I HC QUC GIA THNH PH H CH MINH

TRNG
B MN VT LIU NANO & MNG MNG





NHIU TRONG B THU QUANG






I HC QUC GIA THNH PH H CH MINH
NG I HC KHOA HC T NHIN
KHOA KHOA HC VT LIU
MN VT LIU NANO & MNG MNG


BO CO SEMINAR
CHUYN NGNH
ti
NHIU TRONG B THU QUANG
(NOISE IN PHOTODETECTORS)



GVHD: ThS. Ng Hi ng
SVTH : V Hong Linh
MSSV: 1019257


Tp. H Ch Minh, Nm 2013

I HC QUC GIA THNH PH H CH MINH
I HC KHOA HC T NHIN
MN VT LIU NANO & MNG MNG
NHIU TRONG B THU QUANG


I HC QUC GIA THNH PH H CH MINH
TRNG
B MN VT LIU NANO & MNG MNG

NHIU TRONG B THU QUANG
(NOISE IN PHOTODETECTORS)


I HC QUC GIA THNH PH H CH MINH
NG I HC KHOA HC T NHIN
KHOA KHOA HC VT LIU
MN VT LIU NANO & MNG MNG






BO CO SEMINAR
CHUYN NGNH
ti
NHIU TRONG B THU QUANG
(NOISE IN PHOTODETECTORS)





GVHD: ThS. Ng Hi ng
SVTH : V Hong Linh
MSSV: 1019257



Tp. H Ch Minh, Nm 2013


I HC QUC GIA THNH PH H CH MINH
I HC KHOA HC T NHIN
MN VT LIU NANO & MNG MNG
NHIU TRONG B THU QUANG



Trang 1


MC LC
TRANG PH BA Trang
MC LC1
DANH MC THUT NG V VIT TT....3
DANH MC CC BNG..3
DANH MC CC HNH V TH.....3
LI M U..5
CHNG 1 CC KHI NIM C BN6
CHNG 2 NHIU QUANG IN T......7
2.1 Nhiu photon.....7
2.2 Nhiu quang in t..8
2.3 Nhiu dng quang in.9
CHNG 3 NHIU TNG CH.11
3.1 Cc thng s gi tr...11
3.2 H s nhiu tha i vi APD..13
3.3 APD vi qu trnh ph thuc h s s ion ho.15
CHNG 4 NHIU MCH..17
4.1 Nhiu nhit17
4.2 Tham s nhiu mch : in tr khng v khuch i khng.18
CHNG 5 T S TN HIU TRN NHIU...20
5.1 S ph thuc ca SNR vo dng thng lng quang...22
5.2 Khi vic s dng APD tng thm u im...23

Trang 2


5.3 S ph thuc ca SNR vo tng ch APD23
5.4 S ph thuc ca SNR vo di vng my thu...24
5.5 nhy.26
CHNG 6 T S LI BIT V NHY..27
6.1 nhy ca my thu quang l tng...27
6.2 nhy ca my thu vi nhiu mch v nhiu tng ch..28
TI LIU THAM KHO..32


Trang 3


THUT NG V CH VIT TT
SNR Signal to noise ratio T s tn hiu trn nhiu
BER Bit error rate Tc nhiu bit
APD Avalanche photodiode Diode quang thc
RMS Root mean square
DANH MC CC BNG
Bng 6.1 Cc loi nhy (trung bnh s photon trn bit) ca nhiu my thu quang
hot ng ti t l bit trong vng t 1 Mb/s n 2.5 Gb/s.
DANH MC CC HNH V TH
Hnh 1.1 u vo v tn hiu c thu theo cc ngun nhiu khc nhau i vi (a)
mt b thu quang khng c tng ch, chng hn nh diode quang p-i-n; v (b)
mt b thu quang c tng ch.
Hnh 2.1 Dng quang c to ra trong mt mch b thu quang bao gm s chng
cho ln nhau ca xung dng in.
Hnh 3.1 Mi trng hp quang trong b thu quang vi tng ch to ra mt s
ngu nhin G
l
ca cc ht mang in, mi ht mang in pht sinh t cc xung dng
in ca vng eG
l
. Tng dng in trong mch in i(t) l s chng cho ca cc
xung ny.
Hnh 3.2 H s nhiu tha F i vi APD thng thng vi mt vng nhn rng
ng u, s ht in t di, nh l mt hm ca tng ch trung bnh C

, i vi
cc gi tr khc nhau ca h s ion ho k, i vi s ht l trng, 1/k thay th k.
Hnh 3.3 Gin vng nng lng ca APD cu trc d th t nhiu trong iu kin
o ngc.

Trang 4


Hnh 4.1 in tr R ti nhit T c cn bng n in tr t nhiu song song
vi ngun dng nhiu vi phng saio

2
=

i
2
4kIBR

, y B l di vng
mch in.
Hnh 4.2 Mch thu nhiu c th c thay th bi mch my thu t nhiu v ngun
dng n ngu nhin vi gi tr RMS
r
ti u vo ca n.
Hnh 4.3 in tr khng my thu quang.
Hnh 5.1 T s tn hiu trn nhiu (SNR) nh hm ca s photoelectron trung bnh
trn thi gian phn gii my thu, m = 2B, i vi diode quang ti hai gi tr
ca thng s nhiu mch
q
.
Hnh 5.2 So vi SNR m = 2B i vi my thu diode quang (ng cong nt
lin) v i vi my thu quang APD vi tng ch trung bnh 0

= 1uu v h s
nhiu tha F = 2 (ng nt t) c cho t 5.3. Tham s nhiu mch
q
= 100
trong c hai trng hp. i vi dng thng lng nh sng nh (trng hp gii
hn nhiu mch). SNR ca APD cao hn diode quang. i vi dng thng lng
ln (trng hp gii hn nhiu photon), my thu diode quang cao hn my thu
APD.
Hnh 5.3 S ph thuc ca SNR vo tng ch ca APD 0

vi h s ion ho k
khc nhau khi m = 1uuu v
q
= 500.
Hnh 5.4 th logarit kp ca s ph thuc ca SNR vo di vng B i vi ba
loi my thu.
Hnh 5.5 th logarit kp ca nhy my thu m
0
(s photoelectron trung bnh
ti thiu trn thi gian phn gii T = 1/2B m bo t s tn hiu trn nhiu SNR
0

ti thiu) v l hm ca di vng B i vi ba loi my thu. ng cong tim cn
gii hn nhiu photon ti gi tr B m o
q
2
SNR
0
4. Trong gii hn nhiu
photon (nu nhiu mch th khng ng k), m
0
= SNR
0
trong mi trng hp.

Trang 5


Hnh 6.1 (a) th biu din cc li m kt qu t s ngu nhin trong s lng
photon. (b) T l li bit (BER) so vi s photon trung bnh trn bit n
u
trong h
thng kho ON-OFF vi my thu l tng.




LI M U
Vi s pht trin v cng to ln ca k thut quang hc, vic xc nh cc
loi tn hiu ni chung v tn hiu quang ni ring bng cc thit b o thu
nhn kt qu tn hiu. Tuy nhin, khng phi lc no cng c c kt qu nh
mong mun t cc loi thit b o. Nguyn nhn ca vic ny l do s nh hng
t cc yu t n kt qu o, trong nhiu l yu t nh hng trc tip n kt
qu o. Trong bi bo co ny, chng ta s tm hiu v nhiu i vi b thu
quang hc (Photodetector) lm r cc nguyn nhn v cc ngun gy ra nhiu
t tm ra cc bin php lm gim nhiu t cc bi ton, cc phng trnh
i s, t cc hm phn b cng nh tm ra cc quy lut tnh ton tm cc loi
linh kin quang ph hp cho my thu quang nh photodiode, APD, nhm lm
gim ti thiu cc yu t gy ra nhiu c c kt qu nh mong mun.


Trang 5

CHNG 1 CC KHI NIM C BN
Photodetector l b thu phn ng li vi dng thng lng photon hoc cng sut
quang. Ta bit rng, dng nh sng (cng sut quang P=hn) lm pht sinh dng
in t l i
p
=e=RP. Tuy nhin, trong thc t dng in to ra trong thit b l mt
s ngu nhin I, m gi tr ca n bin i trn di gi tr trung bnh ca n
t = i
p
= e = RP. S thay i ca I thng c coi l nhiu, c c trng bi
chnh lch gia cc
i
, o

2
= (i

t )

. i vi dng bng khng (t = u) c
ngha l lch chun gim n gi tr hiu dng ca dng, o

=

i
2

1
2
.
Mt s ngun nhiu thng c trong qu trnh thu nhn photon:
Nhiu photon: ngun c bn nht ca nhiu c lin quan n cc yu t
khch quan ngu nhin ca chnh cc photon.
Nhiu photoelectron: trong my thu nh sng vi hiu sut lng t < 1,
mt photon to ra mt cp l trng quang in t vi xc sut v khng
thc lm th vi hiu sut 1 - . Bi v qu trnh to ra ht ti photon l
ngu nhin, l mt ngun nhiu.
Nhiu gain: qu trnh khuch i m n l cc ht c sn bn trong
photodetectors, chng hn nh photoconductors v ADPs, l ngu nhin. Mi
photon c pht hin ra to ra nhng ht mang ngu nhin G, vi gi tr
trung bnh0

. Ht dao ng ph thuc vo bn cht ca c ch khuch i.

Nhiu mch thu: cc thnh phn khc nhau trong mch in ca my thu
quang, chng hn nh in tr v bng bn dn gp phn vo s nhiu mch
thu.
Bn ngun nhiu ny c minh ho bng th 1.1. Khi cho tn hiu vo
detector(a tn hiu quang vo) lin kt vi s nhiu bn trong. Hiu ng
photon chuyn photon thnh photoelectron. Trong qu trnh ny, tn hiu trung bnh
gim bi (hiu ng lng t). Lin kt nhiu photoelectron cng gim, nhng
bng mt s lng t hn so vi tn hiu. Do t s tn hiu trn nhiu ca tn hiu

Trang 6

photoelectron th thp hn t s nhiu ca tn hiu photon ti. Nhiu mch gp phn
vo vic pht hin tn hiu. Nu c ch thu nhn photodetector c thc hin, n
s khch i c hai tn hiu nhiu v photoelectron, n a ra nhiu tng ch ca
chnh n. Cui cng, nhiu mch c a vo ti im ca s thu thp dng. Khi
cc thnh phn trong h thng truyn thng tin, my thu quang c th c c
trng bi s biu din theo cc thc o:
T s tn hiu trn nhiu(SNR) ca s bin i ngu nhin c nh ngha
nh l t s ca bnh phng ca n trn phng sai ca n. Do SNR ca
dng i l SNR =
i
2
c
i
2
trong khi SNR ca s photon l SNR =
n
2
c
n
2
.
Tn hiu ghi nhn ti thiu c nh ngha nh thc o tn hiu m nng
sut SNR hp li.
H s nhiu tha F ca s bin i ngu nhin c nh ngha l t s ca
bnh phng trung bnh trn trung bnh bnh phng ca n. Do h s
nhiu tha ca photodetector tng ch G l F =


u
2

u
2
.
T l li bit (BER) c nh ngha l xc sut li trn bt trong my thu
quang s.

Trang 7

nhy my thu c nh ngha nh tn hiu m n lin quan n gi tr
quy nh ca t s tn hiu trn nhiu, SNR = SNR
o
. Trong khi tn hiu ghi
nhn ti a lin quan n nhy my thu m n tho mn SNR
o
= 1, gi tr
cao hn ca SNR
o
thng c c th m bo cho mc chnh xc(v d
SNR
o
= 10 10
3
tng ng vi 10 30 dB). i vi h thng s, nhy
my thu c nh ngha nh nng lng quang ti thiu( hoc lin quang
n s trung bnh cc photon) trn bit c yu cu t c quy nh t
l li bit, m n thng t l BER = 10
-9
.
Chng ta bt u bng cch bt ngun t t l tn hiu trn nhiu i vi my tch
sng quang vi bn ngun nhiu ny. Cc ngun nhiu khc m chng ta khng
xem xt k l nhiu Backgroung v nhiu dark-current. Nhiu Backgroung l nhiu
photon lin h n nh sng t cc ngun quang khng lin quan m n n my
tch sng(bao gm cc ngun khc so vi hn so vi tn hiu cn quan tm, chng
hn nh nh sng mt tri v nh sng ca cc ngi sao). Nhiu phng th c bit
c hi trong cc h thng d m n hot ng trong vng ph gia v hng ngoi xa
bi v bc x nhit di do pht ra cc bc sng bi cc vt th nhit
phng. Cc photodectors cng to ra nhiu dng ti, nh tn ca n, ngay c trong
trng hp khng c nh sng. Nhiu dng ti l kt qu t vic cc cp in t-l
trng ngu nhin c to ra bng nhit hoc bng cch chui hm. Cng b qua cc
dng r v nhiu 1/f.
CHNG 2 NHIU QUANG IN T
2.1 Nhiu photon
Nh c m t trong phn dng quang (stream), dng quang lin h vi cng
sut quang c nh th vn d khng chc chn. Dng quang trung bnh l F = P/hn
(photon/s), nhng s lng thay i ngu nhin theo nh lut xc sut m n ph
thuc vo bn cht ca ngun sng. S photon n c tnh trong mt khong thi
gian T nh vy l ngu nhin vi gi tr trung bnh n = FI. i vi nh sng t
ngun laser l tng, hoc t ngun nhit ca vng ph rng ln hn nhiu so vi

Trang 8

1/T, s photon tun theo s phn b xc sut Poisson, m o
n
2
= n. Do , s
thay i lin quan n trung bnh ca kt qu 100 photon trong s photon thc t
m n xp x nm trong vng 100 10.
T l tn hiu trn nhiu s photon SNR = n
2
o
n
2
th do :
SNR = n 2.1
v ti thiu pht hin s photon l n = 1 photon. Nu thi gian quan st l T = 1s
v bc sng
0
= 1.24m, iu ny tng ng vi cng sut pht hin ti thiu
l 0.16pW. nhy my thu i vi SNR
0
= 10
3
(30dB) l 1000 photon. Nu
khong thi gian l 10ns, iu ny tng ng vi nhy 10
11
photon/s hoc
nhy cng sut quang l 16nW ti
0
= 1.24m.
2.2 Nhiu quang in
Mt photon ti photodetector ca hiu ng lng t to ra mt photoevent (v d
to mt cp photoelectron l trng hoc gii phng mt photoelectron) vi xc sut
, hoc khng lm nh vy vi xc sut 1 - . Photoevent c gi thuyt l c
la chn ngu nhin t dng photon (stream). Dng photon trung bnh ti
(photon/s) do kt qu l dng photoelectron trung bnh l F (photoelaectron/s).
S photoelectron m c pht hin trong khong thi gian T l thay i ngu nhin
vi gi tr trung bnh l
m = n 2.2
y n = FI l s trung bnh cc photon ti trong cng mt khong thi gian T.
Nu s photon c phn b theo hm Poisson, th n cng l s photoelectron, v
c th xc nh bng cch s dng cc thng s t random partitioning of photon
streams. Theo phng sai s photoelectron bng m, m:

n
2
= m = n. 2.3
R rng nhiu photoelectron th khng bao gm nhiu photon.

Trang 9

S ngu nhin vn c bn di trong s photon, m n to nn cc ngun nhiu c
bn m chng ta cn xem xt s dng nh sng truyn tn hiu, do lm
pht sinh t l tn hiu trn nhiu ca s photoelectron
SNR = m = n 2.4
S photoelectron c pht hin ti thiu l m = n = 1 photoelectron tng ng
vi 1/ photon. nhy my thu i vi SNR
0
= 10
3
l 1000 photon hoc 1000/
photon.
2.3 Nhiu dng quang
By gi ta s kho st tnh cht ca dng in i(t) c gy ra trong mt mch in
bi mt thng lng photoelectron ngu nhin c gi tr trung bnh F. S kho
st m ta c cung cp bao gm nhiu photo, nhiu photoelectron v c trng
thi gian phn hi ca my thu v mch in (b lc). Mi cp l trng
photoelectron to ra mt xung ca dng in vi in tch (area) e v di thi
gian
p
bn trong mch in ca photodetector (hnh). Mt dng (stream) photo ti
trong photodetector do kt qu l trong mt dng (stream) ca xung dng in
m n hp cng nhau to thnh photocurrent i(t). S ngu nhin ca dng
(stream) photon th c bin i bn trong dng in bin i. Nu cc photon ti
tun theo hm phn b Poisson, th s bin i ny c bin nh l nhiu n (shot
noise). Ni chung, i vi cc my thu c tng ch (gain) G, to ra in tch
bn trong mi xung l q = Ge.

Trang 10


Trc khi cung cp mt php tnh tch o hm ca thuc tnh ca photocurrent i(t).
u tin chng ta cn phi xt vn n gin ho cc quan im. Xt mt
thng lng photon F ti trong mt my thu quang in ca hiu ng lng t .
s ngu nhin m ca cc photoelectron c tnh trong mt khong thi gian
c trng T = 1/2B ( phn gii thi gian ca mch in) to ra mt photocurrent
i(t), y t l thi gian tc thi theo khong T. i vi xung dng in hnh ch
nht ca khong thi gian T v gi tr ngu nhin s photoelectron v dng in
c lin h bi i = (e/T)m.
Do phng sai v photocurrent trung bnh c cho bi:
=
c
T
m 2.5

I
2
= (
c
T
)
2

m
2
2.6
y m = FI = F2B l s photoelectron trung bnh thu c t khong thi
gian T = 1/2B. Th o
m
2
= m i vi nh lut ng sut poisson th photocurrent v
phng sai l:
= eF 2.7

I
2
= 2e B 2.8
T t l tn hiu trn nhiu ca dng quang in, SNR = t
2
o

2
, l:
SNR =
i
2cB
=
F
2B
= m 2.9
SNR ca dng in th t l thun vi thng lng F v t l nghch vi rng
ca di ca mch in B. Kt qu l ging nhau m t l tn hiu trn nhiu
ca s photoelectron m, nh mong i, v dng to ra khng bao gm yu t ngu
nhin.
Tham s B c nh ngha bi B =
1
2c
2
h
2
(t)ut =
h
1

0
(t)dt
2| h(t)dt

0
]
2

0
i din ca
rng ca di thit b/dng in. iu ny d dng xc minh bi php bin i
Fourier i vi h(t) l hm bin i ca n H(n). Din tch h(t) c n gin ho

Trang 11


H(0) = e. Theo thuyt Parseval
|f(t)|
2

-
ut =
|F(n)|
2

-
dn, din tch h
2
(t) th bng
din tch hm i xng H
2
(n), m:
B =
H(n)
H(0)

2
un

0
2.10
Do s hng B th nm trong vng nng lng cn bng ca hm |H(n)| (vng
rng ca di ca s kt hp thit b/dng in) m theo B =
|H(n)|
2
|H(0)|
2

0
un. Nh mt
v d, nu H(n) = 1 trong khong -n
c
< n < n
c
v vng bng 0, hiu sut
B =
H(n)
H(0)

2
un

0
, B = n
c
.
S quan h ny dng i vi thit b thu quang in m khng c tng ch (gain) (v
d nh phototube v junction photodiode). S dng cc cng thc i hi cc kin
thc ca vng rng ca di ca thit b, mch in bias v b khuch i, B c
xc nh bng s dng hm bin i trong ton h thng trong
B =
H(n)
H(0)

2
Jn

0
2.11
CHNG 3 NHIU TNG CH
3.1 Cc thng s gi tr
Gi tr trung bnh v phng sai photocurrent ca thit b vi tng ch c nh
(xc nh) G th c xc nh bng cch thay e vi q = Ge vo 2.7
v 2.8, t ta c c:
= euF =
cGP
hn
3.1

I
2
= 2eu B = 2e
2
u
2
BF 3.2
T l tn hiu trn nhiu, theo 2.9, tr thnh
SNR =
i
2cuB
=
F
2B
= m 3.3

Trang 12


N khng ph thuc G v tng ch xc nh to ra khng bao gm yu t
ngu nhin; dng in trung bnh t m gi tr RMS ca n
i
c hai c nhn
ln bi cng h s G.
Kt qu n thun ny khng p dng khi tng ch ca chnh n l ngu nhin,
nh trong trng hp trong mt ng photomultiplier, photoconductor v photodiode
thc . Bt ngun t tr trung bnh v phng sai ca photocurrent c cho trong
phn trc c th c b sung sau . c bit, dng in i(t) = X
I
(t lAt)
sau c vit li nh sau:
i(t) = X
I I
0
I
(t lAt) 3.4
Nh trc y, X
l
ly gi tr l vi xc sut p = Ft, v 0 vi xc sut 1 p. By
gi bao hm s khng ph thuc s nhu nhin G
l
th hin tng ch c truyn
n mt photocarrier c to ra trong vng thi gian th l, nh trong hnh v.

Trang 13


Nu G
l
bin i ngu nhin c gi tr trung bnh

0

= 0

, v gi tr bnh phng
trung bnh

0
2

, tng t nh trong b cng thc th t trong hiu sut v
= eu

F 3.5

I
2
= 2eu

BF 3.6
Trong h s nhiu tha F c nh ngha nh:
F =


G
2

G
2
3.7
H s nhiu tha lin quan n phng sai ca tng ch o
u
2
bi F = 1 + o
u
2

0
2
. Trong trng hp c bit ca vic xc nh tng ch, o
u
2
= u v F = 1, ri
t 3.6 gim n 3.2. Khi tng ch l ngu nhin, o
u
2
> u v F > 1; c hai i
lng ny tng vi tng cao ca s thay i tng ch. Kt qur l dng in I
sau s tahy i l cao hn s thay i ca nhiu n.
Trong s c mt ca tng ch ngu nhin, t l tn hiu trn nhiu dng in
t
2
o

2
tr thnh:
SNR =
i
2cG

BF
=
2B
F
=
m
F
3.8
y m l s trung ca photoelectron c thu trong khong thi gian T = 1/2B.
Gi tr ny nh hn SNR tng ch xc nh bi h s F; s gim c lin h vi
yu t ngu nhin ca tng ch.
3.2 H s nhiu tha i vi APD
Kho photoelectron c y ra ti bin ca vng nhn rng ng u trong APD
thng thng, tng ch ca thit b c cho bi u =
1-k
c
|-(1-R)o
e
v-R]
. N ph
thuc vo h s ion ho in t
e
v t s k =
h
/
e
, cng nh trong khong rng
ca vng nhn rng w. S dng tng t (nhng phc tp hn) phn tch, kt
hp vi yu t ngu nhin lin quan n qu trnh tng ch, theo s th hin ca
tng ch bnh phng trung bnh

0
2

, v do i vi h s nhiu tha F trong 3.7.

Trang 14


Bt ngun tng qut hn lm pht sinh s th hin i vi tng ch trung bnh
m n ging cng thc c cho trong u =
1-k
c
|-(1-R)o
e
v-R]
.
Cc tnh ton chng minh rng h s nhiu tha F th c lin h vi tng ch
trung bnh v t s ion ho bng:
F = k0

+ (1 k)(2
1
u
) 3.9
C rt nhiu cng thc c th hin trong hnh v 3.2 vi k l mt tham s.
Phng trnh 3.9 l ph hp khi cc in t c y ra ti bin ca vng nhn
rng, nhng c in t v l trng u c kh nng bt u tng tc s ion ho.
Nu ch l trng b y ra, th s th hin p dng tng t, c nh rng k c
tahy bi 1/k. Nhiu tng ch c gim thiu bng cch y cc ht mang in vi
h s ion ho cao hn, v bi vic ch to ra cu trc vi gi tr c th thp nht ca
k nu cc in t c y ra, hoc gi tr c th cao nht ca k nu l trng c
y ra. Do , h s ion ho i vi cc ht mang in s cng c th khc nhau.
Phng trnh 3.9 c ni n ph hp theo iu kin ca single-carrier-initated
double-carrier multiplication v c hai loi ht mang in c kh nng va chm ion,

Trang 15


ngay c khi ch mt loi b y ra. Nu cc in t v l trng c y ra ng
thi, ton b kt qu l tng ca hai kt qu ring l.
Nhiu tng ch c to ra bi mt APD thng thng pht sinh t hai ngun: yu
t ngu nhin trong cc v tr m s ion ho xy ra v qu trnh phn hi c
lin quan n thc t c hai loi ht mang in c th to ra va chm ion ho.
Ngun th nht ca nhiu c hin din ny c khi ch c mt loi ht ti in c
th nhn rng. N pht sinh t h s nhiu tha ti thiu F = 2 ti gi tr rng ca
tng ch trung bnh 0

, r rng bng cch thit lp k = 0 v 0

tr nn rng ln
trong 3.9. Ngun th hai ca nhiu, qu trnh phn hi, th c kh nng bt li hn
v n c th dn n mt s gia tng ln hn nhiu trong F.
3.3 APD vi qu trnh ph thuc h s ion ho
Mt ht mang in mi c to ra c th do va chm ion ho ch sau khi di
chuyn xa qua vng nhn rng m n c th tch t nng lng t t
trng. Khong cch ny c gi l khng gian cht. H s ion ho khng tht s
khng ph thuc v tr v qu trnh ht mang in, v c gi thuyt trong l truyt
i vi APD thng thng. Khng gian cht phc v n t chc v tr m va
chm ion ho c th xy ra. iu ny c tng cng li trt t qu trnh t chc
ht mang in v dn n gim nhiu tng ch. iu ny c bit ng khi vng
nhn rng l rt mng (w < 400nm) v s vng nhn rng l nh.
Nhiu tip tc gim c th t c nu nng lng ht mang in c iu khin
ph hp :
Hiu ng nng lng u. Cc ht mang in vt qua mt gradient trng
c thit k ph hp trc khi a vo vng nhn rng c th thu ht ng k
ng nng, do lm gim khng gian cht ban u trong vng nhn rng v ph
hp vi va chm ion ho.
Hiu ng ngng nng lng va chm ion ho. Mt thit b c th c thit
k m cc ht mang in vt qua vng nhn rng gp in tch t ngt trong
nng lng ngng ion ho v n bng qua mt lp ca mt vt liu vo bn trong

Trang 16


ca mt lp vt liu khc. Mt ht mang in vi nng lng khng trong lp
u tin c th dn n trong mt s ion ho khi n a vo lp th hai.
V tr va chm ion ho trong c thit k c bit cu trc a lp hiu sut thit
b vi tng ch cao, nhiu thp, v dng ti thp. V d nh gin vng nng
lng i vi mt thit b, di iu kin bias o ngc, c hin th trong hnh
3.3. Hai lp nhn mng, vi mi lin h ngng nng lng thp, xung quanh mt
lp vi nng lng ngng cao hn. Va chm ion ho c tng cng ti bin ca
cc lp nhn rng sinh i v c ngn cn trong vng trung tm, m n truyn
nng lng ti cc ht mang in trong vng i qua.
Nhng vt liu c chn m s ion ho l trng gy ra khng c ngn cn.
Mt l thuyt ca nhiu APD m n cha hiu ng ny ac c pht trin. Ly
hnh thc ca s lin h li i vi moment th nht v th hai, v xc sut phn
b, ca s cc in t v l trng. S thay i ngu nhin ny c xc nh lin h
vi tng ch ngu nhin. S quan h lp li c xy dng trong mt cch

Trang 17


nh cha khng gian cht, cng nh hiu ng nng lng ban u va chm ion
ho v ngng nng lng. S gii quyt cc s cung cp tng ch trung bnh h
s nhiu tha i vi gi tr tu ca khng gian cht v di vng nhn rng.
L thuyt d on ng ghi nhn thc o trong v d 2.4.
CHNG 4 NHIU MCH
Tuy nhin vic cng nhiu c to ra bi mch in in t lin quan n my thu
quang. Kt qu nhiu mch t s chuyn ng nhit ca cc ht mang in tch
trong cc in tr v cc yu t tiu tn khc (nhiu nhit), v t s bin i ca cc
ht mang in tch trong cc transistor c s dng trong cc my thu khuch i.
4.1 Nhiu nhit
Nhiu nhit (cng c gi l nhiu Johnson hoc nhiu Nyquist) pht sinh t s
chuyn ng ngu nhin ca cc ht mang in di ng cc vt liu in thuc v
in tr ti cc nhit ti hn; s di chuyn ny lm pht sinh ra dng in ngu
nhin i(t) thm ch khi khng c cc ngun cng sut in bn ngoi. Dng in
nhit trong in tr R l hm ngu nhin, gi tr trung bnh ca n

i(t) = u

.
Phng sai ca dng in o

2
, m n th tng t nh gi tr trung bnh bnh phng
v tr trung bnh trit tiu, tng theo nhit T.
S dng tham s c bn trong c ch tnh in, m n c xut hin trong phn
tip theo, n c th c chng minh rng in tr R ti nhit T a ra mt dng
in ngu nhin i(t) c trng bi mt ph nng lng:
S

() =
4
R
h]
c
(
h]
kT
-1)
4.1
y f l tn s. Trong vng f << kT/h, m l mi quan tm v kT/h = 6.24 THz
ti nhit phng, exp(hf/kT) 1 + hf/kT m
S
i
(f) 4kT/R 4.2
Phng sai ca dng in khng th tch ri mt ph nng lng hn na tn s
trong di vng B ca mch in

Trang 18


o

2
= S

()J
B
0
4.3
i vi B << kT/h, ta c c
o

2
4kIBR 4.4
Do , nh trong hnh 4.1, in tr R ti nhit T trong mch in ca di vng B
ng x nh mt in tr khng nhiu song song vi ngun ca dng nhiu vi
trung bnh bng o v gi tr RMS
i
c xc nh bi 4.4.
4.2 Thng s nhiu dng: in tr khng v b khuch i khng my thu quang
thun tin tp trung vo cc ngun khc nhau ca nhiu mch (nhiu nhit trong
in tr cng nh nhiu trong transistor v cc thit b mch in khc) vo trong
mt ngun dng in ngu nhin duy nht i
r
, ti u vo my thu m n to ra cng
mt nhiu tng ti u ra my thu (hnh 4.2). Gi tr trung bnh ca i
r
l khng trong
khi phng saio

2
ph thuc nhit d, di vng my thu, thng s mch in v loi
thit b.

Trang 19


Do , d dng cho vic nh ngha th nguyn ca thng s mch nhiu
o
q
=
c
r
1
c
=
c
r
2Bc
4.5
B l di vng my thu v T= 1/2B l thi gian phn gii ca my thu. V
r
l
gi tr RMS ca dng nhiu,
r
/e l thng lng in t RMS (electron/s) pht sinh
t nhiu mch in v
q
= (
r
/e)T, do biu din s RMS ca mch nhiu in t
trong thi gian T. Thng s mch nhiu
q
l mt con s ng tin cy m c im
s lng dng my thu quang.
Mt my thu quang bao gm mt photodiode trong mt lot cc in tr ti R
L

c theo bi mt b khuch i, c minh ho trong hnh 4.3.

Trang 20


My thu n gin ny c ni n nh l in tr khng nu mch nhiu dng
in pht sinh t nhiu nhit trong in tr ti l rt ng k ng gp t cc ngun
nhiu khc. B khuch i sau c th c xem nh l noiseless v mch nhiu
dng in trung bnh bnh phng th n gin o

2
= 4kTB/R
L
. Thng s mch
nhiu c nh ngha bng cng thc 4.5 th do :
o
q
= _
k1
c
2
R
L
B
4.6
M n t l nghch vi square-root ca di vng B
Mt my thu c thit k tt b khuch i nhiu thp c hiu sut thng s mch
nhiu thp hn my thu in tr khng. Xt my thu s dng b khuch i FET.
Nu nhiu pht sinh t in tr u vo cao ca b khuch i c th c b qua,
my thu b cn tr bi nhiu nhit trong knh gia ngun FET v mng. Vic s
dng my cn bng tng cao tn s b yu i bi in dung vo trong tr khng
ca mch in, thng s mch nhiu ti nhit phng, i vi cc loi mch bao
gm cc gi tr, ho ra l:
o
q

B
100
(B trong Hz) 4.7
V d nu B = 100MHz, th
q
= 100. ng k ci ny nh hn thng s mch nhiu
lin quan n b khuch i tr khng 50- ca cng mt di vng. Thng s mch
nhiu
q
tng theo B v hiu ng ca my cn bng.
Mt my thu m n thc hin vic s dng b khuch i transistor lng cc, mt
khc, c h s mch nhiu
q
m n khng ph thuc vo di vng B trn mt vng
rng ca tn s. Gia di vng 100MHz n 2GHz
q
thng l 500, c cho
bi cc transistor thch hp c s dng v c ti u th hiu dch.
CHNG 5 T S TN HIU TRN NHIU V NHY MY THU
Cc phng php n gin nht ca cht lng ca s tip nhn l t s tn hiu
trn nhiu. SNR ca dng in ti u vo ca mch in noiseless th hin trong

Trang 21


hnh 4.2 l t s ca bnh phng ca dng in trung bnh tng ca phng sai
ca cc thnh phn ngun ca nhiu:
SNR =
i
2
2cu

i BP+c
r
2
=
(cu

)
2
2c
2
u

2
BP+c
r
2
5.1
S hng u tin trong mu s th hin cho nhiu photoelectron v nhiu tng ch
[xem 3.6], trong khi s hng th hai biu hin cho nhiu mch in. i vi
detector m khng c tng ch, 0

= 1 v F = 1. Mch in noiseless khng thay

i t s tn hiu trn nhiu mc d c b khuch i.
Vic ny hu dng vit SNR trong 5.1 trong cc s hng ca s trung bnh ca
photon c thu m trong khong thi gian phn gii ca my thu T = 1/2B,
m = I =

2B
5.2
V thng s nhiu mch in
q
=
r
/2Be. Kt qu l:
SNR =
u

2
m
2
u

2
Pm+c
q
2
5.3
Phng trnh 5.3 l cch gii thch n gin. T s l bnh phng ca s trung
bnh ca photoelectron c thu khuch i trong thi gian phn gii my thu T =
1/2B. Mu s l tng ca phng sai ca s photoelectron ca s electron ca mch
nhiu thu c trong khong thi gian T.di vi photodiode m khng c tng ch
0

= F = 1. Ri sau 5.3 gim ti:

SNR =
m
2
m+c
q
2
5.4
Mi quan h v ln ca m v o
q
2
c xc nh l c mi quan h quan trng
ca nhiu photoelectron v nhiu mch in. Cch thc m thng s
q
c
trng cho s biu hin ca mch in nh l mt my thu quang th by gi r
rng. V d, nu
q
= 100, sau nhiu mch in chim u th hn nhiu
photoelectron c to ra m s trung bnh ca photoelectron c ghi nhn trn
thi gian phn gii nm bn di 10000.

Trang 22


By gi tin hnh kim tra s ph thuc ca SNR theo thng lng photon , di
vng mch in B, thng s mch nhiu my thu
q
v tng ch 0

. Cc ny s cho
php ta xc nh khi s dng APD th mang li li ch v cho php chng ta la
chn mt cch thch b khuch i quang i vi vic tip nhn thng lng
photon. Trong cc thng s nghin cu ny, chng ta s ly s biu hin i vi
SNR c a ra trong 5.1, 5.3 v 5.4.
5.1 S ph thuc ca SNR vo thng lng photon
S ph thuc ca SNR vo m = 2B c yu cu cn bn ca vic lm th
no SNR thay i theo thng lng photon . u tin ta xt photodiode m
khng c tng ch, p dng trong trng ny 5.4. Hai trng hp giwos hn
c quan tm:
a) Gii hn mch in nhiu. Nu nh, m m o
q
2
( 2Bo
q
2
),
nhiu photon l khng ng k v nhiu mch in chim u th, hiu sut
b) SNR
m
2
c
q
2

c) Gii hn photon nhiu. Nu thng lng photon ln, m m o
q
2

( 2Bo
q
2
), s hng mch in nhiu c th khng ng k, sau :
SNR m 5.5
i vi m nh, do , SNR t
l thun vi m
2
v do
2
,
i vi mln n t l thun vi
m v do nh minh ho
trong hnh 5.1 . i vi tt c
cc mc nh sng SNR tng
theo s tng ca thng lng
photon . Nhiu nh sng ci
thin hiu sut thu.

Trang 23


5.2 Khi s dng APD tng thm u im
By gi chng ta s chun b hai my thu ging ht nhau trong tt c cc phng
din ngoi tr vic l khng c tng ch, trong khi trng by tng ch 0

cng
vi yu t nhiu tha F (v d nh APD). i vi m nh (hoc thng lng
photon ), nhiu mch in chim u th. B khuch i dng photon trn mc ca
nhiu mch in sau s nng cao SNR. My thu APD sau s c nng cao.
i vi m ln (thng lng photon ) th nhiu mch in l khng ng k. B
khuch i dng photon sau to ra nhiu tng ch, do lm gim SNR. My thu
photodiode sau s nng cao, so snh 5.3 v 5.4 chng minh rng SNR ca my
thu APD l tt hn so vi photodiode khi m < o
q
2
(1
1
u

2
)(F 1). i vi 0

1
APD p ng u im khi m < o
q
2
(F 1), nu iu kin ny khng tho mn, th
vic s dng APD cn xem li, ch khng phi l nng cao, hiu sut my thu. Khi

q
rt nh, v d nu r rng t 5.3 m APD c SNR = mF th n s km
photodiode SNR = m. SNR c v nh l mt hm ca m i vi hai my thu
trong hnh 5.2
5.3 S ph thuc ca SNR vo tng ch APD

Trang 24


Vic s dng APD l c li i vi thng lng photo nh, m < o
q
2
(F 1).
tng ch ti u ca APD c xc nh bi vic s dng 5.3:
SNR =
u

2
m
u

2
P+c
q
2
m
5.6
H s nhiu tha F l mt hm ca chnh n ca 0

, v r rng t 3.9 i vi dy
APD. Thay th hiu sut
SNR =
u

2
m
ku

3
+(1-k)(2u

2
-u
)+c
q
2
m
5.7
k l t s s ion ho ht mang in APD. S biu din ny c v trong hnh
5.3 i vi m = 1uuu v
q
= 500.

i vi APD s khch i n ht mang in (k = 0), SNR tng vi tng ch v
cui cng l bo ho. i vi APD s khuch i i ht mang in (k >0), SNR
cng tng theo tng ch, nhng n s t ti ti a ti gi tr ti u ca tng
ch, vt ra xa m n gim khi mt kt qu ca t nhin tng trong nhiu tng ch.
Nhn chung, do c vic chn ti u ca tng ch APD.
5.4 S ph thuc ca SNR vo di vng my thu

Trang 25


S lin h gia SNR v di vng B c ngm nh trong 5.1. N c iu chnh
bi s ph thuc ca phng sai dng mch nhiu o

2
vo B. Xt ba my thu:
a. My thu in tr khng trng by o

2
B [xem 4.4] m
SNR1B 5.8
b. My thu khuch i FET tun theo
q
B
1/2
[xem 4.7] m
r
= 2eB
q
B
3/2
. iu ny cho php s ph thuc ca SNR vo B trong 5.1 gi thuyt t cng
thc
SNR1(B + sB
2
) 5.9
y s l hng s.
c. B khuch i lng cc transistor c mt thng s mch nhiu
q
m n
gn nh khng ph thuc B. Do ,
r
B, m 5.1 ly cng thc
SNR1(B + sB
2
) 5.10
y s l hng s.
S quan h ny c minh ho trong th 5.4. SNR thng gim khi B tng. Khi
di vng nh, c ba my thu th hin SNR thay i v 1/B. i vi di vng
rng, SNR ca FET v my thu transistor khuch i lng cc suy giamrkhas
mnh theo di vng.

Trang 26


5.5 nhy my thu
nhy my thu l thng lng photon ti thiu
0
, lin quan n cng sut quang
ca n l P
0
= hn
0
v lin quan n s trung bnh ca photoelectron m
0
=
0

2B, c yu cu t c gi tr qui nh ca t s tn hiu trn nhiu SNR

0
.
i lng m
0
c th c xc nh bng li gii 5.3 i vi SNR = SNR
0
. Chng ta
ch xt my thu ng nht tng ch, t nhiu li gii chung t th d.

m
0
=
1
2
|SNR
0
+ _SNR
0
2
+ 4o
q
2
SNR
0
5.11
Cc trng hp gii hn xut hin:
Gii hn photon nhiu (o
q
2

1
4
SNR
0
): m
0
= SNR
0
5.12
Gii hn mch nhiu (o
q
2

1
4
SNR
0
): m
0
= SNR
0
o
q
5.13
Khi s dng 5.11 xc nh nhy my thu, cn phi nh rng thng s mch
nhiu
q
, nhn chung, mt hm ca di vng B, theo :
My thu tr khng: o
q
1B
B khuch i FET: o
q
B
B khuch i lng cc transistor:
q
khng ph thuc B
i vi cc my thu ny, nhy m
0
ph thuc vo di vng B nh c minh ho
trong hnh 5.5. Vic chn ti u ca my thu m do ph thuc vo mt phn di
vng B.

Trang 27


Chng 6 T L LI BIT V NHY MY THU
nhy ca cc my thu tng t c nh ngha trong phn 18.6D khi cng sut
ti thiu ca nh sng c thu (hoc lin quan n thng lng photon) cn thit
t c quy nh t s tn hiu trn nhiu SNR
0
. By gi chng ta s tr li
vi nhy ca my thu thng tin. i vi h thng kho ON-OFF nh phn,
nhy c nh ngha nh l nng lng quang ti thiu (hoc s trung bnh ca cc
photon) trn bit cn thit t c quy nh t l li bit BER. u tin ta cn xc
nh nhy ca my thu l tng v sau xt hiu ng nhiu mch in v my
thu nhiu tng ch.
6.1 nhy ca my thu quang l tng
Gi s rng cc bit 0 v 1 ca h thng kho ON-OFF i din bi s c mt v
khng c mt ca nng lng quang, tng ng c m t trong chng 24. Trong
khi bit 1 l s trung bnh ca cc photon n c thu nhn. Trong bit 0 khng c
photon c thu nhn. Nu hai bit tng ng vi nhau, tng trung bnh s photon
trn bit l n
u
=
1
2
n. V thc t s photon thu nhn c l ngu nhin, li trong s
xc nh bit xy ra. i vi nh sng c to ra t laser diode, kh nng nhn n
photon c tun theo phn b Poisson p(n) = n
n
e
-n
n! khi s photon trung
bnh n c truyn (xem photon steams). Cc my thu c quy c rng 1 th
c truyn nu nhn c mt hoc nhiu photon hn. Xc sut p
1
nhm 1 i
vi 0 v do bng vi xc sut khng nhn photon. My thu c quy c ng
rng bit 0 thif c truyn, m p
0
= 0. T l bit li l trung bnh li ca hai xc
sut, BER =
1
2
(p
1
+p
0
), :
BER =
1
2
e
-n
=
1
2
e
-2n
o
6.1

Hnh 6.1 miu t cho mi quan h ny

Trang 28



nhy my thu c nh ngha nh l s trung bnh ca cc photon trn bit c
yu cu t c mt gi tr nht nh ca BER. c bit, i vi BER = 10
-9
,
gi tr ny thng c chn, 6.1 a ra n
u
= 1u photon trn bit, chng ta kt lun
rng:
nhy my thu (i vi t l li bit BER = 10
-9
) ca mt h thng thng tin s
quang s dng mt my thu l tng l 10 photon trn bit.
nhy my thu n gin ca 10 photon trn bit ch p dng i vi nh sng vi
s phn b s photon theo Poisson. nhy c th c nng cao, theo l thuyt,
bi vic s dng nh sng photon-number-sqeezed.
6.2 nhy my thu vi nhiu mch v nhiu tng ch
V c gii thch trong chng 2, mt photodiode truyn i mt phn ca cc
photon c thu nhn trong cp photoelectron-l trng, mi cp ng gp mt in
tch e n dng in trong mch ngoi. Tng in tch c tch lu trong bit trong
khong thi gian T l m (n v electron). S ny l ngu nhin v tun theo hm
phn b Poisson vi tr trung bnh m = n v phng sai m.

Trang 29


iu kin nhiu c to bi dng photodiode trong hnh thc ca dng in ngu
nhin i
r
, ca phn b xc sut Gaussian vi tr trung bnh 0 v phng sai o

2
trong
khong thi gian bit T, in tch c tch lu q = i
r
T/e (n v in t) c mt gi
tr RMS
q
=
r
T/e. Thng s
q
, c gi l thng s mch nhiu ph thuc vo
di vng my thu B c m t trong phn chng 4.
Tng in tch c tch lu trn bit s = m + q (n v in t) l tng ca phng
sai ngu nhin Poisson m v khng ph thuc phng sai ngu nhin Gaussian q.
Tr trung bnh ca n l tng ca cc tr trung bnh,
p = m = n 6.2
Trong khi phng sai ca n l tng ca cc phng sai.
o
2
= m + o
q
2
6.3
i vi m ln, s phn b Poisson c th xp x bng s phn b Gaussian
m tng th s phn b c th xp x bng s phn b Gaussian vi tr trung bnh
v phng sai
2
. Chng ta thng qua s xp x ny trong phn tch thc t.
i vi photodiode thc (APD) ca tng ch 0

, s trung bnh ca
photoelectron c khuch i bi thng s 0

nhng iu kin nhiu c to ra

trong trong qu trnh khuch i. Tr trung bnh ca tng in tch thu c trn bit
s (n v in t) l
p = m0

6.4
Trong khi phng sai l
o
2
= m0

2
F + o
q
2
6.5
y F =

0
2

0
2
l h s nhiu tha ca APD (xem chng 3)
My thu o in tch c tch lu trong mi bit (bng vic s dng b tch hp,
nh v d) v so snh n vi ngng quy nh . Nu s > , bit 1 c chn, nu
khng, bit 0 c chn. Kh nng ca li p
1
v p
0
c xc nh bng ch kim
tra s phn b hai xc sut Gaussian ca s m n c

Trang 30


Tr trung bnh
0
= 0, phng sai o
0
2
= o
q
2
i vi bit 0 6.6
Tr trung bnh p
1
= m0

, phng sai o
1
2
= m0

2
F + o
q
2
i vi bit 1 6.7
Xc sut p
0
ca li 0 i vi 1 th khng th tch ri ca s phn b xc sut
Gaussian p(s) vi tr trung bnh
0
v phng sai o
0
2
t s = n s = . Xc sut p
1

ca li 1 i vi 0 th khng tch ri ca s phn b xc sut Gaussian vi tr
trung bnh
1
v phng sai o
1
2
t s = - n s = . Ngng c chn nh l xc
sut trung bnh ca li, BER =
1
2
(p
0
+ p
1
), c ti thiu.
Phn tch kiu ny th da vo cc thuyt thun tin cuau s thu nh phn trong s
c mt ca nhiu Gaussian. Nu
0
v o
0
2
, v
1
v o
1
2
l tr trung bnh v phng
sai lin quan n hai bit biu hin phng sai Gaussian 0 v 1, tng ng, v
nu
0
v
1
th nh hn nhiu
1
-
0
, t l li bit i vi my thu ngng ti u
c cho xp x bi:
BER
1
2
|1 eif(

2
) 6.8

=

1
-
0
c
0
+c
1
6.9
V hm li erf(z) c nh ngha l
cr
2
n
c
-x
2
Jx
z
0
6.10
V BER = 10
-9
lin h n Q 6, chng ta c
p
1
p
0
6(o
0
+ o
1
) 6.11
Th 6.6 v 6.7 vo 6.11, nh ngha m
u
=
1
2
m nh l s trung bnh photoelectron
thu c trn bit, v thc hin mt bit ca hiu sut i s
m
u
18R + 6o
1
0

6.12

Trang 31


Phng trnh 6.12 lim h vi nhy my thu, trong s hng ca s trung bnh ca
photoelectron thu c trn bit m
u
c yu cu c BER = 10
-9
, thng s
my thu 0

,F v
q
.
Khi tng ch APD l ln m 30

F >>
q
, th hai (nhiu mch) s hng bn
tay phi ca 6.12 l khng ng k, t
m
u
18F 6.13
Theo cch tnh ton ny, mt my thu m n c nhiu mch in khng ng k,
vic s dng photodiode khng c tng ch (0

= 1 v F = 1), trng by nhy

my thu ca m
u
= 18 photoelectron trn bit. Kt qu ny khc vi 10 photoelectron
trn bit c thnh lp sm hn i vi my thu l tng. L do cho s khc bit
l vic s dng s phn b Gaussian trong v tr ca Poisson th khng ph hp
i vi s m nh. Cc loi nhy c a ra trong bng 6.1. Gi tr thc t
ph thuc vo thng s nhiu mch my thu
q
, m n ph thuc tr li vo t
l bit B
0
1/T.







Trang 32


TI LIU THAM KHO
Ting Anh
[1] W. Becker, Advanced Time-Correlated Single Photon Counting Techniques,
Springer-Verlag, 2005.
[2] G. R. Osche, Optical Detection Theory for Laser Applications, Wiley, 2002.
[3] M. Henini and M. Razeghi, eds, Handbook of Infracred Detection
Technologies, Elsevier, 2002.
[4] P. N. J. Dennis, Photodetectors, Springer-Verlag, 1986.
Ting Vit
[1] V Vn San, H thng thng tin quang tp 1, Nh xut bn Bu in, 12
2003.
[2] V Vn San, H thng thng tin quang tp 2, Nh xut bn Bu in, 12
2003.