2.081J/16.230J Plates and Shells: Professor Tomasz Wierzbicki

2.081J/16.
230J Plates and Shells

Professor Tomasz Wierzbicki
Contents
1 Strain-Displacement Relation for Plates 1
1.1 1-D Strain Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Engineering Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Green-Lagrangian Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 3-D Strain Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2.1 Derivation of Green-Lagrangian Strain Tensor for Plates . . . 1
1.2.2 Specication of Strain-Displacement Relation for Plates . . . 5
2 Derivation of Constitutive Equations for Plates 10
2.1 Denitions of Bending Moment and Axial Force . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Bending Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.1 Bending Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.2 Bending Energy Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.3 Total Bending Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 Membrane Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.1 Axial Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.2 Membrane Energy Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.3 Total Membrane Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3 DevelopmentofEquationofEquilibriumandBoundaryConditions
Using Variational Approach 17
3.1 Bending Theory of Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.1.1 Total Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.1.2 First Variation of the Total Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . 20
3.1.3 Equilibrium Equation and Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . 24
3.1.4 Specication of Equation for Rectangular Plate . . . . . . . . 24
3.2 Bending-Membrane Theory of Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2.1 Total Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
i
3.2.2 First Variation of the Total Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2.3 Equilibrium Equation and Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . 31
4 General Theories of Plate 34
4.1 Bending Theory of Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.1.1 Derivation of the Plate Bending Equation . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.1.2 Reduction to a System of Two Second Order Equations . . . 35
4.1.3 Exercise 1: Plate Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.1.4 Exercise 2: Comparison between Plate and Beam Solution . . 40
4.1.5 Exercise 3: Finite Dierence Solution of the Plate Bending
Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.2 Membrane Theory of Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.2.1 Plate Membrane Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.2.2 Plate Equation for the Circular Membrane . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.2.3 Example: Approximation Solution for the Clamped Membrane 48
4.3 Buckling Theory of Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.3.1 General Equation of Plate Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.3.2 Linearized Buckling Equation of Rectangular Plates . . . . . 52
4.3.3 Analysis of Rectangular Plates Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.3.4 Derivation of Raleigh-Ritz Quotient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.3.5 Ultimate Strength of Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.3.6 Plastic Buckling of Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.3.7 Exercise 1: Eect of In-Plane Boundary Conditions, w= 0 . 74
4.3.8 Exercise2: Raleigh-RitzQuotientforSimplySupportedSquare
Plate under Uniaxial Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.4 Buckling of Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.4.1 Transition from Global and Local Buckling . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.4.2 Local Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5 Buckling of Cylindrical Shells 84
5.1 Governing Equation for Buckling of Cylindrical Shells . . . . . . . . 84
5.1.1 Special Case I: Cylinder under Axial LoadP, q= 0 . . . . . 86
5.1.2 Special Case II: Cylinder under Lateral Pressure . . . . . . . 87
5.1.3 Special Case III: Hydrostatic Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.1.4 Special Case IV: Torsion of a Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.2 Derivation of the Linearized Buckling Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.3 Buckling under Axial Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.3.1 Formulation for Buckling Stress and Buckling Mode . . . . . 90
5.3.2 Buckling Coecient and Batdorf Parameter . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.4 Buckling under Lateral Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.5 Buckling under Hydrostatic Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.6 Buckling under Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.7 Inuence of Imperfection and Comparison with Experiments. . . . . 102
ii
1 Strain-Displacement Relation for Plates
1.1 1-D Strain Measure
1.1.1 Engineering Strain
Engineering strain is dened as the relative displacement:
=
dsds
0
(1)
ds
0
whereds
0
istheincrementofinitiallenghtanddsistheincrementofcurrentlength.
1.1.2 Green-Lagrangian Strain
Instead of comparing the length, one can compare the square of lengths:
0
E=
ds
2
ds
2
(2)
2ds
2
0
dsds
0
ds+ds
0
=
ds
0
2ds
0
Where ds ds
0
, the second term is Eq. (2) tends to unity, and the Green strain
measureandtheengineeringstrainbecomeidentical. Equation(2)canbeputinto
an equivalnet form:
ds
2
ds
2
0
= 2Eds
2
(3)
0
which will now be generalized to the 3-D case.
1.2 3-D Strain Measure
1.2.1 Derivation of Green-Lagrangian Strain Tensor for Plates
Let dene the following quanties:
a= [a
i
]: vector of the initial (material) coordinate system
x= [x
i
]: vector of the current (spatial) coordinate system
u= [u
i
]: displacement vector
where the index i= 1, 2, 3. The relation between those quantities is:
x
i
=a
i
+u
i
(4)
dx
i
=da
i
+du
i
1
a
u
x
du
da
dx
a
u
x
du
da
dx
OO
Now,thesquaresoftheinitialandthecurrentlengthincrementcanbewritten
in terms of a
i
and u
i
:
ds
2
0
= da
i
da
j
ij
(5)
ds
2
=dx
i
dx
j
ij
(6)
=(da
i
+du
i
) (da
j
+du
j
)
ij
where the Kronecker tensor
ij
reads:
ij
=

1 0 0
0 1 0

(7)
0 0 1
The vector ucan be considered as a function of:
the initial (material) coordinate system, u(a), which leads to Lagrangian
descripion, or
the current (spatial) coordinates, u(x), which leads to the Eulerian descrip-
tion
In structural mechanics, the Lagrangian description is preferable:
u
i
=u
i
(a
i
) (8)
u
i
du
i
= da
k
= u
i
,
k
da
k
a
k
u
j
du
j
= da
l
= u
j
,
l
da
l
a
l
Let us calculated the dierence in the length square:
ds
2
ds
2
0
= (da
i
+du
i
) (da
j
+du
j
)
ij
da
i
da
j
ij
(9)
2
Using Eq. (8) and the denition of
ij
, the dierence in the length square can be
transformed into:
ds
2
ds
2
0
=(du
j
da
i
+du
i
da
j
+du
i
du
j
)
ij
(10)
=(u
j
,
l
da
l
da
i
+u
i
,
k
da
k
da
j
+u
i
,
k
da
k
u
j
,
l
da
l
)
ij
=[u
j
,
l
(da
j
jl
) da
i
+u
i
,
k
(da
i
ik
) da
j
+u
i
,
k
u
j
,
l
(da
i
ik
) (da
j
jl
)]
ij
=(u
j
,
i
+u
i
,
j
+u
i
,
k
u
j
,
k
) da
i
da
j
=2E
ij
da
i
da
j
where, by analogy with the 1-D case, the Lagrangian or Green strain tensor E
ij
is
dened:
1
E
ij
= (u
i
,
j
+u
j
,
i
+u
k
,
i
u
k
,
j
) (11)
2
In the case of small displacement gradient (u
k
,
i
1), the second nonlinear term
can be neglected leading to the dention of the innitesimal strain tensor:
1
ij
= (u
i
,
j
+u
j
,
i
) (12)
2
From the dention, the strain tensor is symmetric
ij
=
ji
, which can be seen by
intechanigntheindicesiforj andj fori. Inthemoderatelylargedeectiontheory
ofstructures, thenonlinear termsareimportant. Therefore, Eq. (11)will beused
as a starting point in the development of the general theory of plates.
Components of Green-Lagrangian Strain Tensor Let dene the following
range convention for indices:
Greek letters: ,,...= 1,2
Roman letters: i,j,...= 1,2,3
With this range convention, the Roman letters are also written as:
i=,3 (13)
j=,3
The Lagrangian or Green strain tensor can be expressed:
11 12 13
3
21 22 23
31 32 33 3 33
ij
E E E
E E
E E E E
E E E E E

= =
# #
# #
# #
" " " # " " " " # "
# #
whereE
isthein-planecomponentofstraintensor,E
3
andE
3
areout-of-plane
3
le
ce
shear components of strain tensor, and E
33
is the through-thickness component of
straintensor. Similarily,displacementvectorcanbedividedintotwocomponents:
u
i
=
1
u
2
u
"
=
u
v
"
=
"
w w u
3
u
whereu
isthein-planecomponentsofthedisplacementvector,andu
3
=w isthe
out-of-plane components of the displacement vector and also called as the trans-
verse displacement.
InitialUndeformedConfiguration
x
z
midd
surfa
DeformedConfiguration
a
x
u
u
3
u
Assumptions of the von Karman Theory The von Karman thoery of mod-
erately large deection of plates assumes:
1. The plate is thin. The thickness h is much smaller than the typical plate
dimension, h L.
2. Themagnitudeofthetransversedeectionisofthesameorderasthethickness
ofplate,|w|=O(h). Inpractice,thepresenttheoryisstillagoodengineering
approximation for deections up to ten plate thickness.
4
3. Gradients of in-plane displacements u
are small so that their product or

square can be neglected.
4. Love-Kirchho hypothesis is satised. In-plane displacements are a linear
function of the zcoordiate (3-coordinate).
u
= u
z u
3
,
(14)
where u
is the displacement of the middle surface, which is independent of

zcoordinate, i.e. u
,
3
= 0; and u
3
,
is the slope which is negative for the

"smiling" beam.
z
5. Theout-of-planedisplacementisindependentofthezcoordiante,i.e. u
3
,
3
=
0.
1.2.2 Specication of Strain-Displacement Relation for Plates
In the theory of moderately large deections, the strain-displacement relation can
bespecied for plates.
In-PlaneTermsoftheStrainTensors Fromthegeneralexpression,Eq. (11),
the 2-D in-plane componets of the strain tensor are:
1
E
= (u
+u
+u
k
,
u
k
,
) (15)
2
Here, consider the last, nonlinear term:
u
k
,
u
k
,
=u
1
,
u
1
,
+u
2
,
u
2
,
+u
3
,
u
3
,
(16)
=u
+u
3
,
u
3
,
In the view of the Assumption 3, the rst term in the above equation is zero,
u
'0. Therefore, the 2-D in-plane components of strain tensor reads:

1
E
= (u
+u
+w,
w,
) (17)
2
5
where w = u
3
. Introducing Eq. (14) into Eq. (17), i.e. applying Love-Kirchho
hypothesis, one gets:

w,

(18)

1
From the deniton of the curvature, one gets:
= (u
z w,
) ,
+
2
,
+w,
z w,

1
u
+u
2 z w,
+ = w,
w,
2
1

1
u
+u
z w,
+ = w,
w,
2 2
= w,
(19)
Now, Eq. (18) can be re-casted in the form:
E
=

+z
(20) E
where the strain tensor of the middle surface E
is composed of a linear and a
nonlinear term:

1 1
w,
w,
(21)
In the limiting case of small displacements, the second term can be neglected as
compared to the rst term. In the classical bending theory of plate, the in-plane
displacements are assumed to be zero u
= 0 so that strains are only due to the

curvatue:
E
= z
(22)
E
+u
+ =
2 2
where
11
12
21
22

= w,
(23)
2
w
2
w
x
2
xy
2
w
2
w
xy y
2
In the above equation,
11
and
22
are curvatures of the cylindrical bending, and
12
is the twist which tells how the slope in the xdirection changes with the
ydirection:

w
x

12
=
y
for a cylinder
12
0 =
6

Interpretation of the linear terms:
1
2
u
+u
Eachcomponentcan
be expressed in the followings:
1 du
1
11
= (u
1
,
1
+u
1
,
1
) = u
1
,
1
= (24)
2 dx
1 du
2
22
= (u
2
,
2
+u
2
,
2
) = u
2
,
2
= (25)
2 dy

1 1 du
1
du
2
12
= (u
1
,
2
+u
2
,
1
) = + (26)
2 2 dy dx
1 du
1
12
|
if u
2
=0
=
2 dy
11
u
2
0
y
x
22
y
x
12
1
u
y
x
Therefore,
11
and
22
are the tensile strain in the two directions, and
12
is the
change of angles, i.e. shear strain.
Interpretation of the nonlinear term:
2
1
w,
w,
Let = 1 and = 1.
Then, the nonlienar term reads:
1
2
w,
w,
=1,=1
=
1
2
dw
dx
dw
dx
=
1
2
dw
dx
2
(27)
One can also obtain the same quantity by the dention of 1-D Green-Lagrangian
strain:

2

2
ds
2
ds
2
ds
2
0
+dw
2
ds
2
1 dw 1 dw
E =
2ds
0
2
0
'
2ds
0
2
0
=
2 ds
0
=
2 dx
(28)
7
dx
x
ds
0
=dx
ds
0
ds
2
=ds
0
2
+dw
2
dw
ds
, z w
Thus, theconclusion isthatthenonlinear term
1
2
w,
w,
represents the changeof

length of the plate element due to nite rotations.
Out-Of-Plane Terms of the Strain Tensors Refering to the denition intro-
duced in Section 1.2.1, there are three other componets of the strain tensor: E
3
,
E
3
andE
33
. Usingthegeneralexpressionforthecomponentsofthestraintensor,
Eq. (11), it can be shown that the application of Assumption 4 and 5 lead to the
following expressions:
1
E
3
= (u
3
,
+u
,
3
+u
k
,
3
u
k
,
) (29)
2
1
= [u
3
,
+u
,
3
+(u
1
,
3
u
1
,
+u
2
,
3
u
2
,
+u
3
,
3
u
3
,
)]
2
1
= [u
3
,
u
3
,
+(u
3
,
1
u
1
,
u
3
,
2
u
2
,
)]
2
1
= (u
3
,
1
u
1
,
u
3
,
2
u
2
,
)
2
1
= w,
2
1
E
3
= (u
,
3
+u
3
,
+u
k
,
u
k
,
3
) (30)
2
1
= [u
,
3
+u
3
,
+(u
1
,
u
1
,
3
+u
2
,
u
2
,
3
+u
3
,
u
3
,
3
)]
2
1
= [u
3
,
+u
3
,
+(u
1
,
u
3
,
1
u
2
,
u
3
,
2
)]
2
1
= (u
1
,
u
3
,
1
u
2
,
u
3
,
2
)
2
1
= w,
2
8
1
E
33
= (u
3
,
3
+u
3
,
3
+u
k
,
3
u
k
,
3
) (31)
2
h i
1
2 2 2
=u
3
,
3
+ (u
1
,
3
) + (u
2
,
3
) + (u
3
,
3
)
2
h i
1
2 2
= (u
1
,
3
) + (u
2
,
3
)
2
h i
=
1
(u
3
,
1
)
2
+ (u
3
,
2
)
2
2
1
= w,
w,
2
The above are all second order terms which vanish for small deection theory of
plates. Inthetheoryofmoderatelylaregedeectionofplates,theout-of-plateshear
strainsaswellasthethrough-thicknessstrainisnotzero. Therefore,anassumption
"planeremainsplane," expressedbyEq. (14),doesnotmeanthat"normalremains
normal." Theexistanceoftheout-of-planeshearstrainmeansthatlinesoriginally
normaltothemiddlesurfacedonotremainnormaltothedeformedplate. However,
the incremental work of these strains with the corresponding stresses is negligible:
E
3
3
, E
3
3
and E
33
33
, are small (32)
because the corresponding stress
3
,
3
and
33
are small as compared to the
in-plane stress
. One can conclude that the elastic strain energy (and even
plastic dissipation) is well approximated using the plane strain assumption:
Z Z
1 1
ij
ij
dz '
dz (33)
2 2
h h
9
2 Derivation of Constitutive Equations for Plates
2.1 Denitions of Bending Moment and Axial Force
Hooks law in plane stress reads:
E
= [(1)
] (34)
1
2
In terms of components:
E
xx
= (
xx
+
yy
) (35)
1
2
E
yy
= (
yy
+
xx
)
1
2
E
xy
=
xy
1 +
Here, strain tensor can be obtained from the strain-displacement relations:

(36) =
+z
Now, dene the tensor of bending moment:
Z
2
h
M
z dz (37)
2
h
and the tensor of axial force (membrane force):

Z
2
h
N
dz (38)
2
h
2.2 Bending Energy

2.2.1 Bending Moment
Let us assume that
= 0. The bending moment M
can be calculated:
Z
E
2
h
(39) M
h
= [(1
E

= (1)
1
2
] z dz
1
2
2
Z
2
h
z d z
2
h
Z
2
h
E
2
dz + [(1)
]
2
z
1
2
h
Eh
3
=
12(1
2
)
[(1)
]
10
Here, we dene the bending rigidity of a plate D as follows:
D =
Eh
3
12(1
2
)
Now, one gets the moment-curvature relations:
(40)
M
=D [(1)
] (41)
M

M
11
M
12

(42)
M
21
M
22
where M
12
=M
21
due to symmetry.
M
11
=D (
11
+
22
) (43)
M
22
=D (
22
+
11
)
M
12
=D (1)
12
2.2.2 Bending Energy Density
One -Dimensional Case Here,weusethehatnotationforafunctionofcertain
argument such as:
M
11
=M
11
(
11
) (44)
=D
11
Then, the bending energy density U
b
reads :
Z
11
U
b
= M
11
(
11
) d
11
(45)
0
Z
11
=D
11
d
11
0
1
= D (
11
)
2
2
1
U
b
= M
11
11
(46)
2
11
11
M
11
d
D
11
General Case General denition of the bending energy density reads:
I
U
b
= M
(47)
22
11

0
Calculate the energy density stored when the curvature reaches a given value
.
Consider a straight loading path:
(48)
d
d
M
0 =
1 =
=M
) (49)
=M
)
= M
)
12
where M
) is a homogeneous function of degree one.

I
U
b
= M
) d
(50)
Z
1
= M
d
0
Z
1
=M
d
0
=
1
M
2
1
= M
2
Now, the bending energy density reads:
U
b
=
D
[(1 )
(51)
2
D
= [(1 )
]
2
D
h
2
i
= (1 )
+ (
)
2
The bending energy density expressed in terms of components:
n h i o
D
U
b
= (1 ) (
11
)
2
+ 2 (
12
)
2
+ (
22
)
2
+ (
11
+
22
)
2
(52)
2
n h i o
D
2 2 2
= (1 ) (
11
+
22
) 2
11
22
+ 2 (
12
) + (
11
+
22
)
2
nh i h io
=
D
(
11
+
22
)
2
2
11
22
+ 2 (
12
)
2
2
11
22
+ 2 (
12
)
2
2
n h io
D
2 2 2
= (
11
+
22
) 2
11
22
+ 2 (
12
) 2
11
22
+ 2 (
12
)
2
n h io
D
2 2
= (
11
+
22
) + 2 (1 )
11
22
+ (
12
)
2
n h io
D
2 2
U
b
= (
11
+
22
) 2 (1 )
11
22
(
12
) (53)
2
2.2.3 Total Bending Energy
Thetotalbendingenergyistheintegralofthebendingenergydensityoverthearea
of plate:
Z
U
b
= U
b
dA (54)
S
13
2.3 Membrane Energy
2.3.1 Axial Force
Assume that
= 0. The axial force can be calculated:

2
h Z
E
(55) N
[(1)
] dz =
1
2
2
h
Z
2
h
Z
(1)

+

E
dz =
1
2
+
2
h
2
h
E
h Z
[(1
2
h
)
] z dz
1
2

E
2
(1)

+

dz =
1
2
+
2
h
]
Here, we dene the axial rigidity of a plate C as follows:
2
h
E
[(1
(1
z d z
1
2
2
h
Eh
)

1
2
Eh
C =
2
(56)
1
Now, one gets the membrane force-extension relation:
i h
N
=C (1)

(57)
N

N
11
N
12
(58)
N
21
N
22
where N
12
=N
21
due to symmetry.
N
11
=C (

(59)
11
+
22
)
N
22
=C (

22
+
11
)
N
12
=C (1)
11
2.3.2 Membrane Energy Density
Using the similar denition used in the calculation of the bending energy density,
the extension energy (membrane energy) reads:
I
U
m
= N d
(60)

14
Calculatetheenergystoredwhentheextensionreachesagivenvalue
. Consider
a straight loading path:
(61)

d
=N
(62)

=N

= N

where N
is a homogeneous function of degree one.
m
=
(63)
0
Z
1

= N
d
0
1

=

2
1
= N
Now, the extension energy reads:
C
C

2
i
U
m
= (1 )
(64)
2
= (1 )
The extension energy expressed in terms of components:

n h i o
U
m
=
C
(1 )
+ 2 (
+ (
+ (
22
)
2
(65) (
11
)
2
12
)
2
22
)
2
11
+
2
n h i o
C
= (1 )
2
11
22
+ 2 (
(
11
+
22
)
2

12
)
2
(
11
+
22
)
2
2
n h io
=
C
(
11
+
22
)
2

12
)
2
2
11
22
+ 2 (
2
11
22
+ 2 (

12
)
2
2
n h io
+ 2 (1 )

12
)
2
=
C
2
(
11
+
22
)
2
11
22
+ (
n h io
C
U
m
=
2 (1 )
(
11
+
22
( (66)
22
)
2
11
12
)
2
2
15
2.3.3 Total Membrane Energy
The total membrane is the integral of the membrane energy density over the area
of plate::
Z
U
m
= U
m
dS (67)
S
16
3 Development of Equation of Equilibrium and Boundary Condi-
tions Using Variational Approach
3.1 Bending Theory of Plates
3.1.1 Total Potential Energy
The total potential energy of the system reads:
= U
b
V
b
(68)
where U
b
is the bending energy stored in the plate, and V
b
is the work of external
forces.
Bending Energy
Z
1
U
b
= M
dS (69)
2
S
Z
1
= M
w,
dS
2
S
where the geometrical relation
= w, has been used.
Work of External Forces

Plate Loading Lateral load:
q(x) = q(x
) (70)
This is distributed load measured in [N/m
2
] or [lb/in
2
] force per unit area of the
middle surface of the plate.
qq( ) x ( ) x
The distributed load contains concentrated load P as a special case:
P(x
0
, y
0
) = P
0
(xx
0
) (yy
0
) (71)
where is the Dirac delta function, [x
0,
y
0
] is the coordinate of the application of
the concentrated force, and P
0
is the load intensity.
17
NOTEThe shearing loads on the lateral surface of ice are normally not consid-
ered in the theory of thin plates.
x
Dirac -function
0
x
Load Classication
Load applied at the horizontal surfaces.
transverse load
Load applied at the lateral surfaces.
edge force
edge moment
Loads are assumed to be applied to the middle plane of the plate
NOTE Other type of loading such as shear or in-plane tension or compression
do not deect laterally the plate and therefore are not considered in the bending
theory.
18
in-plane tension
or compression
in-plane shear
Potential Energy due to Lateral Load q Lateral (transverse) load does
work on transverse deection:
Z
q w dS (72)
S
This is also called a work of external forces.
PotentialEnergyduetoEdgeMoment Theconjugatekinematicvariable
associated with the edge moment is the edge rotation dw/dx
n
.
edge moment
dl
t
n
We apply only the normal bending moment M
nn
:
Z
dw
M
nn
dx
n
dl (73)
where the minus sign is included because positive bending moment results in a
negative rotation and negative moment produces positive rotation.
M <0 M >0
nn nn
x
n
0
a
dw
dw
>0
<0
dx
n
dx
n
w
At the edge, M
tt
= 0 and M
tn
= 0.
19
1
Q
2
Q
V
1
x
2
x
Potential Energy due to Edge Forces
Z
V
n
w dl (74)
n
Potential Energy due to All External Forces Now,theworkofexternal
forces reads:
Z Z Z
dw
V
b
= q w dS M
nn
dl+ V
n
w dl (75)
S
dx
n
3.1.2 First Variation of the Total Potential Energy
The total potential energy reads:
Z
1
=
2
S
M
w,
dS (76)
Z Z Z
dw

S
q w dS +
M
nn
dx
n
dl
V
n
w dl
First variation of the total potential energy is expressed:
Z
= M
w,
dS (77)
Z
S
Z Z
dw

q w dS + M
nn
dx
n
dl V
n
wdl
S
We shall transform now the rst integral with the help of the Gauss theorem.
First note that from the rule of the product dierentiation:
M
w,
= (M
w,
) ,
w,
(78)
then Z Z Z
M
w,
dS = (M
w,
) ,
dS M
w,
dS (79)
S S S
Now, the rst integral on the right hand side of the above equation transforms to
the line integral:
Z Z Z
M
w,
dS = M
w,
dl M
w,
dS (80)
S S
20
The integrand of the second integral on the right hand side of the above equation
transform to:
M
w,
= (M
w) ,
w (81)
which results in:
Z Z
M
w,
dS= M
w,
dl (82)
S
Z Z
(M
w) ,
dS+ M
wdS
S S
upon which the application of the Gauss rule gives:
Z Z
M
w,
dS= M
w,
dl (83)
S
Z Z
wn
dl+
S
M
wdS
Wecanreturnnowtotheexpressionforandsubstitutetherethetransformed
rst integral:
Z
= (M
q) wdS (84)
S
Z Z
+ M
wn
dl V
n
wdl
Z
w,
dl+
nn
w,
n
dl

dw
wherew,
n
=
dx
n
. ItisseenthatintegralsinvolvingtheprescribedforcesM
nn
and V
n
are written in a local coordinate system x
{x
n
, x
t
} while the remaining
twointegralsoverthecontourarewrittenintheglobalcoordinatesystemx
. In
ordertomakecomparison,wehavetodecideononecoordinatesystem. Wechoose
the local system.
Consider the rst integral:
Z
(M
) wdl (85)
The term in the parenthesis is a scalar quantity and thus remain unchanged with
respect to the rotation of coordinate system. In the local system x
, the line
integral becomes:
Z
(M
) wdl (86)
where = 1 isthenormaldirectionn, and = 2 isthetangentialdirectiont. The

coordinates of the unit normal vector is the local system are n
{1, 0}. Hence,

Z Z
(M
) wdl= (M
1
,
n
1
+M
2
,
n
2
) wdl (87)

Z
= M
1
,
wdl
21
Furthermore, the integrand reads:
M
1
,
=M
11
,
1
+M
12
,
2
(88)
M
11
M
12
M
nn
M
nt
= + = +
x
1
x
2
x
n
x
t
and we call it the shear force in the normal direction n and denote:
Q
n
M
n
,
= {1, 0} or {n, t} (89)

Now,wecancombinetwolineintegralsintheequationofrstvariationofthetotal
potentialenergy:
Z

Q
n
V
n
wdl (90)
How the remaining integral is transformed?

Z Z
(M
) w,
dl= (M
) w,
dl (91)

Becauseitisascalarquantity,wesimplyswitchindicesfromglobalsystem(and
) to local ( and ). As before n
{1,0} so after summing with respect to , we

have:
Z Z
(M
1
n
1
+M
2
n
2
) w,
dl= M
1
w,
dl (92)

Z
= M
n
w,
dl
Z
= (M
nn
w,
n
+M
tn
w,
t
) dl
Thersttermcanbeabsorbedwiththelineintegralrepresentingpotentialenergy
of bending moment:
Z

M
nn
M
nn
w,
n
dl (93)
There remains though one integral which does not t to anything. Since the
boundarytermmustbeequilibrated,itissuspectedthatthistermmightbelongto
the shearing force term, at least partially:
Z
M
tn
w,
t
dl transverse term (94)
In order to compare this term with the shearing force term, we have to make this
termcomparableasfarasthekinematicquantitydescribingvariationisconcerned.
One integral involves w and the other one w,
t
. Note that w,
t
= (w) /x
t
is
thederivativeofthefunctionwinthetangentialdirection,i.e. directionalongthe
curve . This means that we can integrate by parts along . Thus,
M
tn
w,
t
= (M
tn
w) ,
t
M
tn
,
t
w (95)
22
Z Z Z
M
tn
w,
t
dl= (M
tn
w) ,
t
dl M
tn
,
t
wdl (96)

Thersttermintherighthandisequaltothevalueoftheintegrandcalculatedat
the beginning and end of the integration path:
Z
end
(M
tn
w) ,
t
dl= M
tn
w|
beginning
(97)
Consider now two cases.
Thecontourisasmoothclosedcurve,sothevalueatthebeginningisequal
to the value at the end:
M
tn
w|
end
M
tn
w| = 0 (98)
beginning
The term does not give any contribution.
end
begining
direction of
integration
Thecontourispiece-wiselinearorcomposedofanitenumber,k, of smooth
curves with discontinuity. Therefore, the integration should be made in a
piece-wisemanner. Thus, thecontinuationof thebeginning andendof each
should be added:
X
end
M
tn
w|
beginning
(99)
k
23
3.1.3 Equilibrium Equation and Boundary Conditions
Now, we can write the nal expression for the rst variation of :
Z
= (M
q) wdS (100)
S
Z Z
Q
n
V
wdl
M
nn
M
nn
w,
n
dl

Z
!
X
M
tn
w
end
M
tn
,
t
wdl |
beginning
Z
k
= (M
q) wdS
S
Z Z
V
n
V
wdl
M
nn
M
nn
w,
n
dl

X
end
M
tn
w|
beginning
k
where V
n
= Q
n
+M
tn
,
t
is the eective shear force.
In order to make the functional stationary under arbitrary variation of the
displacement eldw, there must hold:
Equation of Equilibrium
(101)
M
+q= 0 on S
Boundary Conditions
M
nn
M
nn
= 0 or w,
n
= 0 on
V
n
V
n
= 0 or w= 0 on (102)
at corner points
M
nt
= 0 or w= 0
of the contour
3.1.4 Specication of Equation for Rectangular Plate
Consider a rectangular plate.
24
x t
b
a
yn
Boundary Conditions For edges parallel to x-axis, the normal direction is the
ydirection.
M
yy
M
yy
=0 or
w
= 0 (103)
y
V
y
V
y
=0 or w= 0
where
V
x
=Q
x
+
M
yx
(104)
y
M
xy
V
y
=Q
y
+
x
For edges parallel to y-axis, the normal direction is the x-direction.
w
M
xx
M
xx
=0 or = 0 (105)
x
V
x
V
x
=0 or w= 0
where
V
y
=Q
y
+
M
xy
(106)
x
M
yx
V
x
=Q
x
+
y
Interpretation of Corner Points
25
1
2
3
4
[ ] segment k
[ ] segment 1 k
direction of
integration
Boundary condition reads:
X
end [2]
w
[2]
[1]
w
[1]
[4]
w
[4]
[3]
w
[3]
M
tn
w|
beginning
= M
tn
M
tn
+M
tn
M
tn
(107)
where
w
[3]
= w
[2]
(108)
thus
X

end [1]
w
[1]
[2] [3]
w
[2]
[4]
w
[4]
M
tn
w|
beginning
= M
tn
+ M
tn
M
tn
+M
tn
(109)
Consider the right angle.
x
y
[ ] k
[ ] 1 k
for the k1 side n=x, t= y (110)
for the k side n=y, t= x

beginning
M
tn
w|
end
at the right angle
= (M
xy
M
yx
) w (111)
Interpretation of Corner Forces Plane stress:
xy
=
yx
symmetry (112)
26
surface element
xy
x
dS
yx
Let us place the surface element at the corner.
x
y
z
Edge
[k1]
xy
yx
Edge
[ ] k
M
xy
M
yx
Theshearingstressesproducetwistingmomentswhichareintheoppositedirection:
M
[k1]
= M
[k]
(113)
xy yx
Therefore, the boundary condition at the corner becomes:

M
tn
w|
end
= M
[k1]
M
[k]
w= 2 M
xy
w= 0 (114)
beginning xy yx
(115) F
corner
= 2 M
xy
27
For the Entire Plate
2 M
xy
2 M
xy
2 M
xy
2 M
xy
Interpretation of the Eective Shear V
x
x
dy
z
Q
x
dy
M
xy
M
M
xy
+
xy
dy
y
y
Equilibrium reads:
Q
x
dy+
M
xy
+
M
xy
dy
M
xy
(116)
y

M
xy
= Q
x
+ dy
y
=V
x
dy
V
x
=Q
x
+
M
xy
(117)
y
28
3.2 Bending-Membrane Theory of Plates
3.2.1 Total Potential Energy
The total potential energy of the system reads:
= U
b
+U
m
V
b
V
m
(118)
where U
b
is the bending strain energy, U
m
is the membrane strain energy, V
b
is
the potential energy of external loading causing exural response, and V
m
is the
potential energy of external loading causing membrane response.
Membrane Strain Energy The membrane strain energy reads:
Z
1
U
m
=
dS (119) N

2
S
where
1 1
= (u
+u
) + w,
w,
(120)
2 2
Potential Energy of External Forces Evaluation of Boundary Terms
Normal in-plane loading, N
nn
Z
N
nn
u
n
dl (121)
where u
n
is normal in-plane displacement.
Shear in-plane loading, N
tt
Z
N
tn
u
t
dl (122)
where u
t
is shear component of the displacement vector.
Potential Energy of External Forces
Z Z
V
m
=
N
nn
u
n
dl+
N
tn
u
t
dl (123)

3.2.2 First Variation of the Total Potential Energy
The rst variation of the total potential energy reads:
= (U
b
V
b
) + (U
m
V
m
) (124)
The rst parenthesis represent the terms considered already in the bending theory
of plates. All we have to do is to evaluate the term in the second parenthesis.
Here, the rst variation of the membrane energy reads:
Z
U
m
= N
dS (125)
S
29
where
1 1
= (u
+u
) + (w,
w,
+w,
w,
) (126)
2 2
Because of the symmetry of the tensor of membrane forces:
N
= N
(127)
by using the characteristics of dummy indices we obtain:
N
= N
= N
(128)
Now, the rst variation of the membrane strain energy reads:
Z
1 1
U
m
= N
(u
+u
) + (w,
w,
+w,
w,
) dS (129)
2 2
Z
S
= (N
+N
w,
w,
) dS
S
Note that the displacement vector has nowthree components:
{u
, w} (130)
so that there are three independent variations:
{u
, w} (131)
We expect those to end up with three independent equations of equilibrium. The
rst term of U
m
reads:
Z Z Z
N
dS= (N
) ,
dS N
dS (132)
S S S
Z Z
= N
dl N
dS
Z
Z
S
= N
dl N
dS
Z
Z
S
= N
1
u
dl N
dS
Z
Z
S
= N
n
u
dl N
dS
Z
S
Z
= (N
nn
u
n
+N
tn
u
t
) dl N
dS
S
30
The second term of U
m
reads:
Z Z Z
N
w,
w,
dS= (N
w,
w) ,
dS (N
w,
) ,
wdS (133)
S S S
Z Z
= N
w,
wn
dl (N
w,
) ,
wdS
Z
Z
S
= N
w,
wn
dl (N
w,
) ,
wdS
Z
Z
S
= N
1
w,
wdl (N
w,
) ,
wdS
Z
S
Z
= (N
11
w,
1
+N
12
w,
2
) wdl (N
w,
) ,
wdS
Z
Z
S
= (N
nn
w,
n
+N
nt
w,
t
) wdl (N
w,
) ,
wdS
S
Now, the variation of external work reads:
Z Z
V
m
= N
nn
u
n
dl+ N
tn
u
t
dl (134)

3.2.3 Equilibrium Equation and Boundary Conditions
The contribution of the term (U
m
V
m
) then becomes:
Z Z
(U
m
V
m
) = (N
nn
u
n
+N
tn
u
t
) dl N
dS (135)
S
Z Z
+ (N
nn
w,
n
+N
nt
w,
t
) wdl (N
w,
) ,
wdS
Z
Z
S

N
nn
u
n
dl
N
Z
tn
u
t
dl
Z

= N
dS+ N
nn
N
nn
u
n
dl+ N
tn
N
tn
u
t
dl
Z
S
Z
S
(N
w,
) ,
wdS+
(N
nn
w,
n
+N
nt
w,
t
) wdl
Therstthreeintegralsinvolveindependentvariationsofu
, i.e. u
or{u
n
, u
t
}.
This gives us two independent equations of equilibrium in the plane of the plate:
Equation of Equilibrium I
(136)
N
= 0 on S
31
and two additional boundary conditions:
Boundary Conditions I
N
nn
N
nn
= 0 or u
n
= 0 on (137)
N
tn
N
tn
= 0 or u
t
= 0 on
The remaining two integrals involve variation in the out-of-plane displacement
w and thus should be combined with the equation of equilibrium and boundary
conditions governing the exural response. The terms involving surface integral
should be added to the equation of equilibrium:
Equation of Equilibrium II
(138)
M
+(N
w,
) ,
+q= 0 on S
where the second term in the left hand is the new term arising from the nite
rotation.
The term with the line integral should be added to the corresponding term
involving variation w:
Z

V
n
+N
nn
w,
n
+N
nt
w,
t
V
n
wdl= 0 (139)
The generalized boundary conditions reads:

Boundary Conditions II- (A)
(140)
V
n
+N
nn
w,
n
+N
nt
w,
t
V
n
= 0 or w= 0 on
wherethesecondandthirdtermsinthelefthandsideoftherstequationarethe
newterms arising from the nite rotation.
If the boundaries of the plate are kept undeformed w,
t
= 0 (simply supported
or clamped plate), then the boundary condition is satised:
V
n
+N
nn
w,
n
V
n
= 0 or w= 0 on (141)
Physically,theadditionaltermsrepresentthecontributionoftheaxialforcetothe
vertical equilibrium. Using the in-plane equilibrium, N
= 0, the out-of-plane
equilibrium can be transformed to the form:
M
+N
w,
+N
w,
+q= 0 on S (142)
32
Equation of Equilibrium II
(143)
M
+N
w,
+q= 0 on S
which is called as the von Karman equation. Note that N
isrelatedthroughthe
Hookslawwiththegradientofthein-planedisplacementu
, i.e. N
= N
(u
).
Therefore,thenewtermN
w,
representsinfactcouplingbetweenin-planeand
out-out-plane deformation.
Tomakederivationcomplete,thenalboundaryconditionswhichdonotchanged
from the bending theory of plate are presented:
Boundary Conditions II- (B)
M
nn
M
nn
= 0 or w,
n
= 0 on
(144)
at corner points
M
nt
= 0 or w= 0
of the contour
33
4 General Theories of Plate
4.1 Bending Theory of Plates
4.1.1 Derivation of the Plate Bending Equation
Then, groups of equations!
Equilibrium
M
+q= 0 on S (145)
Geometry
=w,
(146)
Elasticity
M
=D [(1)
] (147)
Eliminating curvature
between Eq. (146) and (147), we obtain:

M
=D [(1) w,
+ w,
] (148)
Substituting Eq. (148) into Eq. (145) reads:
D [(1) w,
+ w,
],
+q=0 (149)
D [(1) w,
+ w,
] + q=0
NotethatthecomponentsoftheKronecker"
"tensorareconstantandthusare
not subjected to dierentiation:

1 0
0 1

or
=

1 if =
(150)
0 if = 6
Also, note that only these components:
(151)
survive in the matrix multiplication for which = . Therefore, Eq. (149) now
reads:
D [(1) w,
+ w,
] +q= 0 (152)
Because""are"dummy"indices,theycanbereplacedbyanyotherindices, for
example "."
D [(1) w,
+ w,
] + q= 0 (153)
The order of dierentiation does not matter:
w,
=w,
=w,
34
Thus,twotermsinEq. (153)cannowbeaddedtogivetheplatebendingequation:
D w,
= q for , = 1,2 (154)

Here, the index notation can be expended:
w,
=w,
11
+w,
22
(155)
=w,
1111
+w,
2211
+w,
1122
+w,
2222
=w,
1111
+2 w,
1122
+w,
2222
Now, letting "1 x", "2 y" leads:

4
w
4
w
4
w
D + 2 + = q(x,y) (156)
x
4
x
2
x
2
y
4
Alternative notation can be:
D
4
w= q (157)
where Laplacian
2
w reads:
2
2
w
2
w
w=
x
2
+
y
2
(158)
and bi-Laplican
4
w reads:

4
w=
2
2
w (159)
2

2 2
= w + w
x
2
y
2
2

w w w w
= + + +
x
2
x
2
y
2
y
2
x
2
y
2
4
w
4
w
4
w
= + 2 +
x
4
x
2
x
2
y
4
4.1.2 Reduction to a System of Two Second Order Equations
Denote
D w,
= M (160)
Then, from the equilibrium equation:
[D w,
] ,
= q (161)
we obtain a system of two linear partial dierential equations of the second order:
M,
= q
(162)
D w,
= M
35
or
What is "M" ?
(
2
M
x
2
+
2
M
y
2
=q
D
2
w
x
2
+
2
w
y
2
=M
Let us calculate M
:
(163)
M
=M
11
+M
22
=D [(1)
11
+ (
11
+
22
)
11
]
+D [(1)
22
+ (
11
+
22
)
22
]
=D [(1+) (
11
+
22
)]
=D (1+)
(164)
or
Therefore,
M
1 +
=D
=D w,
=M (165)
M
=M (1+)
=D
(1+)
(166)
Now, moment sum reads:
M =D
(167)
and in expanded notation it reads:
M =D [
xx
+
yy
] (168)
4.1.3 Exercise 1: Plate Solution
Consider a simply supported plate.
( ) Square plate a a
x
a
a
y
36
Boundary Condition General boundary condition reads:
nn
M
nn
w,
n
= 0 on
(169)
V
n
V
n
w = 0 on
M
nn
= 0 M
nn
= 0 on
(170)
w = 0 on
w = 0 at x = 0 and x =a , 0y a
w = 0 at y = 0 and y =a , 0x a
(171)
M
xx
= 0 at x = 0 and x =a , 0y a
(172)
M
yy
= 0 at y = 0 and y =a , 0x a
Loading Condition Assume for simplicity the sinusoidal load distribution:
x

y
q (x, y) = q
0
sin sin (173)
a a
where q
0
is a pressure intensity.
Solution of Problem The solution of the form

w(x, y) = w
0
sin
x
sin
y
(174)
a a
satisfy both the boundary conditions and the governing equations (see below).
PlateBendingEquation SubstitutingEq. (173)and(174)intotheplatebend-
ing equation (156), one gets:

4

x

y
D w
0
+ 2 + q
0
sin sin =0 (175)
a a a a a

x

y
4 D w
0
q
0
sin sin =0
a a a
In order to satisfy the above equation for all values of x and y, the coecient in
the bracket must vanish. This gives:
w
0
=
q
0
4
(176)
4 D
where D =
Eh
3
12
1
2
.
Bending Moments The various bending moments are given by:
2
w
2
w
x

y
M
xx
=D
x
2
+
y
2
=D (1+)
a
w
0
sin
a
sin
a
(177)
2
w
2
w
x

y
M
yy
=D
y
+
x
=D (1+)
a
w
0
sin
a
sin
a
2 2
2
w
x

y
M
xy
=D (1)
xy
=D (1)
a
w
0
cos
a
cos
a
37
Shear Components The shear components Q
x
and Q
y
are:
Q
x
=
M
xx
+
M
xy
(178)
x y
M
yy
M
xy
Q
y
= +
y x
Now,usingthepreviouslyobtainedbendingmoments,wegettheshearcomponents
in the interior of the plate:
x

y
Q
x
=2 D w
0
cos sin (179)
a a a
x

y
Q
x
=2 D w
0
sin cos
a a a
EectiveShearComponents Next,letuscomputertheeectiveshearcom-
ponents:
V
x
=Q
x
+
M
xy
(180)
y
M
xy
V
y
=Q
y
+
x
Using the previous results, we get:
x

y
V
x
=(3 ) D w
0
cos sin (181)
a a a
x

y
V
y
=(3 ) D w
0
sin cos
a a a
We now need to evaluate the eective shear on the boundaries:
x= 0
x=a
y= 0
y=a
h i
V
x
/ (3) D
a
w
0
sin

3
a
y
w
0
sin
a
0
0
Because our sign convention is:
h i

3
V
y
/ (3) D
a
0
(182)
0
x
w
0
sin
a
w
0
sin
x
a
positive shear
x
z
38
in our case, shear along the boundary is:
x
y
From the above results, we can plot the shear distribution:
x
y
Force Balance Integrating the eective shear along the boundary, we get:
R=
Z
L
V
n
dx
t
= 4
Z
a
0
V
x
|
x=0
dy= 4 (3 ) D
3
a
w
0
Z
a
y
0
a
sin dy (183)
Then, the reduction force due to eective shear on boundaries reads:
R= 2 (3 ) q
0

2
a
(184)
Now, let us complete the total load acting on the plate:
P =
Z
q(x,y) dS =
Z
a
Z
a
q
0
sin
sin
dx dy (185)
S 0 0
a a
Then, the total external load acting on the plate reads:
P = 4 q
0
2
(186)
NoticethatRandP donotbalance! Wedidnotincludethecornerforces. These
are given by:
(F
corner
)
x
0
,y
0
= 2 (M
xy
)| (187)
x=x
0
,y=y
0
39
Because of the symmetry, all four forces are equal. So, compute the corner force
at x =y = 0, (F
corner
)
0,0
:
h
x

y
i
(F
corner
)
0,0
=2 cos cos (188)
a a 0,0
2
= 2D (1) w
0
a
Now, the vertical force balance is satised:
R+ 4 F
corner
=P (189)
2
2 (3 ) q
0
8D (1)
a
w
0
=4 q
0
(190)
2
2 (3 ) q
0
2 (1 ) q
0
=4 q
0
a
4.1.4 Exercise 2: Comparison between Plate and Beam Solution
Plate Solution For a square simply supported plate under loading q
plate
(x, y)
given by:

x y
q
plate
(x, y) = (q
0
)
plate
sin sin (191)
a a
we found that the plate deection is:
x

y
w
plate
(x, y) = (w
0
)
plate
sin sin (192)
a a
with:
(w
0
)
plate
=
(q
0
)
plate
4
(193)
4 D

3 1
2
(q
0
)
plate
4
=
E h
3
For the plate, the total load is given by:

Z
a
Z
a
P
plate
= (q
0
)
plate
sin
x
sin
y
dy dx (194)
0 0
a a
2
=4 (q
0
)
plate
40
Wide Beam Solution For a wide beam under line loading given by:
q
beam
(x, y) = (q
0
)
beam
sin (195)
a
we need to compute the central deection (w
0
)
beam
from:
E I w
0000
=q
beam
(x) (196)
beam
where I =ah
3
/12. Assuming the deection w
beam
(x):
w
beam
(x) = (w
0
)
beam
sin (197)
a
we get:
x

x
E I (w
0
)
beam
sin = (q
0
)
beam
sin (198)
a a a
Thus,
(q
0
)
beam
4
(w
0
)
beam
= (199)
E I
12 (q
0
)
beam
4
=
E a h
3
Now, let us compute the total forces:

Z
a
x
P
beam
= (q
0
)
beam
sin dx (200)
0
a
a
=2 (q
0
)
beam
Comparison For both total forces to be equal, we need to have:

P
plate
=P
beam
(201)
2
a
4 (q
0
)
plate
=2 (q
0
)
beam
a
(q
0
)
beam
= 2 (q
0
)
plate
(202)
With a concentrated load, the beam deection now becomes:

(q
0
)
beam
4
(w
0
)
beam
= (203)
E I
24
(q
0
)
plate
4
=
E h
3
We now can compute the ratio of central deections:

(w
0
)
plate
3 (1
2
) (q
0
)
plate
4
=
=
E h
3

4
(204)
(w
0
)
beam
24
(q
0
)
plate a
E h
3
= 1 '0.36
8
The above equation means that under the same total load, a plate is three times
stier than a wide beam. The ratio will vary slightly depending on the load
distribution (sinusoidal, uniform, concentrated load, etc.).
41
4.1.5 Exercise 3: Finite DierenceSolutionofthePlateBendingProb-
lem
Governing Equations read:
2
2
M =
M
q
(205)
w=
D
or in the component notation they read:
2
M
2
M
x
2
+
y
2
= q
2
w
2
w M
(206)
x
2
+
y
2
=
D
where M is the moment sum dened by:
M =
M
= D
(207)
1 +
Case of Simply Supported Plate The boundary condition of a simple sup-
ported plate reads:
w=0 on (208)
M
nn
=0 on
x
y
a
a
n
For sides parallel tox-axis (thick lines), one gets:
M
nn
= M
yy
= 0 (209)
w= 0
dw
dx
= 0
From the general constitutive equations,
d
2
w
dx
2
= 0
xx
= 0 (210)
Therefore,
M
yy
=D [
yy
+
xx
]
0 =D [
yy
+0]
yy
= 0
M = D [
] = D [0 + 0] = 0
(211)
(212)
42
Similar derivation can be performed for two edges parallel to y-axis. Then, M =
0. It can be concluded that for a simply supported plate the following boundary
conditions hold:
(
(
2
M
2
M
x
2
+
y
2
= q in S
(213)
M = 0 on
2
w
2
w M
x
2
+
y
2
=
D
in S
(214)
w= 0 on
Therefore, the above two boundary value problems are uncoupled.
The Finite Dierence Technique An approximation to the rst and second
derivatives.
z
z
n+1
z
n
h
x
x
n
x
n+1
, n m
1 n+ 1 n
1 m+
1 m
h
x
y
backward
dz
n
dx h
'
z
n
z
n1
(215)
dz
'
z
n+1
z
n
forward
dx
n+1
h
43

d
2
z d dz

(216) =
dx
2
dx dx
n

dz
dx

dz
n+1
h
dx n
=
=
z
n+1
zn
znz
n1
h h
h
z
n+1
2 z
n
+z
n1
=
h
2

d
2
z
dy
2
=
z
m+1
2 z
m
+z
m1
h
2
(217)
m
2
z
2
z
2
z=
x
2
+
y
2
(218)
1
=
h
2
(z
n+1
2 z
n
+z
n1
+z
m+1
2 z
m
+z
m1
)
0 Right
Top
h
h
h h
Left
Bottom
1
2
z=
h
2
(z
T
+z
B
+z
L
+z
R
4 z
0
) (219)
Dividetheplateintosixteenidenticalsquaresanddistinguishsixrepresentative
nodes: threeintheinteriorandthreeattheboundary. Becauseofsymmetry,itis
enough to consider only an eighth of the plate.
44
6
5
4
a
1
2 3
h=
a
4
a
Four axes of symmetry
Determination of Moment For each interior point (1,2,3),wewriteequation
2
M = q. For each boundary point (4, 5, 6), we write boundary condition
M = 0 (uniform pressure).
Point 1: 4 M
2
4 M
1
=
q a
2
16
(220)
Point 2: M
1
+M
4
+ 2 M
3
4 M
2
=
q a
2
16
Point 3: 2 M
5
+ 2 M
2
4 M
3
=
q a
2
16
Point 4: M
4
= 0
Point 5: M
5
= 0
Point 6: M
6
= 0
45

Substituting three last equations of Eq. (220) into the rst three equations of Eq.
(220), one ends up with the following system of linear algebraic equations:
2
4 M
1
q a
2
4 M =
16
q a
M
1
+ 2 M
3
4 M
2
=
16
2
(221)
2
2 M
2
4 M =
q a
3
16
whose solution is:
M
1
=
9
q a
2
(222)
128
M
2
=
7
q a
2
128
11
2
M
3
= q a
256
At the plate center, M
xx
=M
yy
so that:
M =
M
xx
+M
yy
=
2 M
xx
(223)
1 + 1 +
1
M
xx
= (1 +) M (224)
2
At the center, M =M
1
, thus,
1
M
xx
= (1 +) M
1
(225)
2
1 9
2
= (1 +) q a
2 128
=0.0457 q a
2
This is 4.6% less than the exact solution which is (M
xx
)
exact
= 0.0479 q a
2
from
the text book.
DeterminationofDeection For each interior point (1,2,3),wewriteequation
2
w = M/D. For each boundary point (4, 5, 6), we write boundary condition
w = 0.
M a
2
9 qa
2
a
2
Point 1: 4 w
2
4 w
1
=
D
1
16
=
128 D 16
(226)
2
2
Point 2: w
1
+w
4
+ 2 w
3
4 w
2
=
M
2
a
=
7 q a a
D 16 128 D 16
M
3
a
2
11 q a
2
a
2
Point 3: 2 w
5
+ 2 w
2
4 w
3
=
D 16
=
256 D 16
Point 4: w
4
= 0
Point 5: w
5
= 0
Point 6: w
6
= 0
46

Similarly,
9 qa
4
4 w
2
4 w
1
=
2048 D
w
1
+ 2 w
7 q a
4
(227)
3
4 w
2
=
2048 D
11 q a
4
2 w
2
4 w =
4096
3
D
Finally, the nite dierence solution is:
33 q a
4
q a
4
w
1
= = 0.00403 (228)
8196 D D
3 q a
4
q a
4
w
2
= = 0.00293
1024 D D
35 q a
4
q a
4
w
3
= = 0.00214
16384 D D
On the other hand, the exact deection of the center point is:
4
(w
1
)
exact
= 0.00416
q a
(229)
D
Thus, the error of the nite dierent solution is 3.1%.
4.2 Membrane Theory of Plates
4.2.1 Plate Membrane Equation
Assume that the bending rigidity is zero, D = 0. The plate becomes now a
membrane.
Equilibrium of in-plane equation
N
= 0 on S (230)
Equilibrium of out-of-plane equation
N
w,
+q = 0 on S (231)
Strain-displacement relation
1 1
= (u
,

,
) + w, w, (232)
+u

2 2
Constitutive equation

N
=C (1)

+
(233)
where C =Eh/
1
2
.
This is a non-linear system of equation which is dicult to solve. Note that
corresponding system of equation for the plate bending was linear.
47
4.2.2 Plate Equation for the Circular Membrane
Cylindrical coordinate system is composed of u
r
, u
, u
z
= w.
r
N
rr
+N
rr
N
= 0 on S (234)
r

w
N
rr
r +r q = 0 on S (235)
r r

2
u
r
1 w
rr
= + (236)
r 2 r
u
r
=
r
Constitutive equation
N
rr
=C [
rr
+
] (237)
N
=C [
+
rr
]
where C = Eh/
1
2
.
4.2.3 Example: Approximation Solution for the Clamped Membrane
Consider a circular plate with the clamped support.
q
r
a
( ) w r
0
w
48
Membrane Solution Fromthesymmetryandclampedboundarycondition,the
radial displacement u
r
reads:
u
r
(r= 0) =0 (238)
u
r
(r= a) =0
Thus, as a rst approximation, it is appropriate to assume:
u
r
0 for 0 ra (239)
Then, the hoop strain vanishes:
= 0
Now, the radial force and the radial strain component become:
N
rr
= C
rr
(240)
rr
=
1
2
w
r
2
(241)
Withtheassumptionu
r
= 0,thein-planeequilibriumequationcannotbesatised.
Consider out-of-plane equilibrium equation only. Substituting Eq. (240) and
(241) into Eq. (235), one gets:
" #
C
2
w
r = r q on S (242)
r 2 r r
Integrating both sides once with respect to r reads:

3
C w r
2
q
r = +c
1
(243)
2 r 2
At the center of the membrane, the slope should be zero. Thus, one gets:
w
= 0 at r= 0 (244)
r
c
1
= 0
Then, Eq. (243) can be written:
r
w
3
q r
= (245)
r C
Integrating the above equation again reads:
r
w=
4
3
3
C
q
r
4/3
+c
2
(246)
49
The integration constant c
2
can be determined from the zero deection condition
at the clamped edge:
w = 0 at r =a (247)
r
3
3
q
4/3
c
2
=
4 C
a
Recalling the denition of the axial rigidity C = Eh/
1
2
, Eq. (246) can be

put into a nal form:
r
w
=
3 3 (1
2
) q a
4/3
(248)
a 4 E h a
r
'0.73
3
q a
1
4/3
E h a
In particular, the central deection w(r = 0) = w
0
is related to the load intensity
by:
r
w
0
q a
= 0.73
3
(249)
a E h
Bending Solution It is interesting to compare the bending and membrane re-
sponse of the clamped circular plate. From the page 55 of Theory of Plates and
Shells (2nd Ed.) by Timoshenko and Woinowsky-Krieger, the central deection of
the plate is linearly related to the loading intensity:
3
w
0
q a
= (250)
a 64 D
3
1
2
3
=
16 E h

3
q a
'0.17
E h
Assume that a/h = 10, then Eq. (250) yields:
w
0
q a
= 17 (251)
a E h
Comparison A comparison of the bending and membrane solution is shown in
the next gure.
50
It is seen that a transition from the bending to membrane response occurs at
w
0
/a = 0.15 which corresponds to w
0
= 1.5 h. When the plate deection reach
approximately platethickness, the membrane actiontakes over thebending action
in a clamped plate. If the plate is not restrained from axial motion, then the
assumption u
r
= 0 is no longer valid, and a separate solution must be developed.
4.3 Buckling Theory of Plates
4.3.1 General Equation of Plate Buckling
N
= 0 on S (252)
M
+N
w,
+q= 0 on S (253)
1 1
= (u
+u
) + w,
w,
(254)
2 2
= w,
Constitutive equation for axial force and axial strain

N
= C
(1 )
(255)
where C = Eh/
1
2
, and another one for moment and curvature

M
= D [(1 )
] (256)
where D= Eh
3
/
12
1
2
.
51
By combining Eq. (254) and (256), one gets:
M
= D w,
(257)
Substituting Eq. (257) into Eq. (253) leads:
D w,
+N
w,
+q = 0 on S (258)
The buckling problem is specied by:
q 0 (259)
Now, changing signsleads thegeneral out-of-planeequation forthebucklingof
the plates:
(260) D w,
w,
= 0
where the second term in the left hand is non-linear due to N
which should be
obtained from:
N
= 0 (261)
4.3.2 Linearized Buckling Equation of Rectangular Plates
The nonlinear buckling equation can be separated into two linear equations: one
for in-plane equation for N
and another one for w.

52
a
x
y
b
x
P
x
P
x
u
P
x
2
k
Post-buckling
(w0)
P
c
Pre-buckling
(w=0)
k
u
x
Pre-Buckling Problem Recall that:

1 u
1 w w
= + + (262)
2 x
2 x
Eh

N
=
1
2
(1 )
(263)
In the pre-buckling problem, the linear equilibrium equations are obtained by

omittingthenonlineartermsinthegoverningequationsEq. (260)and(261). The
resulting equations are now:
D w,
= 0
N
= 0
For the pre-buckling trajectory, w= 0, one gets the equilibrium equation:
N
= 0 (264)
53
where
Eh

(265) N
= (1 )
1
2

1 u
(266)
= +
2 x
and boundary condition:

N
nn
Here, it is assumed that the unknown membrane force tensor N
the similar quantity known from the pre-buckling solution N
= N
where the compressive pre-buckling membrane force are dened as positive.

Post-Buckling Problem Now, the governing equation for buckling of plates
reads:
Boundary
w + N
= q + (268) D
4
w,
Conditions
where membrane force tensor in the pre-buckling solution N
is dened as:
N
nn
(267) u
n
= 0 on
is equal to
N
xx
N
xy
N
yx
N
yy

(269)
whereN
istheknowndirectionfromthepre-bucklinganalysis,andisunknown
loadamplitude. Now,thenonlinearbucklingequationbecomesalineareigenvalue
problem:
D
4
w+
w,
= 0 (270)
where 0 is eigenvalues, andw is eigenfunctions.
4.3.3 Analysis of Rectangular Plates Buckling
Simply Supported Plate under In-Plane Compressive Loading Consider
a plate simply supported on four edges. The plate is subjected to an in-plane
compressive load P
x
uniformly distributed along the edges x= [0, a].
54
a
x
b
x
P
x
P
y
h
From equilibrium equations, one gets:
N
xx xy
(271)
yx yy
xx
N
xy
=
yx
N
yy
P
x
1 0
=
b 0 0
Introducing Eq. (271) into Eq. (268) leads:
D
4
w+
P
b
x
w,
xx
= 0 (272)
Boundary condition for this simply supported plate are written as:
w=0 on (273)
M
nn
=0 on
where the moment components read:
M
xx
=D (w,
xx
+ w,
yy
) = 0 (274)
M
yy
=D (w,
yy
+ w,
xx
) = 0
Thus, one gets:
w=w,
xx
= 0 on x= [0, a] (275)
w=w,
yy
= 0 on x= [0, b]
Equation(272)isaconstant-coecientequation,andasolutionofthefollowing
form:

w= c
1
sin
m x
a
sin
n y
b
for m,n= 1,2 (276)
55
satises both the dierential equation and the boundary conditions. Introduction
into Eq. (272) gives:
P
x
2
D
a
+ 2
a b
+
b
b a
= 0 (277)

2

2

2
2
P
x
a m n
= D + (278)
b m a b
whereforthediscretevaluesofP
x
Eq. (272)hasnontrivialsolutions. Thecritical
load can be determined by the smallest eigenvalue, i.e. n = 1 for all values of a:
" #
P
x
2
=D + (279)
b m a b

2
"

2
#
2
D a b m
2
1
= +
b
2
m a b

2
2
D m b a
= +
b
2
a m b
Now, the critical load (P
x
)
cr
can be written as:
2
D
(P
x
)
cr
= k
c
b
(280)
where

2
m b a
k
c
= + (281)
a m b
where coecient k
c
is a function of aspect ratio a/b and wavelength parameter m.
56
2 6 12
For a given a/b,mmaybechosentoyieldthesmallesteigenvalue. Inorderto
minimize k
c
in Eq. (281), treating m as a continuous variable produces:

k
c
m b a b a
m
= 2
a
+
m b a
b m
2
= 0 (282)
where the rst bracket can not be zero, so the second bracket should be zero:
b a 1
b m
2
= 0 (283)
Now, one gets:
a
m=
(284) b
k
c
= 4
Here, this is valid when a/b is integer and when considering a very long plates.
Transitionfrommtom+1 half-wavesoccurswhenthetwocorrespondingcurves
have equal ordinates, i.e. from Eq. (281):
k
c
|
m
= k
c
|
m+1
(285)
m b a (m+ 1) b a
a
+
m b
=
a
+
(m+ 1) b
(286)
a
p
b
= m (m+ 1)
57
a
=
p
m (m+ 1) (287)
b
Example 1 For m= 1, a/b=
2
Example 2 For a very large m, i.e. a very long plate, a/b'm. Thus, k
c
= 4 is
now independent of m.
A very longplate buckles in half-waves, whose lengths approachthewidth of the
plate:
x

n y
w= c
1
sin sin
b b
Thus, the buckled plate subdivides approximately into squares.
VariousBoundaryConditionsofPlateunderIn-PlaneCompressiveLoad-
ing The critical buckling load reads:
2
D
(P
x
)
cr
= k
c
b
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
c
C
c c
c
A
D
E
B
ss
ss
ss
ss
free
free
Loaded edges simply supported.
Loaded edges clamped.
k
c
0 1 2 3 4 5
a
b
Figure by MIT OCW.
Influence of boundary conditions on the buckling coefficients of
plates subjected to in-plane compressive loading
58
where the dimension of N
xy
is [N/m].
Various Boundary Conditions of Plate under In-Plane Shear Loading
The critical buckling load per unit length reads:
2
D
(N
xy
)
cr
=k
c
b
2
15
2
D
13
r
cr =
b
2
h
k
c
Clamped Edges
11
k
c
9
Simply Supported Edges
7
5
3
0 1
a
b
2 3 4 5
Critical values of shear stress for plates subjected to in-plane loading.
Figure by MIT OCW.
Limiting Case: Wide Plates Consider a wide plate for whicha/b 1. From
thediagram,weseethatifa/b<1, then missettobeequaltounity,i.e. justone
wavelength in the x-direction.
59
a
x
b
y
The buckling formula thus becomes:
2
D
(N
x
)
cr
= k
c
|
m=1
b
2
2
D
b a
2
(288)
=
b
2
a
+
b
2
D
b a
2
=
a
2
b a
+
b
2
D
2
a
= 1 +
a
2
b
If a/b 1, then the second term in the bracket can be neglected so that the
buckling load per unit length becomes:
2
D
(N
x
)
cr
=
2
a
which is called Sezawas formula for wide plates.
Example 3 Here, relative merits of stiening a large panel are investigated in the
longitudinalorinthetransversedirection. Itisassumedthatthestienersprovide
for a simply supported boundary conditions.
Consider the case of longitudinal stieners.
60
L
cr
s
From the von Karman formula, the buckling load per unit length for each divided
part reads:
4
2
D
(N
x
)
cr
=
s
2
Now, the buckling stress can be calculated:
(N
x
)
cr
(
cr
)
longitudinal
=
h
4
2
D
=
s
2
h
Consider the case of transverse stieners.
L
cr
s
FromtheSezawas formula, thebuckling load per unit length along the loaded edges
reads:
2
D
(N
x
)
cr
=
2
s
Now, the buckling stress can be calculated:
(N
x
)
cr
(
cr
)
transverse
=
h
2
D
=
2
h s
Thus, it is concluded that
(
cr
)
longitudinal
= 4 (
cr
)
transverse
This shows advantages of longitudinal stieners over transverse stieners.
61
4.3.4 Derivation of Raleigh-Ritz Quotient
Recall the total potential energy of system and other corresponding denitions:
= (U
b
V
b
) + (U
m
V
m
) (289)
where each term for buckling problems will be discussed in the following.
Term Relating to Plate Bending Response In the buckling problem, the
work done by external load causing bending response considered as zero:
V
b
= 0 (290)
The bending energy can be expressed:
Z
1
U
b
= M
dS (291)
2
S
Z
D
=
2
S
[(1 )
dS
Z
h i
D
2
=
2
S
(1 )
+ (
) dS
Z
h i
D
2
= (1 ) (
11
11
+
12
12
+
21
21
+
22
22
) + (
11
+
22
) dS
2
Z
S
n h io
D
2 2
= (
11
+
22
) 2 (1 )
11
22
(
12
) dS
2
S
Here, the term in the square bracket is called Gaussian curvature:
11
22
(
12
)
2
=
I
(292)
II
where
I
and
II
are the principal curvatures. For plates with straight edges,
Gaussian curvature vanishes, so one gets:
Z
U
b
=
D
(
11
+
22
)
2
dS (293)
2
S
The integrand of the above equation can be written in terms of the transverse
displacement:
2
2
(
11
+
22
) = w (294)
2 2
= w w
Now, the bending energy reads:
Z
U
b
=
D
2
S
2
w
2
w dS (295)
62
Term Relating to Plate Membrane Response The work done by external
load causing membrane response reads:
Z Z
V
m
= N
nn
u
n
dl+ N
tn
u
t
dl (296)

In the buckling problem, the axial force N
is determined from the
pre-bucklingsolutionandisconsideredasconstant,sothemembraneenergyreads:
Z
U
m
= N
dS (297)
=
Z
S
N
1
(u
+u
) +
1
w,
w,
dS
2 2
Z
S
Z
= N
dS
w,
w,
dS
2
S S
Here, the rst term can be extended in a similar way shown in Eq. (132):
Z Z

N
dS= N
nn
u
n
+N
tn
u
t
dl (298)
S
Z
N
dS
Z
S

= N
nn
u
n
+N
tn
u
t
dl
where the in-plane equilibrium is applied:

N
= 0 (299)
Now, the membrane energy can be expressed:
Z

Z
U
m
= N
nn
u
n
+N
tn
u
t
dl
w,
w,
dS (300)
2
S
Thus, the term relating to membrane response can be summarized:
Z

Z
U
m
V
m
= N
nn
u
n
+N
tn
u
t
dl
w,
w,
dS (301)
Z
Z
2
S

N
nn
u
n
dl N
tn
u
t
dl
Z

Z

= N
nn
N
nn
u
n
dl N
tn
N
tn
u
t
dl

Z
2
N
w,
w,
dS
Z
S
= N
w,
w,
2
S
where the boundary conditions on are applied.
63
Total Potential Energy and Its Variations Now,onegetsthetotalpotential
energy:
=(U
b
V
b
) + (U
m
V
m
) (302)
Z Z
=
D
2
S
2
w
2
w dS
2
S
N
w,
w,
dS
The rst variation of the potential energy can be obtained:
Z
2 2 2
=
D
2
S
w+
2
w
dS (303)
Z
2
S
N
(w,
w,
+w,
w,
) dS
Z Z
2
=D
Z
S
2
w
dS
Z
S
N
w,
w,
dS
=D
S
2
w
2
wdS
S
N
w,
w,
dS
where N
is considered as constant under the variation. Similarly, the second

variation of the potential energy reads:
Z Z
2
=D
S
2
w
2
wdS
S
N
w,
w,
dS (304)
Z Z
D
2
w
2
wdS N
w,
w,
dS
S S
Raleigh-Ritz Quotient Application of the Tretz condition for invertability,
2
= 0, determines the load intensity:
R
= R
D
S
2
w
2
wdS
(305)
N
w,
w,
dS
S
Here, choose a trial function for w:
w= A (306)
where A is the undetermined magnitude, and =
(x,y) is a normalized shape

function. Then, the variation of the trial function reads:
w= A (307)
Now, the load intensity reads:
R
= R
D
2
(A)
2
(A) dS
(308)
S
N
(A) ,
(A) ,
dS
S
R
D A
2
A
2
dS
= R
S
S
N
A,
A,
dS
R
= R
D
2

2
dS
S
N
dS
S
64
4.3.5
The Raleigh-Ritz quotient is dened as:
=
D
2

2
dS
S
N
dS
S
R
R (309)
Example 4 As a special case, consider 1-D case:
1 0
=
0 0
then, the Raleigh-Ritz quotient becomes:
R
2

2
dS D
S
(,
x
)
2
dS
S
R =
Example 5 Similarly, consider 2-D compression case:

1 0
N
=
0 1
then, the Raleigh-Ritz quotient becomes:
R
2

2
dS D
S
R
=
,
dS
S
R
2

2
dS
i
D
S
h =
R
(,
x
)
2
+ (,
y
)
2
dS
S
Ultimate Strength of Plates
Theonsetofbucklingstress
cr
doesnotnecessarilymeansthetotalcollapseofthe
plate. Usually, there is redistribution of stresses, and the plate takes additional
load until the ultimate strength
u
is reached.
Von Karman Analysis of the EectiveWidth Forasimplysupportedplate,
the buckling load is:
P
cr
=
4
2
D
b
(310)
4
2
E h
3
=
12 (1
2
) b
and the corresponding buckling stress is:
P
cr
cr
= (311)
bh
2
=
4
2
E

h
b 12 (1
2
)
2
E h
=
3 (1
2
) b
65
The normalization of buckling stress by the yield stress reads:
cr
y
=
2
3 (1
2
)
E
h
b
2
(312)
(1.9)
2
=
y
2
E h

2
cr
=
1.9
(313)
where is a non-dimensional parameter dened by:

r
y
b
= (314)
E h
Therelationbetweenthenormalizedbucklingstressversus isplottedinthenext
gure.
1.9
On further loading the plate beyond
cr
, a greater proportion of the load is
taken by the regions of the plate near the edge. Von Karman assumed that these
edge regions, each of the width b
eff
/2, carry the stress up to the yield while the
center is stress free.
66
b
y ( )
x
y
Before Buckling After Buckling
b
eff
b
eff
2
2
y
( ) y
y
b
Actual Stress von Karman Model
The edge zones are at yield, i.e.
cr
/
y
= 1, but the width of the eective
portion of the plate is unknown:
cr
=
(1
.9)
2
2
= 1 (315)
y

y
b
eff
E h
from which one obtains:
s
E
(316) b
eff
= 1.9 h
y
Taking, for example, E/
y
=900 for mild steel, one gets:
b
eff
= 1.9
900=57h (317)
Thisis somehowhigh, butthereisnot muchdierence from the empiricallydeter-
mined values of b
eff
= 40h50h.
67
The total force at the point of ultimate load is:
P =
y
b
eff
h (318)
Now, the average ultimate stress can be calculated:
P
u
= (319)
bh
b
eff
=
y
b
h
p
=1.9 E
y
b
The average ultimate stress can be normalized by the yield stress:
p
u
= 1.9
h
b
E
y
(320)
u
1.9
= (321)
The average ultimate stress is plotted with respect to in the next gure.
1.9
Comparison of the ultimate and buckling load solution is shown in the next
gure.
68
1.9
Thick plates yield
before buckle.
Thin plates buckle
before reaching
ultimate load.
Under the uniaxial loading, the relation between an applied load and the cor-
respondingdisplacementisschematicallyshownallthewaytocollapseinthenext
gure.
P
x
P
u
collapse
or crash
P
x
post-buckling
P
cr
u
x
pre-buckling
y
u
x
Empirical Formulas
Foulkner correction
u
2 1
=
2
x
P
x
(322)
69
Gerard (Handbook of elastic stability)
s !
0.85
u
gh
2
E
= 0.56 (323)
y
A
y
whereg isthesumofthenumberofcutsandthenumberofangesafterthe
cuts, A is the cross sectional area A=bh, and the coecients 0.56 and 0.85
are empirical constants.
Example 6 Consider a plate which has one cut and two anges.
b
h
Then,
g= 1 + 2 = 3
Now,
s !
0.85
u
3h
2
E
=0.56
y
bh
y
s !
0.85
h E
=1.42
b
y
1.42
=
0.85
ModicationsinCodes IntheoriginalvonKarmanformula,theeectivewidth
ratio reads:
r
b
eff
cr
= (324)
b
y
In the ANSI specication, imperfection is considered:
r

r

b
eff
cr
cr
= 10.218 (325)
b
y
y
In UK specication, the eective width ratio is dened as:
" #
r
4
0.2
b
eff
cr
= 1 + 14 0.35 (326)
b
y
70
y
eff
A comparison of theoretical (von Karman) and experimental
predictions for the effective width in compressed steel plates
4.3.6 Plastic Buckling of Plates
Stocky plates with low b/h ratio will yield before buckling at the point B. After
additional load, the plate will deform plastically on the path BC until conditions
are met for the plate to buckle in the plastic range.
1.9
B
A
C
Stowells Theory for the Buckling Strain Stowell developed the theory of
plastic buckling for simply-supported square plates loaded in one direction.
71
b
x
b
thickness h
y
The critical buckling strain
cr
was derived by him in the form:
2

2h
p
i
h
cr
= 2 + 1 + 3 (E
t
/E
s
) (327)
9 b
where the tangent modulus E
t
and the secant modulus E
s
are dened by:
d
E
t
= ; E
s
= (328)
d
s
E
t
E
For the materials obeying the power hardening low:

n
=
r
(329)
r
where
r
and
r
are the reference stress and strain. Now, the tangent and secant
modulus are:
d
r
n1
E
t
= = n (330)
d
r
r

r
n1
E
s
= =

r
r
72
Substituting these expression back into the buckling equation (327), one gets:
cr
= 2 +
1 + 3n (331)
9 b
Theexponentnvariesusuallybetweenn= 0 (perfectlyplasticmaterial)andn= 1
(elastic material). This makes the coecient
2 +
1 + 3n
vary in the range

3 4. For a realistic value of n= 0.3, the buckling strain becomes:

2
h
cr
= 3.7 (332)
b
Having determined
cr
, the corresponding buckling stress is calculated from the
powerlaw.
Approximate Solution for the Buckling Strain Consider an elastic plane
stress relation:
E
xx
= (
xx
+
yy
) (333)
1
2
E
yy
= (
yy
+
xx
)
1
2
Using the solution for the pre-buckling state, i.e.
xx
=
cr
and
yy
= 0 leads:
E
cr
= (
xx
+
yy
) (334)
1
2
E
0 = (
yy
+
xx
)
1
2
from which one gets:
yy
=
xx
(335)
cr
=E
xx
= E
cr
The critical elastic buckling stress is:

2
2
E h
cr
= k
c
(336)
12 (1
2
) b
So, the corresponding critical elastic buckling strain read:

2
2
h
cr
= k
c
(337)
12 (1
2
) b
Equation (337) is more general than a similar expression Eq. (327) given by
the Stowell theory because it applies to all type of boundary conditions. At the
73
sametime,Stowellsequationwasderivedonlyforthesimplysupportedboundary
conditions. In particular, for k
c
= 4, Eq. (337) predicts:
cr
= 3.6

2
h
(338)
b
which should be compared with the coecient 3.7 of Eq. (332) in the Stowells
theory. For a plastic material or very high hardening exponent, the prediction of
both method are much closer.
4.3.7 Exercise 1: Eect of In-Plane Boundary Conditions, w= 0
No Constraint in In-Plane Displacement Considernoconstraintinin-plane
displacement iny-direction, N
= 0.
yy
expansion due to
Poison's effect
x
a
a
y
u
x
u
N
D
N
D
y
The membrane force tensor reads:
0
N
(339)
0 0
From the constitutive equation, one gets:
Eh

= 0 = N
yy
N
yy
=
yy xx
(340)
1
2
yy
=
xx
Byapplyingthegeometricequationbetween strain andthedisplacement andcon-
sidering w= 0, here, one gets the relation between u
x
and u
y
:
u
y
u
x
= (341)
y x
74
Integrating both sides over the plate length leads:
Z Z
a a
u
y
u
x
0
y
dy=
0
x
dx (342)
u
y
= u
x
Constraint in In-Plane Displacement Consider a plate fully constrained in
the y-direction, u
y
= 0.
N
D
=N
D
yy
a
x
N
D
=N
D
N
D
N
D
xx
a
u
x
y
Consequently, one also gets:
=
u
y
= 0 (343)
yy
y
Under the uniform compression,
reads:
xx
=
u
x
=
u
x
(344)
xx
x a
From the constitutive relation, the membrane forces reads:
Eh

Eh u
x
= N
(345)
xx
N
xx
=
xx yy
=
1
2
Eh
1
2
a
Eh

u
x
N
yy
=
yy xx
= N
yy
=
1
2
1
2
a
Finally, the membrane force tensor reads:
N
0
xx
1 0
(346)
0 N
yy
0
where
Eh u
x
= (347)
1
2
a
75
4.3.8 Exercise 2: Raleigh-Ritz Quotient for Simply Supported Square
Plate under Uniaxial Loading
Considerasimplysupportedsquareplatesubjectedtouniformcompressiveloadin
the x-direction.
x
a
a
N
D
N
D
y
Then, the membrane force tensor reads:

N
=N
1 0
1 0
(348)
0 0
0 0
The plate will deform into a dish, so for the trial function take the following:

=
(x, y) = sin
x
sin
y
(349)
a a
Now, in order to obtain the load intensity, we rst calculate ,
x
and
2
:
x

y
,
x
= cos sin (350)
a a
y
,
y
= sin cos
a a a
x

y
,
xx
= sin sin (351)
a a a
x

y
,
yy
= sin sin
a a a
=,
xx
+,
yy
(352)
2
x

y
=2 sin sin
a a a
x

y
2

2
= 4
a
sin
2
a
sin
2
a
(353)
76
Now, the Raleigh-Ritz quotient is calculated:
R
D
R
2

2
dS
(354) N
==
S
(,
x
)
2
dS
S
=

4
R
R
4D
sin
2 x
sin
2 y
dS
a S a a
2
cos
2
x
sin
2 y
dS
S a a
a
2
=4D
a

2
(355) N
== 4D
cr
a
This is the classical buckling solution, and it is exact because of the right guess of
the displacement eld.
4.4 Buckling of Sections
4.4.1 Transition from Global and Local Buckling
Euler buckling load of a simply-supported column reads:
2
EI
(P
cr
)
column
=
l
2
(356)
whereI isthebendingrigidityofthecolumn. Considerasectioncolumnwhichis
composed of several thin plates, thenthe Euler buckling load can beconsidered as
a global buckling load of the column.
P ( )
cr
column
EI l
77
On the other hands, local buckling force of a simply-supported plate reads:
k
c
2
D
N
cr
=
b
2
(357)
whereD=Eh
3
/
12
1
2
andk
c
= [(mb)/a+a/(mb)]
2
. Thus,thetotallocal
buckling load can be obtained:
k
c
2
D
(P
cr
)
plate
= (358)
b
N
cr
b
h
a
Transition from global to local buckling can be calculated by (P
cr
)
column
=
(P
cr
)
plate
:
2
EI
=k
c
2
D
(359)
l
2
b
k
c
2
E h
3
=
12(1
2
) b
I k
c
2
bh
3
=
12(1
2
) b
(360)
Example 7 Consider a square box column.
78
b
b
l
h
Then, one obtains:
k
c
=4
I=
2
hb
3
3
Now, the global buckling load reads:
I 2
2
Ehb
3
(P
cr
)
column
=
2
E
l
2
=
3 l
2
and the local buckling load from four plates can be calculated:
4k
c
2
E h
3
= (P
cr
)
fourplates
12 (1
2
) b
Then, applying (P
cr
)
column
= (P
cr
)
fourplates
, one gets:

2
b
2
'2.20
hl
Thus, the local and global buckling loads become same when
b
2
'1.5hl
For example, if b= 40h, then l= 60b.
Transition from the local to global buckling for an open channel section with
lips is shown in the gure below.
79
Buckling coefficients and modes for a hat section
4.4.2 Local Buckling
The remainder of this section deals only with the local buckling. Dividing both
sidesofEq. (357)bytheplatethicknessbgivestheexpressionofthebucklingstress
cr
:

2
N
cr
k
c
2
E h
cr
= = (361)
h 12(1
2
) b
Consider two adjacent plates of a section of the prismatic column.
1
h
1
b
2
h
2
b
1 Plate
2 Plate
Compatibility and equilibrium conditions at junction
of adjoining walls of a section
In general, there will be a restraining moment acting at the corner line between
80
Plate1and Plate2. The buckling stresses for those two plates are:

2
k
1
2
E h
1
(
cr
)
1
= (362)
12(1
2
) b
1

2
k
2
2
E h
2
(
cr
)
2
=
12(1
2
) b
2
Before buckling, stresses in the entire cross-section are the same. So, at the point
of buckling, one gets:
(
cr
)
1
= (
cr
)
2
(363)
from which the buckling coecient k
2
is relating tok
1
:

2
h
1
b
2
k
2
=k
1
(364)
h
2
b
1
The total buckling load on the angle element is:
P
cr
=(
c
)
1
h
1
b
1
+ (
c
)
2
h
2
b
2
(365)
" #

2

2
2
E h
1
h
2
= k
1
h
1
b
1
+k
2
h
2
b
2
12(1
2
) b
1
b
2
" #
2
E (h
1
)
3
h
1
b
2
2
(h
2
)
3
= k
1
+k
1
12(1
2
) b
1
h
2
b
1
b
2

2
2
Ek
1
h
1
= A
12(1
2
) b
1
whereA isthesectionalareaoftwoplateA=b
1
h
1
+b
2
h
2
. Fromthisderivation,the
conclusion is that only one buckling coecient is needed to calculate the buckling
load of the section consisting of several plates.
Determination of the buckling coecient is a bit more complicated because of
the existence of the edge bending moment. This can be illustrated in an example
of a box column with a rectangular cross section with the same thickness h.
b
1
b
2
uniform thickness h
Thewiderangewillbereadytobucklingrstwhilethenarrowplateisnotready
81
tobuckle. Whenthesecondplatebuckles, therstplatewouldhavebuckledlong
before. Thus, there is an interaction between left plates, and a compromise must
be established because left plates must buckle at the same time. The buckling
coecient as a function of the ratio b
2
/b
1
is plotted in the gure next.
h
h
Buckling coefficients for box sections
In the limiting case of a square box (b
1
= b
2
= b), k
1
= 4 and the edge interactive
moment between adjacent plates is zero.
Some useful graphs and formulas for typical sections are given next.
82
83
5 Buckling of Cylindrical Shells
5.1 Governing Equation for Buckling of Cylindrical Shells
The starting point of the analysis is the strain-displacement relation for plates:
1 1
= (u
+u
) + w,
w,
(366)
2 2
= w,
Consideraatplate(x,y) andasegmentofacylinder(x,a), where aistheradius

of a cylinder and isthehoopcoordinate.
a
a
y
x x
Can the strain-displacement relation for a cylinder be derived from similar re-
lation for a at plate?
x x ; dx dx (367)
1
y a ; (368)
y
a
Consider component by component. Use the notation:
u
1
= u
x
u
u
2
= u
y
v (369)
u
3
w
Then, one gets:
= u,
x
+
1
(w,
x
)
2
(370)
xx
2
u,
w,
2
w
= + + (371)
a 2 a a

=
1 u,
+u,
x
+
1
w,
x
w,
(372)
x
2 a 2 a
There is a new term w/a in the expression for the hoop strain. The physical
meaning of this new term becomes clear if we consider axisymmetric deformation
with v = 0 and w independent of . Dene the hoof strain as a relative change
84
in the length of circumference when the original circle has a radius of "a" before
deformation and a new circle has a radius of "a+w" after deformation:
=
2(a+w)2a
=
w
(373)
2a a
a
w
Mathematically, Eq. (370)-(372) can be derived from its counterparts by trans-

formingtherectangularcoordinatesystemintothecurvilinearcoordinatesystem.
x=rsin (374)
y=rcos
The step-by-step derivation can be found, for example, in the book by Y.C. Fung,
"First Course in the Continuum Mechanics." The expression for curvature are
transformed in a similar way:
xx
=w,
xx
(375)
=
w,
a
2
x
=
w,
x
a
Using the variational approach explained in details for the plate problem, one can
see that the only new term in the expression for = 0 is
Z
w
N
dS (376)
S
a
Therefore, the new term should be added in the equation for out-of-plane equilib-
rium:

1 2 1
D
4
w+ N
N
xx
w,
xx
+ N
x
w,
x
+
2
N
w,
=q (377)
a a a
where
2 1
4
w=w,
xxxx
+
a
w,
xx
+
a
w,
(378)
2 4
85
Theaboveequationsarethenonlinearequilibriumequationsforquasi-shallowcylin-
drical shells. The linear equilibrium equations are obtained by omission the non-
linear terms, i.e. terms in the parenthesis. The resulting equations are:
aN
xx
,
x
+N
x
,
=0 (379)
aN
,
x
+N
=0
1
D
4
w+
a
N
=q
with

w
N
xx
=C u,
x
+ (380)
a
w
0

N
=C + u,
x
a

satisfythesystemEq. (379)and(380).
Special Case I: Cylinder under Axial Load P, q= 0
1
2
ThesesolutionswillbedenotedbyN
where C is the axial rigidity, C = The pre-buckling solution should Eh/ .

=
N
.
5.1.1
The membrane forces in the pre-buckling state are:

P 1 0
(381) N
0 0 2a
and the corresponding displacement eld reads:
P
u(x) = x (382)
2ahE
Pl
w=
E2ah
l
w
( ) u l
a
x
It is easy to prove that the above solution satises all eld equation.
86
5.1.2 Special Case II: Cylinder under Lateral Pressure
0 0
(383) N
0 1
where from the constitutive equations Eq. (380):
w
N
= Eh (384)
a
Substituting Eq. (384) into Eq. (379) leads the following linear forth order inho-
mogeneous ordinary dierential equation for w(x):
Ehw
Dw
0000
+
a
2
= q (385)
orin a dimensionless form:
d
4
w
dx
4
+ 4
4
w=
q
D
(386)
where

1
2
2
h
4
4
Eh 3
= = (387)
a
2
D a
Thedimensionof is[L
1
M
0
T
0
],soxisdimensionless. Therearefourboundary
conditions for a simply supported cylinder:
M
xx
=w= 0 at x= 0 (388)
M
xx
=w= 0 at x= l
where one gets from the moment-curvature relation:
d
2
w
M
xx
=D
dx
2
(389)
M
=0
The general solutions of the above boundary value problem is:
w(x) = e
x
[c
1
sinx+c
2
cos x] +e
x
[c
3
sinx+c
4
cos x]
q
(390)
D
4
4
The four integration constants can be found from the boundary conditions. A
typical term of the solution is a rapidly decaying function of x.
87
It can be conducted that the curvature and bending is conned to a narrow
boundary zone of thewidth x
b
= /(2). The remainder of the shell undergoes a
uniform radial contraction:
w
0
=
q
(391)
D 4
4
For the sake of simplicity, this localized bending can be neglected (D 0).
Then, from Eq. (379), the hoop membrane force is related to the lateral pressure
by N
= qaand the pre-buckling solution is:

N
= qa

0 0
0 1

(392)
5.1.3 Special Case III: Hydrostatic Pressure
For a cylinder subjected to the hydrostatic pressure, the total axial compressive
force is:
P = qa
2
(393)
The pre-buckling solution is:
N
= qa

1/2 0
0 1

(394)
which is a classical membrane stress state in a thin cylinder.
88
5.1.4 Special Case IV: Torsion of a Cylinder
Thepre-bucklingstressinacylindersubjectedtothetotaltorqueofthemagnitude
T is:
M

(395)
0 1
N
1 0 2a
N
x
M
a
x
5.2 Derivation of the Linearized Buckling Equation
We are now in the position to linearize the nonlinear buckling equation Eq. (377).
It is assumed that the state of membrane forces does not change at the point of
buckling from the pre-buckling value. Thus,
N
(396) N
=

and Eq. (377) becomes:

1 2 1
4
(397) D
wherethehoopmembraneforceN
,thesecondterminEq. (397),dependslinearly
on three component of the displacement vector (u, v, w):
w+ N
w,
xx
+ N
+
xx x
w,
x
+
2
w,
= q
a a a

1 w

N
= C v,
+ +u,
x
(398)
a a
89
Therefore, the out-of-plane equilibrium equation is coupled with the in-plane dis-
placement (u, v) through the presence of the term N
. Note that in the plate

buckling problem the in-plane and out-of-plane response was uncoupled. It is
possible to eliminate the terms involving in-plane components using the full set of
equilibriumandconstitutiveequationsinthein-planedirection. Bydoingthis,the
order of the governing equation has to be raised by four to give eight:
1
2
2 1
8
w+
4
N
w,
xx
+ N
= 0 (399) D
a
2
Cw,
xxxx
+
xx
a
x
w,
x
+
a
2
w,
Theaboveequationis calledtheDonnell stabilityequationintheuncoupledform.

Notthatw(x, ) intheaboveequationrepresentsadditionallateraldeectionover
and above those produced by the pre-buckling solution. The total deection is a
sum of the two.
5.3 Buckling under Axial Compression
5.3.1 Formulation for Buckling Stress and Buckling Mode
Wearenowinapositiontodevelopsolutions tothebucklingequations, Eq. (399)
for four dierent loading cases discussed in the previous section. Consider rst
Case I of a simply-supported cylindrical shell in which the pre-buckling solution is
given by Eq. (381). In this case, Eq. (399) reduces to:
D
8
w+
1
a
2
2
Cw,
xxxx
+
2
P
a
4
w,
xx
= 0 (400)
The buckling deection of the shell is assumed in the following form:

w(x,) = c
1
sin
mx
l
sin(n) (401)
where c
1
is the magnitude, and the integer numbers (m, n) denote the number
of half-waves respectively in the axial and circumferential direction. The above
deformationsatisesbothsimply-supportedboundaryconditionsattheends,x= 0
and x= L, and periodicity conditions along the circumference.
Here, the half-length of the buckling wave is dened:
l
= (402)
m
It is convenient to introduce a dimensionless buckling number, m :

mx ma x x
= = m (403)
l l a a
ma
m =
l
90
Using the dimensionless buckling number, substituting the solution Eq. (401)
into the governing equation Eq. (400) leads:

2 2
4
4

P
2 2
2
2
c
1
x
2
m +n + m 1
2
C m +n m
6
sin m sin(n) = 0
a 2a a a
(404)
By setting the coecient in the square bracket to zero, the critical buckling mem-
brane force per unit length becomes:
P
cr
N
cr
= (405)
2a
m
2
+n
2
2

2
=
D
+ 1
2
C
m
a
2
m
2
( m
2
+n
2
)
2
Here, by introducing the dimensionless parameter :

2
m
2
+n
2
=
2
(406)
m
Eq. (405) reads:
N
cr
=
D
+
1
2
C
1
(407)
a
2
The dependence of the buckling force on the parameter is shown in the gure
below.
91
Treating as a continuous variable, one cannd an analytical minimum:
dN
cr
D

1
d
=
a
2
1
2
C
2
= 0 (408)
from which the optimum value of the parameter is:
r
(1
2
)Ca
2
opt
=
D
(409)
p
a
= 12(1
2
)
h
a
'3.3
h
Introducing the expression for the optimum parameter into Eq. (407) and using
denitions of bending and axial rigidity, one gets:
E h
2
(N
cr
)
min
= p (410)
3 (1
2
)
a
The buckling stress isobtained by dividing the critical membrane fore by the shell
thickness h:
cr
=
(N
cr
)
min
(411)
h
E h
=p
3 (1
2
)
a
h
cr
'0.605 E (412)
a
This is the classical solution for the buckling stress of a cylindrical shell subjected
to axial compression. While the buckling load is unique and does not depend on
(m , n), the buckling mode is not unique as:

2
m
2
+n
2
a
opt
= = 3.3 (413)
m
2
h
There are innity of combinations of m and n that give the same expression.
Example 8 Let a/h=134, then

2
m
2
+n
2
opt
=
2
= 3.3134'442
m
m
2
+n
2
'21
m
92
p
n= 21 mm
2
5.3.2 Buckling Coecient and Batdorf Parameter
Let us introduce the dimensionless buckling stress or the buckling coecient k
c
:
hl
2
k
c
=
cr
(414)
2
D
Additionally, the Batdorf parameter Z is dened:
p
l
2
Z = 1
2
(415)
ah
Using Eq. (411), the buckling coecient becomes:
E h hl
2
k
c
=p (416)
3 (1
2
)
a
2
D
12
p
l
2
=
3
2
1
2
ah
12
= Z
3
2
k
c
'0.702 Z (417)
This relation between k
c
and Z are shown in the gure below together with two
limiting cases of very short and very long cylindrical shells. These two limiting
cases are discussed below.
93
Limiting Cases:
conditions:
Short Cylinders, a l Consider a case of the following
al
a
l
(418)
Then, it is natural to assume that the number of half-waves in the axial direction
is unity:
m= 1
Consequently, one gets:
a
m = (419)
l
Since m is much larger than n, one also gets:

m
2
+n
2
m
2
(420) '
94
Now, from Eq. (405), the membrane force reads:
P
N
cr
= (421)
2a
=
D
m
2
+
1
2
C
1
a
2
m
2
m
2
D
=
2
a
2
D
=
l
2
The buckling stress reads:
N
cr
2
D
cr
= =
h hl
2
Now, from the denition of the buckling coecient, Eq. (414), the buckling coe-
cient for the very short cylindrical shells reads:
k
c
= 1
This solution indicated in previous gure as the lower bound cut-o value. The
upper bound cut-ovalues is given by the Euler buckling load.
Limiting Cases: Very Long Cylinders, la Thecylindricalshellisbecom-
ing the Euler column. The buckling load of the column is:
2
EI
P
cr
= (422)
l
2
where I = a
3
h for cylinder sections.
95
The buckling stress reads:
P
cr
cr
= (423)
2ah
2
a
2
= E
2 l
For this very long cylindrical shells, the buckling coecient can be written:

2
k
c
= 6 1
2
(424)
h

4
k
c
= 6
a
Z
2
(425)
l
From Eq. (411) and (423), the transition between the local shell buckling and
global thin-walled column buckling occurs when
(
cr
)
shell
= (
cr
)
column
(426)
which gives:
E h
2
a
2
p = E (427)
3 (1
2
)
a 2 l
p
hl
2
=
2
3 (1
2
)
.15 (428)
a
3
2
'8
5.4 Buckling under Lateral Pressure
From the pre-buckling solution, Eq. (392), the governing equation Eq. (399) be-
comes:
q
D
8
w+
1
a
2
2
Cw,
xxxx
+
a
4
w,
= 0 (429)
Assuming the double sine buckling deection function, similar to the case of axial
compression, the governing equation becomes:

D

4

2
x
m
2
+n
2
+ m
4
1
2
Cqan
2
m
2
+n
2
c
1
sin m sin(n) = 0
2 6
a a a
(430)
Bysettingthecoecientinthesquarebrackettozero,theequationforthebuckling
pressure becomes:

2
D m
2
+n
2

m
4
qa=
2 2
+ 1
2
C
2
(431)
a n
n
2
( m
2
+n
2
)
96
Itcanbeshownthatthesmallesteigenvalueisobtainedwhenm= 1 orm = a/l.
With this observation, the solution becomes a function of the parameter n, or
dimensionless parametern:
nl
n = (432)
a
Additionally, we dene the dimensionless buckling pressure, q:
l
2
a
q = q (433)
2
D
Now, substituting m , n and p into Eq. (431) leads:

2

2
1 + n
2
1 1
2
C l
q = + (434)
n
2
n
2
(1 + n
2
)
2
a
2
a
By introducing the Batdorf parameter Z, one gets:
1 + n
2
1 12
q =
n
2
2
+
2
)
2
Z
2
(435)
n
2
(1 + n
For any value of the geometrical parameter Z, there exists a preferred n which
minimizethebucklingpressure. Treatingn asacontinuousvariable,theoptimum
n canbefoundanalyticallyfromd n= 0 SubstitutingthisbackintoEq. (432), p/d .
there will be a unique relation between the buckling pressure and the Batdorf pa-
rameter. The solution is shown graphically in the gure below.
Limiting Cases: Very Long Cylinders, l a In the limiting case of a long
tube (la), one gets:
a
m = m 0 (436)
l
97
Inthiscase,thelastterminEq. (431)vanishesandthebucklingpressurebecomes:
n
2
D
q=
3
(437)
a
Imagine a long cylinder consisting of a change of ring, each of the height b. The
moment of inertia of the ring along the axial axis reads:
bh
3
I = (438)
12
From Eq. (437) and (438), the intensity of the line load Q=qbcan be written:
Q=qb (439)
n
2
Eh
3
= b
a
3
12(1
2
)
n
2
EI
=
a
3
(1
2
)
The above approximation is due to Donnell. The smallest integer value is n = 1
which gives the following buckling mode.
98
The Donnell solution should be compared with more exact solution of the ring
bucklingproblemwhichtakeintoaccountamorecomplexincrementaldisplacement
eld with both w() and v(). Here, a distinction should be made between the
centrally directed pressure (as in all preceding analysis) and the eld -pressure
loading where pressure is always directed normal to the deformed surface.
In the later case, the ring buckling occurs at:

EI
Q
c
= n
2
1
a
3
(440)
wherethesmallestintegern= 2 sothatQ= 3EI/a
3
. Thebucklingmodehasnow
eight nodal points rather than four.
The solution of centrally directed pressure loading case is:
Q
c
=
n
2
2
1
2
EI
3
(441)
n 2 a
where again the smallest n= 2. Thus the smallest buckling load intensity is:
EI
Q
c
= 4.5
3
(442)
a
It is seen that for a realistic value n=2, the present solution, Eq. (439) gives
the buckling pressure between the two cases of eld-pressure loading and centrally
directed loading, 3 <4 <4.5.
5.5 Buckling under Hydrostatic Pressure
Special case of the combined loading in which the total axial loadP is:
P = a
2
q (443)
99
Thepre-bucklingsolutionisgivenbyEq. (394). Thesolutionofthebucklingequa-
tion still can be sought through the sinusoidal function, Eq. (401). The optimum
solutioncanbefoundbyatrialanderrormethodvaryingparametersm andn. A
graphical representation of the solution is shown in gure below.
5.6 Buckling under Torsion
A twist applied to one end of a cylindrical shell process a twisting force N
x
:
M
N
= (444)
x
2a
Theothertwocomponentsofthepre-bucklingmembraneforcesvanishN
=N
=
xx
0. Moreover, the force is constant.
100
Under these conditions, the governing equation reduces to:
8
w+ N
4
w,
x
= 0 (445) D
1
a
2
2
C w,
xxxx
+
a
2
x
In view of the presence of odd-ordered derivatives in the above equation, the sep-
arable form of the solution for w(x,), assumed previously, does not satisfy the
equation.
Under torsional loading, the buckling deformation consists of circumferential
waves that spiral around the cylindrical shell from one end to the other. Such
waves can be represented by a deection function of the form:

x
w(x,) = Csin m
a
n (446)
with
ma
m = (447)
L
where m and n are integers. The alone displacement eld satisfy the dierential
equationandtheperiodicalconditionisthecircumferentialdirection,butdoesnot
satisfy any commonly used boundary at the cylinder ends. Consequently, this
simple examples can be used only for long cylinders.
For such cylinders, introduction of the additional displacement eld into the
governing equation, yields:
2 3
m
2
+n

2
D m

N
= +
2
C (448)
x
2 m n a
2
2 ( m
2
+n
2
)
2
n
1 v
For sucientlylongcylinders,theshellbucklesintwocircumferentialwaves,n= 2.
Also,thetermm
2
issmallcomparedwith4. Then,theapproximateexpressionis:
4 D m
3

N
= +
2
C (449)
x
m a
2
64
1 v
An analytical minimization of the alone experiment with repeat to m gives:

2
64 h
m
4
= (450)
9 (1
2
) a
101
Upon substitution, the nal expression for the buckling force, or better, critical
shear strain causing buckling is:

3/2
N
0.272 E h
cr
=
x
= (451)
h
(1
2
)
3/4
a
The above solution was given by Donnell. As noted, the above solution is invalid
for short shells due to the diculties in satisfying boundary condition. A more
rigorous analytical-numerical solution is shown in thegure below.
As the radius of the shell approaches innity, the critical stress coecient for
simplysupportedandclampededgeapproachesrespectivelythevalue5.35and8.98
corresponding to plates under the shear loading.
5.7 Inuence of Imperfection and Comparison with Experiments
Because of the presence of unavoidable imperfection in real shells, the experimen-
tallymeasuredbucklingloadaremuchsmallerthantheonesfoundtheoretically.
Reduction in the
buckling strength
due to imperfection
Comparisonoftheoreticalandexperimentalresultsforfourdierenttypeofloads:
102
Axial compression
Torsion
Lateral pressure
Hydrostatic pressure
are shown in the subsequent two pages. Note that the graphs were presented
in loglog scale. Replotting the results for axially loaded plate yields the graph
shown below.
1.1
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500
Theory
A design recommendation
c
r

=

0
.
6
0
5

E
h
/
a

e
x
p

a
h
Distribution of test data for cylinders subjected to axial compression.
Figure by MIT OCW.
The dierences are shown to be very large. Design curves for cylindrical and
other shells are based on the theoretical solution modied by empirical prediction
factors called "know-down factors". For example, the solid curve shown in the
receding page is a "90 percent probability curve." For a/h = 50, the reduction
factor predicted by this probability curve is 0.24. Thus, the theoretical solution
cr
= 0.605Eh/ashouldbemultipliedby0.24forthedesignstress= 0.15Eh/a.
Cylindricalshellsloadedindierentwayarebeensensitivetoimperfectionsand
the resulting knock-down factors are smaller.
Most industrial organization establish their own design criteria. They are fre-
quentlyloose-leafandarecontinuouslyupdatedonthevolumeoftheexperimented
evidenceincrease. Thesituationcanbeconvertedtothermlyestablishedmanual
103
of steel constructionsfor the design of columnsand beam. Thereason isthat col-
umn are not sensitive to imperfection as far as the ultimate strength is concerned.
104

2.081J/16.230J Plates and Shells: Professor Tomasz Wierzbicki

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2.081J/16.230J Plates and Shells: Professor Tomasz Wierzbicki

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2.081J/16.

230J Plates and Shells

are small so that their product or

is the displacement of the middle surface, which is independent of

is the slope which is negative for the

'0. Therefore, the 2-D in-plane components of strain tensor reads:

where the strain tensor of the middle surface E

is composed of a linear and a

= 0 so that strains are only due to the

represents the changeof

and the tensor of axial force (membrane force):

2.2 Bending Energy

= 0. The bending moment M

) is a homogeneous function of degree one.

= 0. The axial force can be calculated:

a straight loading path:

is a homogeneous function of degree one.

Now, the extension energy reads:

The extension energy expressed in terms of components:

= w, has been used.

Work of External Forces

where = 1 isthenormaldirectionn, and = 2 isthetangentialdirectiont. The

{1, 0}. Hence,

= {1, 0} or {n, t} (89)

How the remaining integral is transformed?

{1,0} so after summing with respect to , we

The generalized boundary conditions reads:

between Eq. (146) and (147), we obtain:

= q for , = 1,2 (154)

For the plate, the total load is given by:

Now, let us compute the total forces:

Comparison For both total forces to be equal, we need to have:

With a concentrated load, the beam deection now becomes:

We now can compute the ratio of central deections:

, Eq. (246) can be

Constitutive equation for axial force and axial strain

, and another one for moment and curvature

and another one for w.

In the pre-buckling problem, the linear equilibrium equations are obtained by

and boundary condition:

Here, it is assumed that the unknown membrane force tensor N

the similar quantity known from the pre-buckling solution N

where the compressive pre-buckling membrane force are dened as positive.

where membrane force tensor in the pre-buckling solution N

is determined from the

where the in-plane equilibrium is applied:

is considered as constant under the variation. Similarly, the second

(x,y) is a normalized shape

Example 5 Similarly, consider 2-D compression case:

where is a non-dimensional parameter dened by:

vary in the range

Consideraatplate(x,y) andasegmentofacylinder(x,a), where aistheradius

Mathematically, Eq. (370)-(372) can be derived from its counterparts by trans-

where C is the axial rigidity, C = The pre-buckling solution should Eh/ .

= qaand the pre-buckling solution is:

. Note that in the plate

Theaboveequationis calledtheDonnell stabilityequationintheuncoupledform.

Since m is much larger than n, one also gets:

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