi mposed by a del ta vol tage (U
) (see Fi g. 2.22).
At the i ntersecti on of the del ta vol tage and the si ne references,
the i nverters semi -conductors are ei ther turned on or off.
The i ntersecti ons are determi ned el ectroni cal l y by the control
card. I f the del ta vol tage i s hi gher than the si ne vol tage, the out-
put pul se changes from posi ti ve to negati ve (or negati ve to
posi ti ve) when the del ta vol tage i s reduced, so the maxi mum
output vol tage of the frequency converter i s determi ned by the
i ntermedi ate ci rcui t vol tage.
U
S
U
U
1
U
2
U
2
U
1
t
t
t
t
U
S1
U
S2
U
Fig. 2.22 Principle of the sine-controlled PWM

(with two reference voltages)
Converter output
The output vol tage i s changed by the rati o between the on and
off ti me and thi s rati o can be changed to generate the requi red
vol tage. The ampl i tude of the negati ve and posi ti ve vol tage
pul ses thus al ways corresponds to hal f the i ntermedi ate ci rcui t
vol tage.
At l ow stator frequenci es, the off ti me i ncreases and may
become so bi g that i t i s not possi bl e to mai ntai n the frequency of
the del ta vol tage.
Thi s makes the vol tage-free peri od too l ong causi ng the motor to
run i rregul arl y. I n order to avoi d thi s, the frequency of the del ta
vol tage can be doubl ed at l ow frequenci es.
0.00
0.50
1.00
0.50
1.00
U-V V-W W-U
0.866
0.866
360 0 60 120 180 240 300
Fig. 2.23 Output voltage of sine-controlled PWM
Swi tchi ng pattern of phase U
Phase vol tage (0-poi nt hal f i ntermedi ate ci rcui t vol tage)
Combi ned vol tage to motor
The phase vol tage of the frequency i nverter output termi nal s
corresponds to hal f the i ntermedi ate ci rcui t vol tage di vi ded by
2
and i s thus equal to hal f the mai ns suppl y vol tage. The
mai ns vol tage of the output termi nal s i s equal to 3
ti mes the
phase vol tage and i s thus equal to 0.866 ti mes the mai ns suppl y
vol tage.
A PWM control l ed i nverter whi ch works excl usi vel y wi th si nu-
soi dal reference modul ati on can del i ver up to 86.6% of the rated
vol tage (see fi gure 2.23).
The output vol tage of the frequency converter cannot reach the
motor vol tage usi ng just si ne modul ati on, as the output vol tage
wi l l be approxi matel y 13% too l ow.
However, the extra vol tage needed can be obtai ned by reduci ng
the pul se number when the frequency exceeds about 45 Hz but
there are some drawbacks wi th thi s techni que. I n parti cul ar i t
makes the vol tage al ternate step-wi se and the motor current
becomes unstabl e. I f the number of pul ses i s reduced, the over-
harmoni cs at the frequency converter output i ncreases, l eadi ng
to hi gher l osses i n the motor.
Another way of deal i ng wi th the probl em i nvol ves usi ng other
reference vol tages i n pl ace of the three si ne references. These
coul d be any shape of waveform (eg, trapeze-shaped or step-
shaped).
For exampl e one common reference vol tage uses the 3rd har-
moni c of the si ne reference. By i ncreasi ng the ampl i tude of the
si ne reference by 15.5% and addi ng the 3rd harmoni c, a swi tch-
i ng pattern for the i nverters semi -conductor can be obtai ned
whi ch i ncreases the output vol tage of the frequency converter.
Synchronous PWM
A basi c probl em of the si ne control l ed PWM procedure l i es i n
determi ni ng the opti mum swi tchi ng ti mes and angl e for the
vol tage over a gi ven peri od. These swi tchi ng ti mes must be set
to al l ow onl y a mi ni mum of upper harmoni c waves. Such a
swi tchi ng pattern i s onl y mai ntai ned for a gi ven (l i mi ted) fre-
quency range. Operati on outsi de thi s range requi res another
swi tchi ng pattern.
Usi ng si ne control l ed PWM i t i s necessary to opti mi se the vol t-
age uti l i sati on and mi ni mi se the harmoni c spectrum. I f the rep-
eti ti on rate (i .e. the frequency of the del ta vol tage) becomes very
hi gh i n rel ati on to the frequency of the reference si gnal , these
two si gnal s may run asynchronousl y i n rel ati on to each other. At
frequency rati os cl ose to 10 or l ower, di sturbi ng harmoni cs wi l l
occur and i t becomes necessary to synchroni se the two si gnal s.
Thi s synchroni sati on can be seen from the so-cal l ed gearshi ft
whi ch i s good for three-phase AC dri ves wi th l ow dynami c prop-
erti es, where vol tage and frequency (normal V/f control ) can be
changed sl owl y.
Asynchronous PWM
The demand for fi el d-ori entati on and fast system reacti on for
torque and speed control of three-phase AC dri ves (excl udi ng
servo-dri ves) requi res a stepwi se modi fi cati on of the ampl i tude
and angl e of the i nverter vol tage. Usi ng a normal or synchro-
nous PWM swi tchi ng pattern, i t i s not possi bl e to change the
ampl i tude and angl e of the i nverter vol tage step-wi se.
However, one way of meeti ng thi s requi rement i s the asynchro-
nous PWM procedure, i n whi ch i nstead of synchroni si ng the
modul ati on of the output vol tage to the output frequency, as i s
normal l y done to reduce harmoni cs i n the motor, the modul ati on
i s fed to the vol tage vector control cycl e thi s resul ts i n an asyn-
chronous rel ati onshi p to the output frequency.
There are two mai n asynchronous PWM techni ques:
SFAVM (Stator Fl ow-ori ented Asynchronous
Vector Modul ati on)
60 AVM (Asynchronous Vector Modul ati on).
SFAVM
SFAVM i s a space-vector modul ati on procedure that makes i t
possi bl e to change the i nverter vol tage, ampl i tude and angl e at
random, but stepwi se wi thi n the swi tchi ng ti me (i n other words
asynchronousl y). Thi s gi ves better dynami c performance.
The mai n objecti ve of thi s modul ati on i s to opti mi se the stator
fl ux usi ng the stator vol tage whi l st mi ni mi si ng torque ri ppl e, as
the devi ati on of the angl e depends on the swi tchi ng sequence
and can l ead to a hi gher torque ri ppl e. Consequentl y, the swi tch-
i ng sequence must be cal cul ated so as to ensure that the devi a-
ti on of the vector angl e i s mi ni mi sed. Swi tchi ng between the
vol tage vectors i s based on a cal cul ati on of the desi red trajecto-
ry of the motors stator fl ux, whi ch i n turn determi nes the ai rgap
torque.
Previ ousl y, conventi onal PWM suppl y suffered from a devi ati on
of the stator fl ux vector ampl i tude and the fl ux angl e. These
devi ati ons affected the rotati ng fi el d (torque) i n the ai r gap of
the motor and caused a torque ri ppl e. The effect of the ampl i -
tude devi ati on i s i nsi gni fi cantl y smal l and can be further
reduced by i ncreasi ng the swi tchi ng frequency.
Generation of motor voltage
Stati onary operati on, corresponds to control l i ng the machi ne
vol tage vector U
t
to a ci rcul ar trajectory, as shown i n Fi g. 2.24.
The l ength of the vol tage vector i s a measure of the val ue of the
motor vol tage and the speed of rotati on and corresponds to the
operati ng frequency at the ti me i n questi on. The motor vol tage
i s generated through the formati on of average val ues by means
of short pul ses from adjacent vectors.
The Danfoss SFAVM has among others the fol l owi ng properti es:
The vol tage vector can be control l ed wi thout devi ati on wi th
respect to the preset reference, i n ampl i tude and angl e.
A swi tchi ng sequence whi ch al ways begi ns from 000 or 111.
Thi s enabl es each vol tage vector to have three swi tchi ng
modes.
A mean val ue of the vol tage vector i s obtai ned by short pul s-
es of adjacent vectors as wel l as zero vectors 000 and 111.
Generati on of motor vol tage can be expl ai ned i n more detai l by
means of the fol l owi ng exampl es, i l l ustrated i n 2.24 and 2.25:
U
V
W
c) Time sequence of the control signals for the three inverter
phases U, V, W
Fig. 2.24 Momentary recording of torque PWM based on the space
vector modulation (SFAVM) for 50% rated motor voltage
1,0
0,5
U
Motor
0
V
t
U
t
U
W
101 010
110 100
011 001
a) Present output voltage
50% of rated voltage)
Basi c wave
b) Subsequent generation of the
ideal voltage vector U
ax
through
PWM between adjacent,
adjustable voltage vectors
The preset reference val ue (U
t
) i n Fi g. 2.24a i s 50%. The output
vol tage i s generated through short pul ses of the adjacent vector
i n thi s case 011 and 001, as wel l as 000 and 111 i n the form
of a mean val ue (Fi g. 2.24b).
Fi g. 2.25 shows the generati on of a motor vol tage of 100%.
SFAVM creates a connecti on between control system and the
power ci rcui t of the i nverter. The modul ati on i s synchronous to
the control frequency of the control s (see chapter VVC
pl us
) and
asynchronous to the basi c frequency of the motor vol tage.
1,0
0
U
motor
V
U
W
101 010
110 100
011 001
U
V
W
a) Preset output voltage
(100% of rated voltage)
c) Time sequence of the control signals for three inverter phases
U, V, W
Fig. 2.25 Momentary recording of torque PWM based on space vector
modulation (SFAVM) for 100% rated voltage
b) Generation of the ideal voltage
vector U
t
through PWM
between adjacent, adjustable
voltage vectors
Basi c wave
Synchroni sati on between control and modul ati on i s an advan-
tage for the hi gh-power control s (vol tage vector, fl ux vector),
si nce the control system of the vol tage vector i s abl e to control
di rectl y and wi thout l i mi tati ons (ampl i tude, angl e and angl e
speed are control l abl e).
I n order to dramati cal l y reduce the on-l i ne cal cul ati on ti me,
the vol tage val ues for di fferent angl es are gi ven i n a tabl e. Fi g.
2.26 shows an abstract from the vector modul ati on tabl e for
SFAVM as wel l as the output vol tage (to the motor).
1500
1000
500
0
60 120 180 240 300 360
500
1000
1500
2000
2000
2500
2500
Fig. 2.27 Output voltage (motor) (phase-phase)
U-W
V-W
U-V
Vol tage angl e
R
e
s
o
l
u
t
i
o
n

[
b
i
t
s
]
1500
1000
500
0
60 120 180 240 300 360
500
1000
1500
Fig. 2.26 Outputs given in the vector modulation table (SFAVM)
Phase U-0
Phase W-0
Phase V-0
Vol tage angl e
R
e
s
o
l
u
t
i
o
n

[
b
i
t
s
]
60 AVM
When 60 AVM (Asynchronous Vector Modul ati on) i s used
i nstead of the SFAVM procedure the vol tage vectors can be
determi ned as fol l ows:
Wi thi n a swi tchi ng peri od, onl y one zero vector (000 or 111) i s
used.
A swi tchi ng sequence does not al ways begi n from a zero vec-
tor (000 or 111).
Wi thi n
1
/6 peri od (60) the i nverter i s not swi tched i n one
phase. The swi tch state (0 or 1) i s mai ntai ned.
I n the two other phases, swi tchi ng i s normal .
Fi g. 2.28a/b gi ves a compari son of the swi tchi ng sequence i n the
60 AVM procedure as agai nst that of the SFAVM procedure
for a short i nterval (a) and for several peri ods
0.2450 0.2452 0.2454 0.2456
t (s)
U
V
W
U
V
W
60-AVM
SFAVM
Fig. 2.28a Switching sequence in 60 AVM and SFAVM for some
60 intervals
Fig. 2.28b Switching sequence in 60 AVM and SFAVM, respectively,
for several periods
0.23 0.24 0.25 0.26 0.27
t (s)
U
V
W
U
V
W
60-AVM
SFAVM
Control circuit
The control ci rcui t, or control card, i s the fourth mai n compo-
nent of the frequency converter and has four essenti al tasks:
control of the frequency converter semi -conductors.
data exchange between the frequency converter and peri ph-
eral s.
gatheri ng and reporti ng faul t messages.
carryi ng out of protecti ve functi ons for the frequency convert-
er and motor.
Mi cro-processors have i ncreased the speed of the control ci rcui t,
si gni fi cantl y i ncreasi ng the number of appl i cati ons sui tabl e for
dri ves and reduci ng the number of necessary cal cul ati ons.
Wi th mi croprocessors the processor i s i ntegrated i nto the fre-
quency converter and i s al ways abl e to determi ne the opti mum
pul se pattern for each operati ng state.
Fi g. 2.29 shows a PAM-control l ed frequency converter wi th
i ntermedi ate ci rcui t chopper. The control ci rcui t control s the
chopper (2) and the i nverter (3).
U
f
1 2 3
Fig. 2.29 The principle of a control circuit used for a chopper-
controlled intermediate circuit
Control ci rcui t for
chopper frequency
PI vol tage regul ator
Sequence
generator
Control ci rcui t for PAM frequency converter
Thi s i s done i n accordance wi th the momentary val ue of the
i ntermedi ate ci rcui t vol tage.
The i ntermedi ate ci rcui t vol tage control s a ci rcui t that functi ons
as an address counter i n the data storage. The storage has the
output sequences for the pul se pattern of the i nverter. When the
i ntermedi ate ci rcui t vol tage i ncreases, the counti ng goes faster,
the sequence i s compl eted faster and the output frequency
i ncreases.
Wi th respect to the chopper control , the i ntermedi ate ci rcui t
vol tage i s fi rst compared wi th the rated val ue of the reference
si gnal a vol tage si gnal . Thi s vol tage si gnal i s expected to gi ve
a correct output vol tage and frequency. I f the reference and
i ntermedi ate ci rcui t si gnal s vary, a PI -regul ator i nforms a ci r-
cui t that the cycl e ti me must be changed. Thi s l eads to an
adjustment of the i ntermedi ate ci rcui t vol tage to the reference
si gnal .
PAM i s the tradi ti onal technol ogy for frequency i nverter control .
PWM i s the more modern techni que and the fol l owi ng pages
detai l how Danfoss has adapted PWM to provi de parti cul ar and
speci fi c benefi ts.
Danfoss control principle
Fi g. 2.30 gi ves the control procedure for Danfoss i nverters.
The control al gori thm i s used to cal cul ate the i nverter PWM
swi tchi ng and takes the form of a Vol tage Vector Control (VVC)
for vol tage-source frequency converters.
Fig. 2.30 Control principles used by Danfoss
Software Hardware (ASI C) I nverter
VVC Synchronous
60 PWM Motor
VVC
pl us
Asynchronous
SFAVM
60 PWM
Control
al gori thm PWM
VVC control s the ampl i tude and frequency of the vol tage vector
usi ng l oad and sl i p compensati on. The angl e of the vol tage vec-
tor i s determi ned i n rel ati on to the preset motor frequency (ref-
erence) as wel l as the swi tchi ng frequency. Thi s provi des:
ful l rated motor vol tage at rated motor frequency (so there i s
no need for power reducti on)
speed regul ati on range: 1:25 wi thout feedback
speed accuracy: 1% of rated speed wi thout feedback
robust agai nst l oad changes
A recent devel opment of VVC i s VVC
pl us
under whi ch. The ampl i -
tude and angl e of the vol tage vector, as wel l as the frequency, i s
di rectl y control l ed.
I n addi ti on to the properti es of VVC , VVC
pl us
provi des:
i mproved dynami c properti es i n the l ow speed range
(0 Hz-10 Hz).
i mproved motor magneti sati on
speed control range: 1:100 wi thout feedback
speed accuracy: 0.5% of the rated speed wi thout feedback
acti ve resonance dampeni ng
torque control (open l oop)
operati on at the current l i mi t
VVC control principle
Under VVC the control ci rcui t appl i es a mathemati cal model ,
whi ch cal cul ates the opti mum motor magneti sati on at varyi ng
motor l oads usi ng compensati on parameters.
I n addi ti on the synchronous 60 PWM procedure, whi ch i s i nte-
grated i nto an ASI C ci rcui t, determi nes the opti mum swi tchi ng
ti mes for the semi -conductors (I GBTs) of the i nverter.
The swi tchi ng ti mes are determi ned when:
The numeri cal l y l argest phase i s kept at i ts posi ti ve or nega-
ti ve potenti al for
1
/6 of the peri od ti me (60).
The two other phases are vari ed proporti onal l y so that the
resul ti ng output vol tage (phase-phase) i s agai n si nusoi dal
and reaches the desi red ampl i tude (Fi g. 2.32).
0,00
0,5 U
DC
0,5 U
DC
360 0 60
60
120 180 240 300
Fig. 2.31 Synchronous 60 PWM (Danfoss VVC control) of one
phase
U
DC
= i ntermedi ate ci rcui t vol tage
Unl i ke si ne-control l ed PWM, VVC i s based on a di gi tal genera-
ti on of the requi red output vol tage. Thi s ensures that the fre-
quency converter output reaches the rated val ue of the suppl y
vol tage, the motor current becomes si nusoi dal and the motor
operati on corresponds to those obtai ned i n di rect mai ns connec-
ti on.
Opti mum motor magneti sati on i s obtai ned because the fre-
quency converter takes the motor constants (stator resi stance
and i nductance) i nto account when cal cul ati ng the opti mum
output vol tage.
As the frequency converter conti nues to measure the l oad cur-
rent, i t can regul ate the output vol tage to match the l oad, so the
motor vol tage i s adapted to the motor type and fol l ows l oad con-
di ti ons.
0,00
0,50
1,00
0,50
1,00
U-V V-W W-U
360 0 60 120 180 240 300
Fig. 2.32 With the synchronous 60 PWM principle the full output
voltage is obtained directly
Swi tchi ng pattern of phase U
Phase vol tage (0-poi nt hal f the i ntermedi ate ci rcui t vol tage)
Combi ned vol tage to motor
VVC
plus
control principle
The VVC
pl us
control pri nci pl e uses a vector modul ati on pri nci pl e
for constant, vol tage-sourced PWM i nverters. I t i s based on an
i mproved motor model whi ch makes for better l oad and sl i p
compensati on, because both the acti ve and the reacti ve current
components are avai l abl e to the control system and control l i ng
the vol tage vector angl e si gni fi cantl y i mproves dynami c perfor-
mance i n the 0-10 Hz range where standard PWM U/F dri ves
typi cal l y have probl ems.
The i nverter swi tchi ng pattern i s cal cul ated usi ng ei ther the
SFAVM or 60 AVM pri nci pl e, to keep the pul sati ng torque i n
the ai r gap very smal l (compared to frequency converters usi ng
synchronous PWM).
The user can sel ect hi s preferred operati ng pri nci pl e, or al l ow
the i nverter to choose automati cal l y on the basi s of the heat-
si nk temperature. I f the temperature i s bel ow 75C, the SFAVM
pri nci pl e i s used for control , whi l e above 75 the 60 AVM pri n-
ci pl e i s appl i ed.
Tabl e 2.01 gi ves a bri ef overvi ew of the two pri nci pl es:
The control pri nci pl e i s expl ai ned usi ng the equi val ent ci rcui t
di agram (Fi g. 2.33) and the basi c control di agram (Fi g. 2.34).
I t i s i mportant to remember that i n the no-l oad state, no current
fl ows i n the rotor (i
= 0), whi ch means that the no-l oad vol tage

can be expressed as:
U = U
L
= (R
S
+ j
S
L
S
) i
s
Table 2.01 Overview: SFAVM versus 60 AVM
Max. swi tchi ng
Sel ecti on frequency of Properti es
i nverter
SFAVM Max. 8 kHz 1. l ow torque ri ppl e compared to the synchronous
60 PWM (VVC)
2. no gearshi ft
3. hi gh swi tchi ng l osses i n i nverter
60-AVM Max. 14 kHz 1. reduced swi tchi ng l osses i n i nverter (by
1
/3
compared to SFAVM)
2. l ow torque ri ppl e compared to the synchronous
60 PWM (VVC)
3. rel ati vel y hi gh torque ri ppl e compared to
SFAVM
i n whi ch:
R
S
i s the stator resi stance,
i
s
i s the motor magneti sati on current,
L
S
i s the stator l eakage i nductance,
L
h
i s the mai n i nductance,
L
S
(=L
S
+ L
h
) i s the stator i nductance, and
s
(=2f
s
) i s the angul ar speed of the rotati ng fi el d i n the ai r
gap
The no-l oad vol tage (U
L
) i s determi ned by usi ng the motor
data (rated vol tage, current, frequency, speed).
Under a l oad, the acti ve current (i
w
) fl ows i n the rotor. I n order
to enabl e thi s current, an addi ti onal vol tage (U
Comp
) i s pl aced
at the di sposal of the motor:
The addi ti onal vol tage U
Comp
i s determi ned usi ng the no-l oad
and acti ve currents as wel l as the speed range (l ow or hi gh
speed). The vol tage val ue and the speed range are then deter-
mi ned on the basi s of the motor data.
i
w
L
R
R
r
L
h
i
s
L
S
R
S
+
U
L
U
q
U
Comp
Fig. 2.33b Equivalent circuit diagram for three-phase AC motors
(loaded)
i
w
L
R
R
r
i
s
L
S
L
h
R
S
U = U
L U
q
Fig. 2.33a Equivalent circuit diagram of three-phase AC motor
loaded)
f
f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

(
i
n
t
e
r
n
a
l
)
f
s
p
r
e
s
e
t

r
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
f
c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

s
l
i
p

f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
I
S
X
r
e
a
c
t
i
v
e

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
s

(
c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d
)
I
S
Y
a
c
t
i
v
e

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
s

(
c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d
)
I
S
X
0
,

I
S
Y
0
n
o
-

l
o
a
d

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

o
f

x

a
n
d

y

a
x
e
s

(
c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d
)
I
u
,

I
v
,

I
w
c
u
r
r
e
n
t

o
f

p
h
a
s
e
s

U
,

V

a
n
d

W

(
m
e
a
s
u
r
e
d
)
R
s
s
t
a
t
o
r

r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
R
r
r
o
t
o
r

r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
a
n
g
l
e

o
f

t
h
e

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

v
e
c
t
o
r
s
0
n
o
-

l
o
a
d

v
a
l
u
e

t
h
e
t
a
l
o
a
d
-
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
t

p
a
r
t

o
f

t
h
e
t
a

(
c
o
m
p
e
n
s
a
t
i
o
n
)
T
C
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

o
f

h
e
a
t

c
o
n
d
u
c
t
o
r
/

h
e
a
t

s
i
n
k
U
D
C
v
o
l
t
a
g
e

o
f

D
C

i
n
t
e
r
m
e
d
i
a
t
e

c
i
r
c
u
i
t
U
L
n
o
-

l
o
a
d

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

v
e
c
t
o
r
U
S
s
t
a
t
o
r

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

v
e
c
t
o
r
U
C
o
m
p
l
o
a
d
-

d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
t

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

c
o
m
p
e
n
s
a
t
i
o
n
U
m
o
t
o
r

s
u
p
p
l
y

v
o
l
t
a
g
e
X
h
r
e
a
c
t
a
n
c
e
X
1
s
t
a
t
o
r

l
e
a
k
a
g
e

r
e
a
c
t
a
n
c
e
X
2
r
o
t
o
r

l
e
a
k
a
g
e

r
e
a
c
t
a
n
c
e
s
s
t
a
t
o
r

f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
L
S
s
t
a
t
o
r

i
n
d
u
c
t
a
n
c
e
L
S
s
s
t
a
t
o
r

l
e
a
k
a
g
e

i
n
d
u
c
t
a
n
c
e
L
R
s
r
o
t
o
r

l
e
a
k
a
g
e

i
n
d
u
c
t
a
n
c
e
i
s
m
o
t
o
r

p
h
a
s
e

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
a
p
p
a
r
e
n
t

c
u
r
r
e
n
t
)
i
w
a
c
t
i
v
e

(
r
o
t
o
r
)

c
u
r
r
e
n
t
E
x
p
l
a
n
a
t
i
o
n
s

f
o
r

F
i
g
.

2
.
3
3

(
p
a
g
e

8
7
)

a
n
d

F
i
g
.

2
.
3
4

(
p
a
g
e

8
9
)
x
y
P
W
M
-
A
S
I
C
a
b
x
y
a
b
2
3
I
S
X
0
I
S
Y
0
I
S
X
I
S
Y
I
u
I
v
I
w
U
L
U
D
C
T
C
I
0
L
f
s
f
p
U
U
U
c
o
m
p
f
f
f
=
3
~
R
e
c
t
i
f
i
e
r
I
n
t
e
r
v
e
r
M
o
t
o
r
S
w
i
t
c
h
i
n
g
l
o
g
i
c
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
v
e
c
t
o
r
g
e
n
e
r
a
t
o
r
(
n
o

l
o
a
d
)
L
o
a
d
c
o
m
p
e
n
-
s
a
t
o
r
S
l
i
p
c
o
m
p
e
n
-
s
a
t
i
o
n
R
a
m
p
M
a
i
n
s
~

B
a
s
i
s

V
V
C
p
l
u
s
M
o
t
o
r
-
m
o
d
e
l
F
i
g
.

2
.
3
4
B
a
s
i
s

o
f

V
V
C
p
l
u
s
c
o
n
t
r
o
l
As shown i n Fi g. 2.34, the motor model cal cul ates the rated no-
l oad val ues (currents and angl es) for the l oad compensator (I
SX0
,
I
syo
) and the vol tage vector generator (I
o,
o
). Knowi ng the actual
no l oad val ues makes i t possi bl e to esti mate the motor shaft
torque l oad much more accuratel y.
The vol tage vector generator cal cul ates the no-l oad vol tage vec-
tor (U
L
) and the angl e (
L
) of the vol tage vector on the basi s of
the stator frequency, no-l oad current, stator resi stance and
i nductance (see Fi g. 2.33a). The resul ti ng vol tage vector ampl i -
tude i s a composi te val ue havi ng added start vol tage and l oad
compensati on vol tage. The vol tage vector
L
i s the sum of four
terms, and i s an absol ute val ue defi ni ng the angul ar posi ti on of
the vol tage vector.
As the resol uti on of the theta components () and the stator fre-
quency (F) determi nes the output frequency resol uti on, the val -
ues are represented i n 32 bi t resol uti on. One () theta compo-
nent i s the no l oad angl e whi ch i s i ncl uded i n order to i mprove
the vol tage vector angl e control duri ng accel erati on at l ow
speed. Thi s resul ts i n a good control of the current vector si nce
the torque current wi l l onl y have a magni tude whi ch corre-
sponds to the actual l oad. Wi thout the no l oad angl e component
the current vector woul d tend to i ncrease and over magneti se
the motor wi thout produci ng torque.
The measured motor currents (I
u
, I
v
and I
w
) are used to cal cu-
l ate the reacti ve current (I
SX
) and acti ve current (I
SY
) compo-
nents.
Based on the cal cul ated actual currents and the val ues of the
vol tage vector, the l oad compensator esti mates the ai r gap
torque and cal cul ates how much extra vol tage (U
Comp
) i s
requi red to mai ntai n the magneti c fi el d l evel at the rated val ue.
The angl e devi ati on () to be expected because of the l oad on
the motor shaft i s corrected. The output vol tage vector i s repre-
sented i n pol ar form (p). Thi s enabl es a di rect overmodul ati on
and faci l i tates the l i nkage to the PWM-ASI C.
The vol tage vector control i s very benefi ci al for l ow speeds,
where the dynami c performance of the dri ve can be si gni fi cant-
l y i mproved, compared to V/f control by appropri ate control of
the vol tage vector angl e. I n addi ti on, steady stator performance
i s obtai ned, si nce the control system can make better esti mates
for the l oad torque, gi ven the vector val ues for both vol tage and
current, than i s the case on the basi s of the scal ar si gnal s
(ampl i tude val ues).
Field-oriented (Vector) control
Vector control can be desi gned i n a number of ways. The major
di fference i s the cri teri a by whi ch the acti ve current, magne-
ti si ng current (fl ux) and torque val ues are cal cul ated.
Compari ng a DC motor and three-phase asynchronous motor
(Fi g. 2.35), hi ghl i ghts the probl ems. I n the DC, the val ues that
are i mportant for generati ng torque fl ux () and armature
current are fi xed wi th respect to si ze and phase posi ti on, based
on the ori entati on of the fi el d wi ndi ngs and the posi ti on of the
carbon brushes (Fi g. 2.35a).
I n a DC motor the armature current and fl ux-generati ng cur-
rent are at ri ght angl es and nei ther val ue i s very hi gh. I n an
asynchronous motor the posi ti on of the fl ux () and the rotor
current I
1
depends on the l oad. Furthermore unl i ke a DC motor,
the phase angl es and current are not di rectl y measurabl e from
the si ze of the stator.
Usi ng a mathemati cal motor model , the torque can, however, be
cal cul ated from the rel ati onshi p between the fl ux and the stator
current.
I
L
I
M
I
M
I
S
I
M ~ I si n
G
D
I
I
a) b)
U
i
Fig. 2.35 Comparison between DC and AC asynchronous machines
DC machi ne
Si mpl i fi ed vector di agram of asyn-
chronous machi ne for one l oad poi nt
The measured stator current (I
S
) i s separated i nto the compo-
nent that generates the torque (I
L
) wi th the fl ux ()at ri ght
angl es to these two vari abl es (I
B
). These generate the motor fl ux
(Fi g. 2.36).
Usi ng the two current components, torque and fl ux can be i nfl u-
enced i ndependentl y. However, as the cal cul ati ons, whi ch use a
dynami c motor model , are qui te compl i cated, they are onl y
fi nanci al l y vi abl e i n di gi tal dri ves.
As thi s techni que di vi des the control of the l oad-i ndependent
state of exci tati on and the torque i t i s possi bl e to control an
asynchronous motor just as dynami cal l y as a DC motor pro-
vi ded you have a feedback si gnal . Thi s method of three-phase
AC control al so offers the fol l owi ng advantages:
good reacti on to l oad changes
preci se speed regul ati on
ful l torque at zero speed
performance comparabl e to DC dri ves.
T ~ I
S

L
si n
I
M
U
I
W
I
B
I
S
Fig. 2.36 Calculation of the current components for field-oriented
regulation
: Angul ar vel oci ty
I
S
: Stator current
I
B
: Fl ux-generati ng current
I
W
: Acti ve current/rotor current
L
: Rotor fl ux
V/f characteristic and flux vector control
The speed control of three-phase AC motors has devel oped i n
recent years on the basi s of two di fferent control pri nci pl es:
normal V/f or SCALAR control , and
fl ux vector control .
Both methods have advantages, dependi ng on the speci fi c
requi rements for dri ve performance (dynami cs) and accuracy.
V/f characteri sti c control has a l i mi ted speed regul ati on range of
approxi matel y 1:20 and at l ow speed, an al ternati ve control
strategy (compensati on) i s requi red. Usi ng thi s techni que i t i s
rel ati vel y si mpl e to adapt the frequency converter to the motor
and the techni que i s robust agai nst i nstantaneous l oads
throughout the speed range.
I n fl ux vector dri ves, the frequency converter must be confi g-
ured preci sel y to the motor, whi ch requi res detai l ed knowl edge.
Addi ti onal components are al so requi red for the feedback si gnal .
Some advantages of thi s type of control are:
fast reacti on to speed changes and a wi de speed range
better dynami c reacti on to changes of di recti on
i t provi des a si ngl e control strategy for the whol e speed range.
For the user, the opti mum sol uti on l i es i n techni ques whi ch
combi ne the best properti es of both strategi es. Characteri sti cs
such as robustness agai nst stepwi se l oadi ng/unl oadi ng across
the whol e speed range - a typi cal strongpoi nt of V/f-control - as
wel l as fast reacti on to changes i n the reference speed (as i n
fi el d-ori ented control ) are cl earl y both necessary.
Danfoss VVC
pl us
i s a control strategy that combi nes the robust
properti es of V/f control wi th the hi gher dynami c performance of
the fi el d-ori ented control pri nci pl es and has set new standards
for dri ves wi th speed control .
VVC
plus
Slip compensation
I ndependentl y of the actual l oad torque, the magneti c fi el d
strength of the motor and the shaft speed are mai ntai ned at the
speed reference command val ue. Thi s i s done usi ng of two equal -
i si ng functi ons: sl i p compensati on and the l oad compensator.
The sl i p compensati on adds a cal cul ated sl i p frequency (f) to
the rated speed si gnal i n order to mai ntai n the requi red refer-
ence frequency (Fi g. 2.31). The ri se i n stator frequency i s l i mi t-
ed by a user-defi ned run-up ti me (ramp). The esti mated sl i p val -
ue i s taken from the esti mated val ue of the torque l oad and the
actual magneti c fi el d strength so the magneti c fi el d weaken-
i ng i s al so taken i nto consi derati on.
The stati onary behavi our of the control system i s i l l ustrated
together wi th the torque/speed graphs i n Fi g. 2.37.
200 0
2
10
20
24
[Nm]
1000 2000 3000 4000 [rpm]
Fig. 2.37 Torque/ speed characteristics (Rated torque 10 Nm)
Rated torque
Automatic Motor Adaptation (AMA)
Automati c tuni ng functi ons si mpl i fy i nstal l ati on and commi s-
si oni ng, by opti mi si ng the dri ve to the motor.
I n order to ensure i nstal l ati on-rel ated devi ati ons of the el ectri -
cal parameters are taken i nto account the stator resi stance and
i nductance are measured. Then, duri ng operati on, the motor
connecti ons must be checked for correctness to ensure the data
val i di ty.
Bri efl y, the new no-spi n AMA removes the need for ti me con-
sumi ng manual motor compensati on and makes the dri ves
remarkabl y user-fri endl y and easy to commi ssi on. I n addi ti on,
as the parameters are automati cal l y correctl y tuned, opti mum
motor effi ci ency i s achi eved guaranteei ng i mproved perfor-
mance and thus fi nanci al savi ngs.
The l atest methods of AMA measure the actual val ues of stator
resi stance and stator i nductance for use i n the stati c motor mod-
el , resul ti ng i n a si gni fi cantl y more accurate tuni ng to the
motor. I mportantl y, the motor parameters are measured wi th-
out turni ng the motor shaft so the dri ve does not have to be de-
coupl ed from the motor. Thi s feature has real customer benefi ts
as, duri ng the commi ssi oni ng of a new pl ant, the mechani cal
work i s usual l y done fi rst; havi ng to subsequentl y de-coupl e the
dri ve duri ng the el ectri cal commi ssi oni ng phase i s an expensi ve
and unpopul ar opti on.
Automatic Energy Optimization (AEO)
Energy savi ng i s vi tal i n i ndustry today. I n many appl i cati ons
where dri ves run i n di fferent l oad cycl es energy can be saved
duri ng operati on wi th l ow l oads by reduci ng the magneti c fi el d
strength.
I n many dri ves, parti cul arl y ones used on quadrati c l oads (such
as fans and rotary pumps) speci al V/F characteri sti cs can al so
be set to i ncrease the energy savi ngs.
There i s a procedure whi ch automati cal l y opti mi ses the energy
consumpti on at the gi ven actual l oad and adapts the speed ref-
erence whi ch suppl i es the magneti c fi el d strength for the actual
l oad. As a compromi se between the opti mum savi ngs and the
real -l i fe appl i cati on requi rements for mi ni mum torque for
l ocked rotors (or stal l i ng torque) a l ower l i mi t has been set.
The setti ngs are based sol el y on the data avai l abl e i n the control
system; for these functi ons there i s thus no need for extra
adjustment of parameters. Contrary to the normal speed-con-
trol l ed operati on wi th magneti c rated fi el d strength, energy
opti mi sati on prevents l osses i n the motor and thus saves ener-
gy. The average energy savi ng potenti al for smal l -to-medi um-
si zed dri ves i s 3 to 5% of the rated power duri ng operati on under
smal l l oads. As a very i mportant si de-effect and addi ti onal ben-
efi t, the motor runs al most wi thout a noi se under smal l l oads
even at l ow to medi um swi tchi ng frequenci es.
Operation at the current limit
Vol tage-sourced PWM frequency converters whi ch work i n
accordance wi th si mpl e V/f characteri sti c control are not nor-
mal l y abl e to work smoothl y at current l i mi t. The vol tage (and,
therefore, the frequency) i s fi rst reduced unti l the preset current
l i mi t has been obtai ned. As soon as thi s l i mi t has been reached,
the frequency converter tri es to reach the preset speed reference
agai n (vol tage and frequency are agai n i ncreased). Thi s l eads to
an i ncrease or reducti on of the speed, whi ch pl aces an unneces-
sary burden, i n parti cul ar, on the mechani cs of the system and
may have a negati ve i mpact on the qual i ty of the product.
I n some si tuati ons, a sudden tri p may occur:
when an i nternal ramp i s used to reduce or i ncrease the vol t-
age and frequency, or
i f the l oad i s reduced.
Todays PWM frequency converters use an i nternal ramp to
search for a worki ng poi nt at whi ch the preset current l i mi t i s
not exceeded and then control the motor smoothl y to thi s work-
i ng poi nt. A warni ng si gnal i s fed back to noti fy the user that the
current l i mi t has been reached. The frequency converter wi l l not
tri p, unl ess no sui tabl e frequency can be found.
Protective functions
VVC
pl us
provi des a protecti on scheme that hel ps bui l d a robust,
i ntel l i gent power ci rcui t, whi l e at the same ti me keepi ng the
costs of frequency converter and motor protecti on as l ow as pos-
si bl e. Thi s i s achi eved by usi ng a di gi tal protecti on strategy,
based on re-usi ng the si gnal s requi red by the control system and
the use of fast, di gi tal si gnal processi ng (ASI C) i nstead of pas-
si ve power components (such as AC coi l s).
The i nverter i s protected agai nst al l faul ts except branch shoot-
through when appropri ate dead ti me control and a properl y
desi gned gate dri ve can be used. Each I GBT i s gal vani cal l y
separated from the suppl y vol tage and the control si gnal by
means of gate dri ve transformers.
Current and temperature are transmi tted to the ASI C ei ther
through an anal ogue/di gi tal converter or a comparator. The
faul t moni tori ng functi on i n the ASI C processes the si gnal s as
requi red to perform the appropri ate protecti ve functi on (cur-
rent, steps 1 and 2 (Fi g. 2.38). I n order to l i mi t the si ze of the
ASI C, faul t moni tori ng i s carri ed out at a second l evel i n the
mi cro-processor (current, steps 3 and 4 (Fi g. 2.38).
Overcurrent protection:
Fi g. 2.38 shows how di fferent fi l ter ti mes (ti me before the fre-
quency converter tri ps) resul t from di fferent currents. Tri gger
l evel and fi l ter ti me can be adjusted to ensure the maxi mum
noi se i mmuni ty for the i ndi vi dual i nverter swi tch (overcurrent
ruggedness of the I GBT). Noi se i n thi s sense i s both real noi se
(i nterference) and short overl oads, such as the swi tchi ng on the
i nverter on l ong motor cabl es. To make the i nverter even more
robust, a second fi l ter ti me has been added.
T1 T2 T3 T4
Current
Ti me
ASI C
+
compensator
AD
+
C
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Fig. 2.38 Overcurrent steps
Thi s fi l ter ti me determi nes at whi ch frequency and how often
the i nverter successful l y turns on before fi nal l y bei ng l ocked
(current l evel 1). The user sets the fi l ter ti me T4 and the current
l evel 4.
Example:
For machi ne-speci fi c reasons, a 4-pol e 1.5 kW motor i s onl y
al l owed to draw 4 A for 5 secs. Thi s means that T4 = 5 secs. And
current l evel 4 = 4 A.
The rest i s determi ned by the control s and the hardware current
l i mi t of the frequency converter.
Such an overcurrent protecti on scheme, whi ch takes advantage
of the ruggedness of the new generati on I GBTs, provi des a hi gh-
l y robust i nverter wi thout havi ng to use extra passi ve compo-
nents, such as motor coi l s.
High temperatures protection:
The temperature of the heat si nk (T
C
) (Fi g. 2.34) i s measured
di rectl y and the i nverter l osses (P
l oss,WR
) are cal cul ated on the
assumpti on that the temperature of the heat si nk i s determi ned
by the ambi ent temperature, the cool i ng condi ti ons and the
i nverter l osses, and that the i nverter I GBTs are the l i mi ti ng
components.
By combi ni ng the measured val ues for T
C
and P
l oss,WR
, i t i s pos-
si bl e to set the dri ve opti mal l y to the actual worki ng condi ti ons.
Normal l y, thi s i s a questi on of changi ng the swi tchi ng frequen-
cy and the output current i n rel ati on to the cool i ng condi ti ons,
the mai ns vol tage and the ambi ent temperature.
Fi g. 2.39 gi ves an exampl e i n whi ch the temperature si gnal i s
used to gi ve the user ti me to react to a faul t by correctl y con-
necti ng a frequency converter fan.
At ti me T
1
the swi tchi ng frequency of the i nverter i s reduced;
the noi se l evel (i nterference) i ncreases and a warni ng si gnal i s
gi ven as a feedback i ndi cati on. At T
2
the output vol tage i s
reduced, maxi mum torque i s l i mi ted and an addi ti onal si gnal i s
gi ven. At T
3
a predefi ned mi ni mum current i s reached and a
thi rd warni ng i s gi ven. The user now has the choi ce of a con-
trol l ed motor stop or of l etti ng i t run wi th the ri sk that at T
4
the
i nverter wi l l fi nal l y tri p.
Thi s i ntel l i gent faul t moni tori ng protecti on scheme enabl es effi -
ci ent use of the i nverter chi p and guarantees a sturdy and hi gh-
l y faul t-tol erant dri ve. I n addi ti on, the user can pre-program
the frequency converters reacti on to a gi ven faul t si tuati on.
T
1
T
C
T
2
T
3
T
4
Heat si nk temperature
Step 4
Step 3
Step 2
Step 1
Ti me
Fig. 2.39 Overtemperature levels
The microchip in general
The mi crochi p consi sts of three basi c uni ts, each wi th a speci al
task.
The mi cro-processor control s the chi p and, i f i t recei ves the ri ght
sequence of i nstructi ons (programs), i t i s abl e to carry out a
number of functi ons i n the computer memory as wel l as control -
l i ng al l the other uni ts i n the chi p.
The computer memory often takes the form of an EPROM
(Erasabl e Programmabl e Read Onl y Memory). EPROMs retai n
thei r contents i f the vol tage to the ci rcui t i s swi tched off and
i nformati on i n an EPROM can be programmed and del eted by
means of ul tra vi ol et rays, maki ng i t possi bl e to use i t agai n and
agai n. Unl i ke EPROMs, PROMs, whi ch are not erasabl e, can
onl y programmed once.
RAM (Random Access Memory) i s the memory from whi ch the
mi cro-processor col l ects and stores data. RAM l oses i ts i nforma-
ti on i f the vol tage i s swi tched off and the contents are then unde-
fi ned when the vol tage comes back.
The thi rd uni t i s marked I /O, and contai ns the i nputs and out-
puts requi red by the computer for i ts communi cati on purposes.
These coul d be connecti ons to control panel s, pri nters or other
el ectroni c equi pment.
RAM ROM I /O
Fig. 2.40 Principle diagram of the computer
M
i
c
r
o
-
p
r
o
c
e
s
s
o
r
Data bus
Control bus
Address bus
The bus i s a col l ecti on of wi res that connects the i ndi vi dual uni ts
to the mi croprocessor. The data bus transmi ts data between
uni ts, the address bus si gnal s where the data i s to be sent and
the control bus moni tors the transmi ssi on to see that i ts
sequence i s ri ght.
Computers for frequency converters
I n addi ti on to the RAM, ROM and I /O frequency converters,
chi ps contai n a number of addi ti onal uni ts i ncl udi ng an EEP-
ROM (El ectri cal l y Erasabl e PROM) whi ch enabl es the user to
program the computer. EEPROMs can be programmed or repro-
grammed usi ng el ectri cal si gnal s somethi ng that i s necessary
when programmi ng the frequency converter (desi gn data) and
for stori ng speci al tasks.
I n addi ti on, a frequency converter chi p can be equi pped wi th an
ASI C. Thi s i s an i ntegrated swi tchi ng ci rcui t i n whi ch some
functi ons are determi ned by semi -conductor manufacturers and
the remai ni ng functi ons can be programmed to match speci fi c
tasks set by the frequency converter manufacturer such as the
control pri nci pl e.
Control card inputs and outputs
The pl ant i n whi ch the frequency converter wi l l be used deter-
mi nes the need for i n- and outputs.
Frequency converters i n automated pl ants must recei ve both
anal ogue and di gi tal control si gnal s. Anal ogue si gnal s can
assume al l val ues wi thi n a certai n range. Di gi tal val ues can
assume two val ues (0 or 1).
There i s no standard for control si gnal s. However, some si gnal s
have become de facto standards such as 0-10 V or 0/4-20 mA
for anal ogue si gnal s. Si nce semi -conductors are used i n the di g-
i tal si gnal , the di gi tal output must recei ve a mi ni mum current
to make the si gnal rel i abl e. A typi cal si gnal range i s 20-30 V
and 10-500 mA.
The di gi tal outputs of a PLC (Programmabl e Logi c Control l er)
are matched to the di gi tal i nputs of the frequency converter. As
a mi ni mum, these accept vol tages typi cal l y between 10 and 30
V and draw a current of at l east 10 mA at 20 V. The i nternal
resi stance of the si gnal i nputs can thus be a maxi mum of 2
kOhm.
RAM
EPROM
(PROM)
EEPROM
VVC
pl us
ASI C
Fig. 2.41 Typical frequency converter chip
U
t b) a)
U
t
Fig. 2.42 Analogue signal (a) and digital signal (b)
M
i
c
r
o
-
p
r
o
c
e
s
s
o
r
Data bus
Control bus
Power
components
I ndi cati on
Operati on
Di gi tal
i n-/
outputs
Anal ogue
i n-/
outputs
Address bus
Communication
Basi cal l y, di gi tal frequency converters are abl e to exchange data
wi th the peri pheral s usi ng three i nterfaces (Fi g. 2.43).
the conventi onal control termi nal for di gi tal and anal ogue i n-
and outputs,
the control panel wi th di spl ays and keyboard,
a seri al i nterface for servi ce, di agnosi s and control functi ons.
Dependi ng on the appl i cati on, the communi cati on can be sup-
pl emented by an i ntel l i gent seri al i nterface for a hi gh-perfor-
mance bus (such as PROFI BUS). Thi s may be i n the form of an
i ndependent group of uni ts whi ch may contai n thei r own sup-
porti ng mi cro-processor and peri pheral s (e.g. Dual Port Ram).
A control panel wi th di spl ay and keyboard can be i ntegrated
i nto al most every di gi tal frequency converter. I n the control ter-
mi nal the mi ni mum of data cabl es i s al ways the number of con-
necti ons, pl us 1, whi ch means that the number of cabl es
depends on the tasks and the number of termi nal s. The i ndi vi -
dual termi nal s can of course be programmed for di fferent tasks.
Fig. 2.43 Basic concept communication (frequency converter)
Service
Seri al i nterface
(RS 485/RS 232)
Control termi nal
Di gi tal and anal ogue
I n- and outputs
PC/PLC
I ntel l i gent
i nterfaces
Uni t group
e.g.
PROFI BUS
Control
functi ons
e.g. PI D
control
Basi c
el ectroni c
equi pment
Power
part
Uni t control
panel
w/di spl ay
and keyboard
Local
control uni t
The di spl ay makes i t possi bl e to moni tor the frequency convert-
er whi ch can be hel pful when di agnosi ng faul ts such as wi re
breakage and mi ssi ng control si gnal .
I n a process, the frequency converter i s regarded as bei ng an
acti ve component and can ei ther be wi th, or wi thout, feedback
i e: cl osed l oop (regul ati on) or open l oop control .
An open l oop control system can be operated usi ng a si mpl e
potenti ometer but cl osed l oop control s are usual l y more com-
pl ex, needi ng feedback and setpoi nt control .
PLCs
Programmabl e Logi c Control l ers (PLCs) are abl e to suppl y both
control si gnal s (speed) and commands (start, stop, reversi ng).
One of the major benefi ts of PLCs i s that they are abl e to read,
and conti nuousl y col l ect, the output si gnal s such as motor cur-
rent and motor frequency generated by a frequency converter.
Thi s i s a si gni fi cant i mprovement over usi ng a si mpl e i ndi cati ng
i nstrument.
A PLC system consi sts of three basi c el ements:
central uni t,
i n- and output modul es,
programmi ng uni t.
Fig. 2.44 Frequency converter local control unit
The programmi ng uni t devel ops a control program for the con-
trol uni t and thi s program i s acti oned by the central uni t whi ch
sorts the i nput si gnal s and acti vates the output si gnal s. The
central uni t i s onl y abl e to work wi th di gi tal si gnal s whi ch al ter-
nate between two val ues, (24 V and 0 V) the hi gh vol tage bei ng
1 or ON, and the l ower vol tage 0 or OFF.
Usual l y a frequency converter and a PLC are connected i n one
of two di fferent ways ei ther di rectl y or usi ng seri al communi -
cati on. When di rectl y connected the i n- and outputs of the PLC
are connected to the i n- and outputs of the frequency converter
one by one by usi ng i ndi vi dual cabl es. The i n- and outputs of the
PLC thus repl ace separate components, such as potenti ometer,
control contacts and i ndi cati ng i nstruments.
Serial Communication
Wi th seri al communi cati on, si gnal s are transmi tted vi a pai rs of
wi res. I n the peri od t
1
-t
2
, i nformati on A i s transmi tted; i n the
peri od t
2
-t
3
, i nformati on B i s transmi tted, etc. Thi s type of i nfor-
mati on transmi ssi on i s cal l ed seri al communi cati on (Fi g. 2.47).
U
1
0
t
Fig. 2.46 The digital signal can be ON or OFF for shorter or long
intervals of time
Fig. 2.45 Principal structure of a PLC
Central
uni t
I n Out
There are three mai n pri nci pl es for seri al communi cati on but
the deci si ve factors are the number of uni ts that have to com-
muni cate wi th each other and the speed of operati on.
You can ei ther use a l arge number of wi res to transmi t and
recei ve i nformati on to and from every uni t on the system, or you
can use two wi res. I n the two wi re systems ei ther several
recei vers can be connected to one transmi tter (S) or al l the con-
nected uni ts can transmi t and recei ve. Thi s l ast arrangement i s
cal l ed a bus.
On the bus al l the uni ts must have the same si gnal l evel to
ensure that they can communi cate and are abl e to recei ve the
seri al si gnal .
I n addi ti on, the uni ts must have the same si gnal structure (pro-
tocol ) to ensure that the recei ver understands the i nformati on
sent. Structure and combi nati on of si gnal s are subject to a num-
ber of standards.
A
S
S
P
L
C
P
L
C
D
/
A
D
/
D
D
/
D
A
/
D
S
S
S
A A
A B C D
D D
t
1
t
2
t
3
t
4
t
5
t
1
t
2
t
3
t
4
t
5
Fig. 2.47 Serial communication guarantees a fast signal transmis-
sion and a simplified installation
D/D = transducer di gi tal /di gi tal
D/A = transducer di gi tal /anal ogue
A/D = transducer anal ogue/di gi tal
S = transmi t seri al data
The common si gnal l evel i s not subject to any parti cul ar val ue.
Consequentl y, the software i n the uni ts must be matched so that
the common si gnal l evel can be determi ned.
RS 232 i s the most wi del y known standard. I ts use i s l i mi ted to
short transmi ssi on di stances and l ow transmi ssi on speeds.
RS 232 i s thus used where si gnal s are onl y transmi tted occa-
si onal l y. Thi s coul d be, for exampl e, i n connecti on wi th termi -
nal s and pri nters.
RS 422 and 423 sol ve the probl em of di stance and transmi ssi on
speed of RS 232 and are therefore often used i n process automa-
ti on, wi th a PLC, where the si gnal transmi ssi on i s more conti n-
uous.
RS 485 i s the onl y standard that enabl es connecti on and opera-
ti on of a hi gher number of uni ts as wel l as communi cati on
between a number of uni ts vi a a common pai r of wi res.
Pri nci pl e Standard No. of Max. No. of Si gnal
(appl i cati on) uni ts/ di stance wi res l evel
sets m
of
wi res
RS 232 1 trans- Dupl ex:
(Poi nt mi tter 15 mi n. 3 5 V mi n.
to Poi nt) 1 + di v.
recei ver Status 15 V max.
si gnal s
(Poi nt mi tter 1200 mi n. 3 3,6 V mi n.
to Poi nt) 10 + di v. 6 V max.
recei vers Status
si gnal s
(Poi nt mi tter 1200 4 2 V mi n.
to Poi nt) 10
recei vers
RS 485 32 trans- Semi
(Bus) mi tters- 1200 dupl ex: 1,5 V mi n.
32 2
recei vers
L: Transmi tter
M: Recei ver
Fig. 2.48 Standards for serial connections
Thi s type of connecti on onl y requi res two wi res to enabl e the
uni ts to take turns at sendi ng and recei vi ng data usi ng a bus.
There are three types of si gnal for communi cati ng between a
PLC/PC and a frequency converter:
control si gnal s (speed, start/stop/reversi ng)
status si gnal s (motor current, motor frequency, frequency
reached)
al arm si gnal s (motor stopped, overtemperature)
The frequency converter recei ves control si gnal s from the PLC
and then control s the motor. I t al so sends status si gnal s to the
PLC and provi des i nformati on about the effects of the control
si gnal s on the motor/process. I f the frequency converter stops
because of abnormal operati ng condi ti ons, al arm si gnal s are
transmi tted to the PLC.
RS 485 enabl es the connecti on of di fferent structures of process
control systems. For exampl e i t enabl es a PLC to be i nstal l ed i n
a control panel from where i t can control a number of frequency
converters or other remote fi el d devi ces i n other control panel s.
PLC
Fig. 2.49 Three types of signal between a PLC and a frequency
converter
Control si gnal s
Status si gnal s
Al arm/warni ng si gnal s
Wi th the change from anal ogue to di gi tal technol ogy, seri al
i nterfaces become more and more wi del y used for frequency con-
verters i n connecti on wi th:
equi pment testi ng
commi ssi oni ng
servi ce
automated operati on
vi sual i sati on and moni tori ng
fl exi bi l i ty.
To exchange i nformati on between the frequency converter and
PLC or PC over a seri al i nterface, a protocol i s requi red. The
protocol determi nes both the maxi mum l ength of the i nforma-
ti on (tel egram) and where i ndi vi dual i tems of data are pl aced i n
the i nformati on chai n.
Furthermore, the protocol offers the fol l owi ng general functi ons:
sel ecti on (address) of the component used
data requi rements of the component (e.g. rated current/vol t-
age val ues)
data transfer to the i ndi vi dual components (e.g. rated val ues,
l i mi t val ues of current/frequenci es) through thei r addresses,
and
data transfer to al l uni ts (BROADCAST), whi ch enabl es func-
ti ons such as si mul taneous stop/start where feedback from
the uni ts i s not requi red.
Fig. 2.50 The bus enables many different build-ups
PLC
RS 485
Most of i ndustri al equi pment vendors use thei r own protocol ,
whi ch can be probl em for the user who then needs to wri te a dri -
ver for hi s PC or PLC so i t can communi cate. Al so the user can-
not put equi pment from di fferent vendors on the same seri al
l i nk as they wi l l not share a common data structure, and may
operate at di fferent speeds.
Manufacturer-independent communication
However major manufacturers have col l aborated to devel op
open uni versal fi el dbus systems over whi ch al l i ndustri al
equi pment can communi cate regardl ess of i ts manufacturer.
One of the most wel l supported and wel l proven fi el dbus net-
works for al l products, i ncl udi ng dri ves, i s PROFI BUS.
Other buses i ncl ude:
Modbus +
I nterbus-S
Devi ce Net
Lonworks.
Profi bus has three di fferent i mpl ementati ons, devel oped for di f-
ferent appl i cati ons:
FMS (Fieldbus Message Service) Protocol
Thi s i s the uni versal sol uti on for communi cati on assi gnments.
Because of i ts hi gh fl exi bi l i ty, FMS servi ces are abl e to sol ve
extensi ve communi cati on assi gnments at medi um data speed.
The FMS protocol i s used i n areas such as the texti l e i ndustry,
bui l di ng management and dri ve technol ogy, actuator and sensor
technol ogi es as wel l as l ow-vol tage swi tchi ng components.
DP (Decentral Peripherals) Protocol
DP, whi ch has been opti mi sed wi th respect to speed, i s l argel y
used for communi cati on between automati on systems and
decentral peri pheral uni ts. I t i s sui tabl e as a repl acement for
cost-i ntensi ve paral l el si gnal transmi ssi on vi a 24 V and the
transmi ssi on of measured val ues vi a 20 mA and i s mai nl y used
i n hi gh speed automated manufacturi ng pl ants.
PA (Process Automation)
PROFI BUS-PA i s a PROFI BUS vari ant for use i n process
automati on. PROFI BUS-PA uses the i ntri nsi cal l y safe trans-
mi ssi on techni que l ai d down i n I EC 1158-2 and enabl es remote
feedi ng of parti ci pati ng uni ts vi a the bus.
CHAPTER 3: FREQUENCY CONVERTERS AND THREE-PHASE AC MOTORS 113
3. Frequency converters
and 3-phase AC motors
The torque (T) devel oped by asynchronous motors, T ~ I
L
normal l y appl i es, where I
L
i s the rotor current and i s the ai r
gap fl ux of the machi ne.
To opti mi se torque from the motor, the ai r gap fl ux of the
machi ne ( ~ V/f) shoul d be kept constant. Thi s means that i f
the l i ne frequency (f) i s changed, the l i ne vol tage (V) must be
changed proporti onal l y (Fi g. 3.01).
For heavy starts (screw conveyors) and an opti mi sed stal l i ng
torque, an extra (start) vol tage (V
0
) i s requi red. When l oaded
and i n the l ow speed range (f < 10 Hz) the vol tage l oss i s cl earl y
seen on the acti ve resi stance of the stator wi ndi ng (parti cul arl y
i n smal l motors), l eadi ng to a speci fi c weakeni ng of the ai r gap
fl ux ().
Example
A 1,1 kW, 3 400 V/50 Hz motor wi th a stator resi stance (one
phase) of approx. 8 takes up 3 A at rated l oad.
I R
f
1
f
2
f
N
0 f [Hz]
U
N
U [V]
U
2
U
1
U
0
Fi el d weakeni ng
range
U
N
= Constant
f
N
Fig. 3.01 V/ f characteristics control
114 CHAPTER 3: FREQUENCY CONVERTERS AND THREE-PHASE AC MOTORS
The vol tage drop at the stator resi stance i n thi s case amounts to
8 3 A = 24 V. The motor manufacturer ensures that thi s l oss
i s compensated for duri ng rated operati on.
40 V at 5 Hz i s i deal for control l i ng the V/f characteri sti cs. I f the
rated l oad i s i mpressed on the motor, the motor wi l l take up 3 A
and thus have a vol tage l oss of 24 V. I mportantl y onl y 16 V
remai ns for magneti sati on and at thi s vol tage, the motor i s
undermagneti sed and generates a reduced torque.
Therefore, i n order to mai ntai n the machi ne fl ux the vol tage
drop must be compensated for, and the si mpl est methods are to:
i ncrease the output vol tage i n the l ower speed range by open
l oop control
regul ate the output vol tage usi ng the acti ve current compo-
nents of the converter output current.
Thi s compensati on i s normal l y cal l ed the I R compensati on,
boost, torque rai si ng, or at Danfoss start compensati on.
Thi s type of control has l i mi tati ons where the di sturbances are
di ffi cul t to measure when the l oad vari es strongl y (for exampl e
on dri ves wi th operati onal fl uctuati ons of the wi ndi ng resi s-
tance of up to 25% between hot and col d state). The vol tage
i ncrease may have di fferent resul ts. At no l oad, i t can l ead to a
saturati on of the motor fl ux or when l oaded to a reduced
mai n fl ux. I n the case of saturati on, a hi gh reacti ve current wi l l
fl ow that l eads to heati ng of the motor. I n the case of a l oad, the
motor wi l l devel op l i ttl e torque because of the weak mai n fl ux,
and may come to a standsti l l .
CHAPTER 3: FREQUENCY CONVERTERS AND THREE-PHASE AC MOTORSR 115
Operational conditions
of the motor
Compensations
I t used to be di ffi cul t to tune a frequency converter to a motor
because some of the compensati onal functi ons, such as start
vol tage, start and sl i p compensati on, are di ffi cul t to under-
stand.
However, todays more advanced frequency converters automat-
i cal l y control these compensati on parameters on the basi s of the
rated motor frequency, vol tage and current. Normal l y, these
compensati on setti ngs can al so be changed manual l y.
Load-dependent and load-independent
compensation parameters
The compensati on parameters ensure opti mum magneti sati on,
and thus maxi mum torque, both duri ng start-up and al l the way
from l ow speed to the ful l rated motor speed. The output vol tage
recei ves a vol tage suppl ement whi ch effecti vel y overcomes the
i nfl uence of the ohmi c resi stance of the motor wi ndi ngs at l ow
frequenci es. The l oad-dependent vol tage suppl ement (start and
sl i p compensati on) i s determi ned vi a the current measurement
(acti ve current). The l oad-i ndependent suppl ement (starti ng
vol tage) guarantees an opti mum stal l i ng torque i n the l ow speed
range.
A motor whi ch i s much smal l er than the recommended motor
si ze may requi re an addi ti onal , manual l y adjustabl e vol tage
suppl ement i n order to break-away or to guarantee opti mum
magneti sati on i n the l ow speed range.
I f several motors are control l ed by one frequency converter
(paral l el operati on), l oad-dependent compensati on shoul d not
be used.
I n the case of frequency converters of the l atest generati on, thi s
compensati on i s set automati cal l y by the frequency converter
(i n standard appl i cati ons).
Slip compensation
The sl i p of an asynchronous motor i s l oad-dependent and
amounts to some 5% of the rated speed. For a two-pol e motor,
thi s means that the sl i p wi l l be 150 rpm.
However, the sl i p woul d be approxi matel y 50% of the requi red
speed i f the frequency converter was control l i ng a motor at 300
rpm (10% of the rated speed).
I f the frequency converter i s to control the motor at 5% of the
rated speed, the motor wi l l not react to a l oad. Thi s l oad-depen-
dence i s unwanted and the frequency converter i s abl e to ful l y
compensate for thi s sl i p by effi ci entl y measuri ng the acti ve cur-
rent i n the output phases of the frequency converter.
The frequency converter then compensates for the sl i p by
i ncreasi ng the frequency. Thi s i s cal l ed acti ve sl i p compensa-
ti on.
Motor torque
characteristics
Current limit
I f a frequency converter was capabl e of suppl yi ng a current
many ti mes the si ze of the rated motor current, the torque char-
acteri sti cs of the motor woul d be as shown i n Fi g. 1.22 (page 33).
Such hi gh currents can damage both the motor and the power
el ectroni c components i n the frequency converter and are not
requi red for normal motor operati on. Consequentl y, the fre-
quency converter i ndi rectl y l i mi ts the motor current by reduc-
i ng the output vol tage and thus the frequency. The current l i m-
i t i s vari abl e and guarantees that the motor current does not
constantl y exceed the rated val ue. Si nce the frequency convert-
er control s the motor speed i ndependent of the l oad, i t i s possi -
bl e to set di fferent l i mi t val ues wi thi n the rated worki ng range
of the motor.
The torque characteri sti cs of the motor are wi thi n the rated val -
ues for some types of frequency converters. However, i t i s an
advantage for the frequency converter to al l ow a torque of, for
exampl e, up to 160% of the rated torque for shorter or l onger
peri ods of ti me. I t i s al so normal l y possi bl e for a frequency con-
verter control l ed motor to be operated i n the oversynchronous
range up to approxi matel y 200% of the rated speed.
T [%]
25 50
50
75
75
100
100
n [%]
Fig. 3.02 The torque characteristics of the frequency converter
controlled motor can be set in rectangles
The frequency converter i s not abl e to del i ver a hi gher vol tage
than the vol tage of the mai ns suppl y whi ch l eads to a decl i ni ng
vol tage-to-frequency rati o i f the rated speed i s exceeded. The
magneti c fi el d weakens and the torque generated by the motor
drops by 1/n.
The maxi mum output current of the frequency converter
remai ns unchanged. Thi s l eads to a constant power perfor-
mance of up to 200% of the rated speed.
The motor speed can be stated i n three di fferent ways: revol u-
ti ons per mi nute [rpm], Hertz [Hz] or as a percentage of the rat-
ed motor speed [%]. The poi nt of reference i s al ways the motor
speed at rated frequency.
T [%]
50 100 150 200
100
160
n [%]
T = 100%
P

~

n
100
100
200
P
n [%]
Fig. 3.03 Motor torque and over-torque
Fig. 3.04 Motor performance
A change of the vol tage-to-frequency rati o i nfl uences the torque
characteri sti cs. The i l l ustrati on bel ow shows the torque charac-
teri sti cs i n connecti on wi th a reducti on of the vol tage-to-fre-
quency rati o to 6.7 [V/Hz].
T [%]
U [V]
f [Hz]
= 8,0 [V/Hz]
25
50
1500
50
100
3000
100
200
6000
100
400
50
F [Hz]
n/n
0
[%]
n [mi n
1
]
U
f
Fig. 3.05 I ndication of speed (here for a 2-pole motor)
T [%]
U [V]
f [Hz]
= 6,7 [V/Hz]
25
50
1500
50
100
3000
100
200
6000
100
400
50 60
F [Hz]
n/n
0
[%]
n [mi n
1
]
60
120
3600
U
f
Fig. 3.06 Torque in a different setting of the V/ f ratio
Requirements from advanced digital frequency
converters
Recent devel opments i n power el ectroni cs, mi cro-processor
technol ogy and i ntegrated ci rcui ts have had a strong i nfl uence
on dri ve technol ogy, parti cul arl y i n terms of devel opi ng di gi tal
dri ves wi th a hi gher processi ng speed and i ncreased accuracy.
Other advantages of di gi tal dri ve control i ncl ude :
i mproved repeatabi l i ty and stabi l i ty of the control parameters
easi er control of control measures
fl exi bi l i ty of appl i cati on-speci fi c functi ons
more preci se control over a l arger range.
The ol d anal ogue dri ves were adjusted usi ng a potenti ometer or
passi ve components whi ch can l ead to an offset and temperature
dri ft probl ems. On the other hand, wi th di gi tal control al l the
control parameters can be stored i n an EEPROM.
The mi cro-processor al l ows easy real i sati on of functi ons such as
di sabl i ng of control , data set swi tchi ng, etc. Even compl ete oper-
ati ng programs (process control ) and dri ve-speci fi c i ntel l i gence
can be stored i n the frequency converter. Thi s has made todays
AC dri ves sui tabl e for the type of wi de speed range, hi gh dynam-
i c response appl i cati ons previ ousl y onl y handl ed by DC i nvert-
ers.
I t has al so l ed to the abandonment of V/f characteri sti cs control
by the frequency converter and the i ntroducti on fi el d-ori ented
or vector control .
Sizing a
frequency converter
When determi ni ng the rati ng of a frequency converter at a gi v-
en l oad the fi rst step i s to consi der the l oad characteri sti cs.
There are four di fferent methods for cal cul ati ng the requi red
output performance and the choi ce of method depends on the
motor data.
Load characteristics
Before the frequency converter si ze can be determi ned, a di s-
ti ncti on must be made between the two most wi del y used l oad
characteri sti cs (see Fi g. 1.32 page 44).
The reasons for di sti ngui shi ng between l oad characteri sti cs are
the fol l owi ng:
When the speed of centri fugal pumps and fans i ncreases, the
power requi rement i ncreases by the speed cubed (P = n
3
).
The normal worki ng range of centri fugal pumps and fans i s
the speed range of 50 to 90%. The l oad rati o i ncreases by the
speed squared, i .e. approx. 30 to 80%.
These two factors are shown i n the torque characteri sti cs of a
frequency converter control l ed motor.
Fi g. 3.08 and Fi g. 3.09 show torque characteri sti cs for two di f-
ferent frequency converter si zes one of them (Fi g. 3.09) i s one
power range l ower than the other. For both torque characteri s-
ti cs the same l oad characteri sti cs were entered for a centri fugal
pump.
T
n
T
n
Constant Square (vari abl e)
Fig. 3.07 Constant and square load torque
I n Fi g. 3.08, the total worki ng range of the pump (0-100%) l i es
wi thi n the rated val ues of the motor. Si nce the normal worki ng
range of the pump i s 30-80%, a frequency converter wi th a l ow-
er output can be chosen.
I f the l oad torque i s constant, the motor must be abl e to gener-
ate more than the l oad torque as the excess torque i s used for
accel erati on.
An overl oad torque of 60% generated by the frequency convert-
er for a short ti me i s enough for accel erati on and hi gh starti ng
torque, for exampl e i n connecti on wi th conveyor bel ts. The over-
l oad torque al so guarantees that the system i s abl e to cope wi th
sudden i ncreases of l oad. A frequency converter that does not
al l ow any overl oad torque has to be sel ected such that the accel -
erati on torque (T
B
) l i es wi thi n the rated torque.
When the l oad characteri sti cs have been determi ned, there are
four di fferent sets of motor data for deci di ng the power si ze of
the frequency converter.
Fig. 3.08 Fig. 3.09
Big frequency converter Smaller frequency converter
T [%]
T
B
100
100
50
160
n [%]
T [%]
T
B
100
100
50
n [%]
Fig. 3.10 Overload torque is used for acceleration
T [%]
100
100
80
30
160
n [%]
T [%]
100
100
80
30
160
n [%]
1. The frequency converter can be determi ned qui ckl y and pre-
ci sel y on the basi s of the current I
M
whi ch the motor takes up.
I f the motor i s not ful l y l oaded, the motor current coul d be
measured on a si mi l ar system i n ful l operati on.
Exampl e: A 7.5 kW, 3 x 400 V motor draws 14.73 A.
Referri ng to the techni cal data of the frequency converter, a
frequency converter i s sel ected that has a maxi mum conti nu-
ous output current hi gher than or equal to 14.73 A at constant
or square torque characteri sti cs.
Note
I f a frequency converter i s sel ected on the basi s of power
(methods 2-4), i t i s i mportant for the cal cul ated power and the
power stated under the techni cal data for the frequency con-
verter to be compared at the same vol tage. Thi s i s not neces-
sary i f the frequency converter i s cal cul ated on the basi s of a
current (method 1) si nce the output current of the frequency
converter i nfl uences the other data.
2. The frequency converter can be sel ected on the basi s of the
apparent power S
M
taken up by the motor and the apparent
power del i vered by the frequency converter.
Exampl e: A 7.5 kW, 3 400 V motor draws 14.73 A
I
VLT
I
M
Fig. 3.11 Selection of a frequency converter on the basis of
rated current
S
VLT
S
M
Fig. 3.12 Selection of a frequency converter based on apparent
power
U I 3 400 14.73 3
S
M
= = = 10.2 kVA
1000 1000
Referri ng to the techni cal data of the frequency converter, a
frequency converter i s sel ected whose maxi mum conti nuous
output i s hi gher than or equal to 10.2 kVA at constant or
square torque characteri sti cs.
3. A frequency converter can al so be sel ected i n accordance wi th
the power PM generated by the motor. However, si nce cos
and effi ci ency change wi th the l oad, thi s method i s i mpre-
ci se.
Exampl e:
A 3 kW motor wi th an effi ci ency and cos of 0.80 or 0.81,
respecti vel y, draws as fol l ows
A frequency converter i s sel ected referri ng to the techni cal
data of the frequency converter that has a maxi mum con-
ti nuous output hi gher than or equal to 4.6 kVA at constant or
square torque characteri sti cs.
4. For practi cal reasons, the power rati ng of most frequency con-
verters fol l ows the standard seri es of the asynchronous
motors. Consequentl y, frequency converters are often sel ected
on thi s basi s but thi s can l ead to i mpreci se si zi ng, i n parti cu-
l ar i f the motor i s not subjected to a ful l l oad.
S
VLT
P
M
Fig. 3.13 Selection of a frequency converter according to shaft
output power
P
M
3,0
S
M
= = = 4.6 kVA
cos 0.80 0.81
P
M
Fig. 3.14 Selection of a frequency converter on the basis of the
standard series of motors
Current distribution in the frequency converter
(cos of the motor)
The current for magneti si ng the motor i s suppl i ed by the capa-
ci tor i n the frequency converter i ntermedi ate ci rcui t. The mag-
neti si ng current i s a reacti ve current that fl ows between the
capaci tor and motor (Fi g. 3.15).
Onl y the acti ve current (I
W
) i s drawn from the mai ns. That i s
why the output current of the frequency converter i s al ways
greater than the i nput current. I n addi ti on to the acti ve current,
the l osses (I
l oss
) are taken up by mai ns, whi ch can be seen cl ear-
l y i n the no-l oad operati on.
Example:
The no-l oad current of a four-pol e 1.1 kW motor i s 1.6 A. The
output current of the connected frequency converter i s approxi -
matel y. 1.6 A and the i nput current at no-l oad operati on i s
al most zero.
Motor manufacturers normal l y state the cos of the motor at
rated current. At a l ower val ue of cos (e.g. rel uctance motors),
the rated motor current at the same power and rated vol tage
wi l l be bi gger, as shown i n the fol l owi ng equati on:
I f the frequency converter i s si zed i n accordance wi th the rated
motor current (method 1), there wi l l be no reducti on of the rat-
ed motor torque.
A capaci tor pl aced at the motor termi nal s for the purpose of
reacti ve current compensati on must be removed. The hi gh
M
3~
cos
I
W
I
S
I
B
I
S
I
S
=
I
W
I
B
I
W
Fig. 3.15 Currents in the frequency converter
I
W
I
S
=
cos
swi tchi ng frequency of the frequency converter makes the
capaci tor work as a short-ci rcui t and causes a hi gh ri se i n the
motor current. The converter wi l l see thi s as an earth or short-
ci rcui t faul t and swi tch off.
Control of motor speed
The output frequency of the frequency converter, and thus the
motor speed, i s control l ed by one or more si gnal s (0-10 V; 4-20
mA, or vol tage pul ses) as a speed reference. I f the speed refer-
ence i ncreases, the motor speed goes up and the verti cal part of
the motor torque characteri sti cs i s shi fted to the ri ght (Fi g.
3.16).
I f the l oad torque i s smal l er than the avai l abl e motor torque, the
speed wi l l reach the requi red val ue. As shown by fi g 3.17, the
l oad torque characteri sti cs i ntersect the motor torque charac-
teri sti cs i n the verti cal part (at poi nt A). I f the i ntersecti on i s i n
the hori zontal part (poi nt B), the motor speed cannot conti nu-
ousl y exceed the correspondi ng val ue. The frequency converter
enabl es short current l i mi t overshoots wi thout tri ppi ng (poi nt
C), but i t i s necessary to l i mi t the overshoot i n ti me.
f
a) b)
T
n
Fig. 3.16 Function between reference signal and torque
characteristics of the motor
Ref. si gnal
Acceleration and deceleration ramps
The accel erati on ramp i ndi cates the rate at whi ch speed i s
i ncreased and i s stated i n the form of an accel erati on ti me t
acc
.
These ramps are mostl y based on the rated motor frequency, e.g.
an accel erati on ramp of 5 sec. means that the frequency con-
verter wi l l take 5 seconds to go from 0 to the rated motor fre-
quency (f
n
= 50 Hz).
The decel erati on ramp i ndi cates how fast the speed i s
decreased. I t i s stated i n the form of a decel erati on ti me t
dec
.
I t i s possi bl e to go di rectl y from accel erati on to decel erati on,
si nce the motor al ways fol l ows the output frequency of the
i nverter.
I f the moment of i nerti a of the motor shaft i s known, the opti -
mum accel erati on and decel erati on ti mes can be cal cul ated.
f
f
n
f
mi n.
f
f
n
f
mi n.
t a) b) t
acc
t t
dec
Fig. 3.18 Acceleration and deceleration times
I [%]
I
LI M
I
N, VLT
160
C
B
1
B
2
A
T
Fig. 3.17 The motor current may exceed the current limit for
a short time
J i s the moment of i nerti a of the motor shaft.
T
fri c
i s the fri cti on torque of the system.
T
acc
i s the overshoot torque used for accel erati on.
T
dec
i s the braki ng torque that occurs when the speed reference
i s reduced.
n
1
and n
2
are the speeds at frequenci es f
1
and f
2
.
I f the frequency converter al l ows an overl oad torque for a short
ti me, the accel erati on and decel erati on torques are set to the
rated motor torque, T. I n practi ce, the accel erati on and decel e-
rati on ti mes are normal l y i denti cal .
Example
J = 0,042 kgm
2
n
1
= 500 mi n
1
n
2
= 1000 mi n
1
T
fri c
= 0.05 M
N
T
N
= 27 Nm
Dynamic brake operation
When the speed reference i s reduced, the motor acts as a gener-
ator and brakes. The braki ng decel erati on depends on the si ze
of the motor l oad.
Motors connected di rectl y to mai ns del i ver the braki ng power
strai ght back to mai ns.
I f a motor i s control l ed by a frequency converter, the braki ng
power i s stored i n the frequency converters i ntermedi ate ci rcui t.
I f the braki ng power exceeds the power l oss of the frequency
converter, the vol tage i n the i ntermedi ate ci rcui t i ncreases.
The i ntermedi ate ci rcui t vol tage can ri se unti l the frequency
converter tri ps for protecti on and i t i s someti mes necessary to
pl ace a l oad on the i ntermedi ate ci rcui t i n the form of a brake
modul e and an external resi stor to absorb the braki ng power.
n
2
n
1
1000 500
t
acc
= J = 0.042 = 0.1 [s]
(T
acc
T
fri c
) 9.55 (27,0 (0,05 27,0)) 9.55
n
2
n
1
t
acc
= J
(T
acc
T
fri c
) 9.55
n
2
n
1
t
dec
= J
(T
dec
+ T
fri c
) 9.55
(Usi ng a brake modul e and resi stor enabl es heavy l oads to be
braked qui ckl y. However, they can cause heati ng probl ems. An
al ternati ve i s a regenerati ve braki ng uni t. These uni ts are used
for frequency converters wi th an uncontrol l ed recti fi er and feed
the braki ng energy back to the mai ns.
I n frequency converters wi th control l ed recti fi ers, the braki ng
power can be fed back to the mai ns (see Fi g. 3.19) by, for exam-
pl e, an i nverter i n anti -paral l el connecti on across the recti fi er.
The DC brake i s another way of braki ng the motor. A DC vol t-
age across two motor phases i s used to generate a stati onary
magneti c fi el d i n the stator. As the braki ng power remai ns i n
the motor and overheati ng may occur i t i s recommended to set
the DC brake i n the l ower speed range so that the rated motor
current i s not exceeded. I n general , DC braki ng i s l i mi ted by
ti me.
Fig. 3.19
Brake module and resistor connection
Fig. 3.20
I nverter in anti-parallel
~
~
~
~
~
~
Brake chopper
modul e
Brake resi stor
Reversing
The di recti on of rotati on i n asynchronous motors i s determi ned
by the phase sequence of the suppl y vol tage.
I f two phases are swapped, the di recti on i n whi ch the motor
rotates changes and the motor reverses.
Most motors have been desi gned to make the motor shaft turn
cl ockwi se i f connecti on i s made as fol l ows:
The phase sequence on the output termi nal s of most frequency
converters al so fol l ows thi s pri nci pl e.
A frequency converter can reverse the motor by el ectroni cal l y
changi ng the phase sequence. Reversi ng i s accompl i shed by
ei ther usi ng a negati ve speed reference or a di gi tal i nput si gnal .
I f the motor requi res a speci fi c di recti on of rotati on when fi rst
commi ssi oned, i t i s i mportant to know the frequency converters
factory defaul t setti ng.
Si nce a frequency converter l i mi ts the motor current to the rat-
ed val ue, a motor control l ed by a frequency converter can be
reversed more frequentl y than a motor connected di rectl y to
mai ns.
U
L
1
L
2
L
3
V W U
L
1
L
2
L
3
V W
Fig. 3.21 The direction of rotation of the motor changes with
changes in the phase sequence
Ramps
Al l frequency converters have ramp functi ons to provi de smooth
operati ng condi ti ons. These ramps are adjustabl e and guaran-
tee that the speed reference i s onl y abl e to i ncrease or decrease
at a preset rate.
Ramp ti mes can be set to such l ow val ues that i n some si tua-
ti ons the motor cannot fol l ow the preset speed.
Thi s l eads to an i ncrease of the motor current unti l the current
l i mi t i s reached. I n the case of short ramp-down ti mes (t
-a
), the
vol tage i n the i ntermedi ate ci rcui t may i ncrease to such a l evel
that the protecti ve ci rcui t of the frequency converter wi l l stop
the converter.
The opti mum ramp ti mes can be cal cul ated on the basi s of the
formul as gi ven bel ow:
n
t
a
= J
(T
N
+ T
fri c
) 9.55
n
t
a
= J
(T
N
T
fri c
) 9.55
n
n
N
t
n
t
Fig. 3.23 Variable ramp times
T
T T n n
n T T n
n
Fig. 3.22 Braking torque of the frequency converter during reversing
t
a
: ramp up
t
a
: ramp down
n:
T
N
: rated motor torque
T
fri c
: fri cti on torque
Ramp ti mes are usual l y sel ected on the basi s of the rated motor
speed.
Monitoring
Frequency converters can moni tor the process bei ng control l ed
and i ntervene i n case of operati onal di sturbance.
Thi s moni tori ng can be di vi ded i nto three areas: process pl ant,
motor and frequency converter.
Monitoring the plant i s based on output frequency, output cur-
rent and motor torque. Based on these val ues, a number of l i m-
i ts can be set whi ch i ntervene i n the control functi on i f they are
exceeded. These l i mi ts coul d be the smal l est permi ssi bl e motor
speed (mi n. frequency), the hi ghest permi ssi bl e motor current
(current l i mi t) or the hi ghest permi ssi bl e motor torque (torque
l i mi t).
I f the l i mi ts are exceeded, the frequency converter can, for
exampl e, be programmed to gi ve a warni ng si gnal , to decrease
the motor speed or to stop the motor as fast as possi bl e.
n
n
N
n
ref
t
t
a
Fig. 3.24 Setting of ramp times
Example:
I n an i nstal l ati on usi ng a V-bel t as a connecti on between the
motor and the rest of the i nstal l ati on, the frequency converter
can be programmed to moni tor the V-bel t.
As we woul d expect the output frequency to i ncrease more
qui ckl y than the preset ramp i f the V-bel t breaks, the frequency
can be used to ei ther gi ve a warni ng or stop the motor i f these
si tuati ons occur.
Motor monitoring vi a the frequency converter i s possi bl e based
on a cal cul ati on of the thermal condi ti ons i n the motor or by con-
necti ng a thermi stor to the motor. Li ke a thermal swi tch, the
frequency converter can prevent motor overl oad. The output fre-
quency i s among the cal cul ati ons made by the frequency con-
verter. Thi s guarantees that the motor i s not overl oaded at l ow
speeds i f the i nternal venti l ati on i s reduced. Todays frequency
converters are al so abl e to protect motors wi th forced venti l ati on
i f the current i s too hi gh.
Unit monitoringi s tradi ti onal l y carri ed out i n the way that the
frequency converter tri ps i n the case of an overcurrent. Some
frequency converters al l ow a short overcurrent. The mi cro-
processor i n the frequency converter i s abl e to sum the motor
current and the ti me to ensure that the frequency converter i s
opti mal l y used wi thout overl oadi ng.
Motor load and
motor heating
When a motor i s connected to a frequency converter i t must be
kept at the correct temperature, and thi s i s subject to two types
of i nfl uence:
I f the speed decreases, the cool i ng ai r vol ume goes down.
I f a non-si nusoi dal motor current i s present, more heat i s gen-
erated i n the motor.
At l ow speeds the motor fan i s not abl e to suppl y enough ai r for
cool i ng. Thi s probl em ari ses i f the l oad torque i s constant
throughout the control range. Thi s l ower venti l ati on determi nes
the l evel of torque al l owed duri ng conti nuous l oads. I f the motor
runs conti nuousl y at 100% rated torque at a speed whi ch i s
l ess than hal f the rated speed, the motor requi res extra ai r for
cool i ng (the grey areas i n Fi g. 3.25).
Al ternati vel y the l oad rati o of the motor can be reduced by
sel ecti ng a bi gger motor. However, care must be taken not to
oversi ze the motor too much for a gi ven frequency converter.
M [%]
100
146
50
100
1
2
150 200 50
n [%]
Fig. 3.25 The need for external ventilation for a motor at rated size
and an oversize motor
Graph 1: Motor of rated si ze, e.g. 15 kW
Graph 2: Oversi ze motor, e.g. 22 kW
I f the motor current i s not si nusoi dal , i t shoul d not be subjected
to 100% l oad al l the ti me as i t wi l l recei ve harmoni c currents
that i ncrease i ts temperature. The si ze of the harmoni c currents
determi nes the amount of heat.
T
100%
50%
100% 200%
n
T
100%
50%
100% 200%
n
Fig. 3.26 A non-sinusoidal current generates extra heat in the motor
Efficiencies
The effi ci ency of a uni t i s defi ned as the rati o between output
power P
2
and power P
1
.
The di fference between P
1
and P
2
i s defi ned as power l oss P
v
, i .e.
power that i s di ssi pated as heat i n the uni t.
The effi ci ency can be cal cul ated for the frequency converter
al one, for the motor al one or for the frequency converter and
motor (system effi ci ency).
Effi ci ency of the frequency converter
Effi ci ency of the motor
System effi ci ency
P
2
=
P
1
P
3
P
2
P
2
P
1
P
3
P
1
P
1
P
2
P
v
P
2
P
1
~
P
3
Fig. 3.27 Output, power intake and efficiencies
100
A
B
%
0 600 1200 1800 2400 3000
mi n
1
80
60
40
20
0
Fig. 3.28 Efficiency of frequency converter at 100% (A)
and 25% (B) load
The graphs show that the effi ci ency of the motor has a major
i nfl uence on the system effi ci ency. The effi ci ency of the frequen-
cy converter i s hi gh throughout the control range, both at hi gh
and at l ow l evel s of l oad.
I t can al so be seen that effi ci enci es are l owest at l ow speeds.
However, thi s does not mean that the total l osses are the hi gh-
est at l ow speeds.
100
A
B
%
0 600 1200 1800 2400 3000
mi n
1
80
60
40
20
0
Fig. 3.30 Efficiency of a frequency converter and motor (2-pole)
at 100% (A) and 25% (B) load
100
A
B
%
0 600 1200 1800 2400 3000
mi n
1
80
60
40
20
0
Fig. 3.29 Efficiency of a typical motor (2-pole) at 100% (A) and
25% (B) load
Exampl es from Fi g. 3.30:
The hi gh effi ci enci es of frequency converters offer several
advantages:
The hi gher the effi ci ency, the smal l er the thermal l oss that
has to be removed from the i nstal l ati on. Thi s i s i mportant i f
the frequency converter i s i ntegrated i n a control panel .
The l ess thermal l oss i s present i n the semi -conductors and
the coi l s of the frequency converter, the l onger the l i fe-ti me.
The hi gher the effi ci ency the l ower the energy consumpti on.
1. n = 800 mi n
1
P
3
= 9628 W
= 77.3%
P
1
=
P
3
= 12455.4 W
P
v
= P
1
P
3
= 2827.4 W
2. n = 500 mi n
1
P
3
= 1500 W
= 70%
P
1
=
P
3
= 2143 W
P
v
= P
1
P
3
= 643 W
CHAPTER 4: PERSONAL SAFETY 139
4. Protecti on and safety
Based on the regul ati ons that appl y to a gi ven i nstal l ati on, i t
may be necessary to pl ace an emergency swi tch near the motor.
I t i s i mportant to pl ace the swi tch i n the motor cabl e i n such a
way that the motor and frequency converter are not damaged
and preferabl y i ndependent of the swi tchi ng frequency.
Gal vani c i sol ati on i s requi red between the control part and the
power part of the frequency converter. Otherwi se the control
cabl es coul d have the same vol tage i n rel ati on to earth as the
mai ns suppl y and touchi ng the control cabl es coul d be fatal or,
l ess seri ousl y, the equi pment coul d be damaged.
European standard EN 50178 descri bes the gui del i nes for gal -
vani c i sol ati on. The type of protecti on provi ded for frequency
converters offers protecti on agai nst i njuri es from touchi ng.
I P 20 provi des total encl osure of l i ve parts. I P 54 i s a spl ash-
proof encl osure.
Addi ti onal l y overheati ng coul d turn a frequency converter i nto
a fi re hazard. Consequentl y, an i ntegral thermal sensor shoul d
be fi tted to cut the vol tage feed i n the case of cool i ng fai l ure.
A motor connected to a frequency converter may under certai n
ci rcumstances, restart wi thout warni ng. Thi s coul d happen i f
for exampl e, the ti me functi on el ements are acti vated i n the fre-
quency converter or temperature l i mi ts are moni tored.
Extra protection
Extra protecti on hel ps to avoi d dangerous vol tages on the out-
si de of the housi ng. For frequency converters, extra protecti on i s
al ways requi red. The mode of protecti on must be assessed on a
case-to-case basi s, dependi ng on the l ocal condi ti ons and regu-
l ati ons. The di fferent types of protecti on are zeroi ng, earthi ng
and protecti ve rel ays.
140 CHAPTER 4: PERSONAL SAFETY
Reset to zero (TN system)
A protecti ve wi re can be fi tted between the earth termi nal and
the zero conductor i n the i nstal l ati on suppl y cabl e. Thi s type of
extra protecti on i s often used i n i ndustri al networks and hous-
i ng i nstal l ati ons that are suppl i ed wi th earth wi re. I f the i nstal -
l ati on has not been zeroed whether thi s method can be used wi l l
depend on the connecti on condi ti ons and i t may be necessary to
tal k to the frequency converter suppl i er.
Earthing (TT system)
A protecti ve wi re can al so be fi tted between the earthi ng termi -
nal and the equi potenti al bar. However, to use thi s method the
i mpedance of the equi potenti al poi nt must be suffi ci entl y l ow.
Based on the i nterference reducti on components, the frequency
converter has a l eakage current, whi ch i s why the earthi ng
shoul d be of l ow i mpedance. EN 50178/5.3.2.1 sets up the fol -
l owi ng requi rements:
For a l eakage current greater than 3.5 mA, the cross-secti on of
the protecti ve wi re must be at l east 10 mm
2
, or the uni t must be
earthed by means of two separate protecti ve wi res, whi ch have
to ful fi l l the requi rements of I EC 364-5-543. Thi s i s often termed
re-i nforced earthi ng.
L
1
L
2
L
3
PEN
L
1
L
2
L
3
Fig. 4.01 Zeroing (TN system)
Fig. 4.02 Zeroing (TT system)
Protective relays
There are two types of protecti ve rel ays for extra protecti on. One
type uses a faul t vol tage rel ay, the other a faul t current rel ay.
Extra protecti on i n the form of a faul t vol tage rel ay (FV rel ay) i s
possi bl e i n most i nstal l ati ons. Protecti on i s obtai ned by con-
necti ng the rel ay coi l vi a a protecti ve wi re between the frequen-
cy converter earth termi nal and the earth potenti al . A faul ty
vol tage rel eases the rel ay and makes the frequency converter
vol tage-free.
FV rel ays can be used wi th good resul ts where zeroi ng i s not
al l owed or where the ground does not al l ow earthi ng. Whether
such rel ays are permi tted depends on the regul ati ons from the
el ectri ci ty suppl y compani es.
Protecti on of frequency converters usi ng a resi dual current
detector (RCD) i s permi tted under certai n condi ti ons.
RCD devi ces put al l the suppl y cabl es to the frequency convert-
er through a summati on current transformer whi ch measures
the sum of the currents through the cabl es to ensure i t i s zero.
Otherwi se a current i s automati cal l y i nduced i n the secondary
wi ndi ng of the transformer whi ch cuts out the rel ay and
removes power to the frequency converter. I n tradi ti onal RCDs
the i nducti on pri nci pl e was used, whi ch works excl usi vel y wi th
AC vol tage. Accordi ng to EN 50178, frequency converters wi th
6- pul se i nput bri dge recti fi ers may al l ow a smooth di rect cur-
rent to fl ow i n case of a faul t. Best practi ce i s to test i f DC can
be measured at the frequency converter i nput.
Fig. 4.03 Fault voltage relays
L
1
L
2
U
L
3
Accordi ng to EN 50178 smooth d.c. currents can be generated, i f
fai l ures occur i n frequency converters wi th 3-phase recti fi ers.
An RCD rel ay can be used as extra protecti on. Thi s must be a
type B rel ay, as descri bed i n I EC 755.
I n practi ce thi s means that the rel ay must be marked wi th the
fol l owi ng symbol :
I f faul t current protecti ve swi tches are used that are not DC-
compati bl e, an i sol ati ng transformer pl aced before the frequen-
cy converter i s abl e to prevent thi s faul t current.
Leakage currents are to some extent produced by radi o i nter-
ference fi l ter components. I ndi vi dual radi o i nterference fi l ters
normal l y generate a l eakage current of onl y a few mA whi ch
does not l ead to a rel ease. I f, however, several or very l arge fi l -
ters are used, thi s may cause a RCD rel ay to tri p.
Fig. 4.05 Curvature and characteristics of fault currents
L
1
L
2
I
L
3
Al ternati ng faul t currents
Pul sati ng DCs (pos. and neg. hal f-wave)
hal f-wave current
Sl opi ng hal f-wave currents
Angl e of sl ope 90 el .
135 el .
Hal f-wave current wi th overl ay of
smooth faul t DCs of 6 mA
Smooth faul t DCs
El ectri cal
i nterpretati on
El ectroni c
i nterpretati on
Fig. 4.04 All-current sensitive fault current relay
Electromagnetic compatibility
El ectromagneti c i nterferences are unwanted el ectri cal pheno-
mena that stem from the uni t or affect the uni t i n an unwanted
way.
El ectromagneti c phenomena may ari se from nature or be gen-
erated by man.
Among the el ectromagneti c i nterferences that appear natural l y
are atmospheri c i nterferences, such as l i ghtni ng. Another phe-
nomenon i s the magneti c fi el d that surrounds the enti re gl obe
and protects us from the energy-i ntensi ve radi ati on that comes
from space. Whi l st atmospheri c i nterference cannot be avoi ded
i ts i nfl uence on el ectri cal uni ts and i nstal l ati ons can be l i mi ted.
Unnatural i nterferences, not caused by nature, are consi dered
arti fi ci al el ectromagneti c phenomena and occur wherever el ec-
tri cal energy i s used. Thi s i nterference can di sperse through ai r
or through the el ectri cal wi ri ng. Exampl es i ncl ude i nterference
from l i ght swi tches or i gni ti on systems bei ng experi enced on
radi o or TV. Addi ti onal l y i f there i s a short vol tage drop-out,
cl ocks may stand sti l l or PCs may not work properl y.
El ectrostati c di scharge can al so l ead to faul ts i n el ectroni c
swi tches and even to fi re hazards and there are a number of
mutual effects on peopl e, pl ants and ani mal s.
The i nternati onal term for radi o i nterference i s EMC (or El ec-
tromagneti c Compati bi l i ty). Thi s i s descri bed as the abi l i ty of a
Fig. 4.06 Electromagnetic phenomena
Mai ns suppl y i nterference Resi stance to i nterference
Li ghtni ng protecti on
Touch i njury protecti on
El ectrostati cs
El ect. corrosi on
Radi o i nterference
Corona
Radi oacti vi ty
Mi cro-waves
Magneti c fi el ds
Bi ol ogi cal effects
uni t to resi st el ectri cal i nterference and not to emi t i nterference
to i ts surroundi ngs.
I n Europe, an EMC di recti ve was adopted i n 1989 and today
Europes EMC standards are di vi ded i nto three groups:
Basic Standard
These standards are phenomenon-ori ented. They descri be the
set-up of the requi red testi ng equi pment and measuri ng proce-
dure.
Generic Standard
These standards are envi ronmental l y ori ented. They di sti n-
gui sh between resi denti al areas, offi ce areas, l i ght i ndustry,
manufacturi ng i ndustry and speci al appl i cati ons.
Product Standard
These standards rel ate to the speci fi c requi rements of gi ven
product fami l i es wi th respect to measuri ng procedure and
assessment. Exact test l evel s and l i mi t val ues are prescri bed.
These standards have pri ori ty over the generi c standards.
I f an el ectri cal or el ectroni c uni t adheres to the European l egi s-
l ati on, i t must be submi tted to, and substanti ated by, the
authori ti es at a speci fi ed ti me. Thi s i s done i n the form of an EU
Decl arati on of Compl i ance and by CE l abel l i ng. The EU Decl a-
rati on of Compl i ance i s i ssued as veri fi cati on for a seri es of
uni ts, and the CE l abel i s pl aced on the uni t, packi ng and ope-
rati ng i nstructi ons. The CE l abel i s an authori ty symbol
addressed to the rel evant European authori ti es and confi rmi ng
that the rel evant rul es and regul ati ons have been compl i ed
wi th.
Products that requi re a CE l abel i n accordance wi th the EMC
di recti ve must now carry thi s l abel .
I f an el ectri cal uni t operates i n the vol tage range from 50 to
1000 V AC or between 75 and 1500 V DC, the l ow-vol tage di rec-
ti ve must al so be compl i ed wi th. Thi s di recti ve came i nto force
i n 1997 and refers to dangers that may ari se from el ectri cal
machi nery for peopl e, domesti c ani mal s or objects.
Fig. 4.08 Transition deadlines for CE labelling
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
EMC
89/336/EWG
Low-vol tage
72/23/EWG
Machi nes
89/393/EWG
CE l abel l i ng
93/68/EWG
Fig. 4.07 EU sign of compliance
Dispersal of interference
Emi ssi on (i nterference transmi ssi on) i s the el ectromagneti c
energy (or amount of i nterference) comi ng from a uni t and
i mmuni ty i s the abi l i ty of a uni t to resi st or suppress the i nter-
ference.
The i nterference comi ng from a frequency converter i s mai ns
suppl y i nterference i n the l ow-frequency range, whi ch i s di s-
persed through the cabl e network as hard-wi red i nterference,
and i nterference radi ated i nto the ai r at hi gh-frequency (10 kHz
to GHz).
Coupling
El ectri cal ci rcui ts can be coupl ed usi ng gal vani c, capaci tati ve or
i nducti ve coupl i ng. Gal vani c coupl i ng may occur when two el ec-
tri cal ci rcui ts share a common el ectri cal i mpedance.
Frequency converters and other el ectri c uni ts operati ng i n the
system are connected to each other by conductors and have the
same earthi ng potenti al . Dependi ng on the i mpedance rel ati on,
thi s coupl i ng l eads to an i nterference vol tage at a uni t across the
two shared i mpedances Z
L3
and Z
0
.
Z
Z
L1
Z
L2
Z
L3
Z
0
Fig. 4.09 Galvanic coupling
Capaci ti ve coupl i ng occurs when two el ectri cal ci rcui ts have a
common earthi ng reference. Typi cal l y thi s occurs where a motor
cabl e has been l ai d too cl ose to other cabl es. The capaci ti ve
i nterference current depends on the frequency of the motor
cabl e, the rel ated vol tage and the di stance to other cabl es. The
rel ati vel y hi gh swi tchi ng frequency of todays frequency con-
verters, wi th whi ch the output vol tage i s generated, resul ts i n a
l ow capaci ti ve resi stance i n the motor cabl e and thus causes
capaci ti ve i nterference currents.
M
M
Fig. 4.10 Capacitive coupling
Fig. 4.11 I nductive coupling
Capaci tati ve i nterference
I nducti ve i nterference vol tage
I nducti ve coupl i ng occurs when the magneti c fi el d around a cur-
rent-conducti ng wi re i nduces a vol tage i n another wi re. The
i nduced AC vol tage depends on the strength of the magneti c
fi el d, as wel l as on the strength of the current i n the motor cabl e,
the frequency and the di stance between the cabl es.
Hard-wired dispersal
El ectri cal noi se can spread through the cabl es of the mai ns sup-
pl y. Hi gher frequenci es are superi mposed on the 50 Hz si nu-
soi dal curve of the suppl y vol tage. A di storti on of the pure si nu-
soi dal curve occurs.
Mains supply interference
Mai ns suppl y i nterference from el ectri ci ty consumi ng uni ts
causes a di storti on of the suppl y vol tage. Thi s di storti on i s cre-
ated by hi gh frequency components of the current drown by the
i nput ci rcui ts of i nverters and other semi -conductor products
due to thei r non-l i near nature. I n other uni ts connected to the
same mai ns suppl y, i nterference courses an addi ti onal l oad.
Thi s i s refl ected i n the form of hi gher current consumpti on and
for acousti c handl i ng i n the uni ts.
Fig. 4.12 Reduction of harmonic currents by incorporating DC link
chokes in the VLT 5000
F 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 45 50 35
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0
Ampl i tude
W/o choke
W/choke
Harmoni c
waves
The recti fi er of a frequency converter generates a pul sati ng DC
vol tage. The capaci tor of the fol l owi ng DC vol tage i ntermedi ate
ci rcui t i s charged at each vol tage peak. Duri ng thi s chargi ng
process, i nput currents wi th rel ati vel y hi gh ampl i tude occur.
Because of thi s pul se-shaped, non-si nusoi dal l oad, the si nu-
soi dal shape of the suppl y vol tage i s di storted and the degree of
di storti on depends on both the current l oad and the mai ns
i mpedance.
The maxi mum permi ssi bl e di storti on i s gi ven i n EN 61000-3-2
for publ i c networks and i n EN 61000-3-4 for publ i c l ow vol tage
systems. The mai ns suppl y i nterference consi sts of the hi gh-fre-
quency parts i n the form of so-cal l ed harmoni cs of the basi c fre-
quency of the suppl y vol tage. The total harmoni c content i s
termed Total Harmoni c Di storti on (THD).
The maxi mum permi ssi bl e si ze of the i ndi vi dual mai ns vol tage
harmoni cs i s di ctated i n EN 61000-3-2, tabl e 1. The mai ns sup-
pl y i nterference can be reduced by l i mi ti ng the ampl i tude of the
pul se currents. I n practi ce, chokes are i ntegrated i n the i nter-
medi ate ci rcui t or i n the frequency converter i nput. Often, fre-
quency converters are suppl i ed wi thout chokes. Chokes can be
ordered separatel y and i nstal l ed subsequentl y. The harmoni c
l evel s of the mai ns vol tage wi th whi ch a frequency converter can
cope are stated i n standard EN 60146-1-1 (general requi re-
ments for semi -conductor power converters).
Transients/over voltage
Transi ents or bri ef over vol tage peaks i n the range of some
thousand vol ts can occur i n the mai ns suppl y, both i n i ndustry
and i n the pri vate house-hol ds.
They can be caused by heavy l oads i n the mai ns suppl y bei ng
swi tched on and off, or due to power factor compensati on uni ts.
I f l i ghtni ng stri kes di rectl y i n the suppl y cabl es, for exampl e,
there wi l l be a hi gh over vol tage peak resul ti ng i n damage to
i nstal l ati ons up to 20 km away. I n open-ai r i nstal l ati ons, jump-
i ng of the i sol ators to other cabl es may occur.
Short-ci rcui ts and safety swi tch-offs of the mai ns suppl y al so
l ead to transi ents. Through magneti c i nducti ve coupl i ngs,
cabl es l ai d out i n paral l el may al so cause hi gh vol tage peaks.
THD [%] =
(U
3
)
2
+ (U
5
)
2
+ ... + (U
N
)
2
U
1
The shape of these transi ents and the energy they contai n are
expl ai ned i n EN 61000-4-1, and VDE 0160.
Danfoss has chosen to fol l ow the requi rements of VDE 0160
(versi on 2) al though i t i s no l onger val i d. The reason i s that thi s
stri ngent standard i ncl udes the rough condi ti ons the frequency
converters are often exposed to.
The harmful effects of transi ents and over vol tages can be l i m-
i ted i n a number of ways. To combat energy-i ntensi ve transi ents
and over vol tages, gas el i mi nators or spark gaps can be appl i ed.
I n el ectroni c uni ts, vol tage-dependent resi stors (vari stors) are
often used to dampen the over vol tages. I n the si gnal range, pro-
tecti on may be ensured by means of a breakdown di ode.
U
t
t
r
0,1 ms
1
/
2

U
2
,
3

N
U
N

1
0
%
Fig. 4.13 Mains transients according to VDE 0160 from
December 1990
Fig. 4.14 Transient protection
4 kV 2,5 kV 6 kV
Overvol tage
category
acc. to I EC 664
Rough
protecti on
e.g. gas
el i mi nator
Fi ne protecti on
e.g. vari stor
breakdown
Radio frequency interference
Every current and vol tage that devi ates from the pure si nu-
soi dal form contai ns components wi th hi gher frequenci es. The
magni tude of these frequenci es depends on the rate of change of
the process.
When a contact mechani sm cl oses or opens, the current change
takes pl ace very rapi dl y and a very steep current change i s reg-
i stered. Thi s i s al so refl ected i n the vol tage. On radi o, thi s phe-
nomenon can be heard as crackl i ng noi se. I n thi s context, a si n-
gl e noi se pul se i s normal l y not consi dered to consti tute
i nterference. However, si nce the frequency converter semi -con-
ductors are swi tched i n the form of contact el ements i n the kHz
range wi th steep swi tchi ng fl anks, permanent radi o frequency
i nterference i s generated and radi ated.
Radi o frequency i nterference (RFI ) i s defi ned as el ectri c osci l l a-
ti ons wi th frequenci es between 10 kHz and the GHz range.
91,0
79,0
69,5
66,0
57,5
56,0
46,0
50,0
10
5
V
5
2
10
4
5
2
10
5
5
2
10
2
5
2
10
2
10
1
10
1
2 3 MHz 5 2 10 5 2 15 10
-1
5 2 10
-2
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
(V)
dB
100
Frequency
R
a
d
i
o

i
n
t
e
r
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

l
e
v
e
l
Cl ass A Group 1
Cl ass B Groups 1 and 2
R
a
d
i
o

i
n
t
e
r
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

v
o
l
t
a
g
e
Fig. 4.15 Average radio interference threshold values to EN 55011
The extent of thi s i nterference depends on a number of factors:
the i mpedance of the mai ns suppl y
the swi tchi ng frequency of the i nverter
the mechani cal bui l d-up of the frequency converter
the frequency of the output vol tage to the motor
the anti -i nterference measures taken
the l ength and type of motor cabl e.
Radi o frequency i nterference i s emi tted by conducti on or radi a-
ti on and l i mi ted by EN standards i n Europe and I EC standards
worl d-wi de.
Li mi t val ues and measuri ng procedures for radi o i nterference
from i ndustri al , sci enti fi c and medi cal hi gh frequency uni ts
(I SM uni ts), whi ch unti l recentl y al so i ncl uded frequency con-
verters, are covered by EN 55011. Li mi t val ues for emi ssi ons
from el ectri cal househol d appl i ances are covered by EN 55014.
Now frequency converters are covered by the product standard
EN 61800-3.
Hi gh-frequency mai ns conducted i nterference can onl y be
reduced effecti vel y usi ng a fi l ter whi ch consi sts of coi l s and
capaci tors. Not al l frequency converters come wi th a radi o i nter-
ference fi l ter, i n whi ch case the fi l ter must be fi tted subsequent-
l y cl ass A fi l ters for i ndustry, cl ass B fi l ters for househol d
appl i ances.
Fig. 4.16 Frequency converters and radio interference measures
L1
L2
L3
MOV
MOV
MOV
CS
CR
CT
CE5
CE6
CE1
CE4
R5 R1
R6 R2
RFI
C1
C2
Mai ns
fuses
(external )
Common
mode
choke
mai ns
Recti -
fi er Current
measur.
Surge
protec-
ti on
DC-
choke 1
DC-
choke 2
du
dt
On the cabl e from the frequency converter to the connected
motor, radi o i nterference can be l i mi ted usi ng fi l ters or
screened/armoured cabl es. I n thi s connecti on, the hi gh swi tch-
i ng frequency of i nverter means:
that the capaci tors have to take up hi gher currents
that the fi l ter coi l s must be oversi zed.
Screened/armoured cables
Screened/armoured cabl es are often used to l i mi t radi o i nterfer-
ence. The effect of the screen i s stated i n deci bel s (dB) as screen
attenuati on or coupl i ng i mpedance.
The screen attenuati on shoul d be as hi gh as possi bl e (normal l y
i n a range of 30 dB), whi l e the coupl i ng i mpedance shoul d be as
l ow as possi bl e.
For the screeni ng agai nst hi gh-frequency i nterference to be tru-
l y effecti ve, the screen shoul d be earthed at both the frequency
converter and motor ends and be conti nuous between both ends.
I n practi ce, i f i t i s broken a hi gh frequency, l ow i mpedance l i nk
shoul d be made across thi s break. A good contact between
screen and earth potenti al i s i mportant, as a poor connecti on
reduces the screeni ng effect and thus the attenuati on of the
i nterference. I t must be consi dered that i f earthi ng i s made at
several pl aces, an equal i si ng current wi l l fl ow across the earth
potenti al . Consequentl y, si gnal cabl es shoul d onl y be earthed at
one end. Si nce these si gnal cabl es work wi th very smal l si gnal
si zes, connecti on to the screen woul d have a di sturbi ng effect.
When a frequency converter i s purchased and i nstal l ed, i t must
be consi dered how and to what extent radi o i nterference i s to be
Fig. 4.17 EMC-correct installation of the screen
Cabl e cl amp
Good Good Bad
Earth termi nal Cabl e gl and
l i mi ted and the techni cal documentati on shoul d state the radi o
i nterference cl ass wi th whi ch the frequency converter compl i es.
Addi ti onal l y i t i s not al ways cl ear whether a fi l ter i s i ntegrated
or whether i t has to be purchased and i nstal l ed separatel y, and
for what motor cabl e l ength i t i s sui tabl e.
Screened/armoured motor and control cabl es are often neces-
sary and are recommended i f a gi ven radi o i nterference protec-
ti on cl ass i s to be compl i ed wi th.
Power Factor Correction Equipment (PFC)
These uni ts are i ntegrated i n networks i f the angl e of phase di f-
ference between vol tage and current (cos ) i s to be corrected.
Thi s i s the case i f many i nducti ve current consumi ng uni ts, such
as motors or swi tchi ng uni ts for l amps, are operated on the
mai ns.
A frequency converter does not create any angl e of phase di ffer-
ence; i ts cos i s approx. 1. At hi gh frequenci es, the capaci tors of
the PFC system have a l ower i nternal resi stance. I f hi gh-fre-
quency el ements (harmoni c waves) remai n i n the mai ns vol tage,
the i nput current of the PFC uni t wi l l ri se, the capaci tors wi l l
heat up and wi l l be subjected to a hi gher l oad.
The hi gh-frequency el ements from the mai ns can be bl ocked out
of the i nstal l ati on usi ng chokes ei ther mai ns or DC l i nk chokes.
DC l i nk chokes al so prevent resonance from occurri ng between
the i nductance of the current consumi ng uni ts and the capaci -
tance of the correcti on uni t. What must be consi dered i s the fact
that the hi gh frequency has a smal l er sucti on effect, whi ch
means that i n a mul ti servi ce control system and audi o frequen-
cy transformers, a suppressi on fi l ter i s requi red.
Dependi ng on the regul ati ons of the l ocal el ectri ci ty suppl y com-
pani es, choke compensati on uni ts shoul d be used.
Selection of a frequency
converter for variable
speed drives
Sel ecti ng of a frequency converter for vari abl e speed dri ves
requi res a l ot of experi ence. I f the experi ence i s not avai l abl e, i t
i s often useful to vi si t ei ther a reference pl ant wi th si mi l ar appl i -
cati ons, or exhi bi ti ons or trade shows. The fol l owi ng i s a bri ef
checkl i st of poi nts that shoul d be consi dered:
1. Details of the machine to be controlled
requi red pl ant/machi ne characteri sti cs
torque characteri sti cs, stal l i ng torque, accel erati on torque
speed control range, cool i ng
power consumpti on of the converter and the motor
operati ng quadrants
sl i p compensati on (dynami c)
requi red ramp-up and ramp-down ti mes
requi red braki ng ti mes, brake operati ng ti me
di rect dri ves, gears, transmi ssi on components,
moment of mass i nerti a
synchroni sati on wi th other dri ves
operati ng ti me, control s
computer l i nkage, i nterfaces, vi sual i sati on
desi gn and protecti on type
possi bi l i ty of i ntegrati ng decentral i ntel l i gence i n the
frequency converter
2. Environmental details
i nstal l ati on hei ght, ambi ent temperature
cool i ng requi rements, cool i ng opti ons
cl i mati c condi ti ons, such as humi di ty, water, di rt, dust,
gas-es
speci al regul ati ons, e.g. for mi ni ng, the chemi cal i ndustry,
the shi p bui l di ng i ndustry, food technol ogy
acousti c noi se
3. Mains
mai ns vol tage, vol tage fl uctuati ons
mai ns performance
mai ns frequency fl uctuati ons
mai ns i nterference
short-ci rcui t and overvol tage protecti on
mai ns drop-out
4. Maintenance, operation, personnel
trai ni ng and i nstructi on of operators
mai ntenance
spare parts/spare uni ts
5. Financial criteria
purchase costs (components)
space requi rement, i ntegrated i nstal l ati on, desi gn
i nstal l ati on costs
commi ssi oni ng of the system
set-up costs
operati ng costs
effi ci ency of the system (frequency converter and machi ne)
reacti ve power requi rement and compensati on for
harmoni c l oads
Product l i feti me
6. Protective measures for
operators/converter/motor
gal vani c i sol ati on i n accordance wi th PELV
phase drop-out
swi tchi ng at the converter output
earth and short-ci rcui t protecti on
motor coi l s to reduce vol tage ri se ti mes
el ectroni c thermal moni tori ng and connecti on of
thermi stors
7. Standards/regulations
nati onal DI N, BS, UL, CSA, VDE, European EN
i nternati onal I EC, CE, etc.
8. Environmental considerations
abi l i ty to recycl e the product
manufacturi ng practi ce
energy savi ng factors
Usi ng thi s checkl i st a frequency converter can be sel ected whi ch
covers most of the i tems as standard, but you shoul d al so doubl e
check whether:
the converter has mai ns or i ntermedi ate ci rcui t chokes i n
order to greatl y reduce mai ns i nterference
a RFI fi l ter for cl ass A or B i s standard or has to be purchased
separatel y
motor derati ng i s requi red i f a frequency converter i s used
the converter i tsel f i s protected agai nst earth and short-ci r-
cui t
the converter reacts adequatel y i n a faul t si tuati on.
APPENDI X I : GENERAL MECHANI CAL THEORY 159
Appendi x I :
General
mechani cal theory
Straight-line motion
Wi th respect to strai ght-l i ne moti on, a body l i es sti l l or mai n-
tai ns i ts strai ght-l i ne moti on unti l a force i mpacts.
The force, F, can be descri bed as a product of the mass of the
body and the change per ti me uni t of the speed of the body. The
speed change per ti me used i s al so known as accel erati on, a.
To mai ntai n a constant moti on a body must be conti nual l y
i mpacted by a force, otherwi se the forces whi ch work agai nst the
di recti on of moti on, such as fri cti on and gravi ty, wi l l cause i t to
sl ow and stop.
Rotating motion
I n the case of a rotary moti on, a body can be made to rotate or
change i ts di recti on of rotati on i f i t i s i mpacted by a torque
around i ts mass centre. Li ke the force, the torque can be stated
by way of i ts effect. Torque i s a product of the moment of i nerti a
of the body and the speed change of that body per ti me uni t, i .e.
the angul ar accel erati on, .
F = m a
Mass: m measuri ng uni t: [kg]
m
Accel erati on: a measuri ng uni t:
[ ]
s
2
Force: F measuri ng uni t [N]
T = F r
r
F
Fig. AI .01
160 APPENDI X I : GENERAL MECHANI CAL THEORY
Li ke the mass, the moment of i nerti a dampens accel erati on. The
moment of i nerti a depends on the body mass and the posi ti on i n
space i n rel ati on to the rotati on shaft.
T = J
2 n
= ; n Measured i n [revol uti ons mi n
1
]
60
angl e change
Angl e speed: measuri ng uni t: [ ]
s
d angl e change
Angl e accel erati on: = ; measuri ng uni t [ ]
dt s
2
Moment of i nerti a: J; measuri ng uni t: [kg m
2
]
Fig. AI .02 Calculation of different moments of inertia
m r
2
J =
2
m r
2
m l
2
J = +
4 12
2 m r
2
J =
5
m
J = (r
1
2
+ r
2
2
)
2
Sol i d cyl i nder:
Hol l ow cyl i nder:
Sol i d bal l :
l
l
r
l
r
1
r
2
2r
APPENDI X I : GENERAL MECHANI CAL THEORY 161
When the torque and accel erati on of a system are to be cal cu-
l ated, i t i s preferabl e to pl ace al l masses and i nerti a i n one
moment of i nerti a on the motor shaft.
Work and power
The work carri ed out by a motor i n strai ght-l i ne movement can
be cal cul ated as the product of the force of the di recti on of move-
ment F and the di stance s whi ch the body i s moved.
I n rotati ng movements, the work i s cal cul ated as a product of
the torque T and the angul ar movement ().
One revol uti on = 2 [rad].
The work carri ed out by a conveyor system i ncreases wi th ti me.
There i s thus no maxi mum val ue and there i s no fi gure to be
used i n cal cul ati ons.
The power, P, i s the work per ti me uni t and thi s does have a
maxi mum val ue.
I n the case of strai ght-l i ne movement, the power i s cal cul ated as
the product of the force i n the di recti on of movement and the
l ength of movement per ti me uni t, the speed v.
Wi th respect to rotati ng movement, i t al so appl i es that the pow-
er can be cal cul ated as a product of the torque and the l ength of
movement per ti me uni t, the angul ar speed .
P = F V
2
2
3
2
J = J
1
+ J
2
( )
+ J
3
( )
+
1
W = F s
Angul ar movement: measuri ng uni t: angl e change
1 revol uti on = 2 [rad]
measuri ng uni t: [W]
J
1
: own moment of i nterti a of
the motor, etc.
J
2
, J
3
: the i nvi dual moments of
i nverti a of the system
1
: angul ar speed of motor, etc.
2
,
3
: angul ar speed of the
i ndi vi dual rotati ng
Lengthe of movement: s measuri ng uni t: [m]
Work: W measuri ng uni t: [W s]
P = T measuri ng uni t: [W]
W = T
168 APPENDI X I I I : GENERAL AC THEORY
Appendi x I I I :
General l y used
Abbrevi ati ons
ASI C Appl i cati on-
speci fi c I C
CSI Current Source
I nverter
d Di stance
DDC Di rect Di gi tal Control
f Frequency
F Force
g Force of gravi ty
HP Horse Power
I
1
Stator current
I
B
Reacti ve current/fl ux-
generati ng current
I
L
Rotor current
I
M
, I
S
Motor current
(apparent current)
I
N
Rated current
I
W
Torque-generati ng
current/acti ve current
I
Magneti si ng current
I C I ntegrated swi tchi ng
ci rcui ts
J Moment of i nerti a
L I nductance
n Speed
n
n
Rated speed
n
o
Synchronous speed
n
s
Sl i p speed
p Number of pol e pai rs
P Power/acti ve power
P
1
(El ectri cal ) i nput
power
P
2
(Mechani cal ) output
power
P
V
Power l oss
PLC Programmabl e l ogi c
control l er
r Radi us
R
FE
Counter-resi stance
s Sl i p
S Apparent power
SFAVM Stator Fl ux-ori entated
Asynchronous Vector
Modul ati on
S
M
Apparent power
(motor)
t
acc
Accel erati on ti me
t
dec
Decel erati on ti me
t
off
Ti me transi stor
i nacti ve
t
on
Ti me transi stor acti ve
T Torque
T
a
Starti ng torque
T
acc
Accel erati on torque
T
dec
Braki ng torque
T
k
Break-down torque
T
N
Rated torque
U Vol tage
Uq I nducti on vol tage
U
S
Vol tage drop (stator)
VVC Vol tage Vector Control
W Work
WK
2
Fl ywheel effect
X
h
Counter-reactance
X
L
Reactance (rotor)
F mai n fl ux, stator fl ux
mai n fl ux, stator fl ux
L
Rotor fl ux
Motor effi ci ency
Angul ar speed
LI TERATURE 169
Li terature
Additional literature:
P. Thgersen, M. Tnnes,
U. Jger, S.E. Ni el sen:
New High Performance Vector
Controlled AC-Drive with
Automatic Energy Optimizer
6th European Conference on
Power El ectroni cs and Appl i ca-
ti ons; Sept. 1995
S. Anderson og K. Jrgensen:
Vekselstrmsmaskiner, -anlg
Pol ytekni sk forl ag, 1985
P.F. Brosch:
Frequenzumformer,
Verl ag moderne i ndustri e, 1989
P.F. Brosch:
Moderne Stromrichterantriebe
Vogel Buchverl ag 1992
ELFO:
El-faglre
El i nstal l atrernes Lands-
foreni ng, 1993
R. Fi sher:
Elektrische Maschinen
Carl Hanser Verl ag, 1986
W. Gi l son:
Drehzahlgeregelte Drehstrom-
antriebe
VDE-Verl ag, 1983
E.v. Hol stei n-Rathl ou:
Strkstrmselektroteknik
J. Jrgensen & Co. Bogtrykkeri ,
1939
K. Jark og A.H. Axel sen:
Elektroteknik
H. Hagerup, 1966
Thomas Ki bsgrd:
EL Stbi
Tekni sk Forl ag A/S, 1988
U. Krabbe:
Strmrettere
Danmarks Tekni ske Hjskol e,
1982
W. Norbl l :
Elektricitetslre
P. Haase & Sns Forl ag, 1952
Sprecher + Schuh AG:
Schtz-Steuerungen
Sprecher + Schuh AG, 1982
J. Nedtwi g, M. Lutz:
WEKA Praxis Handbuch
Weka Fachverl ag fr techni sche
Fhrungskrfte, 1996
H.R. Schmeer:
EMV 96
VDE-Verl ag, 1996

List of Contents

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

List of Contents

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

List of contents

Fig. 2.22 Principle of the sine-controlled PWM

= 0), whi ch means that the no-l oad vol tage

You might also like