ĐHQG.kỹ Thuật Đo Tập 1-Đo Điện - Nguyễn Ngọc Tân & Ngô Văn Ky, 342 Trang

AI HOC QUOC GIA THANH PHO HO CH MINH
TRNG AI HOC BACH KHOA

Nguyen Ngoc Tan - Ngo Van Ky

KY THUAT O
TAP 1
O IEN

NHA XUAT BAN AI HOC QUOC GIA
THANH PHO HO CH MINH - 2005

3
MUC LUC
Li m au 7
Chng 1
KHAI NIEM VE O LNG 9
1.1 ai lng o lng 9
1.2 Chc nang va ac tnh cua thiet b o lng 10
1.3 Chuan hoa trong o lng 11
1.4 Chat lng cua o lng 12
1.5 Nhng phan t trong thiet b o ien t 20
1.6 Li ch thiet thc cua ien t trong o lng 21
1.7 S chon la, tnh can than va cach dung thiet b o 21
1.8 He thong o lng 22
Chng 2
O IEN AP VA DONG IEN 26
2.1 C cau ch th kim 26
2.2 o dong mot chieu (DC) va xoay chieu (AC) 35
2.3 o ien ap AC va DC 42
2.4 o ien ap DC bang phng phap bien tr 48
2.5 Von-ke ien t o ien ap DC 52
2.6 Von-ke ien t o ien ap AC 61
2.7 Ampe-ke ien t o dong AC va DC 70
Bai tap 71
Chng 3
O IEN TR 82
3.1 o ien tr bang Von-ke va Ampe-ke 82
3.2 o ien tr dung phng phap o ien ap bang bien tr 84
3.3 Mach o ien tr trong Ohm-ke 84
3.4 Cau Wheatstone o ien tr 91
3.5 Cau oi Kelvin 94
3.6 o ien tr co tr so ln 96
3.7 o ien tr at 105
3.8 o ien tr trong V.O.M. ien t 111
Bai tap 118
Chng 4

4
O IEN DUNG, IEN CAM VA HO CAM 125
4.1 Dung Von-ke, Ampe-ke o ien dung, ien cam va ho cam 125
4.2 Dung cau o o ien dung va ien cam 128
4.3 o ho cam 139
Bai tap 141
Chng 5
O CONG SUAT VA IEN NANG 146
5.1 o cong suat mot chieu 146
5.2 o cong suat xoay chieu mot pha 148
5.3 o cong suat tai ba pha 155
5.4 o cong suat phan khang cua tai 159
5.5 o ien nang 162
5.6 o he so cong suat 167
5.7 Thiet b ch th ong bo hoa (Synchronoscope) 171
5.8 Tan so ke 173
Chng 6
O AI LNG C HOC VAT THE RAN 178
6.1 Cam bien v tr va s dch chuyen 178
6.2 Cam bien ien tr bien dang 202
6.3 Cam bien o toc o 207
6.4 Cam bien o lc, trong lng 215
6.5 Cam bien o ngau lc 221
6.6 o gia toc, o rung va s va cham 223
Chng 7
O NHIET O 228
7.1 Thang o nhiet o 228
7.2 o nhiet o bang ien tr 228
7.3 o nhiet o bang cap nhiet ien 234
7.4 Dung diod va transistor o nhiet o 243
7.5 o nhiet o bang IC 246
7.6 Dung cam bien thach anh o nhiet o 248

Chng 8
O CAC AI LNG C HOC CHAT LONG 255

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8.1 o van toc chat long 255
8.2 Lu lng ke 264
8.3 o va do mc chat long 269
Chng 9
O AI LNG QUANG 273
9.1 Cac ac tnh rieng cua cam bien quang 273
9.2 ien tr quang 276
9.3 Diod quang 284
9.4 Transistor quang 291
9.5 Cam bien phat xa quang 296
Chng 10
DAO ONG KY, TIA AM CC VA MAY GHI X-Y 310
10.1 Ong phong ien t (CRT) 310
10.2 Cac khoi chc nang trong dao ong ky 314
10.3 Trnh bay tn hieu tren man anh cua dao ong ky 317
10.4 Dao ong ky hai kenh 321
10.5 Thanh o (Probe) cua dao ong ky 323
10.6 Bo tao tre 325
10.7 ng dung cua dao ong ky 327
10.8 Von ke t ghi ket qua (Voltmeter Recorder) 332
10.9 May ghi tren he truc X - Y (X - Y recorder) 333
Phu luc 333
Tai lieu tham khao 343

6

7
Li m au

KY THUAT O c bien soan nham phuc vu cho mon hoc Ky thuat o
(o lng ien va ien t - Electrical measurements and Electronic
Instrumentation) c bien soan thanh hai tap:
KY THUAT O - TAP 1 - O IEN VA THIET B O IEN T C BAN
gom 10 chng.
KY THUAT O - TAP 2 - O IEN T gom 5 chng.
Trong ta p 1 ca c chng 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, do thac s Nguye n Ngoc Tan bien
soan: trnh bay nhng phan c ban ve o lng ien va o lng ien t.
Nguyen ly hoat ong cua thiet b o gom bo ch th, mach o va phng phap o
cua von-ke, ampe-ke, thiet b o ien tr, ien dung, ien cam, ien nang ke,
cos-ke, tan so ke. Trong phan von-ke, ampe-ke, ohm-ke chung toi trnh bay
them mach o ien t nham muc ch e sinh vien hieu ro nguyen ly o cua may
o ien thong thng chuyen sang nguyen ly may o ien t ngay nay ang
c s dung rong rai.
Cac chng 6, 7, 8, 9 va bai tap chng 2, 3, 4 do thac s Ngo Van Ky bien
soan: trnh bay nguyen ly hoat ong va ac tnh ky thuat cua cac cam bien o
cac ai lng c, nhiet, quang, c hoc lu chat. ay la nhng cam bien c ban
chuyen oi ai lng khong ien sang cac ai lng ien c s dung trong
cac thiet b o lng cong nghiep hien nay (industrial instrumentation) va trong
he thong o lng va ieu khien t ong.
Cuon sach nay nham cung cap nhng kien thc c ban ve thiet b o lng
cho sinh vien cac nganh ien - ien t - May tnh (Cong nghe Thong tin) cua
cac trng ai hoc; ong thi cung giup ch cho sinh vien cac nganh khac
muon tm hieu ve thiet b o.

8
Chung toi mong nhan c nhieu y kien ong gop cua quy ong nghiep,
cac oc gia e lan tai ban cuon sach c hoan thien hn.
Xin chan thanh cam n cac ban ong nghiep, Bo mon C s Ky thuat ien
- Khoa ien - ien t, Trng ai hoc Bach khoa a giup va tao ieu kien
thuan li cho chung toi hoan thanh quyen sach nay.
a ch: Bo mon C s Ky thuat ien - Khoa ien - ien t, Trng ai
hoc Bach khoa - ai hoc Quoc gia TPHCM - 268 Ly Thng Kiet, Q10. T:
(08) 8647685. Email: nntan@hcmut.edu.vn
nvky@hcmut.edu.vn
Nguyen Ngoc Tan - Ngo Van Ky

9
Chng 1
KHAI NIEM VE O LNG
1.1 AI LNG O LNG
Trong lnh vc o lng, da tren tnh chat c ban cua ai lng o,
chung ta phan ra hai loai c ban.
ai lng ien
ai lng khong ien (non electrical) la nhng ai lng vat ly, hoa
hoc, sinh hoc, y hoc, ... khong mang ac trng cua ai lng ien.
Tuy thuoc vao tng tnh chat cu the cua ai lng o, chung ta at ra
phng phap va cach thc o e t o thiet ke va che tao thiet b o.
1.1.1 ai lng ien
c phan ra hai dang:
ai lng ien tac ong (active)
ai lng ien thu ong (passive).
1- ai lng ien tac ong
ai lng ien ap, dong ien, cong suat la nhng ai lng mang nang
lng ien. Khi o cac ai lng nay, ban than nang lng nay se cung cap
cho cac mach o. Trong trng hp nang lng qua ln, se c giam bt cho
phu hp vi mach o. V du nh phan ap, phan dong.
Neu trong trng hp qua nho se khuech ai u ln cho mach o co the
hoat ong c.
CHNG 1

10
2- ai lng ien thu ong
ai lng ien tr, ien cam, ien dung, ho cam, ... cac ai lng nay
khong mang nang lng cho nen phai cung cap ien ap hoac dong ien cho
cac ai lng nay khi a vao mach o.
Trong trng hp ai lng nay ang la phan t trong mach ien ang
hoat ong, chung ta phai quan tam en cach thc o theo yeu cau. V du nh
cach thc o nong ngha la o phan t nay trong khi mach ang hoat ong
hoac cach thc o nguoi khi phan t nay ang ngng hoat ong. moi cach thc
o se co phng phap o rieng.
1.1.2 ai lng khong ien
ay la nhng ai lng hien hu trong i song cua chung ta (nhiet o, ap
suat, trong lng, o am, o pH, nong o, toc o, gia toc ...).
Trong he thong t ong hoa cong nghiep ngay nay, e o lng va ieu
khien t ong hoa cac ai lng khong ien noi tren, chung ta can chuyen oi
cac ai lng noi tren sang ai lng ien bang nhng bo chuyen oi hoa c
cam bien hoan chnh, thuan li, chnh xac, tin cay hn trong lnh vc o lng
va ieu khien t ong.
1.2 CHC NANG VA AC TNH CUA THIET B O LNG
1.2.1 Chc nang cua thiet b o
Hau het cac thiet b o co chc nang cung cap cho chung ta ket qua o
c ai lng ang khao sat. Ket qua nay c ch th hoac c ghi lai trong
suot qua trnh o, hoac c dung e t ong ieu khien ai lng ang c
o.
V du: trong he thong ieu khien nhiet o, may o nhiet o co nhiem vu
o va ghi la ket qua o cua he thong ang hoat ong va giup cho he thong x
ly va ieu khien t ong theo thong so nhiet o.
Noi chung thiet b o lng co chc nang quan trong la kiem tra s hoat
ong cua he thong t ong ieu khien, ngha la o lng qua trnh trong cong
nghiep (industrial process measurements). ay cung la mon hoc trong nganh t
ong hoa.
1.2.2 ac tnh cua thiet b o lng
Vi nhieu cach thc o a dang khac nhau cho nhieu ai lng co nhng
ac tnh rieng biet, chung ta co the phan biet hai dang thiet b o phu thuoc
vao ac tnh mot cach tong quat.
KHAI NIEM VE O LNG

11
V du: e o o dan ien chung ta dung thiet b o dong ien thuan tuy
ien la micro ampe-ke hoac mili ampe-ke. Nhng neu chung ta dung thiet b
o co s ket hp mach ien t e o o dan ien th phai bien oi dong ien
o thanh ien ap o. Sau o mach o ien t o dong ien di dang ien ap.
Nh vay gia thiet b o ien va thiet b o ien t co ac tnh khac nhau.
Co loai thiet b o, ket qua c ch th bang kim ch th (thiet b o dang
analog), co loai bang hien so (thiet b o dang digital). Hien nay loai sau ang
thong dung. ay cung la mot ac tnh phan biet cua thiet b o.
Ngoai ra thiet b o lng con mang ac tnh cua mot thiet b ien t (neu
la thiet b o ien t) nh: tong tr nhap cao, o nhay cao, he so khuech ai
on nh va co o tin cay am bao cho ket qua o. Con co them chc nang,
truyen va nhan tn hieu o lng t xa (telemetry). ay cung la mon hoc quan
trong trong lnh vc o lng ieu khien t xa.
1.3 CHUAN HOA TRONG O LNG
1.3.1 Cap chuan hoa
Khi s dung thiet b o lng, chung ta mong muon thiet b c chuan
hoa (calibzate) khi c xuat xng ngha la a c chuan hoa vi thiet b o
lng chuan (standard). Viec chuan hoa thiet b o lng c xac nh theo
bon cap nh sau:
Ca p 1: Chuan quoc te (International standard) - cac thiet b o lng cap
chuan quoc te c thc hien nh chuan tai Trung tam o lng quoc te at
tai Paris (Phap), cac thiet b o lng chuan hoa cap 1 nay theo nh ky c
anh gia va kiem tra lai theo tr so o tuyet oi cua cac n v c ban vat ly
c hoi ngh quoc te ve o lng gii thieu va chap nhan.
Ca p 2: Chuan quoc gia - cac thiet b o lng tai cac Vien nh chuan
quoc gia cac quoc gia khac nhau tren the gii a c chuan hoa theo chuan
quoc te va chung cung c chuan hoa tai cac vien nh chuan quoc gia.
Ca p 3: Chuan khu v c - trong mot quoc gia co the co nhieu trung tam nh
chuan cho tng khu vc (standard zone center). Cac thiet b o lng tai cac
trung tam nay ng nhien phai mang chua n quoc gia (National standard).
Nhng thiet b o lng c nh chuan tai cac trung tam nh chuan nay se
mang chuan khu vc (zone standard).
Ca p 4: Chuan phong th nghiem - trong tng khu vc se co nhng phong th
nghiem c cong nhan e chuan hoa cac thiet b c dung trong san xuat
cong nghiep. Nh vay cac thiet b c chuan hoa tai cac phong th nghiem
CHNG 1

12
nay se co chuan hoa cua phong th nghiem. Do o cac thiet b o lng khi
c san xuat ra c chuan hoa tai cap nao th se mang chat lng tieu chuan
o lng cua cap o.
Con cac thiet b o lng tai cac trung tam o lng, vien nh chuan
quoc gia phai c chuan hoa va mang tieu chuan cap cao hn. V du phong
th nghiem phai trang b cac thiet b o lng co tieu chuan cua chua n vung
hoac chuan quoc gia, con cac thiet b o lng tai vien nh chuan quoc gia th
phai co chuan quoc te. Ngoai ra theo nh ky c at ra phai c kiem tra
va chuan hoa lai cac thiet b o lng.
1.3.2 Cap chnh xac cua thiet b o
Sau khi c xuat xng che tao, thiet b o lng se c kiem nghiem
chat lng, c chuan hoa theo cap tng ng nh a e cap tren va se
c phong kiem nghiem nh cho cap chnh xac sau khi c xac nh sai so
(nh nh ngha di ay) cho tng tam o cua thiet b. Do o khi s dung thie t
b o lng, chung ta nen quan tam en cap chnh xa c cua thiet b o c ghi
tren may o hoac trong so tay ky thuat cua thiet b o. e t cap chnh xac nay
chung ta se anh gia c sai so cua ket qua o.
V du: Mot von-ke co ghi cap chnh xac la 1, ngha la gii han sai so cua
no cho tam o la 1%.
1.4 CHAT LNG CUA O LNG
1.4.1 ac tnh cua cach thc o
S hieu biet ve ac tnh cua cach thc o rat can thiet cho phan ln viec
chon la thiet b o thch hp cho cong viec o lng. No bao gom hai ac tnh
c ban.
ac tnh tnh (static)
ac tnh ong (dynamic)
KHAI NIEM VE O LNG

13
1.4.2 ac tnh tnh (static)
Tong quat, ac tnh tnh cua thiet b o la ac tnh co c khi thiet b o
c s dung o cac ai lng co ieu kien khong thay oi trong mot qua trnh
o. Tat ca cac ac tnh tnh cua cach thc o co c nh mot qua trnh nh
chuan.
Mot so ac tnh c dien ta nh sau:
Mc o chnh xac (sai so)
o phan giai: khoang chia nho nhat e thiet b o ap ng c
o nhay
o sai biet cua tr so o c vi tr so tin cay c
Tr so o chap nhan c qua xac suat cua tr so o.
1.4.3 nh ngha sai so trong o lng
o lng la s so sanh ai lng cha biet (ai lng o) vi ai lng
c chuan hoa (ai lng mau hoac ai lng chuan). Nh vay cong viec o
lng la noi thiet b o vao he thong c khao sat, ket qua o cac ai lng
can thiet thu c tren thiet b o.
Trong thc te kho xac nh tr so thc cac ai lng o. V vay tr so o
c cho bang thiet b o, c goi la tr so tin cay c (expected value). Bat
ky ai lng o nao cung b anh hng bi nhieu thong so. Do o ket qua o t
khi phan anh ung tr so tin cay c. Cho nen co nhieu he so (factor) anh
hng trong o lng lien quan en thiet b o. Ngoai ra co nhng he so khac
lien quan en con ngi s dung thiet b o. Nh vay o chnh xac cua thiet b
o c dien ta di hnh thc sai so.
1.4.4 Cac loai sai so
Sai so tuyet oi: e = Y
n
X
n

e - sai so tuyet oi; Y
n
- tr so tin cay c; X
n
- tr so o c
Sai so tng oi (tnh theo %):
n n
r
n
Y X
e
Y
| | %
= 100
o chnh xac tng oi:
n n
n
Y X
A
Y
| |
= 1
o chnh xac tnh theo %: a = 100% e
r
= (A100%)
CHNG 1

14
V du: ien ap hai au ien tr co tr so tin cay c la 50V. Dung von-
ke o c 49V.
Nh vay sai so tuyet oi: e = 1V
Sai so tng oi:
r
V
e
V
% % = =
1
100 2
50

o chnh xac: A = 10,02 = 0,98, a = 98% = 100% 2%
Tnh chnh xac (precision):
n
n
n
X X
X
| |
1
n
X - tr so trung bnh cua n lan o.
V du: X
n
= 97, tr so o c

n
X = 101,1 tr so trung bnh cua 10 lan o
Tnh chnh xac cua cach o:
,
| | % %
,
=
97 1011
1 96 96
1011

Sai so chu quan: Mot cach tong quat sai so nay do loi lam cua ngi s
dung thiet b o va phu thuoc vao viec oc sai ket qua, hoac ghi sai, hoac s
dung sai khong ung theo qui trnh hoat ong.
Sai so he thong (systematic error) phu thuoc vao thiet b o va ieu kien
moi trng.
Sai so do thiet b o: cac phan t cua thiet b o, co sai so do cong nghe
che tao, s lao hoa do s dung. Giam sai so nay can phai bao tr nh ky cho
thiet b o.
Sai so do anh hng ieu kien moi trng: cu the nh nhiet o tang cao, ap
suat tang, o am tang, ien trng hoac t trng tang eu anh hng en sai
so cua thiet b o lng. Giam sai so nay bang cach gi sao cho ieu kien moi
trng t thay oi hoac bo chnh (compensation) oi vi nhiet o va o am. Va
dung bien phap bao ve chong anh hng tnh ien va t trng nhieu. Sai so
he thong chu anh hng khac nhau trang thai tnh va trang thai ong:
trang thai tnh sai so he thong phu thuoc vao gii han cua thiet b o
hoac do qui luat vat ly chi phoi s hoat ong cua no.
trang thai ong sai so he thong do s khong ap ng theo toc o thay
oi nhanh theo ai lng o.
Sai so ngau nhien (random error): Ngoai s hien dien sai so do chu quan
trong cach thc o va sai so he thong th con lai la sai so ngau nhien. Thong
thng sai so ngau nhien c thu thap t mot so ln nhng anh hng nhieu
KHAI NIEM VE O LNG

15
c tnh toan trong o lng co o chnh xac cao. Sai so ngau nhien thng
c phan tch bang phng phap thong ke.
V du: gia s ien ap c o bang mot von-ke c oc cach khoang 1
phut. Mac du von-ke hoat ong trong ieu kien moi trng khong thay oi,
c chuan hoa trc khi o va ai lng ien ap o xem nh khong thay oi,
th tr so oc cua von-ke van co thay oi chut t. S thay oi nay khong c
hieu chnh bi bat ky phng phap nh chuan nao khac, v do sai so ngau
nhien gay ra.
1.4.5 Cac nguon sai so
Thiet b o khong o c tr so chnh xac v nhng ly do sau:
Khong nam vng nhng thong so o va ieu kien thiet ke
Thiet ke nhieu khuyet iem
Thiet b o hoat ong khong on nh
Bao tr thiet b o kem
Do ngi van hanh thiet b o khong ung
Do nhng gii han cua thiet ke
1.4.6 ac tnh ong
Mot so rat t thiet b o ap ng tc thi ngay vi ai lng o thay oi.
Phan ln no ap ng cham hoac khong theo kp s thay oi cua ai lng o.
S cham chap nay phu thuoc ac tnh cua thiet b o nh tnh quan tnh, nhiet
dung hoac ien dung... c the hien qua thi gian tre cua thiet b o. Do o
s hoat ong trang thai ong hoac trang thai giao thi cua thiet b o cung
quan trong nh trang thai tnh.
oi vi ai lng o co ba dang thay oi nh sau:
Thay oi co dang ham bc theo thi gian
Thay oi co dang ham tuyen tnh theo thi gian
Thay oi co dang ham ieu hoa theo thi gian.
ac tuyen ong cua thiet b o
Toc o ap ng
o trung thc
Tnh tre
Sai so ong.
CHNG 1

16
ap ng ong bac zero (bac khong)
Mot cach tong quat tn hieu o va tn hieu ra cua thiet b o c dien ta
theo phng trnh sau ay:
n n
o o o
n n o o
n n
d x d x dx
a a a a x
dt
dt dt

+ + + + =
1
1 1
1
K
m m
i i i
m m o o
m m
d x d x dx
b b b b x
dt
dt dt

= + + + +
1
1 1
1
K
x
o
- tn hieu ra cua thiet b o; x
I
- tn hieu o
a
o
a
n
- thong so cua he thong o gia s khong oi
b
o
b
n
- thong so cua he thong o gia s khong oi.

Khi a
o
, b
o
khac khong ( 0) th cac gia tr a, b khac bang khong (= 0).
Phng trnh vi phan con lai:
a
o
x
o
= b
o
x
I
;
o
o i
o
b
x x
a
= ;
o
o
b
K
a
= : o nhay tnh
Nh vay ay la trng hp ai lng vao va ai lng ra khong phu
thuoc vao thi gian, la ieu kien ly tng cua trang thai ong. V du nh s
thay oi v tr con chay cua bien tr tuyen tnh theo ai lng o.
ap ng ong bac nhat
Khi cac gia tr a
1
, b
1
, a
o
, b
o
khac khong ( 0), con cac gia tr con lai bang
khong (= 0):
o
o o o i
dx
a a x b x
dt
+ =
1
.
Bat ky thiet b o nao thoa phng trnh nay c goi la thiet b bac nhat.
Chia hai ve phng trnh tren cho a
o
ta co:
o o
o i
o o
dx b a
x x
a dt a
+ =
1
. Hoac:
o o
o i
o
dx b
x x
dt a
+ = ; (D + 1)x
o
= Kx
i

Vi: D =
dt
dt
; =
o
a
a
1
: thi hang;
o
o
b
K
a
= : o nhay tnh
Thi hang co n v la thi gian, trong khi o o nhay tnh K co n v
la n v cua tn hieu ra/tn hieu vao.
Ham truyen hoat ong (transfer function) cua bat ky thiet b o ba c nha t:
o
i
x K
x D
=
+1

V du cu the cua thiet b o bac nhat la nhiet ke thuy ngan.
KHAI NIEM VE O LNG

17
ap ng ong cua thiet b bac hai, c nh ngha theo phng trnh
o o
o o o i
d x dx
a a a x b x
dt
dt
+ + =
2
2 1
2

Phng trnh tren c rut gon lai:
o i
n
n
D D
x Kx ( )
+ + =
2
2
2 1
vi:
n o
a a / =
2
- tan so khong em t nhien, radian/thi gian
- t so em; =
o
a
a a
1
2
;
o
o
b
K
a
=
Bat ky thiet b o nao thoa phng trnh nay goi la thiet b o bac hai.
Thong thng loai thiet b o bac nhat ch hoat ong o vi ai lng
co nang lng.
V du: loai can dung lo xo an hoi (lc ke) co nang lng la c nang,
nhiet ke co nang lng la nhiet nang.
Loai thiet b o bac hai co s trao oi gia hai dang nang lng.
V du: nang lng tnh ien va t ien trong mach LC, cu the nh ch th
c cau ien t ket hp vi mach khuech ai.
1.4.7 Phan tch thong ke o lng
S phan tch thong ke cac so lieu o rat quan trong, t o chung ta xa c
nh cac ket qua o khong chac chan (co sai so ln) sau cung. e cho s phan
tch thong ke co y ngha, phan ln so lieu o lng oi hoi sai so he thong
phai nho so vi sai so ngau nhien.
Khi o mot ai lng bat ky nao ma biet ket qua o phu thuoc vao nhieu
yeu to, th nhng yeu to nay eu quan trong ca. Theo ieu kien ly tng, mc
o anh hng cua cac thong so phai c xac nh e cho viec o lng neu
co sai so phai c giai thch va hieu c nguyen nhan gay ra sai so. Nhng
s phan tch sai so khong c tach khoi so lieu a c co nh trong cac ket
qua o lng.
CHNG 1

18
Y ngha so hoc cua s o nhieu lan: hau het gia tr o chap nhan c va
bien so o co y ngha so hoc cua thiet b o oc c nhieu lan o. S gan
ung tot nhat co the co khi so lan oc cua cung mot ai lng o phai ln. Y
ngha so hoc cua n lan o c xac nh cho bien so x c cho bang bieu
thc:
n
x x x
x
n
... + + +
=
1 2

trong o: x - tr trung bnh; x
n
- tr so x lan o th n; n - so lan o.
o lech
o lech lan o th 1: d x x =
1 1

o lech lan o th 2: d x x =
2 2

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
o lech lan o th n:
n n
d x x =
V du: x
1
= 50,1; x
2
= 49,7; x
3
= 49,6; x
4
= 50,2
Y ngha so hoc: x
, , , , ,
,
+ + +
= = =
501 49 7 49 6 50 2 199 6
49 9
4 4

o lech cua tng gia tr o:
d
1
= 50,1 49,9 = 0,2; d
2
= 49,7 49,9 = -0,2
d
3
= 49,6 49,9 = -0,3; d
4
= 50,2 49,9 = 0,3
Tong ai so cua cac o lech: d
tot
= 0,2 0,2 + 0,3 0,3 = 0
Nh vay khi tong ai so cac o lech cua cac lan o so vi y ngha so hoc
x bang khong th khong co s phan tan cua cac ket qua o xung quanh x .
o le ch trung bnh: co the dung nh mot bieu thc cua tnh chnh xac cua
thiet b o.
o lech trung bnh cang nho th bieu thc o cang chnh xac.
Bieu thc o lech trung bnh D c xac nh:
n
d d d
D
n
| | | | ... | | + + +
=
1 2

V du: D cua cac tr so o cua v du trc
D
| , | | , | | , | | , | + + +
=
0 2 0 2 0 3 0 3
4

KHAI NIEM VE O LNG

19
o le ch chuan (standard deviation): o lech chuan cua mot so lan o la
cac gia tr o lech quanh gia tr trung bnh c xac nh nh sau:.
o lech chuan cho n lan o:
n
d d d
n
...
[ ]
+ + +
=
2 2 2
1 2 1 2
(so lan o
n 30).
Neu so lan o nho hn 30 lan (n<30) th o lech chuan c dien ta

n
d d d
n
...
[ ]
+ + +
=
2 2 2
1 2 1 2
1

V du: o lech chuan cua cac so o cu the tren

( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , )
[ ]
+ + +
=
2 2 2 2
1 2
0 2 0 2 0 3 0 3
4 1
= =
0 26
0 294
3
,
,
o lech chuan nay rat quan trong, trong s phan tch thong ke so lieu o.
Neu giam c o lech chuan se co hieu qua trong viec cai tien ket qua o
lng.
Sai so ngau nhien: thng c tnh tren c s ng phan bo Gauss cua
o lech chuan:
n
Rd
d d d
e
n n
...
( )
+ + +
=
2 2 2
1 2
2
3 1

va gii han cua sai so ngau nhien:
Rd Rd
e e lim( ) , = 4 5
Nhng tr so nao co o lech vt qua gii han cua sai so ngau nhien eu
c loai bo.
V du: ket qua o ien tr c thc hien trong tam lan o nh sau.
R
1
= 116,2; R
2
= 118,2; R
3
= 116,5; R
4
= 117,0
R
5
= 118,2; R
6
= 118,4; R
7
= 117,8; R
8
= 118,1
Tr trung bnh cua ien tr:
R R R
R
...
,
+ + +
= =
1 2 8
117 8
8

o lech cua cac lan o:
d
1
= 1,6; d
2
= 0,4; d
3
= 0,7; d
4
= 0,8
d
5
= 0,4; d
6
= 0,6; d
7
= 0,0; d
8
= 0,3
CHNG 1

20
Sai so ngau nhien cua cac ket qua o
Rd
e
( , ) ... ( , ) + +
=
2 2
2 1 6 0 3
3 8 7
= 0,19 0,2
Gii han cua sai so ngau nhien:
Rd
e lim( ) , = 0 9
Nh vay ket qua o lan mot co o lech tuyet oi:
d | | , , = >
1
1 6 0 9 se b loai bo
1.4.8 Gii han cua sai so
Phan ln cac nha san xuat thng xac nh sai so cua thiet b o bang sai
so tam o, ay cung la gii han sai so cua thiet b o (cap chnh xac cua thiet
b o) mac du trong thc te sai so thc cua thiet b o co the nho hn gia tr
nay.
V du 1: von-ke co sai so tam o 2% tam o (thang o) 300V. Tnh
gii han sai so dung e o ien ap 120V.
Sai so tam o: 300V0,02 = 6V
Do o gii han sai so 120V: / % % = 6120 100 5
V du 2: von-ke va ampe-ke c dung e xac nh cong suat tieu thu
cua ien tr. Ca hai thiet b nay eu sai so tam o 1%. Neu von-ke c
oc tam o 150V co ch th 80V va ampe-ke c oc tam o 100mA la
80mA.
Gii han cua sai so tam o cua von-ke: 150V1% = 1,5V
Gii han sai so tr so 80V: , / % , % = 1 5 80 100 1 86
Gii han cua sai so tam o ampe-ke: 100 mA0,01 = 1mA
Gii han sai so tr so oc: / % , % = 1 70 100 1 43
Gii han sai so cua cong suat o c: 1,86% + 1,43% = 3,29%
1.5 NHNG PHAN T TRONG THIET B O IEN T
Tong quat thiet b o ien t thng c cau tao bang ba phan nh sau:

Ca m bie n Bo che bie n tn hie u Bo ch th ke t qua
KHAI NIEM VE O LNG

21
Cam bien: Phan t bien oi cac ai lng o khong ien sang ai lng
ien. Bo phan nay ch co khi thiet b o ien t o cac ai lng trong cong
nghiep
Bo che bien tn hieu: Bien oi tn hieu ien (ien ap, dong ien, ien tr,
...) cho phu hp vi bo ch ket qua. Bo nay bao gom mach phan tam o, mach
ieu hp tong tr, mach khuech ai tn hieu u ln cho bo ch th ket qua. Co
the la mach cau o (oi vi ai lng ien tr, ien cam, ien dung). Ngoai ra
trong bo che bien co the la mach loc, mach chnh lu, mach sa dang tn hieu,
mach chopper, mach bien oi tn hieu A/D ...
Bo ch th ke t qua : Trong phan nay ket qua o c ch th di hai hnh
thc kim hoac so hien th.
1.6 LI CH THIET THC CUA IEN T TRONG O LNG
Trong qua kh li ch thiet thc cua c hoc va quang hoc a giup ch cho
ky thuat o lng. Hien tai va tng lai ien t a va ong gop rat nhieu trong
s phat trien cho thiet b o lng. Cac ai lng ien va ai lng khong
ien c cam bien o lng chuyen oi sang tn hieu ien. Cac tn hieu nay
c cac mach ien t che bien cho phu hp vi mach o, mach thu thap d
lieu o lng. Ngay nay chung ta khong con nghi ng g ve nhng u iem cua
mach ien t:
o nhay thch hp
Tieu thu nang lng t
Toc o ap ng nhanh
De tng thch truyen tn hieu i xa
o tin cay cao
o linh hoat cao phu hp vi cac van e o lng.
1.7 S CHON LA, TNH CAN THAN VA CACH DUNG THIET
B O
Co nhng thiet b o rat tot, rat chnh xac nhng se cho ket qua sai hoa c
khong chnh xac neu chung ta khong biet s dung hoac s dung khong ung
qui nh cua thiet b o. Do o chung ta phai quan tam en cach thc va qui
trnh s dung cua tng thiet b o. Ngoai ra chung ta phai chon thiet b o cho
phu hp vi ai lng o.
Phan ln cac thiet b o co o nhay cao tng oi phc tap, oi hoi chung
ta can than khi s dung neu khong de gay ra h hong hoac lam cho thiet b o
khong chnh xac. Vay bat buoc ngi s dung phai oc va tm hieu ky ac
tnh, cach s dung, qui trnh hoat ong cua may trc khi cho may bat a u
hoat ong. La chon thiet b o phai phu hp vi mc o chnh xac theo yeu
CHNG 1

22
cau cua ai lng o. V mc o chnh xac va o nhay cua thiet b co lie n
quan trc tiep vi gia tien cua may. Ngha la may cang chnh xac, cang nhay
th gia cang cao. Nhieu khi theo yeu cau cua ai lng o khong can dung en
thiet b qua nhay hoac o chnh xac qua cao. Khi s dung may phai can than,
tranh nguy hiem cho may o v qua tam o hoac b chan ong c hoc (do di
chuyen hoac va cham c hoc ...), thng oi vi thiet b ch kim. Ngoai ra phai
lu y en ieu kien cua tai phoi hp vi thiet b o (oi vi thiet b o ien t)
v du nh: ap ng tan so, phoi hp tr khang ... Neu khong thoa cac ieu kien
nay cung gay ra sai so thiet b o.
e tranh h hong cho thiet b o, luon luon oi hoi ngi s dung may
phai oc qua va hieu ro Tai lieu ch dan (Service manual) cho nhng thiet b o
mi s dung lan au.
1.8 HE THONG O LNG
1.8.1 He thong o lng dang tng ong (Analog)
He thong o lng mot kenh (H.1.1)
Ma ch che bien tn hie u
Giao
tie p
Khuech
ai
Ma ch
lo c
Ca m
bie n
S
du ng
ke t
qua
Ma n
a nh
Thie t
b ghi
Thie t
b o c
Thie t b
ie u khie n
Tn hie u
chua n
a i
l ng
o va
ie u
khie n
Hnh 1.1: He thong o lng tng ong
Ma ch so
sa nh
KHAI NIEM VE O LNG

23
Tn hieu o c tao ra t cam bien o lng (transducer) do ai lng
o tac ong vao. Tn hieu nay i qua mach che bien tn hieu (signal
conditioner). Sau o i vao bo phan trnh bay ket qua (display) va thiet b ghi
(record) e cho bo phan oc ket qua s dung ngay ket qua o nay. Ngoai ra he
thong o lng con lien ket vi he thong ieu khien t ong bang cach lay tn
hieu o ngo ra cua mach che bien tn hieu a qua mach so sanh vi tn hieu
chuan e ieu khien oi tng (ai lng) ang c o. V du: ai lng o
la nhiet o th oi tng ieu khien cung la nhiet o.

Hnh 1.2: He thong o lng tng ong nhieu kenh
f
10
Bo che bie n tn hie u
DEMOD
DEMOD
DEMOD
DEMOD
f
1
f
2
f
i
f
n
f
im
f
im
f
2m
f
1m
X
1
X
2
X
I
X
N
Bo thu nha n che bien tn hie u
v
Gia i ie u che
Pha t Thu
X
1
X
2
Tn hie u o

i
X
i
X
N
Ca m bien
MOD
MOD

MOD
MOD
f
20
f
10
f
20
f
1m
f
2m
f
nm
f
im
CB MOD
CB
MOD

CB
MOD
CB
MOD
f
2000
F
io
fno
f
1m
f
2m
f
nm
f
im
V
2
V
I
V
N
V
1
Pha n ke nh theo ta n so
Tn hie u o

1
Tn hie u o

2
Bo che bie n tn hie u
CHNG 1

24
He thong o lng nhieu kenh: Trng hp can o nhieu ai lng th moi
ai lng o mot kenh. Nh vay sau moi tn hieu o c lay ra t mach che
bien tn hieu moi kenh se a qua mach phan kenh (multiplexer) e c
sap xep tuan t truyen i tren cung mot he thong dan truyen (day dan hay vo
tuyen). e co s phan biet cac ai lng o, trc khi a vao mach phan
kenh can phai ma hoa hoac ieu che (Modulation MOD) theo tan so khac
nhau (v du nh f
10,
f
20
) cho moi tn hieu cua ai lng o. Tai ni nhan tn
hieu lai phai giai ma hoac giai ieu che (demodulation DEMOD) e lay lai
tng tn hieu o. ay cung la hnh thc o lng t xa (telemety) cho nhieu ai
lng o.
1.8.2 He thong o lng dang so (Digital) (H.1.3).

Hnh 1.3: He thong o lng so ket hp vi P
Thiet b vi x ly (Microprocessor - P) tham gia vao he thong o lng
nham muc ch x ly nhanh tn hieu o, chong nhieu tot hn so vi tn hieu o
dang Analog khi truyen i xa. Cach ly tot hn va de thc hien hn neu dung
phng phap quang hoc (dung cach thc ghep bang tn hieu quang (opto
coupler). ay cung la hnh thc thng dung hien nay.
Vi s phat trien cua may tnh ca nhan (PC), he thong o lng dung ky thuat
so dung PC e t ong hoa he thong o lng mc o cao hn va thuan li hn khi
s dung. Do o, chung ta bc sang mot giai oan mi May tnh hoa thiet b o lng
(computerized instrumentation).
Trong he thong o lng dung ky thuat so, tn hieu dang Analog c
chuyen oi sang tn hieu dang so (digital) bang cac mach ADC (analog digital
S/H ADC

DAC
Ma y
ghi (in)
a i l ng o quan sa t
Bo ieu
khie n logic
Thie t b
ie u khie n
P
Chng
trnh
S
du ng
ke t
qua
o
X ly
so
Tn hie u
va t ly
Ca m
bie n
Che
bie n tn
Bo ch
th so
KHAI NIEM VE O LNG

25
converter) e cho bo vi x ly (P) hoat ong, sau o muon co dang Analog e
s dung, chung ta dung mach DAC (digital analog converter) e chuyen oi
lai.
Ngoai ra he thong o lng dang so con co u iem la s hoat ong thong
minh nh vao chng trnh phan mem (software) cai at vao may tnh e x ly tn
hieu o lng va ieu khien he thong t ong hoa.
1.8.3 Tnh linh hoat trong s ieu khien t xa thiet b o lng
He thong o lng dang so nh s ket noi vi may tnh, a ieu khien t
xa (remote) cac chc nang cua he thong o lng bang cach s dung cac
ng truyen so lieu (BUS) cua bo vi x ly (P). He thong c trnh bay
hnh 1.4.
Nh may tnh PC ieu khien thiet b o lng thong qua bo giao tiep
chuan (interface bus standard) thong dung la IE 488 hoac RS232C. Phan giao tiep
truyen so a nang (GPIB - general purpose interface bus) c thiet ke e thc
hien s ieu khien. (Chung ta se e cap en van e nay mot chng sau).
Hnh 1.4: He thong thu nhan va x ly d lieu
dung mach giao tiep RS232
Cam bien
Bo
phan
chon
kenh
t ong
A D C
Giao tiep
RS232
Giao tiep
RS232
Giao tiep
RS232
Vi x ly
Bo nh
chng trnh
Bo nh
d lieu
May in
ieu khien
Hien th
(man hnh)
Ban phm
Bo ieu
che
Bo ieu
che
Bo ieu
che

26
Chng 2
O IEN AP VA DONG IEN
2.1 C CAU CH TH KIM
Hien nay c cau ch th ket qua van con dung kim ch th ket qua. Do o
chung toi trnh bay tom lc cau tao va nguyen ly hoat ong cua cac c cau
dang nay c dung trong von-ke va ampe-ke. Con loai c cau ch th ket qua
bang so se c e cap en trong phan thiet b o lng ch th so.
2.1.1 C cau t ien (c cau D'ARSONVAL)
C cau nay c ky hieu tren mat may o nh sau:
ten goi tat theo tieng Anh PMMC
(permanent magnet moving coil)
co cau tao va nguyen ly hoat
ong nh sau.
Cau tao (xem H.2.1).
Khung quay: khung bang
nhom hnh ch nhat, tren khung
co quan day ong boc lp cach
ien nho. Toan bo khoi lng
khung quay phai cang nho cang
tot e sao cho momen quan tnh
cang nho. Toan bo khung quay
c at tren truc quay hoac treo
bi day treo (taut band) (H.2.2).
Hnh 2.1: C cau ch th t ien

27

Hnh 2.2: a) Khung quay Loai truc quay
b) Khung quay Loai day treo
Nam cham vnh cu: khung quay c at gia hai cc t NS cua nam
cham vnh cu.
Loi sat non hnh tru nam trong khung quay tng oi eu.
Kim ch th c gan chat tren truc quay hoac day treo. Pha sau kim ch
th co mang oi trong e sao cho trong tam cua kim ch th nam tren truc quay
hoac day treo.
Lo xo kiem soat hoac day treo co nhiem vu keo kim ch th ve v tr ban
au.
Nguyen ly hoat ong (xem H.2.3)
Khi co dong ien i vao cuon day, tren khung day se xuat hien lc ie n
t F:
F = N.B.l.I (2.1)
trong o: N - so vong day quan cua cuon day
B - mat o t thong xuyen qua cuon day
l - chieu cao cua khung; I - cng o dong ien.
Momen quay T
q
cua lc ien t F:
T
q
= F.W = N.B.l.W.I (2.2)
trong o W la be rong cua khung quay
Momen quay T
q
cua lc ien t F: T
q
= F.W = N.B.l.W.I
K
q
= N.B.l.W - he so t le vi s cau tao cua c cau la hang so:
T
q
= K
q
I
CHNG 2

28
ong thi khi o lo xo (hoac day treo) tao ra momen can T
c
khi kim ch
th quay do momen quay T
q
lam

xoan

lo

xo

kiem soat hoac day treo:
T
c
= K
c
(2.3)
K
c
- hang so xoan cua lo xo kiem soat hoac day treo
- goc quay cua kim ch th. Tai goc quay
i
cua kim ch th ng yen:
T
q
= T
c
; K
q
I =

K
c
I
; = =
q
i
c
K
I KI
K
(2.4)
Goc quay
i
t le tuyen tnh vi dong ien I

Hnh 2.3: Nguyen ly hoat ong
S em (can du) cho kim ch th
Khi kim ch th di chuyen di tac ong cua T
q
cung xuat hien momen
em T
d
do dong ien ng phat sinh trong cuon day do t thong xuyen qua
khung quay thay oi tc thi (H.2.4):

29
d
d
i D
e
i
R R
=
+
(2.5)
trong o: e
d
:- sc ien ong ng; R
i
- ien tr cua khung quay
R
D
: - ien tr em noi hai cuon day.

Hnh 2.4: S em cho kim ch th
Trng hp R
D
, khong co momen em, kim ch th de b dao ong
quanh iem se dng lai cua kim, v cuon day b h mach khong co dong i
d

trong khi van co e
d
.
Trng hp R
D
0, momen em ln nhat co s em chat lam cho s di
chuyen cua kim rat cham va kho khan hn khi b dao ong c hoc do di
chuyen c cau o.
Trng hp R
D
R
DC
, ien tr em ung mc, kim ch th di chuyen
nhanh khi co dong ien vao va khong b dao ong quanh v tr dng cua kim.
CHNG 2

30
Theo phng trnh chuyen ong cua kim:
c
d d
J D T
dt
dt

+ + =
2
2
0 (2.6)
trong o: J - momen quan tnh cua khung quay va kim
D - hang so em cua he thong
T
c
- momen can do lo xo kiem soat hoac day xoan.
e co s em ung mc th D phai co ieu kien:

o c
D D J T . = = 2 (2.7)
Neu D > D
o
: em qua mc; D < D
o
: em yeu
Ngi ta chng minh c rang hang so em:
D
K
D
R
'
=
vi R = R
I
+ R
D
;
D
K
'
= R.B.I.W
ac tnh c cau t ien
o nhay dong ien cua c cau ien t: o nhay cua dong ien c nh
ngha:
= =
I
I
C
K d
S
dI K
(2.8)
ngha la o nhay cua dong ien tng ng vi s bien thien cua goc quay khi
co s bien oi cua dong ien. Trong thc te, ngi ta thng dung I
max
(dong
ien toi a) cua c cau ch th e xac nh o nhay ngha la o nhay cang ln
khi I
max
cang nho v
max
(goc quay ln nhat) cua c cau ch th giong nhau
(vao khoang # 105
o
). Tang o nhay c cau bang cach tang K
q
giam K
C
.
o nhay ien ap c cau:
=
V
d
S
dv
. Neu ien tr noi cua khung quay la
R
i
th:
v i
i i
d
S S
R dI R
= =
1
(2.9)
Do o co s quan he gia o nhay ien ap va dong ien.
u iem: c cau ch th t ien co u iem so vi nhng c cau khac nh
nhng iem sau ay:

31
T trng cua c cau do nam cham vnh cu tao ra manh, t b anh
hng cua t trng ben ngoai;
Cong suat tieu thu nho tuy theo dong I
max
cung c cau co the t 25 W
200 W;
Co o chnh xac cao, co the at c cap chnh xac 0,5%;
V goc quay tuyen tnh theo dong ien cho nen thang o co khoang chia
eu an.
Khuyet iem:
Cuon day cua khung quay thng chu ng qua tai mot lng nho ne n
thng de b h hong neu dong ien qua mc i qua;
Ch s dung dong ien mot chieu, khong hoat ong dong ien xoay
chieu;
oi vi khung quay co day xoan de h hong khi b chan ong manh
hoac di chuyen qua mc gii han, do o can em qua mc khi cho c cau
ngng hoat ong.
ng dung
C cau ch th kim thng c dung rong rai trong lnh vc o lng.
ien ke gng quay (H.2.5): Khung quay mang gng phan chieu va
he thong quang hoc chieu tia sang vao gng va om sang tron ghi ket qua
dong ien i qua. Ket qua c ghi tren thc chia hoac tren giay nhay quang
(trong cac thiet b ghi).

Hnh 2.5
2.1.2 C cau ien t
CHNG 2

32
Con goi la c cau mieng sat di ong (moving iron). Ky hieu
|
.
Cau tao: co hai loai lc hut va lc ay.
Loai lc hut (H.2.6)
Loai lc ay (H.2.7).

Hnh 2.6: C cau ien t loai hut

Hnh 2.7: C cau ien t loai ay
Hnh 2.8: C cau em

33
Ca hai eu co cuon day co nh va mieng sat di ong gan tren truc quay
mang kim ch th. Rieng lc ay co mang them mieng sat co nh gan mat
trong cua cuon day.
Truc quay cung co lo xo kiem soat va c cau ch th co em bang sc can
khong kh (H.2.8).
Nguyen ly hoat ong
Cuon day co nh co dong ien I (mot chieu hoac xoay chieu) lc t ong
F tao ra lc hut hoac lc ay cho mieng sat di ong.
F = nI(AT) (ampe-vong). (2.10)
trong o: N - so vong quay; I - cng o dong.
Hoac goc quay cua kim ch th c chng minh:
=
2
q
i
C
K
I
K
(2.11)
vi: I - dong ien DC hoac AC tr hieu dung (RMS).
Nh vay thang o cua c cau ien t khong tuyen tnh nh thang o cua
c cau ien t.
Viec em cho c cau ien t
Tieu thu nang lng nhieu hn c cau ien t.
Co hien tng t d trong la sat non cho nen kem chnh xac hn.
Tnh tre lam tang sai so khi dung dong ien xoay chieu. Giam tnh
tre bang cach giam nho mieng sat di ong hoac chon mat o t thong B e cho
hien tng tre trong mieng sat nho i. Cho nen co s dung hoa gia t thong
va mieng sat di ong.
Anh hng cua tn hieu xoay chieu: do co thanh phan cuon cam L cua
cuon day co nh cho nen khi tan so tn hieu tang, tong tr Z = L = 2fL cua
cuon day tang khong thch hp vi tn hieu o co khoang tan so thay oi ln.
Ngoai ra dong ien xoay tren mieng sat di ong tang khi tan so tn hieu tang.
Do t trng tao ra bi cuon day co tr so nho cho nen de b anh hng
bi t trng nhieu, can phai bao ve bang cach chan t cho c cau
Cong nghe che tao de hn c cau t ien
Ch c dung trong lnh vc ien cong nghiep
Chu s qua tai cao
Nhng c cau ien t dung trong von-ke hoac ampe-ke thng co
CHNG 2

34
thong so ky thuat: ien cam cuon day 1Henry; ien tr 20/V; lc t ong F =
300 ampe vong; ngau lc xoan bang 5% khoi lng di chuyen.
2.1.3 C cau ien ong
La c cau co s phoi hp gia c cau ien t (khung quay mang kim ch
th) va c cau ien t (cuon day co nh tao t trng cho khung quay).
Ky hieu tren c cau ho hoac C cau sat ien ong.
Cau tao (H.2.9): c cau ien ong gom co cuon day co nh va cuon day
di ong (khung quay). Thong thng cuon day di ong khong co loi sat non
tranh c hien tng t tre va dong ien xoay. Cuon day di ong nam trong
vung anh hng t trng tao ra bi cuon day co nh, neu cuon day co nh
quan tren loi sat t la c cau sat ien ong (H.2.10).
Nguyen ly hoat ong: khi co dong ien I
1
, I
2
(mot chieu hoac xoay chieu) i
vao cuon day di ong va co nh se tao ra momen quay:
T
q
= K
q
I
1
I
2
(dong DC) (2.12)
hoac:
T
q q
T K i i dt
T
. =

1 2
0
1
(dong AC)
Vay goc quay: =
1 2
q
c
K
I I
K
(2.13)
Hoac:
T
q
c
K
i i dt
K T
[ ] =

1 2
0
1

K
C
- hang so xoan cua lo xo kiem soat hoac day treo.
Khung quay
Cuo n da y
C c t
Hnh 2.10: C cau sat ien ong
Hnh 2.9: C cau ien ong

35
e cho thang o tuyen tnh theo I
1
, I
2
th
q c
K K / la hang so.
ac iem cua c cau
C cau ien ong co u iem va khuyet iem cua c cau t ien va
ien t
Thng dung lam bo ch th cho von-ke hoac ampe-ke va watt-ke
Watt-ke co cong suat tai mot pha va ba pha dung c cau sat ien ong
Ngoai ra ngi ta che tao ra t so ke ien ong e dung lam
cos-ke (e cap phan o he so cong suat)
Chieu quay cua c cau ien ong (sat ien ong) c xac nh trc
khi hoat ong vi dong ien xoay chieu (H.2.11).
Nh vay, khi kim ch th cua c cau b lech ngc th phai hoan oi cc
tnh cua cuon day e kim ch th quay thuan.

Hnh 2.11: Chieu quay cua kim ch th khong phu thuoc vao
chieu dong ien
2.2 O DONG MOT CHIEU (DC) VA XOAY CHIEU (AC)
2.2.1 o dong DC
Nguyen ly o: ca ba c cau ch th a noi tren eu hoat ong vi dong
DC cho nen c dung lam bo ch th ampe-ke DC. Nhng can phai m rong
tam o (Range) cho thch hp.
M rong tam o: e cho ampe-ke co nhieu tam o thch hp, mach o
phai co s m rong tam o cho tng loai c cau ch th.
CHNG 2

36

Hnh 2.12: Mach o dong
M rong tam o cho c cau t ien. Dung ien tr shunt (H.2.12).
Dong ien o: = +
m S
I I I (2.14)
trong o:
m
I - dong ien qua c cau ch th.

S
I - dong ien i qua ien tr shunt.
ien tr shunt
S
R c xac nh:
=
m
S
t
I R
R
I I
max
max
(2.15)
trong o:
m
R - ien tr noi cua c cau ch th.
I
max
- dong ien toi a cua c cau ch th.

t
I - dong ien toi a cua tam o.
V du 2.1:

=

50 1
1 50
S
A K
R
mA A ( )
, vi = 50 I A
max
; 1
m
R k = ; =
t
I 1mA

= =
6 3
3
6
50 10 10 5
10
95
950 10
S
V
R
A
( )
( )
ohm = 52 6 , (ohm)
oi vi ampe-ke co nhieu tam o th dung nhieu ien tr shunt, moi tam
o co mot ien tr shunt, khi chuyen tam o la chuyen ien tr shunt (H.2.13).

37

Hnh 2.13: Mach o dong
co nhieu tam o
Hnh 2.14: Mach shunt Ayrton
Hoac dung cach chuyen tam theo kieu shunt Ayrton (H.2.14).
Mach o kieu shunt Ayrton co 3 tam o B, C, D. Khi khoa A v tr B
(tam o nho nhat).
ien tr shunt: = + +
1 2 3 SB
R R R R
v tr C: = +
1 2 SC
R R R
Con
3
R noi tiep vi c cau ch th.
v tr D: =
1 SD
R R
Con +
2 3
R R noi tiep vi c cau ch th.
V du 2.2: 1
m
R k = ; I
max
cua c cau 50A. Xac nh ba tam o:
B (1mA); C (10mA); D(100mA) cho R ,
1
R ,
2 3
R
Giai: tam B (1mA):

1 2 3
1 50 1 50 ( )( ) mA A R R R k A + + =

+ + = =
3
1 2 3
6
50 10
52 6
950 10
R R R ( ) ,
tam C (10mA):

6
3 3
1 2
6
1 50 10 1
199
9950 10
( ) ( ) k R A k R
R R
A
+ +
+ = =

tam D (100mA):

6
2 3
1
6
1 50 10
99950 10
( ) k R R
R
A
+ +
=
;
2 3
1
1
1999
k R R
R
+ +
=
Thay vao ta c:
3
1 2 3
1
52 6
199
,
k R
R R R
+
+ = =
Suy ra:

= =
3
10 467 4 1000
47 337
200
R
( . , )
,
CHNG 2

38

+
= = =
1
1
1000 52 6 1052 6
0 526
1999 2000
R
R
, ,
,
Con = + =
2
52 6 47 337 0 526 4 737 R , ( , , ) , ohm
ap so: =
1
0 526 R , ohm; =
2
4 737 R , ohm; =
3
47 337 R , ohm.
M rong tam o cho c cau ien t: thay oi so vong day quan cho cuon
day co nh vi lc t ong F khong oi:
= = = =
1 1 2 2 3 3
F n I n I n I ...
V du: F = 300 Ampe vong cho ba tam o; =
1
1 I A ; =
2
5 I A; =
3
10 I A .
Khi o =
1
300 n vong cho tam o =
1
1 I A
=
2
2
5 I A
=
3
3
10 I A .
M rong tam o cho c cau ien ong: Trong trng hp ampe-ke dung
c cau ch th ien ong (sat ien ong) c mac nh hnh 2.15 th s m
rong tam o bang cach mac ien tr shunt song song vi cuon day di ong
(nh c cau t ien) trong khi cuon co nh c mac noi tiep vi cuon day di
ong. Cach tnh toan ien tr shunt cung giong nh ampe-ke c cau t ien.

Hnh 2.15: Ampe-ke c cau ien ong
2.2.2 o dong AC
Nguyen ly o: C cau ien t va c cau ien ong eu hoat ong c
vi dong AC. Do o co the dung c cau nay trc tiep va m rong tam o dong
nh a noi tren. Rieng c cau ien t khi dung phai bien oi dong AC thanh
dong DC. Ngoai ra, do tnh chnh xac cua c cau ien t nen c cau nay dung
rat nhieu (thong dung) trong phan ln ampe-ke (trong may o van nang
Multimeter con goi V.O.M.).
Dung c cau t ien o dong AC
Dung phng phap chnh lu bang diod (H.2.16).

39
Dong ien qua diod noi tiep vi c cau t ien la dong ien xoay chieu
a chnh lu thanh dong DC. Tr trung bnh cua dong ien chnh lu:
T
cl tb cl
I i dt I
T
*
max
=
0
1
(2.16)

Hnh 2.16
Dong chnh lu qua c cau
Hnh 2.17
Cau chnh lu diod
V du: Dong ien AC: =
AC m
V I t sin
Khi o: =
cl m
i I t sin :
T
t ( ) 0
2
; = 0
cl
i :
T
t T ( )
2
.
Vay: = = 0 318 0 318 2
cl tb m hd
I I I , , (tn hieu sin). Trng hp dong ien
AC co dang bat ky th
cl tb
I co tr so phu thuoc vao dang va tan so cua tn
hieu. Cu the dong: = 2 100
AC
i mA t ( )sin
th dong: = = 0 318 2 0 636
cl tb
i mA , ( ) , (mA)
Cau diod (H.2.17). Dong ien xoay chieu c chnh lu hai ban ky, khi
o tr chnh lu trung bnh: =

2
cl tb cl
I i dt
T
.
V du: =
AC m
I I t sin ; = = 2 0 318 0 636
cl tb m m
I I I , ,
CHNG 2

40
Dung phng phap bien oi nhiet ien: Bo bien oi nhiet ien (H.2.18)
gom co day ien tr c ot nong nh tr hieu dung cua dong ien xoay
chieu can o. Cap nhiet ien (thermocouple) c cung cap nhiet lng do
dong ien nay se tao ra ien ap mot chieu (dong ien DC) cho c cau ien t:
=
2
o T hd
E DC K RI ( ) (2.17)
vi:
hd
I - tr so hieu dung cua dong ien AC
R - ien tr cua day ot nong

T
K - hang so t le cua bo bien oi nhiet ien.
Khi s dung bo bien oi ch dung trong khoang tuyen tnh cua ac tuyen
o
E theo
hd
I . Phng phap bien oi nhiet ien co u iem la khong phu thuoc
vao dang cua tn hieu AC va tan so. Do o e cho dong ien co tan so cao,
dang bat ky, ngi ta thng dung bo bien oi nay.
Ngoai ra khi dung bo bien oi nay con phai quan tam en s thay oi cua
nhiet o moi trng xung quanh, s gia tang nhiet lng khi dong ien o
c duy tr se lam cho
o
E tang theo thi gian (van e bo chnh hay bu nhiet
nay se e cap en trong phan thiet b o ien t von-ke ien t dung bo bien
oi nhiet ien).

Hnh 2.18: Bo bien oi nhiet ien
M rong tam o
Dung ien tr shunt cho diod va c cau t ien (H.2.19a). Diod mac noi
tiep vi c cau ien t, do o co dong
cl tb
I qua c cau, con dong ien xoay
chieu lai qua ien tr shunt.

41

Hnh 2.19: a) Mach o dong AC co ien tr shunt
b) Mach o dung bien dong
V du:
AC
i
Dong xoay chieu dang sin co tr hieu dung
hd
I , khi i qua diod se co:
= 0 318 2
cl tb hd
i I I
max
, , vi I
max
- dong toi a cua c cau.
Khi o dong ien xoay chieu con lai se qua ien tr shunt.
Cu the: = 1 I
max
mA; = 100
o
I mA (RMS tr hieu dung).
Tr hieu dung cua dong ien xoay chieu qua ien tr shunt:

S o
I mA
I I mA
max
( )
, ,
= =
1
100
0 318 2 0 318 2
RMS
= (100 mA 2,2 mA) RMS = 97,8mA (RMS)
ien tr shunt c xac nh:
D m
S
S
V R I
R
I RMS
max
( / , )
( )
+
=
0 318 2

V du: = 0 6
D
V V , ; = 50
m
R ; = 1 I mA
max
; = 100
o
I mA (RMS)
Ap dung cong thc tren:
+
=
0 6 50 2 22
97 8
S
V mA RMS
R
mA RMS
, , ( )
, ( )
= 7 269 ,
Dung bien dong (H.2.19b). Theo nguyen ly hoat ong cua bien dong la
phai co s can bang cua lc t ong phan s cap va th cap cua bien dong: =
1 1 2 2
n i n i
V du: =
1
5 n vong; =
2
100 n vong; =
1
10 i A (RMS)

n
i i
n
=
1
2 1
2
; i A , = =
2
5
10 0 5
100
(RMS)
CHNG 2

42
Khi s dung bien dong nen lu y
ng e h phan th cap bien dong
khi phan s cap co dong ien. Kep o
dong ien (clamp ammeter) la mot
ng dung cua bien dong vi c cau
ien t va diod chnh lu co phan m
rong tam o (H.2.20).
2.2.3 Anh hng cua ampe-ke tren
mach o
Moi ampe-ke eu co noi tr rieng cua no va co the thay oi theo moi
tam o.
V du: Ampe-ke c cau ien t tam o 1mA, co noi tr
= = =
2
1000 5 2 517
A m S
R R R // // , , . Do o tam o cang ln noi tr
A
R (noi tr ampe-ke) cang nho. Viec mac noi tiep no vi ien tr tai can o
dong ien se anh hng en mach o. Neu noi tr ampe-ke rat nho so vi
ien tr tai th sai so do anh hng cua ampe-ke tr nen khong ang ke. V
du:
Khi khong co ampe-ke, dong ien qua tai
L
R :
5 1 5 /
L
I V k mA = =
Khi co ampe-ke, noi tr = 517
A
R , :
5 1 517 4 975 /( , ) ,
L
I V k = + = mA
Do o sai so anh hng cua ampe-ke: % [( , / ) %] , % = 100 4 975 5 100 0 5
Neu sai so cua thiet b o cho phep 1% th sai so anh hng nay khong ang
ke. Con neu 5
L
R k = dong qua tai khi khong co ampe-ke
L
I V/ = 5 5k = 1,0
mA. Con co ampe-ke noi tr = 49 4
A
R , th:
5 5 49 4 0 990 /( , ) ,
L
I V k = + = mA
Do o sai so anh hng cua ampe-ke: % [( , / ) %] % = 100 0 991 100 1
Nh sai so tang len gap hai trong trng hp trc.
2.3 O IEN AP AC VA DC
2.3.1 o ien ap DC
Nguye n ly o (H.2.21): ien ap o c chuyen thanh dong ien o i qua
c cau ch th. Neu c cau ch th co I
max
va ien tr noi tiep th:
Hnh 2.20: Kep o dong

43
=
+
o
o
m
V
I I
R R
max
, vi
m
R - noi tr cua c cau (2.18)
Tong tr vao cua von-ke = +
V m
Z R R .
Cac c cau t ien, ien t va ien ong eu c dung lam von-ke DC.
Bang cach noi them ien tr R e han che dong ien qua c cau theo bieu
thc tren.

Hnh 2.21: Mach o ien ap
Rieng oi vi c cau ien ong cuon, day di ong va cuon day co nh
c noi tiep (H.2.22).
M rong tam o
Dung c cau t ien
M rong tam o bang cach noi tiep ien tr (H.2.23). ay la mach o
ien ap mot chieu thng dung trong may o van nang. Tong tr vao cua von-
ke thay oi theo tam o ngha la tong tr vao cang ln th tam o ien ap cang
cao. Cho nen ngi ta thng dung tr so o nhay
DC
V / cua von-ke e xac
nh tong tr vao cua moi tam o.
Hnh 2.22: Mach o ien ap
cua c cau ien ong
CHNG 2

44

Hnh 2.23: Mach o ap DC nhieu tam o
V du: Von-ke co o nhay 20 /
DC
k V . tam o 2,5V la tong tr vao.
1
2 5 20 200 , /
V DC
Z V k V k = = .
V du 2.3: Tnh ien tr cho ba tam o =
1
2 5 V V , ; =
2
10 V V ; =
3
0 5 V V , . Cho
von-ke dung c cau t ien = 100 I A
max
; 0 5 ,
m
R k =
Giai: Mach o cua von-ke c mac theo hnh 2.23b cho ba tam o. Do o
tam
1
V = 2,5V:
+ = =
1 2
2 5 2 5
100
MAX
V V
R R
I A
, ,
;
1
4
2 5
0 5 24 5
1 10
,
, ,
V
R k k
A
= =

tam: =
2
10 V V :
= =
2 1
2
7 5
100
V V V
R
I A
max
,
1
7 5
75
10
,
k k
= =
tam: =
3
50 V V :

= =
3 2
3
50 10
100
V V V V
R
I A
max
400k = .
e cho von-ke co o chnh xac cao nen chon sai so cua ien tr
1
R ,
2
R ,
3
1 R % o nhay
DC
V / cua von-ke.
1
25
10
2 5
/
,
m
DC
DC
R R k
k V
V V
+
= =
V du 2.4: Von-ke dung c cau ien t co cuon day co nh co dong
= 50 I mA
max
tam o 0 300V. Xac nh ien tr R noi tiep vi c cau. ien
tr noi Rm = 100 va cong suat cua ien tr.
Giai:
300
6
50
m
V
R R k
mA
+ = = , R = 6k 0,1k = 5,9k
Cong suat cua ien tr
2 2
5 9 50
max
, ( ) P RI k mA = = = 14,75 watt
2.3.2 o dong ien AC
Nguye n ly o: oi vi c cau ien ong, ien t von-ke AC dung c ca u
nay phai mac ien tr noi tiep vi c cau nh trong von-ke DC v hai c cau

45
nay hoat ong vi tr hieu dung cua dong xoay chieu. Rieng oi vi c cau
ien t th phai dung phng phap bien oi nh phan ampe-ke ngha la dung
diod chnh lu hoac bo bien oi nhiet ien (H.2.18).
Cach xac nh ien tr noi tiep cho c cau t ien

Hnh 2.24: Mach o ien ap AC
Mach o c mac nh hnh 2.24 diod
1
D chnh lu dong ien AC ban
ky dng, diod
2
D cho dong ien am i qua (khong qua c cau ch th) e cho
ien ap nghch cua ban ky am cua ien ap AC khong ri tren diod
1
D va c
cau ch th. Tranh c ien ap nghch qua ln khi o ien ap AC co gia tr
ln. ien tr
1
R noi tiep tam o ien ap
AC
V c xac nh:
= + +
1 AC m hd D
V RMS R R I V RMS ( ) ( ) ( ) (2.19)
ma: = = 0 318 2
cl tb hd
I I I
max
, (2.20)
hd
I - dong ien cua ien ap o
AC
V (tnh theo tr hieu dung) qua c cau
ch th va qua
1
R tng ng.
+ =
1
0 314 2
AC D
m
V RMS V
R R
I
max
( )
/( , )
(2.21)
V du: 1
m
R k = ; = 50 I A
max
. Xac nh
1
R tam o = 10
AC
V V
(RMS) vi = 0 6
D
V V , (RMS).

1
10 0 6 9 4
85 45
50 0 45 110
( ) , , ( )
,
/( , )
m
V RMS V V RMS
R R k
A A
+ = = =

;
1
R # 85k
o nhay
AC
V / cua von-ke trong trng hp nay:
1 110 9 ( )/ ( ) /
ac
V RMS A RMS k V =
CHNG 2

46
Nh vay vi cung mot c cau (c cau t ien) tong tr vao cua von-ke
AC se nho hn tong tr vao cua von-ke DC.
oi vi von-ke ien t tong tr vao cua von-ke khong thay oi theo tam
o oi vi ien ap AC hoac DC.
Mach o ien ap AC co the dung cau diod (4 diod) hoac (2 diod) va (2
ien tr) nh hnh 2.25.
Khuyet iem cua von-ke AC dung diod chnh lu phu thuoc vao dang
tn hieu va tan so cao co anh hng cua tong tr va ien dung ky sinh cua
diod.

Hnh 2.25: Mach o ien ap AC dung c cau t ien
e cho von-ke AC khong phu thuoc vao dang va tan so cua tn hieu
AC th dung von-ke co bo bien oi nhiet ien (H.2.26), cac ien tr thay oi
tam o c noi tiep vi ien tr cung cap nhiet lng cho cap nhiet ien.

Hnh 2.26: Mach o ien ap AC dung bo nhiet ien
Thang o cua von-ke AC c ghi theo tr hieu dung (RMS) mac du
dung phng phap chnh lu trung bnh. Con neu dung phng phap bien o i
nhiet ien th goi la von-ke co tr hieu dung thc (true RMS).

47
2.3.3 Anh hng cua von-ke tren mach o ien ap
Khi von-ke c mac vao phan t can o ien ap th co the xem nh
tong tr vao cua von-ke mac song song vi phan t o (H.2.27).
V du: Vo n-ke o ien ap hai a u ien tr
2
R , dong ien i qua
2
R khi khong co
von-ke: I V R R /( ) = +
1 2
. ien ap vao: V R I R V R R /( ) = = +
2 2 2 1 2

Khi co von-ke dong ien I qua mach: =
+
1 2 V
V
I
R R R
'
( // )

ien ap: = =
2 V
V R R I ' ( // ) '
+
2
1 1
V
V
V
R R
R R R V
( // )
( // )

Neu
2
R rat nho so vi
V
R dan en
2 2 V
R R R ( // ) . Khi o anh hng
cua von-ke khong ang ke oi vi mach o.

Hnh 2.27
Mach tng ng khi mac von-ke
Hnh 2.28
Mach o ien ap nguon
V du 2.5: V = +10V;
2 1
10 R R k = = ;
200
V
R k = ;
2
10
10 5
20
V
V k V = =

Khi o von-ke:
10 10
10 10 200 19 5
'
( // ) ,
V V
I
k k k k
= =
+

2
9 5
10 4 88
19 5
'
,
,
,
k
V V V
k
= =

Sai so do anh hng cua von-ke: V V [ ( , / )] % , % = 1 4 88 5 100 2 4
k
CHNG 2

48
V du 2.6: Von-ke o ien ap nguon pin (H.2.28). Von-ke c at tam o
2,5V, tong tr vao 50
V
Z k = , nguon pin co E = 1,5V, noi tr 5. Khi pin
yeu, noi tr tang 20 va E = 1,4V. Cho biet s ch th cua von-ke trong hai
trng hp tren.
Giai: Dong ien qua von-ke khi r = 5:
( )
1
1 5 5 50 30 , / I V k A = + =
Von-ke ch: V A A V , ( / ) , = 2 5 30 50 1 5 ; khi pin yeu: V = 1,4V noi tr
20 dong ien qua von-ke: = =
+
2
1 4
27 98
20 50 000
V
I A
,
, .
.

Khi o von-ke ch: V A A V , ( , / ) , . = 2 5 27 98 50 1 39
Sai so do anh hng cua von-ke: ( , / , ) % % = 1 1 391 4 100 1
Do o neu nguon co noi tr cang ln th sai so anh hng cua von-ke khi
o ien ap cang tang.
2.4 O IEN AP DC BANG PHNG PHAP BIEN TR
2.4.1 Nguyen ly o
Mach o c mac theo hnh 2.29.

Hnh 2.29: Mach o ien ap bang bien tr
Bien tr BA la bien tr o lng.
Khoa S co hai v tr 1 va 2 dung e chuan may o va e o ai lng V
x
.
Dong ien I chay trong mach o:
=
+
1
1 1 AB
B
I
K R R
(2.22)
0 K
1
1: phu thuoc vao v tr con chay.
B
1
: nguo n ca p cho ma ch o
B
2
: nguo n chuan
R
1
: bie n tr ieu chnh cho do ng ien I
R
2
: no i tr cu a nguo n chua n
G: ie n ke (c ca u t ie n)

49
R
AB
la toan tr so cua bien tr o lng. G ien ke dung e xac nh s
can bang cua mach o. Dong I c gi khong oi (a c nh san). Do o
trc khi ong khoa, S c e v tr 1. Nguon chuan B
2
c a vao so
sanh vi ien ap V
BC
(con chay C co v tr a nh trc cho nguon chuan B
2
).
Tai v tr vach chuan cua con chay C, ien ke G ch so 0 (ngha la dong
ien ke bang khong). B
2
= V
BC
= R
BC
I. Dong I a c xac nh.
Neu ien ke G ch khac 0 dong I nh trc a thay oi. Khi o, ieu
chnh R
1
e sao cho G ch 0 (ngha la K
1
thay oi) dong I co tr so nh cu (v
B
1
thay oi do nguon pin yeu hoac manh qua qui nh).
Sau o khoa K c chuyen sang v tr 2: ien ap V
X
can o c so sanh
vi ien ap V
BC
.
Tiep tuc ieu chnh con chay C cho en khi G ch khong):

BC BC
V R I
' '
=
Nh vay tai v tr R
BC
co:
BC BC X
V R I V
' '
= =
I a c xac nh, do o V
X
c o bang ien tr
BC
R
'
. Thong thng
ngi ta khac tr so ien ap o tren v tr dch chuyen cua con chay C (thng
c ghi tren thc o hoac a o).
u iem cua phng phap o nay la khong b anh hng cua ien tr
noi cua nguon V
X
. V dong ien qua ien ke G bang 0 nen khong co ien ap
ri tren ien tr noi cua nguon ien ap can o.
2.4.2 Mach o thc te (H.2.30)
e dong I c xac nh mot cach chnh xac va ieu chnh c tuyen
tnh khi B
1
thay oi, ngi ta dung he thong ien tr (t R
6
R
12
) ket hp noi
tiep vi ien tr R
13
co con chay C trt tren bien tr va mac song song vi R
3

+ R
4
(e co s ieu chnh c tuyen tnh).
Tr so V
X
c xac nh tren vach chia cua a xoay nhn qua o ca so
(H.2.30). Nh vay e cho ien ke G ch 0 khi o V
X
chung ta phai ieu chnh
tam o (thay oi v tr cua khoa F) va ieu chnh nho (thay oi con chay C).
CHNG 2

50

Hnh 2.30: Mach o cu the
2.4.3 Mach o co tr so cu the (H.2.31)

Hnh 2.31: Mach o cu the cua mV- ke

51
Chuyen v tr F e thay oi tam o t 0,1V en 1,5V (R
1
= R
2
= R
3
= ... =
R
15
= 50).
Thay oi H la thay oi he so nhan 0,01; 0,1; 1. Tr so oc c xac nh
V
X
. ay la thiet b o ien ap (mili von-ke) cu the co ba tam ln.
Ta m o, v o chnh xac, V
0 1,6 500
0 0,16 100
0 0,016 10
moi tam o co phan ra 15 khoang nho.
V du: tam o t 0 en 0,016V.
Co 15 khoang, moi khoang cach nhau 0,001V (1mV).
2.4.4 ng dung cua phng phap o ien bang bien tr
nh chuan cho von-ke DC va ampe-ke DC

Hnh 2.32
Mach nh chuan von-ke
Hnh 2.33
Ma ch nh chuan ampe-ke
Mach c mac nh hnh 2.32, ien ap E c a vao nh chuan cho
von-ke:

R
V
E R R
R
( ) = +
1
1 2
1
(2.23)
trong o V
R1
c xac nh bi von-ke dung P/P bien tr a noi tren.
Mach c mac nh hnh 2.33, dong ien I qua ampe-ke can c nh
chuan i qua ien tr chnh xac R
S
, ien ap (R
S
I) c a vao o bang von-ke
dung phng phap bien tr.
CHNG 2

52
nh chuan cho von-ke AC va ampe-ke AC
Do khong the o ien ap AC va dong ien AC bang phng phap bien tr
c, nen phai dung qua thiet b o trung gian o la von-ke va ampe-ke ien
ong (H.2.34).

Hnh 2.34: Mach chuan hoa von-ke va ampe-ke
a) Mach chuan hoa ampe-ke AC; b) Mach chuan hoa von-ke AC
2.5 VON-KE IEN T O IEN AP DC
2.5.1 Von-ke ien t o ien ap DC transistor
Mach o ien ap DC dung transistor hai moi noi (BJT)

Hnh 2.35: Mach o dung BJT
Mach o c dien ta bi hnh 2.35. Mach o la mach cau o gom
transistor Q
1
, Q
2
, R
2
, R
3
ien ap ra c lay cc E
1
, E
2
cua Q
1
, Q
2
(hoac cc
C
1
, C
2
). ien ap vao cua mach o c a vao cc B
1
(hoac 1 cc B
2
cua Q
2
)
cua Q
1
. Khi dung ngo vao n cc (ien ap cc B
1
so vi iem mass, ien the
bang 0V), hoac co the dung vao vi sai hai cc B
1
va B
2
.
Nguyen ly hoat ong
a ien ap vao bang 0V cc B
1
noi vi mass (hoac B
1
, B
2
noi vi
mass neu ngo vao theo cach vi sai). Theo ieu kien ly tng cua mach o:
I
B1
= I
B2
; Q
1
, Q
2
co ac tnh giong nhau (
1
=
2
). Cho nen:

53
I
C1
=
1
I
B1
= I
C2
=
2
I
B2
I
E1
= I
E2
, I
C
= (1 )I
B
,

=
1
C B
I I
va R
E1
= R
E2
; cho nen V
E1
= V
E2
. Khi o dong I
M
qua c cau ch th bang khong.
Khi ien ap vao: V
i
> 0; I
B1
> I
B2
; suy ra: I
E1
> I
E2

Cho nen V
B1
>V
B2
dong I
M
qua c cau ch th M phu thuoc vao
V
E1
V
E2
ngha la phu thuoc vao ien ap V
i
. oi vi moi mach o se co V
i
cc
ai khien cho transistor at en trang thai bao hoa V
E1
V
E2

cc ai.
V du: V
i
= 1V khien cho V
E1
V
E2
= 1V (mc ien ap bao hoa
can o).
Khi ien ap vao: V
i
<0; I
B1
>I
B2
; suy ra: V
E1
<V
E2
dan en
V
E1
V
E2
< 0 luc o dong ien I
M
o qua E
2
en E
1
(khi o cc tnh cua ong ho
M phai ao lai).
Chu y: Khi o ien ap V
i
(dng hay am) iem mass mach o bao gi
cung c noi vi iem mass cua mach can o (neu ngo vao lay theo kieu n
cc ngoai tr ngo vao c lay theo kieu vi sai).
Khi o hieu ien ap V
A
V
B
cua mot mach can khao sat, chung ta phai
lan lt o V
A
so vi mass va V
B
so vi mass (neu ngo vao theo kieu n cc).
Con neu ngo vao cua mach o theo kieu vi sai th chung ta a hai au o vao
hai iem A va B (trong khi o iem mass cua mach o c noi vi mass mach
can khao sat).
Trong thc te neu mach khong thoa ieu ien ly tng ngha la khi:
V
i
= 0V ma V
E1
V
E2
, co khi tren chung ta dung mach o sau ay co bien
tr R
5
(bien tr chnh 0 cua mach o) ieu chnh con chay R
5
e cho mach
o phan cc lai sao cho I
B1
= I
B2
va V
E1
= V
E2
. Mach o thc te c dien ta
nh hnh 2.36.

Hnh 2.36: Mach o co bien tr chnh khong 0
Mach o ien ap co ngo ra c lay hai cc phat con c goi la
mach theo ien ap (voltage follower) v ien ap ra co he so khuech ai bang 1
CHNG 2

54
so vi ien ap vao.

Hnh 2.37: Mach khuech ai co he so ln hn 1
Neu muon ien ap ra ln hn ien ap vao (mach o co he so khuech ai
ln hn 1) th ngo ra c lay cc thu C
1
, C
2
cua Q
1
, Q
2
nh mach hnh 2.37.
oi vi tn hieu co tr so o nho, chung ta co the dung them mot tang
khuech ai transistor co phan hoi tiep am e on nh s khuech ai cua mach
nh hnh 2.38. Tn hieu ra c lay cc thu C
3
cua Q
3
va phan hoi tiep am
c lay t cc thu C
3
ve cc nen B
2
qua ien tr R
4
.

Hnh 2.38: Mach khuech ai hoi tiep am
Mach o ien ap DC dung transistor trng (JFET)
Mach o dung BJT co khuyet iem la tong tr vao cua ban than transistor
BJT nho (h
ie

vai k). Do o ngi ta thng dung mach o co ngo vao dung
JFET e co tong tr vao ln nh hnh 2.39 sau ay ket hp vi mach phan ta m

55
o ien ap. Hoac mach o dung JFET kenh N nh hnh 2.40.

Hnh 2.39: Mach o co tang vao la JFET

Hnh 2.40: Mach o dung JFET kenh N
Tong tr vao cua mach o: tong tr vao cua von-ke la tong tr vao cua
mach phan tam o:
Z
i
= R
a
+ R
b
+ R
c
+ R
d
= 800k + 100k + 60k + 40k = 1M
Do o moi tam o (tam o 1V; 5V; 10V; 25V H.2.39) tong tr vao Z
i

kho ng o i (1M)
CHNG 2

56
ac iem cua mach phan tam o la mach phan ap vao mach o (mach
cau o).
V du: tam o 1V, ien ap o 1V c a vao mach o. V mach o
co ien ap bao hoa 1V.
Khi ien ap ln hn 1V th khoa S chuyen sang cac tam o ln hn (v du
chuyen sang tam o 5V) th khi o mach phan ap se tao ra ien ap V
i
vao
mach o:

o
i b c d
a b c d
V
V R R R
R R R R
( ) = + +
+ + +

Nh vay tam o 5V (V
o
)
max
= 5V
i b c d
a b c d
V
V R R R
R R R R
( ) = + +
+ + +
5
=
5
200
1
V
k
M
= 1V
2.5.2 Mach o ien ap DC dung IC Op Amp
(mach khuech ai thuat toan)
ac tnh c ban
Nhng tn hieu o lng thng co tr so nho (hoac rat nho), nhat la
nhng tn hieu t ngo ra cua cam bien o lng, cho nen can phai khuech ai
nhng tn hieu nay trc khi che bien tn hieu.
Nhng net ac trng quan trong cua mach khuech ai o lng gom
nhng iem sau ay:
He so khuech ai c chon la phu hp vi o chnh xac va o tuyen
tnh cao
Ngo vao vi sai co kha nang tot nhat e co he so truat thai tn hieu
chung ln nhat
o on nh cho he so khuech ai oi vi s thay oi nhiet o hoat ong
Sai so do s troi (drift) va ien ap offset DC cang nho cang tot.

57
Hien nay mach khuech ai o lng dung vi mach khuech ai thuat toan
(instrumentation operational amplifier) a c che tao mang nhng ac tnh
c ban noi tren. Do o, chung ta khong can phai ban tam en viec thiet ke
mach khuech ai o lng nh khi con dung linh kien transistor ri. Ngoai ra
he so khuech ai cua mach khuech ai thuat toan hoan toan phu thuoc phan t
ben ngoai do chung ta quyet nh khi thiet ke.
Chnh v vay cac phan sau ay chung ta phan tch mach o lng dung
trong may o ien t s dung mach khuech ai thuat toan (op-amp).
Dang mach o khong co khuech ai ien ap

Hnh 2.41: Mach o dung Op-Amp co he so khuech ai bang 1
Trong trng hp nay mach khuech ai ieu hp (ngan cach) tong tr ln
cua mach phan tam o va mach cua ong ho ch th (H.2.41). Mach khuech ai
dung op-amp trong trng hp nay la mach khuech ai khong ao dau (non
inverting amplifier) v tn hieu vao ngo (+) cua op-amp.
Dang mach o co khuech ai ien ap
Trng hp tn hieu o co gia tr nho chung ta dung mach khuech ai
kho ng a o dau co he so khuech ai ln hn 1 (H.2.42).
CHNG 2

58

Hnh 2.42: Mach o dung cho tn hieu nho
Trong trng hp nay:
o i
V V R R ( / ) = +
1 2
1
V du 2.7: V
i
= 0,1 von; R
1
= 90k; R
2
= 10k; R
m
= 1k; I
max
= 50A.
Xac nh R
S
e cho I
m
qua ong ho ch th cc ai.
Giai: ien ap ra:
o i
V V R R ( / ) = +
1 2
1 = 100,1V

= 1V
V
o
= (R
S
+ R
m
)I
max
= 1V
=
1
50
S
V
R
A
1k = 20k 1k = 19k
Mach khuech ai chuyen oi ien ap sang dong ien (H.2.43).

o i S m
V V R R R [ ( )/ ] = + + 1

o S m i
M i
S m S m
V R R R V
I V
R R R R R R R R
+ +
= = =
+ + + +
1
1 1 1 1
1

(V
I
)
max
= R
1
I
max
.
V du : V
i
= 0,1V, xac nh R
1
e cho I
M

I
max
. Khi c cau o co
I
max
= 50A, R
m
= 1K.
Giai: Theo cach tnh tren.
V
i.
= R
1
I
max

Cho nen khi I
M
I
max
= 50A
Tai: V
i.
= 0,1V
i
V V
R k
V A
max
,
= = = =
5
1
01 10
2
50 50
Hnh 2.43: Mach o chuyen oi
ien ap sang dong ien
+

59
Mach khuech ai dang vi sai
Mach khuech ai dang vi sai c dien ta hnh 2.44.
Khao sat mach o tren: E
cm
thanh phan chung cua tn hieu o.
E
1
, E
2
thanh phan vi sai
cm cm
R R
V E E E E
R R
( )( ) ( )( ) = + + + +
2 2
01 1 2
1 1
1
cm
R R
E E E
R R
( ) ( ) = + + +
2 2
1 2
1 1
1
cm cm
R R
V E E E E
R R
( )( ) ( )( ) = + + + +
2 2
02 2 1
1 1
1
cm
R R
E E E
R R
( ) ( ) = + + +
2 2
2 1
1 1
1
V = V
02
V
01

R
E E
R
( )( ) = +
2
2 1
1
1 2

Hnh 2.44: Mach o dung khuech ai vi sai
2.5.3 Ma ch o ie n a p DC co gia tr nho du ng phng pha p chopper
Mach o ien ap DC co gia tr nho vao khoang vai mV thng c dung
trong ien ke ien t (electronic galvanometer). e o nhng ien ap co gia tr
nho nh vay phai dung mach khuech ai ghep nhieu tang e tang he so
khuech ai. Nhng neu ghep cac tang khuech ai theo kieu ghep trc tiep
(ghep DC - direct coupling) th s troi iem phan cc cua tang au se c cac
tang sau khuech ai va nh vay, se lan vao tn hieu o. Do o phai dung cach
ghep AC (alternative coupling) e s troi moi tang khuech ai oc lap vi
nhau. Nh vay tn hieu o phai c chuyen t tn hieu DC sang tn hieu thay
oi AC, sau o c khuech ai ln len bang mach khuech ai AC. S o khoi
mach o c dien ta hnh 2.45.
Trc het tn hieu o DC a vao mach khuech ai theo ien ap co
nhiem vu ieu hp tong tr cho mach phan tam o trc o va mach chopper
(mach ong-ngat)
Mach chopper bao gom mach dao ong ieu khien mach khoa ien t
CHNG 2

60
(thng dung mach ong ngat dung JFET), hoac dung phng phap chopper
theo phng phap quang (H.2.46). Sau o tn hieu ngo ra cua mach chopper
la tn hieu AC thay oi (xung vuong) co bien o la mc ien ap DC can o va
tan so la tan so cua tn hieu dao ong. Tn hieu nay c a vao mach
khuech ai ghep AC e khuech ai tn hieu ln len.
Sau o tn hieu nay c a vao mach giai ieu che (demodulator) e loai tn
hieu dao ong, lay lai tn hieu DC (co ket hp cua mach loc ha thong).
Tn hieu DC a c khuech ai a vao mach o ien ap DC (nh a
noi phan trc).
Hnh 2.45: S o khoi cua mach o ien ap DC
co tr so nho dung chopper
Sau ay chung ta khao sat mach chopper dung phng phap quang.
Mach dao ong tao ra tn hieu ieu khien 2 diod phat quang D
5
, D
6
tuan
t chp sang. Hai diod quang (photo diod) D
1
, D
3
cung nhan nguon sang phat
ra t D
5
va D
2
, D
4
cung nhan nguon sang phat ra t D
6
. Khi D
1
, D
2
, D
3
va D
4

nhan c anh sang chieu vao th xem nh tiep iem ong. Khi khong co anh
sang chieu vao xem nh tiep iem h mach. Cho nen s dan ien cua D
1
, D
3

va s khong dan ien D
2
, D
4
hoac s dan ien D
2
, D
4
va s khong dan D
1
, D
3

tao cho xung vuong xuat hien ngo ra diod D
4
c khuech ai ln len. Tu C
S

c nap ti tr nh cua tn hieu xung vuong. Sau o mach loc se loai bo tan
Khue ch
a i AC
Ma ch gia i
ie u che
V
i
DEM
-OD
V
+V
+V
+V
V
0V
DAO
O NG
V
DC DC
0V
+
+

Ma ch ie u h p
to ng tr
Ma ch
chopper

61
so tn hieu dao ong e cho ra tn hieu V
o
(DC). Hoac mach chopper dung khoa
ien t bang JFET nh hnh 2.46 va 2.47:
Hnh 2.46: Ma ch chopper du ng phng phap quang hoc

Hnh 2.47: Mach chopper dung JFET
Khi U
GS
= 0 th JFET kenh P dan. V
GS
> V
P
: JFET kenh P khong dan. Vi
V
P
ien ap nghen cua JFET kenh P, JFET hoat ong nh khoa ien t.
2.6 VON-KE IEN T O IEN AP AC
2.6.1 Tong quat
e o ien ap AC (xoay chieu) chung ta chuyen oi ien ap AC sang
ien ap DC bang ba phng phap sau:
Phng phap chnh lu dung diod
Phng phap tr hieu dung thc (true RMS)
Phng phap tr nh.
Trong ca ba phng phap, tr so o cua tn hieu thng c oc theo tr
Dao o ng
Ma ch
lo c
K
D
1
C C
D
4
C
s
D
2
D
3
D
5 D
6
V
0
V
o
CHNG 2

62
hieu dung (RMSRoot Means Square). Do o chung ta co moi quan he gia tr
chnh lu trung bnh vi tr hieu dung va tr nh vi tr hieu dung. Cho nen co
cac he so sau ay:
He so dang:
f
Tr hi eu dung
Tr chnh l u tr ung bnh
K =
He so nh:
P
Tr nh
Tr hi eu dung
K =
Phan ln cac von-ke ien t o tn hieu xoay chieu c nh chuan
theo tr hieu dung cua tn hieu sin.
V du: Tr chnh lu trung bnh toan song (hai ban ky) cua tn hieu sin.
cl tb m
U U ( / ) = 2 (U
m
- bien o tn hieu sin);
hd m
U U / = 2
Do o he so dang:
m
f
m
U
K
U
/
,
( / )

= = =
2
111
2
2 2

Trong trng hp tn hieu khong sin tr so K
f
nho hoac ln hn 1,11 phu thuoc
vao dang va tan so tn hieu. Do o neu von-ke AC o cac tr so tn hieu khong sin se
co sai so cho tr so o khi thang o c chuan theo gia tr hieu dung cua tn hieu
hnh sin (cach chia vach o theo hnh sin).
V du: Tn hieu xung vuong co dang sau ay:
Tr hieu dung:
T
hd m
U u dt U
T
/
[ ] = =
2 1 2
0
1

Tr chnh lu trung bnh (hai ban ky).
T
cl tb cl m
U u t U
T
/
= =
2
0
2

He so dang: K
f
= 1 =
hd
cl tb
U
U

Trong khi o neu la tn hieu sin th
f
K
'
= 1,11. Nh vay sai so khi o tn
hieu xung vuong nay bang von-ke nh chuan theo tr hieu dung cua tn hieu
sin:
r
,
% %
,

=
111 1
100 10
111

V du: Tr hieu dung cua tn hieu xung vuong la 1V th von-ke c nh
chuan bi tn hieu sin se ch sai i: 10%1V = 0,10V. Ngha la ch th so 1,10V

63
(hieu dung).
2.6.2 Phng phap tr chnh lu trung bnh
Hnh thc chnh lu trc roi khuech ai sau
oi vi tn hieu AC co tr so ln chung ta dung diod trc. ien ap chnh
lu trung bnh c a vao mach o ien ap DC.
V
i
la tr chnh lu trung bnh.
V
i
= i
cltb
R
1

cl tb
M
i R
I
R
=
1
2

i
cltb
c tnh nh phan o ien dung phng phap chnh lu.
Hnh thc khuech ai trc roi chnh lu sau

Hnh 2.48: Mach chnh lu trc
khuech ai sau
Hnh 2.49: Mach khuech ai chuyen oi ap
sang dong co cau chnh lu
Mach c dien ta hnh 2.49. Trong mach o nay ta dung bo chnh lu,
ien ap ri tren diod la V
D
, e cho ien ap ri tren diod khong anh hng bi
mach o, chung ta dung mach khuech ai tren theo hnh 2.49; I
M
: dong chnh lu
trung bnh c xac nh theo bieu thc:
o
M
V
I
R
| |
=
2
;
o
V | |: tr chnh lu trung bnh cua V
o
bang cau diod.
V du: V
o
= 1V(RMS); R
2
= 10k
o
V | | 0 636 2 1V RMS # , ( ) = 0,9V; th:
0 9
90
10
,
M
V
I A
k
= =

2.6.3 Phng phap tr hieu dung thc
Theo y ngha ve tr hieu dung cua tn hieu o la can bac hai tr trung bnh
cua bnh phng tr so o c dien ta bang bieu thc:
CHNG 2

64
T
hd i
V RMS v dt
T
/2
( ) [ ] =

2 1
0
1

Cho nen chung ta dung mach cho tr bnh phng tn hieu vao ngo ra
nh sau:
Trong thc te mach o dung phng phap tr hieu dung thc hien nh
hnh 2.50. Trong mach o nay Q
2
va Q
3
tao thanh mach cau o (mach khuech
ai vi sai) loai bo thanh phan DC (mot chieu). Bien tr P
1
c ieu chnh s
phan cc e cho mach hoat ong phan phi tuyen (mach bnh phng) cho tn
hieu vao co tr so nho.

Hnh 2.50: Mach cho tr hieu dung thc dung transistor

65
Do o e cho mach hoat ong vi sai ngo vao cua mach o, trc het noi
tat ngo vao AB cua mach o, ieu chnh P
2
e co ien ap ra cua mach o bang
0 (mach o can bang). Tang khuech ai Q
1
nham muc ch bu nhiet cho s
phan cc Q
2
, Q
3
, Q
4
khi nhiet o thay oi. Hien nay co nhng vi mach tong
hp IC c che tao, co nhiem vu tao ra tr hieu dung thc cho tn hieu o nh
AD531 (Analog device) va 4301 (burrown). S o khoi c dien ta trong hnh
2.51. Trong IC co 3 mach:
Hnh 2.51: IC cho tr hieu dung thc
Mach nhan e co tr so bnh phng
Mach lay tr trung bnh
Mach lay can bac hai.
Tn hieu ngo ra cua mach lay trung bnh xem nh c nhan vi mot he
so cua thang o ieu chnh c.
Do o co the viet tr trung bnh:
i n o o
V E E / =
2
; e cho: =
i
o
E V
2

I
2
(DC)
V
o
V
o
R
2
I
2
R
1
I
1
I
2
R
m
+
A
2
A
1
A
V
I
1
(RMS)
+V
CC
V
EE
+V
CC
V
EE
TC
1
TC
2
+
E
1 E
2
Bnh phng
+
Ca n ba c hai
R
C
Trung bnh
2
inmo
v
in
v
2
in
v
2
inmo
v

CHNG 2

66
Hnh 2.52: Mach o dung phng phap tr hieu dung bang bo bien oi nhiet
ien TC
1
va TC
2


67
Ngoai ra, trong phng phap tr hieu dung thc chung ta dung bo bien oi
nhiet ien e chuyen oi tr hieu dung cua tn hieu o dang bat ky, tan so
bat ky sang tn hieu DC nh hnh 2.52. Mach o gom mach khuech ai bang
thong rong A
1
(video amplifier) tn hieu o c khuech ai tao ra dong ien I
1

co tr hieu dung ot nong ien tr R
1
cua bo bien oi nhiet ien TC
1
(neu V
o

co tr hieu dung khong oi) th I
1
(RMS) khong oi tao ra nhiet lng khong
oi cho cap nhiet ien e tao ra ien ap DC. E
1
a vao ngo (+) cua mach
khuech ai A
2
tao ra dong I
2
(DC) qua c cau ch th.
Neu nang lng o cua V
o
c duy tr th I
2
(DC) cung c duy tr se
cung cap nang lng qua R
2
cua bo bien oi nhiet ien TC
2
. Nh vay se co
ien ap E
2
(DC) kh tr s gia tang E
1
(DC) do nang lng o c duy tr.
Ngoai ra bo bien oi TC
2
con dung e bu nhiet cho bo bien oi TC
1
khi nhiet
o moi trng thay oi.
Neu ac tnh nhiet cua hai bo bien oi TC
1
va TC
2
giong nhau th ien
ap ra V
o
:
o
o V
V R R A V / =
2 1
. Neu R
1
= R
2
th

o o
o V o V
V A V V V A / = =
vi: V
o
- tr so DC;
o
V - tr hieu dung
A
V
- he so khuech ai cua mach o.
2.6.4 Phng phap tr nh

Hnh 2.53: Mach o ien ap AC dung mach nhan oi ien ap
Mach bien oi tr so tn hieu o co thanh phan xoay chieu thanh tn hieu
DC co tr so bang tr nh. nh cua tn hieu o bang mach nhan oi ien ap
hoac mach kep.
CHNG 2

68
Mach nhan oi ien ap
ay la mach o cu the dung phng phap nhan oi ien ap mach khuech
ai Q
1
, dung JFET kenh N lam nhiem vu mach em gia mach phan tam o va
mach nhan oi ien ap. Mach nhan oi ien ap bao gom C
1
, C
2
va D
1
, D
2
.
Bien tr R
C
dung e ieu chnh ien ap DC ngo ra cua mach nhan oi ien
ap.
Ma ch kep: Mach kep (H.2.54) dien ta ien ap ra DC dng hay am phu
thuoc chieu cua diod.
Hnh 2.54a: V
o
= E
m
+ V
i
vi V
i
= E
m
sint
Hnh 2.54b: V
o
= E
m
+ V
i
. = E
m
+ E
m
sint

Hnh 2.54: a) Mach ke p nh dng; b) Mach ke p nh am
Mach o cu the:

Hnh 2.55: Mach kep va mach loc ha thong

69
Tn hieu ra V
o
cua mach kep cho tn hieu DC thay oi, co tr so
2V
P
+ V
D
V
p
tr nh cua tn hieu.
Dang tn hieu V
o
mach kep nh dng.
ien ap DC am: V
o
2 E
m
+ V
D
Dang tn hieu V
o
mach kep nh am.
ien ap DC dng: V
o
2 E
m
V
D
Sau o c a vao mach loc ha thong e cho tn hieu DC khong thay
oi V
2
, co tr so gan bang V
P
. ien ap nay c a vao mach o ien ap DC
cua von-ke ien t. Trong thc te mach kep c nam trong probe o (thanh
o) c goi la probe AC ket hp von-ke ien t o ien ap DC.
Hnh 2.56: Mach o tr nh
a) Mach o tr nh khong co hoi tiep; b) Mach o tr nh co hoi tiep
Hnh 2.56a: Khi e(t) < V
C
diod D ngng dan. Khi e(t) > V
C
diod D dan
a u o
au mass
Da y da n o ng tru c
Ma ch ke p
trong probe o
A
1
D
1
R
1
V
C
C

S

A
2
E = E
m

tr nh
cu a e(t)

e(t)

) a
R
22
A
2
C

S

R
1
V
1
D
1
A
1
D
2
e(t)

R
i
E = E
m

) b
CHNG 2

70
ien. V
C
= e(t) tu ien nap en ien the nh cua e(t) bang E
m
. Mach khuech
ai theo ien ap (he so khuech ai bang 1) co nhiem vu ngan cach tu C vi
ngo ra cua mach o. Khoa S dung e xa ien cho tu C e chuan b cho chu trnh o
ke tiep. ien tr R
1
co nhiem vu ngan khong cho mach khuech ai A
1
dao ong khi
ien dung nap ien. Khuyet iem ln nhat cua mach o la s bao hoa cua A
1

khi e(t) < V
C
, bi v mach o khong co hoi tiep am. Hien tng nay lam ap
ng tan so cua mach b gii han.
Hnh 2.56b: Tn hieu trong mach o co cai tien hn so vi mach o tr c
la hoat ong vi tan so ln hn. Mach khuech ai A
1
la mach khuech ai ao
dau. Khi e(t) vt qua tr so -V
C
, V
1
tr nen am va D
1
dan. S hoi tiep am trong
hai mach khuech ai cho ien ap ra E = E
m
ien ap ri tren diod va ien ap
sai lech (do s khong oi xng) cua mach khuech ai A
2
b loai bo. Khi e(t)
giam V
1
tang en tr so ngng dan cua diod D
1
e cho s hoi tiep am qua R
2

lam cho diod D
2
dan e tranh s bao hoa cua mach khuech ai A
1
. Tr so nh
dng cua e(t) c ao dau va nap vao tu C. Nh vay khong co dong ien r
nao qua diod D
1
va tong tr vao cua A
2
rat ln. Muon ao cc tnh E th ao
chieu diod D
1
va D
2
.
2.7 AMPE-KE IEN T O DONG AC VA DC
2.7.1 o dong DC
Nguyen ly o dong DC trong ampe-ke ien t la chuyen dong ien o
I
o
thanh ien ap o bang cach cho dong ien o I
o
qua ien tr R
S
theo mach
o nguyen ly sau (H.2.57).
I
1
I
2
I
3
I
4
R
S1
R
S2
R
S3
R
S4
I
o
A
B
MA CH
O
IE N
AP DC
I
o
I
o
A
B
+
R
1
I
max
R
m
R
S
V
o
+
I
o
Hnh 2.57: Mach o dong DC Hnh 2.58: Mach phan tam o dong ien

71
Phan tam o dong ien bang cach thay oi ien tr (H.2.58).
Tam o I
4
>I
3
>I
3
>I
2
>I
1
; cho nen tam o cang ln th ien tr R
S
cang
giam.
2.7.2 o dong AC
Nguye n ly o: e o dong AC th chung ta chuyen dong ien AC thanh
ien ap AC bang ien tr R
S
nh trong trng hp o dong DC. Sau o chuyen
ien ap o AC thanh ien ap DC bang nhng phng phap o ien ap AC nh
a noi phan tren.
BAI TAP
2.1. Mot ampe-ke dung c cau o t ien co ien tr c cau o R
(m)
= 99 va dong
lam lech toi a I
max
= 0,1mA. ien tr shunt R
S
= 1. Tnh dong ien tong cong i
qua ampe-ke trong cac trng hp:
a) Kim lech toi a.
b) 0,5D
m
; (FSD = I
max
, full scale deviation).
c) 0,25D
m
.

Hnh B.2.1
Giai: a) Kim lech toi a D
m

ien ap hai au c cau o.
V
m
= I
m
R
m
= 0,1mA 99 = 9,9mV
I
s
R
S
= V
m
I
S
= = =
9 9
9 9
1
m
S
V mV
mA
R
,
,
Dong tong cong: I = I
S
+ I = 9,9mA + 0,1mA = 10mA.
b) 0,5 D
m
: I
m
= 0,50,1mA = 0,05mA
V
m
= I
m
R
m
= 0,05mA 99 = 4,95mV
= = =
4 95
4 95
1
m
S
S
V mV
I mA
R
,
,
I = I
S
+ I
m
= 4,95mA + 0,05mA = 5mA
CHNG 2

72
c) 0,25 D
m
: I
m
= 0,250,1mA = 0,025mA
V
m
= I
m
R
m
= 0,025mA 99 = 2,475mV
= = =
m
o
S
V mV
I mV
R
,
,
2 475
2 475
1

I = I
S
+ I
m
= 2,475mA + 0,025mA = 2,5mA.
2.2. Mot c cau o t ien co I = 100A, ien tr noi khung quay
R = 1k. Tnh ien tr shunt mac vao c cau o e tr thanh mot ampe-ke
tng ng vi cac trng hp hnh B.2.1.
a) D
m
= 100 mA = tam o 1.
b) D
m
= 1A = tam o 2.
Giai: a) tam o 100mA.
V
m
=

I
m
R
m
= 100A 1k = 100mV
I
t
= I
s
+ I
m
I
s
= I
t
I
m
= 100mA 100A = 99,9mA
= = =
100
1 001
99 9
m
S
S
V mV
R
I mA
,
,

b) tam o 1A: V
m
=

I
m
R
m
= 100mV
I
s
= I
t
I
m
= 1A 100A = 999,9mA;
= = =
100
010001
999 9
m
S
S
V mV
R
I mA
,
,

2.3. Mot c cau o t ien co ba ien tr shunt c mac theo kieu shunt ayrton s
dung lam ampe-ke. Ba ien tr co tr so: R
1
= 0,05, R
2
= 0,45; R
3
= 4,5;
R
m
= 1k; I
max
= 50A, co mach o nh hnh B.2.3. Tnh cac tr so tam o cua
ampe-ke.

Giai: Khoa ien B:
V
s
= I
max
R
m
= 50A1k = 50mV.
= = =
+ + + +
1 2 3
50
10
0 05 0 45 4 5
S
S
V mV
I mA
R R R , , ,

Hnh B.2.3

73
I
t
= I
s
+ I
m
= 50A + 10mA = 10,05mA; I = 10mA.
Khoa ien C:
V
s
= I
m
(R
m
+ R
3
) = 50A(1k + 4,5) 50mV.
S
S
V mV
I mA
R R ( ) ( , , )
= = =
+ +
1 2
50
100
0 05 0 45

I = 50A + 100mA = 100,05mA.I 100mA.
Khoa ien D:
V
5
= I
m
(R
m
+ R
3
+R
2
) = 50A(1k + 4,5 + 0,45) 50mV
= = =
1
50
1
0 05
S
s
V mV
I A
R ,
.I = 50A + 1A = 1,00005A 1A
2.4. Mot c cau o t ien I
max
= 100A, ien tr noi (day quan)
R
m
= 1K c s dung lam von-ke DC. Tnh ien tr tam o e von-ke co
V
td
= 100V. Tnh ien ap V hai au von-ke khi kim co o lech 0,75D
m
;
0,5D
m
; va 0,25D
m
(o lech toi a D
m
).

Hnh B.2.4
Giai: V = I
M
(R
S
+ R
m
) =
S
m
V
R
I
R
m
Khi: V = V
td
= 100V IM = I
max
= 100A
=
100
100
S
V
R
A
1k = 999k.
Tai o lech 0,75 (FSD) D
m

I
m
= 0,75 100 A = 75A
V = I
m
(R
S
+ R
m
) = 75A (999k + 1k) = 75V
m
: I
m
= 50A
V = 50A (999k + 1k) = 50V.
m
: I
m
= 25A
V = 25A (999k + 1k) = 25V.
2.5. Mot c cau o t ien co I
max
= 50A; R
m
= 1700 c s dung lam von-
ke DC co tam o 10V, 50V, 100V. Tnh cac ien tr tam o theo hnh B.2.5a,b
CHNG 2

74
nh sau:

Hnh B.2.5
Giai: Theo hnh B.2.5a: R
m
+ =
1
V
R
I
max

=
1
V
R
I
max
R
m
=
10
50
V
A
1700 = 198, 3k
=
2
50
50
V
R
A
1700 = 998,3k
=
3
100
50
V
R
A
1700 = 1,9983M
Theo hnh B.2.5b: R
m
+
V
R
I
max
=
1
1

=
1
1
V
R
I
max
R
m
=
10
50
V
A
1700 = 198, 3k, R
m
+ R
1
+ R
2
=
2
m
V
I

R
2
=
2
V
I
max
R
1
R
m
=
50
50
V
A
198, 3k 1700 = 800k
R
m
+ R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
=
V
I
max
3
R
3
=
3
m
V
I
R
2
R
1
R
m

= 100 50 V A 800k 198; 3k 1700 = 1M
2.6. Mot von-ke co tam o 5V, c mac vao
mach, o ien ap hai au ien tr R
2
nh
hnh B.2.6.
a) Tnh ien ap V
R2
khi cha mac von-
ke .
b) Tnh V
R2
khi mac von-ke, co o nhay 20k/V
c) Tnh V
R2
khi mac von-ke, co o nhay 200k/V.
Giai: Cha mac von-ke:
Hnh B.2.6

75
V
R2
=
R
E
R R +
2
1 2
= 12V
50
70 50
k
k k
+
= 5V
Vi von-ke co o nhay 20k/V
R
v
= 5V 20k/V = 100k
R
v
// R
2
= 100k // 50k = 33,3k
V
R2
=
2
1 2
33 3
12 3 87
70 33 3
// ,
,
// ,
V
V
R R k
E V V
R R R k k
= =
+ +

Vi von-ke co o nhay 200k/V
R
v
= 5V 200k/V = 1M
R
v
// R
2
= 1M // 50k = 47,62k

2
47 62
12 4 86
70 47 62
,
,
,
R
k
V V V
k k
= =
+

fS
= 100A va
ien tr c cau o R
m
= 1k c s dung lam
von-ke AC co V tam o = 100V (RMS). Mach
chnh lu co dang cau s dung diod silicon nh
hnh B.2.7, diod co V
F(nh)
= 0,7V.
a) Tnh ien tr noi tiep R
S
?
b) Tnh o lech cua von-ke khi ien ap a vao von-ke la 75V va 50V
(tr hieu dung RMS)
c) Tnh o nhay cua von-ke. Tn hieu o la tn hieu xoay chieu dang sin.
Giai: a) Tnh R
S
: ay la mach chnh lu toan ky nen ta co quan he:
P tb
I tr dnh I ( ) / , = 0 637
= 2
m
V tr nh ( ) V (RMS: tr hieu dung).
C cau o co: I
fs
= I
tb
= 100A
= =
100
157
0 637
P
A
I A
,

Hnh B.2.7
CHNG 2

76
Ta co:
=
+
1 414 2
td F
m
S m
V V
I
R R
,

=
1 414 2
td F
S m
P
V V
R R
I
,

=
1 414 100 2 0 7
1 890 7
157
( , ) ( , )
,
V V
k k
A

=

Tnh o lech: V = 75V.
F
tb m
S m
V V
I I
R R
,
, ,

= =
+
1 414 2
0 637 0 637
1 414 75 2 0 7
0 637
890 7 1
( , ) ( , )
,
,
V V
k k

=
+

I
tb
= 75A = / 3 4 o lech toi a. (I
m
: dong nh khi V = 75V)
V = 50V.
I
tb

1 414 50 2 0 7
0 637
890 7 1
( , ) ( , )
,
,
V V
k k

=
+
= 50A =
1
2
o lech toi a
Tnh o nhay:
I
m
= 157A I(RMS) = 0,707I
p
= 0,707 157A = 111A
Tong tr:
100
900 9
111
,
V
R k
A
= =
. o nhay =
900 9
9 009
100
,
, /
k
k V
V
=
2.8. Mot c cau o t ien co: I
fS
= 50A; R
m
= 1700 ket hp vi mach chnh
lu ban ky nh hnh B.2.8. Diod silicon
D
1
co tr gia dong ien thuan I
F
(nh)
toi thieu la 100A. Khi ien ap o bang
20% V
tam o
, diod co V
F
= 0,7V. Von-ke
co V
tam o
= 50V.
a) Tnh R
s
va R
SH

b) Tnh o nhay cua von-ke trong hai trng hp: co D
2
va khong co D
2
.
Giai: a) Tnh R
S
va R
SH
ay s dung chnh lu ban ky nen ta co:
I
p
= I
tb
/(0,5 0,637): tr nh trong trng hp chnh lu ban ky.
C cau o co I
fs
= I
tb
= 50A
= =
50
157
0 5 0 637
m
A
I A
, ,
(tr nh)
Khi V = 20% V
t
, I
F(nh)
co tr gia 100A. Vay khi V= V
t
, I
F(nh)
co tr
gia:
= =
100
100 500
20
F nh
I A A
( )
%
%

Hnh B.2.8

77
I
F
= I
m
+ I
SH
I
SH (nh)
= I
F
I
m
= 500A 157A = 343A
V
p(nh)
= I
m
R
m
= 157A 1700 = 266,9mV

m nh
SH
SH nh
V
mV
R
I A
( )
( )
,
= = =
266 9
778
343

( )
t m F nh
F nh
S
V V V
I
R
( )
,
=
1 414

t m F nh
S
F nh
V V V
V mV V
R
I A
( )
( )
,
() , , ,

= =
1 414
1 414 50 266 9 0 7
500
=139,5k
b) Tnh o nhay.
Co D
2
: trong ban ky dng, dong qua D
1
co tr gia nh:
I
F(nh)
= 500A
Trong ban ky am, dong qua von-ke I
(nh)
:
1 414 1 414 50
500
139 5
( )
, ,
,
t
nh
S
V V
I A
R k
= = =

I
(hieu dung)
= 0,707500 A = 353,5A (RMS)c
Tong tr:
50
141 4
353 5
( )
,
, ( )
V RMS
R k
A RMS
= =
;
o nhay
141 4
2 8
50
,
, /
k
k V
V

= =
Khong co D
2

Trong ban ky dng: I
F(nh)
= 500A. Trong ban ky am: I = 0
Trong chu ky cua tn hieu:
I
(hieu dung)
= 0,5 I
F(nh)
vi I la dong ien mach chnh chay qua R
s
trong ban ky dng.

T
2 F nh
(hi eu dung) F
I
I
I I t dt
T
/2
( )
( sin ) = =
2
2
0
2 4

I = 0,5 500A = 250A
Tong tr:
50
200
250
V
R k
A
= =
. o nhay
200
4
50
/
k
k V
V
= =
2.9. Mot ampe-ke s dung c cau o t ien co cau chnh lu va bien dong nh
hnh ve. Biet rang c cau o co I
fs
= 1mA va R
m
= 1700. Bien dong co N
th
=
CHNG 2

78
500;
s
N = 4. Diod co: V
F(nh)
= 0,7V; R
s
= 20k. ampe-ke lech toi a khi dong
s cap I
P
= 250 mA. Tnh tr gia R
L
.

Hnh B.2.9
Giai: Chnh lu toan ky nen ta co:
tb
m
I mA
I tr nh mA ( ) ,
, ,
= = =
1
1 57
0 637 0 637

ien ap E
m
hai au cuon th bien dong (tr nh):
E
m
= I
m
(R
s
+ R
m
) + 2V
F
= 1,57mA(20k + 1700) + 1,4V = 35,5V
E
s
(tr hieu dung) = ( 0,70735,5V) = 25,1V
Dong lam lech toi a c cau o co tr hieu dung I:
I = 1,11I
tb
= 1,11 1mA = 1,11mA
Ta co:
s
th s
th
N
I I mA mA
N
= = =
4
250 2
500

I
th
= I
qua c ca u o
+ I
L
; 2mA = 1,11mA + I
L

I
L
= 2mA1,11mA = 0,89mA;
251
28 2
0 89
,
,
,
S
L
L
E V
R k
I mA
= = =

2.10. Tnh ien ap hai au c cau o t ien (PMMC) co R
m
= 850 va I
fs
=
100A khi kim lech toi a.
S: 85mV.
2.11. Tnh tr gia ien tr tam o cho c cau o t ien co I
fs
= 200A, R
m
= lk
c s dung lam von-ke DC co V
t
= 150V.

79
2.12. Tnh dong ien i qua c cau o t ien khi kim co o lech bang 1/2 o lech
toi a (FSD) biet rang c cau o co o nhay la 20 k/V.
S: 25A.
2.13. Tnh tr gia ien tr shunt e cho ampe-ke co: I
t
= 1mA; R
m
= 103 tr thanh
ampe-ke co I
t
(I
tam o
) = 150mA.
2.14. C cau o A co tam o t 0 en 10V va ien tr tam o la 18k, c cau
o B co tam o t 0 en 300V va ien tr tam o la 298k, ca hai c cau o
eu co ien tr day quan R
m
= 2k. Hay cho biet c cau o nao co o nhay
ln hn.
S: C cau A.
2.15. Tnh dong ien chay qua c cau o A, B nh hnh B.2.15.

Hnh B.2.15
2.16. Tnh cac tr gia ien tr t R
1
en R
5
nh hnh B.2.16.

Hnh B.2.16
2.17. Tnh tr gia ien tr R
1
, R
2
, R
3
hnh B.2.17.

Hnh B.2.17
CHNG 2

80
2.18. Tnh tr gia ien tr R
1
, R
2
, R
3
, R
4
trong hnh B.2.18.

Hnh B.2.18
S: R
1
= 1; R
2
= 9; R
3
= 90; R
4
= 900.
2.19. Ta o ien ap hai au ien tr 6k trong mach nh hnh B.2.19 bang
cach mac von-ke hai au ien tr nay, von-ke co o nhay 10k/V. Gia s
von-ke co cac tam o 1V, 5V, 10V va 100V, hay cho biet tam o nhay nhat co
the s dung ma sai so gay ra do tai cua von-ke nho hn 3%.
S: tam o 100V.

Hnh B.2.19 Hnh B.2.20
2.20. Trong mach o sau, von-ke A co o nhay 5k/V c noi gia X va Y
ch 15V tam o 30V. Von-ke B c noi gia X va Y ch 16, 13V tam o
50V. Tnh o nhay cua von-ke B.
2.21. Dong ien i qua c cau o co tr gia nh I
p
= 150A. Tnh tr gia I
DC

neu c cau o dung mach chnh lu ban ky.
2.22. Dong ien i qua c cau o t ien o c la 0,8mA. Tnh tr gia nh
cua dong xoay chieu neu c cau o s dung mach chnh lu toan ky.
fs
= 1mA va ien tr day quan Rm = 500 ket
hp vi mach chnh lu ban ky e tr thanh von-ke AC. Tnh o nhay AC va
DC, tnh ien tr tam o e von-ke co V
t
= 30V.
S: S
AC
= 450/V; S
DC
= 1 k/V; Rs = 13,3k.
fs
= 200A va ien tr day quan
R
m
= 500 c s dung lam von-ke AC bang cach dung mach chnh lu toan

81
ky. Tnh ien tr tam o e von-ke co V
t
= 50V.
2.25. Tnh o nhay AC va DC va ien tr Rs trong mach o (H.B.2.25).

Hnh B.2.25
2.26. Mot von-ke AC o tr gia nh va mot von-ke AC o tr gia hieu dung
c s dung e xac nh tn hieu nao co dang sin. Hay cho biet tn hieu nao
co dang sin biet rang ket qua o co tr gia nh sau:
Tn hie u 1 Tn hie u 2 Tn hie u 3
o tr gia nh-nh: 35,26V o tr gia nh-nh 11,31V o tr gia nh-nh 25,00V
o tr gia hieu dung: 12,00V o tr gia hieu dung: 4,00V o tr gia hieu dung: 8,83V
S: Tn hieu 2 va 3 co dang sin.
2.27. Mot von-ke AC c dung e o ien ap hai au ien tr R
2
nh hnh
B.2.27. Biet rang von-ke dung c cau o t ien co I
fs
= 100A, ien tr day quan
R
m
= 1,5k, s dung mach chnh lu ban ky va co V
t
= 10V. Hay cho biet tr
gia oc c tren von-ke.

Hnh B.2.27 Hnh B.2.28
2.28. Hai von-ke AC khac nhau c dung e o ien ap hai au ien tr R
2
nh hnh B.2.28. Von-ke A co o nhay AC la 10k/V va cap chnh xac la 2%
va co V
t
= 200V. Von-ke B co o nhay AC la 4k/V, cap chnh xac la 1,5%
va V
t
= 100V. Cho biet von-ke nao cho ta ket qua chnh xac hn.
CHNG 3

82
Chng 3
O IEN TR
3.1 O IEN TR BANG VON-KE VA AMPE-KE

Hnh 3.1: a) Mach o R
X
; b) Mach o R
X
ay la phng phap xac nh phan t ien tr ang hoat ong (o no ng)
theo yeu cau. Co hai cach mac e o ien tr:
Hnh 3.1a: Von-ke mac trc, ampe-ke mac sau (loi mac re dai). Khi o
ien tr can o R
X
c xac nh bi:
=
X
V
R
I
(3.1)
trong o: V - cho bi von-ke; I - cho bi ampe-ke.
Theo mach o: V = V
a
+ V
x
(3.2)
vi: V
a
- ien ap ri tren ampe-ke; V
x
- ien ap ri tren R
X
.
Ta thay co sai so trong viec xac nh R
X
do anh hng noi tr cua ampe-
ke. Neu R
a
(noi tr cua ampe-ke) rat nho so vi R
X
th V
X
> V
a
. Sai so do anh
hng cua ampe-ke khong ang ke.
Hnh 3.1b: Ampe-ke mac trc, von-ke mac sau (loi mac re ngan). ien tr
R
X
van c xac nh bi:

83
=
X
V
R
I
(3.3)
trong o: I = I
X
+ I
V
- cho bi ampe-ke vi I
V
dong ien i qua von-ke.
Neu I
V
I
X
tong tr vao cua von-ke rat ln so vi R
X
th sai so do anh
hng cua von-ke khong ang ke.
V du 3.1: o ien tr r cua tu ien (R
X
) khi
hoat ong ien ap qui nh. Mach o c
mac theo hnh 3.2. Von-ke co tam o 50V
va o nhay 20k/V
DC
c mac noi tiep vi
tu ien C can o. Kim ch th ien ap 10
von. Khi o ien ap ri tren tu ien.
V
C
= V
S
V = 300V 10V
= 290V
Dong ien toi a I
max
cua c cau ch th bang 50 A (kim ch 10V)
Vay ien tr r cua tu ien
= =
290
29
10
X
V
R Megohm
A

V du 3.2: Trong mach hnh 3.1a, von-ke co o nhay 10k/V ch 500 von va
ampe-ke ch 0,5A co R
A
= 10. Von-ke at tam o 1000V. Xac nh ien tr
R
X
.
Giai: Theo von-ke va ampe-ke: = = =
500
1000
0 5
X
V V
R
I A ,

Neu phan tch: V = V
X
+ V
a
= (R
a
+ R
X
)I;
a X
R R V I / + = = 1000
Suy ra tr so thc cua R
X
= 1000 10 = 990.
Vay sai so do anh hng cua ampe-ke va von-ke:

% %
10
100 1
1000

V du 3.3: Neu von-ke va ampe-ke c mac theo hnh 3.1b th von-ke va
ampe-ke oc bao nhieu? Khi R = 990
Giai: ien tr tng ng gia von-ke va R
X
.
R
V
// R
X
= (10k/V1000V) // 990 = 989,9
Von-ke ch th:

V X
X
a V X
R R
V V V
R R R
( // ) ,
( // ) ,
= =
+
989 9
500 500
999 9
= 495V
Hnh 3.2: o ien tr r R
X

CHNG 3

84
Ampe-ke ch th tr so:
= + = = =
495
0 5
989 9
X
V X
V X
V V
I I I A
R R
,
// ,

Do o hai v du 2 va 3 la neu o R
X
bang cach lay tr so oc cua von-ke
chia cho tr so oc cua ampe-ke th tr so oc cua v du 3 chnh xac hn v:
X
R V I V A / / , = = = 495 0 5 990 .
Trong khi tr so o c v du 2:
X
R V A / , = = 500 0 5 1000
3.2 O IEN TR DUNG PHNG PHAP O IEN AP BANG
BIEN TR

Hnh 3.3: o ien ap bang phng phap
bien tr suy ra R
X
theo R
S

Nguon cung cap E tao ra dong ien I qua R
X
la V
RX
ien ap ri tren ie n
tr mau V
S
: =
RX X
S S
V R I
V R I
. Suy ra:
RX
X S
S
V
R R
V
= .
V
RX
va V
S
c o bang phng phap bien tr.
o ien tr bang phng phap so sanh nay khong phu thuoc vao dong
ien I cung cap cho mach o.
3.3 MACH O IEN TR TRONG OHM-KE
Trong may o van nang (multimeter V.O.M) co phan o ien tr (ohm-
ke). Trong trng hp dung ohm-ke e o ien tr th trang thai o la phan t
ien tr o (R
X
) khong co nang lng (o nguo i), mach o se la nguon nang
lng rieng (nguon pin).
3.3.1 Mach nguyen ly o ien tr
O IEN TR

85

Hnh 3.4: a) Mach ohm-ke; b) Thang o khong tuyen tnh cua ohm-ke
a y la mach ohm-ke kieu mac noi tiep, dong ien qua c cau ch th R
1
:
=
+ +
b
m
X m
E
I
R R R
1

vi: R
1
- ien tr chuan cua tam o; R
m
- ien tr noi cua c cau.
Khi R
X
0; I
m
I
max
(dong cc ai cua c cau ien t).
Khi R
X
; I
m
I
max
(khong co dong qua c cau).
V du 3.4: E
b
= 1,5V; I
max
= 100A; R
1
+ R
m
= 15k.
Xac nh ch th cua kim khi R
X
= 0 va s ch th tr so ien tr khi I
m

= / 1 2 thang o; / 1 4thang o; / 3 4 thang o.
Giai: T phng trnh tren khi R
X
0: 1 5 0 15 100 , / I V k A = + =
Tai tr so / 1 2 thang o: I A A / = = 100 2 50
Khi o ien tr R
X
V
A
,
=
1 5
50
(R
1
+ R
m
) = 30 15 = 15k
Khi dong I
m
= 1/4 thang o: I
m
= 25A
ien tr R
X
c xac nh: 1 5 25 15 45 , /
X
R V A k k = =
Tai dong I
m
= 3/4 thang o: I
m
= 75A
ien tr 1 5 75 15 5 , /
X
R V A k k = =
Nh vay gia tr thang o ien tr khong tuyen tnh theo dong ien I
(H.3.4b).
3.3.2 Mach o ien tr thc te
Trong thc te nguon pin E
b
co the thay oi. Khi R
X
0, I
m
qua c cau
khong bang I
max
, do o mach o co the mac them R
2
(H.3.5) bien tr nay dung
e chnh iem 0 cho mach o khi E
b
thay oi. Nh vay trc khi o phai
ngan mach hai au AB, ieu chnh R
2
e sao cho ohm-ke ch 0.
CHNG 3

86

Hnh 3.5: Mach ohm-ke co chnh 0
Theo mach tren ta co: I
b
=
+ +
1 2
B
X m
E
R R R R //

Neu R
2
// R
m
R
1
, th: =
+
1
b
b
x
E
I
R R

Nh vay ien ap: V
m
= I
b
(R
2
// R
m
)
Se co dong I
m
qua c cau ch th: = =
2 m b m
m
m m
V I R R
I
R R
( // )
.
Do o moi lan o cho R
X
0 ieu chnh R
2
e co:
b m
m
m
E R R
I I
R R
max
( // )
= =
2
1

Sao cho khi E
b
co s thay oi th s ch th R
X
se khong thay oi.
V du 3.5: E
b
= 1,5V; R
1
= 15k; R
m
= 1k; R
2
= 1k; I
max
= 50A. Xac nh tr so
oc cua R
X
khi I
b
= I
max
; I
m
=
1
2
I
max
; I
m
=
3
4
I
max

Giai: Tai I
m
= I
max
= 50A; V
m
= I
max
R
m
= 50A1k = 50mV.
Do o: I
2
=
2
50
50
1
m
V mV
A
R k
= =
. Nh vay dong: I
b
= 100A.
Vay: R
X
+ R
1
#
b
b
E
I
neu R
X
+ R
1
R
2
// R
m
500.
#
1 5
15
100
, V
k =
. R
X
+ 15k = 15k; R
X
= 0.
Khi I
m
=
max
=
1
25
2
; V
m
25mV I
2
= 25A.
Suy ra I
b
= 50A. Vay R
X
+ R
1
#
1 5
50
V ,
; R
X
# 15k
O IEN TR

87
Tng t nh cach tnh tren. = =
3
37 5
4
m max
, .
I
b
= I
m
+ I
2
= 37,5A + 37,5A = 75A.

1
1 5
20
75
,
X
V
R R k + = =

, R
X
= 5k.
V du 3.6: Trng hp E
b
= 1,3V, tnh cac tr R
X
nh v du 1.
Giai: Khi R
X
= 0 th I
m
= 50A (ieu chnh R
2
).

1
1 3
86 67
0 15
,
, .
b
b
X
V
R R k
= =
+ +

= = =
2
86 67 50 36 67
b m
I I I A A A , ,

2
2
50 1
1 36
36 67
,
,
m
V k
R k
A

= = =

tr ch th 1/2 thang o I
m
= 25A.

2
2
25
18 38
1 36
,
,
m
V mV
R k
= = =
; I
b
= 25A + 18,38A = 43,38A

1
1 3
29 96
43 38
,
,
,
X
V
R R k + = =
.
R
X
= 29,96k 15k = 14,96k # 15k.
Giong nh tr so cua v du 1 khi E
b
= 1,5V. tr ch th 3/4 thang o I
m
=
37,5A.

2
37 5
27 57
1 36
,
,
,
mV
k
= =
, I
b
= 37,5A + 27,57A = 65,07A.

1
1 3
19 97
65 07
,
,
,
X
V
R R k + =

.
R
X
= 19,97k 15k = 4,97k # 5k.
Ket qua o v du 2 va v du 1 gan giong nhau mac du E
b
giam. V a
ieu chnh R
2
e cho I
m
= I
max
.
Mach o ien tr vi nhieu tam o trong may o van nang (H.3.6).
Khi thay oi tam o (X1 hoac X10 hoac X100...) dong ien qua c ca u
ch th I
m
van bang nhau nhng tr so oc c tren thang o c nhan vi gia
tr tam o (H.3.7).
CHNG 3

88

Hnh 3.6a: Mat ngoai ohm-ke

Hnh 3.6b: Mach o ien tr co nhieu tam o
V du 3.7: Khi R
X
= 24 (H.3.7a).

Hnh 3.7: Mach o cho tng tam o: a) Mach cho tam o X1
O IEN TR

89
b) Mach cho tam o X100; c) Mach cho tam o X10K
= =
+ +
1 5
31 254
24 14 10 16 685
b
V
mA
,
,
[ // . ]
.

m
m ,
.
=
+
10
31 254
10 16 685
= 18,72A (gia thang o)
Khi R
X
= 2400 (H.3.7b).

1 5
0 311
2400 1470 1 15 695
,
,
[ // , ]
b
V
mA
k k
= =
+ +

Dong I
m
qua ong ho:

m b
I m , , ,
.

= = =
940
0 311 0 059 18 62
15 695

Neu thang o X
1
: I
m
= 18,72A tng ng R
X
= 24
vi: I
m
=
b b
( // . )
#
. .

+ +
10 16 685 10
10 16 685 10 16 685

X
R , /[ ( // . )] ,

= + +
4
1 5 14 10 16 685 5 989 10

X
V
R
, ,
( ) ( )

= +
4
6
1 5 5 989 10
14 10
33 10
= 27,2 24 = 3,2
Nh vay thang o cua ohm-ke khong tuyen tnh hoan toan, moi tam o
eu phai chnh 0 .
3.2.3 Nguyen ly o cua ohm-ke tuyen tnh
Thang o cua ohm-ke theo nguyen ly dong ien nh a e cap tren
khong tuyen tnh theo ien tr o. Do o trong cac mach o ohm-ke tuyen tnh
trong may o ien t ch th kim hoac ch th so, chung ta chuyen tr so o ien
tr R
X
sang ien ap o V
X
bang cach cung cap nguon dong ien I khong oi
(bat chap tr so R
X
). V
X
= R
X
I. Sau o R
X
c o bi mach ien ap, V
X
tuyen
tnh theo R
X.

Nh vay: Khi R
X
0, V
X
0 Von.
Khi R
X
, V
X
tien en gia tr ln nhat cua mach o
V du: Mach o ien ap co ien ap ln nhat 1,5V th khi R
X
th V
X

1,5V.
Nh vay neu von-ke co ien tr chnh may trc khi o, th phai chnh
R
X
cho mach o. Khong chnh R
X
0 nh mach o dung nguyen ly
dong trong phan trc (chung ta se e cap trong phan may o ien t).
3.2.4 o chnh xac cua ohm-ke
CHNG 3

90
Do mach ien tr khong tuyen tnh theo thang o, nen sai so tang nhieu
khoang o phi tuyen. V vay khoang thang o co sai so cho phep trong khoang
t 10 90% khoang hoat ong vi ieu kien chnh 0 cho moi tam o.
Nh a noi phan trc khi ohm-ke ch th 1/2 thang o th ien tr R
X

bang noi tr cua mach ohm-ke. Neu 1/2 thang o cua s ch th dong ien co
sai so 1% cua thang o ien tr dan en sai so la 2% ket qua o ien tr.
Khi: R
X
= R
1
va =
+
1
b
b
X
E
I
R R
. T sai so 2% cua dong I
b
( 1/2 thang
o) se co sai so cho phan o ien tr la 2% cua (R
X
+ R
1
)
Gia s R
1
co sai so khoang 1%, khi R = R
1
th sai so tai R
X
(tai 1/2 thang
o) se la 2% (2 R
1
) = 4 %.
V du 3.8: phan tch sai so cua ohm-ke khi kim ch th 0,8 thang o va 0,2
thang o.
Giai: 0,8 thang o:
= =
+
1
0 8
b
b
X
I
R R
max
,
b b
X
b
E E R
R R
E R
max
, , / ,
+ = = =
1
1
1
0 8 0 8 0 8

V khi R
X
0 (H.3.4): =
+
1 1
b b
b
X
E E
R R R
# .
Vay: R
X
= 1,25R
1
R
1
= 0,25R
1
; R
1
= 4R
X
.
Neu sai so cua thang o la 1 % cho s ch th cua kim th tai 0,8 thang o,
sai so cua s ch th dong ien la 1,25% I
max
. Nh vay sai so phan o ien
tr:
R
X
(%) = 1,25% (4R
X
+ R
X
) = 6,25% R
X

0,2 thang o:
R
X
+ R
1
=
b
E R
R
max
, ,
= =
1
1
5
0 2 0 2
; R
X
= 4R
1

Sai so cho toan khung thang o 1%, 0,2 thang o, sai so cho ch th la
5%. Sai so cho R
X
:
X
X X
R
R R %( ) , % = + = 5 6 25
4

O IEN TR

91
Theo s phan tch sai so cua thang o ien tr tren, e o chnh xac hn
nen chon tam o cho ien tr khoang 1/2 thang o, v tai o sai so c
chng minh v du tren la 4%, trong khi o 0,2 thang o va 0,8 thang o sai
so eu ln bang nhau va bang 6,25%.
3.4 CAU WHEATSTONE O IEN TR
e cho ien tr c chnh xac hn, chung ta dung cau Wheatstone e o
ien tr bang hai phng phap
Phng phap can bang
Phng phap khong can bang
3.4.1 o ien tr dung cau Wheatstone can bang
ay la phng phap thng dung trong phong th nghiem v nhng u
iem cua no.
Nguyen ly cau Wheatstone
Cau Wheatstone c mac nh hnh 3.8.

Hnh 3.8: Cau Wheatstone o ien tr Hnh 3.9: ien ke G
Khi cau Wheatstone can bang la dong ien qua ien ke G = 0:
V
P
= V
Q
va V
R
= V
S
Neu dong I
1
qua P va R, dong I
2
qua Q va S.
Khi o I
1
P = I
2
> Q va I
1
R = I
2
S.
Suy ra:
R S
P Q
= hoac R
P
S
Q
= .
Vi tr so P, Q, S biet chnh xac, ien tr R c xac nh. Ket qua o R
khong phu thuoc vao nguon cung cap E. ay cung la u iem cua phep o. o
chnh xac cua R phu thuoc vao o nhay cua ien ke G. o nhay cua ien ke
ln dan en s can bang tot hn.
CHNG 3

92
Ngoai ra sai so cua ien tr P, Q, S cung anh hng cua sai so R.
V du: Sai so cua S la 0,5%; P, Q la 1%. Th sai so cua R:
R = S + R + Q = 2,5%.
Vi bat ky R e ieu chnh cau Wheatstone can bang chung ta thng
thay oi t so P/Q (tam o) va S la bien tr (hop ien tr) co gia tr thay oi
tng 0,1 (hoac tng 1,0) nh cac cau o Wheatstone trong cac phong th
nghiem.
V du: P Q / / = 110; S = 237,5. Khi cau can bang, do o R c xac nh:
R = 23,75.
3.4.2 o ien tr dung cau Wheatstone khong can bang

Hnh 3.9: Mach tng ng Thevenin cua cau Wheatstone
a) ien ap ngo ra e h cua cau; b) ien tr r ngo ra
c) Mach Thevenin khi tai la r
g
cua ien ke
Trong cong nghiep, ngi ta thng dung nguyen ly cau Wheatstone khong
can ba ng ngha la nh ien ap ra (hoac dong ien ra) ngo ra cua cau e o
ien tr R hoac s thay oi R cua phan t o. Phng phap nay can nguon E
cung cap cho cau o c on nh, v ien ap ra co phu thuoc vao nguon E.
Ngoai ra cung con phu thuoc vao o chnh xac cua cac phan t cau
Wheatstone. o nhay cua cau phu thuoc vao nguon cung cap E va noi tr cua
bo ch th (hoac tong tr vao cua mach khuech ai neu ien ap ngo ra cua
cau c a vao mach khuech ai).
T mach cau o hnh 3.9, ien ke G c thao ra khoi cau o. ien ap
ngo ra cua cau:

R S b
R S
V V E
R P Q S
[ ] =
+ +

Tong tr ngo ra cua cau c xac nh:
r = [P // R] + [Q // S]
Nh vay mach tng ng Thevenin cua cau c xac nh (H.3.9c). Do
O IEN TR

93
o dong ien I
g
qua ien ke khi cau khong can bang:

=
+
R S
g
g
V V
I
r r
, r
g
- noi tr cua ien ke G
V du 3.9: Xac nh s thay oi ien tr R nho nhat ma ien ke G phat hien
c khi o nhay cua ien ke G = 1A/diV (diV: mot vach chia cua thang o).
P = 3,5k; Q = 7k va S = 4k khi R = 2k va noi tr cua ien ke G: r
g
=
2,5k; E
b
= 10V.
Giai: Theo bieu thc mach tng ng Thevenin:
V
R
V
S
= I
g
(r + r
g
)
vi: r = (P // R) + (Q // S) =
3 5 2 7 4
3 82
5 5 11
,
,
,
k k k k
k
k k

+ =

Khi I
g
thay oi 1A th co s thay oi: V
R
V
S
.
(V
R
V
S
) = I
g
(r+r
g
) = 1A(3,82 + 2,5)k = 6,32mV
ma: (V
R
V
S
) =
b
R R S
E
R R P S Q
[ ]
+

+ + +

Nh vay R
min
co c khi: (V
R
V
S
) = 6,32mV; R
min
(2+3,5)k
6,32mV = 10 V
2 4
2 3 5 7 4
min
min
( )
,
R k k
k R k k k
+
+ + +

6 3
2 4 6 32
6 32 10 362 5 5 10 3 476
5 5 11 10
min
,
, , ,
,
R k k mV
k k V

+
= = = =

Nh vay e cho R
min
cang nho th
R S
V V ( ) cang ln, o nhay cang
tang th
b
E cang ln, nhng s tang
b
E co han che. Do o, can phai khuech
ai
R S
V V ( ) va tong tr
i
Z cua mach khuech ai phai ln (
g
r c thay
bi
i
Z cua mach khuech ai).
3.4.3 Tam o ien tr cua cau Wheatstone
e cho ien tr o bi cau
Wheatstone c chnh xac th gia tr
o cua no phai ln hn gia tr ien tr
tiep xuc va ien tr day noi. Nh
mach hnh 3.10 do anh hng cua day
noi co ien tr noi gia R va S khi o
ien ke G c xem nh noi a hoac
b a en ket qua o:
Hnh 3.10: ien tr day noi
gay ra sai so cau
Wheatstone
CHNG 3

94
S Y P
R
Q
( ) +
= hoac
SP
R
Q Y
=
+

Trong thc te ien tr R o c chnh xac co gia tr nho nhat vao
khoang 5. Nh vay e o nhng ien tr nho hn 1 ( / 110 ;
/ 1100 ; / 11000 ) chung ta phai dung ky thuat o ac biet.
Ngoai ra, cau Wheatstone cung c dung e o cac ien tr ln vai M
(megohm) hoac vai tram M, phai dung cach thc o ac biet (se noi phan
sau). Nhng cung gii han tr 10
12
ohm.
3.5 CAU OI KELVIN
ay la cau o ac biet c dung e o ien tr gia tr nho.
3.5.1 ien tr bon au
Nhng ien tr co gia tr nho nh ien
tr shunt can phai co au ien tr c xac
nh chnh xac, e tranh sai so do s tiep
xuc cua au ien tr vi day dan ien co
dong ien ln i qua. Do s xuat hien hieu
ng nhiet ien co the co, cho nen ien tr
c che tao bon au (H.3.11), hai au dong
ien thng co be mat tiep xuc vi day dan
co dien tch ln; con hai au nho goi la a u
the (potential terminal) c noi vao ampe-
ke (miliampe-ke), gia tr ien tr c tnh hai au nay va khong co ien ap
ri tren au the nay do hieu ng nhiet ien.
3.5.2 Cau oi Kenvin
Cau oi Kelvin c mac hnh 3.12. Trong
cau o nay co ien ap ang ke ri tren ien tr Y
cua oan day noi a, b. Neu t so cua phan t
= P r p R / / (P=p va R=r) th khi o sai so do
ien ap ri tren day dan Y se b loai bo.
Phng trnh cau can bang nay phc tap
hn cau Wheatstone. Khi cau can bang th V
g
=
0:
dong i
1
qua ien tr P va R; dong I
qua ien tr Q va S
dong i
2
qua P va r; dong I i
2

Hnh 3.11: ien tr bon
au
a u do ng
a u the
a u do ng
a u the
Hnh 3.12: Cau oi
Kelvin o ien tr nho
O IEN TR

95
qua ien tr Y.
Bi v khong co ien ap ri tren ien ke G cho nen:
i
1
R = i
2
r + IS
Suy ra: IS = i
1
R i
2
R = R i i r R ( / )
1 2

Con co: i
1
P = IQ + Pi
2
, IQ = P i pi P ( / )
1 2

Chia:
P i i p P I Q
I S R i i r R
( / )
( / )
1 2
1 2
; =
Q P
S R
. Ne u p = P va r = R
Vay, vi ieu kien can bang cua cau va luon luon co p = P va r = R th
phan t o Q c xac nh:

P p
Q S S
R r
= =
Q khong phu thuoc vao ien tr day dan, Y, S la ien tr mau co sai so
nho, P la hop ien tr thay oi co o chnh xac cao va o phan giai nho (co
the tng bc thay oi la 0,1 (hoac 1)), R la ien tr thay oi tam o cho
cau.

Hnh 3.13: Cau Kelvin vi ien tr Q, S co bon au
Cau o Kelvin thc te dung ien mau S co bon au nh hnh 3.13. V Q
va S thng co ien tr nho t vai microohm (), vai m (miliohm) en 1
cho nen dong I+i
1
thng co tr so han che (vai ampe). V vay phai co bien tr
R
b
va ampe-ke theo doi. o chnh xac cua cau o Kelvin cung giong nh cau
Wheatstone (a c phan tch). oi vi nhng ien tr o Q co gia tr nho hn
0,1 (microohm) o chnh xac se kem i nhieu.
V du 3.10: Dung S = 1m; Q = 23,5; R = 1000 dong qua ampe-ke 5 ampe,
nguon E
b
= 6V th ien ke G ch 0. Nh vay:
CHNG 3

96
Q m
,
,

= =
6
23 5
1 23 5 10
1000

V du 3.11: Mot ien tr (bon au) co tr so khoang 0,15 c o bi cau
Kelvin. ien tr mau 0,1. Xac nh t so cho cau o R/P hoac r/p.
Giai: Theo cong thc khi cau can bang.

P p P
Q S S
r r R
, , = = = = 0 1 0 15 . Suy ra
R r
P p
,
,
= = =
01 10
015 15

Nh vay tren cau o Kelvin chnh P = p = 15.
R = r = 10 hoac P = p = 150 va R = r = 100.
3.6 O IEN TR CO TR SO LN
Trong phan nay chung ta e cap en phng phap o ien tr co gia tr
ln (vao khoang vai megohm tr len) dung von-ke, microampe-ke, cau
Wheatstone va megohm-ke chuyen dung. Khi o ien tr co tr so rat ln nh
o ien tr cach ien cua vat lieu thong thng se co hai phan t ien tr.
ien tr khoi (volume resistance).
ien tr r be mat (surface leakage resistance).
Hai phan t ien tr nay xem nh song song vi nhau, nh vay hai ien
tr co tr so co the so sanh c se anh hng ang ke en ien tr khoi can
o cua vat lieu cach ien.
3.6.1 Phng phap o ien tr ln dung von-ke va microampe-ke
Cau o ien tr cach ien cua vo boc gia day dan trong va day dan ben
ngoai (vo giap bang kim loai) cua day dan ien ong truc co vo boc giap
(H.3.14). Khi dong ien i vao day dan th se co hai dong ien i qua micro
ampe-ke, o la dong I
V
i qua lp cach ien cua vo boc, dong I
S
i qua be mat
cua day dan va lp cach ien. Cho nen ien tr song song gia lp cach ien
va be mat [R
V
//R
S
] c xac nh bi von-ke va micro ampe-ke. Neu R
S
so
sanh c vi R
V
th R
S
se anh hng rat ln en R
V
can o. e tranh anh
hng cua R
S
bang cach loai bo dong I
S
qua microampe-ke, ngi ta thng
dung day dan ien (khong co vo boc hoac vecni) quan quanh lp vo cach ien
va noi trc microampe-ke. Nh vay dong ien I
S
i qua R
S
luc trc se i qua
day dan nay (H.3.14b) do o anh hng cua R
S
vao R
V
b loai bo. Vong day
dan nay c goi la vong day ba o ve tranh ien tr r be mat R
S
.
O IEN TR

97

Hnh 3.14: o ien cach ien lp vo boc
a) Dong r be mat I
S
; b) Co vong day bao ve
V du 3.12: Mot cap day dan ien loai ong truc lp giap bang kim loai ben
ngoai cung, ngan cach day dan ien ben trong bang lp cach ien. Neu mach
c mac noi nh hnh 3.14a th dong ien qua microampe-ke la 5A khi ien
ap th nghien la 10.000V. Neu mach c mac nh hnh 3.14b th dong ien
o c la 1,5A. Xac nh ien tr khoi cach ien cua lp cach ien. Sau o
xac nh ien tr r be mat hnh 3.14a.
Giai: ien tr khoi cach ien:

3
9
6
10 10
6 7 10
1 5 10

= = =

V
V
R ,
,
(ohm)
Dong ien qua ien tr r be mat:
I
S
= 5A I
V
= 5A 1,5A = 3,5A v I
V
+ I
S
= 5A
3
9
6
10 10
2 9 10
3 5 10

= = =

S
S
R ,
,
(ohm)
Nh vay neu chung ta khong loai bo dong I
S
bang vong day dan bao ve th se
o c ien tr: R
S
// R
V
= (2,9 // 6,7)10
9
= 2,0210
9
ohm
Nho hn ba lan ien tr khoi cach ien that.
CHNG 3

98
Trong trng hp o ien tr cach ien cua mot mau cach ien be mat
(H.3.15) khi o e loai bo dong ien r be mat ngi ta dung vong bao ve bang
kim loai hnh vanh khan ben ngoai ban cc mat tren e o ien tr cach ien.
Hnh 3.15: o ien tr cach ien loai bo ien tr r be mat
Trong trng hp dung cau Wheatstone e o ien tr cach ien e loai
bo ien tr r be mat, chung ta cung dung vong bao ve nh hnh 3.16a va c
phan tch thanh mach tng ng (H.3.16b), ien tr b va c la hai ien tr r
be mat va be mat di cua vat lieu can o ien tr cach ien. V b r
g
(ien
tr cua ien ke).
b // r
g
r
g
va c S c // S S
Nh vay b va c khong anh hng en ien tr R la phan t o cua cau.

Hnh 3.16: a) Cau Wheatstone o ien tr cach ien be mat
b) Mach tng ng
3.6.2 Megohm-ke chuyen dung
Chat cach
ie n
Vo ng ba o
ve
I
V
I
L
V
A
Cao the
O IEN TR

99
Bo ch th thng dung cho megohm-ke (loai co ien) la t so ke t ien
(H.3.17). C cau ch th nay gom co hai cuon day.
Cuon day lech (deflecting coil).
Cuon day kiem soat (control coil).

Hnh 3.17: Megohm-ke chuyen dung
Hai cuon day nay quan tren truc quay mang kim ch th. Momen quay T
2

= K
q2
()I
2
va T
1
= K
q1
()I
1
.
Hai momen nay luon luon oi khang nhau va K
q1
, K
q2
la ham so theo goc
quay cua kim ch th e sao cho tai goc
i
cua kim ch th ta co:
T
q1
= K
q1
(
i
)I
1
= T
q2
= K
q2
(
i
)I
2
. Suy ra
q i
i
q i
K
K
K
( )
( )
( )
= =

2
1
2 1

Vay goc quay
i
cua kim ch th phu thuoc vao tr so dong ien I
1
va I
2

(c cau ch th nay khong co tr ban au v khong co lo xo kiem soat hoac day
treo nh c cau ien t ma ch co truc quay do o khi khong co dong I
1
, I
2
kim
ch th v tr bat ky).
Theo mach cu the cua megohm-ke : Nguon E c cung cap bi may phat
ien quay tay (hoac nguon phat bang mach ien t dung pin nh cac may mi
sau nay). Dong I
1
qua cuon day kiem soat:
=
+
1
1 1
R r
, R
1 -
ien tr chuan, r
1 -
ien tr noi cua khung quay kiem
soat dong I
2
qua cuon day lech.
=
+ +
2
2 2 X
R R r

CHNG 3

100
R
X
- ien tr o; R
2
- ien tr chuan; r
2
- ien tr noi cua khung quay lech.
Khi R
X
; I
2
0: Dong ien I
1
keo kim ch th lech toi a ve pha
trai thang o co tr so .
Khi R
X
0; I
2
I
2max
(cc ai)
T so
2 1
tr so cc ai kim ch th lech ve pha phai (tr so 0)
Khi R
X
tr so bat ky khi o goc quay
i
.

= =
+ + +
1 2
1 1 2 2 X
va
R r R R r

X
R r
K
R R r
/( )
( )
/( )
+
= =
+ +
1 1 1
2
2 2 2
;
X
i
R R r
K
R r
( )
+ +
=
+
2 2
1 1

Nh vay goc quay
i
phu thuoc vao tr so o R
X
.
ac biet khi kim ch th gia thang o:

1
2
1 R
X
= R
1
+ r
1
R
2
r
2

Neu: r
2
= r
1
R
X
= R
1
R
2
.
Nh vay thay oi tam o cho thang o bang cach thay oi tr so R
2
.
Trong mach nay co au Guard e gan vao vong bao ve (guard ring) hoac
day bao ve (guard wire) e loai bo ien tr r be mat (R
S
) khi o ien tr cach
ien
3.6.3 ng dung o ien tr cach ien va cho day b cham at
cua day ien li
Tong qua t: Ngi ta thng o ien tr cach ien cua cac ng day tai
ien hoac phan phoi ien trong cong nghiep. V du theo tieu chuan thiet ke
mang ien, ien tr cach ien c th nghiem vi megohm-ke 1000V (hoac
2000V), nguon ien ap cap cho megohm-ke. ien tr cach ien c o gia
hai au day dan ien vi nhau hoac tng day dan ien vi day trung tnh vi
ieu kien day dan c thao ra khoi nguon ien li va tai (v du ien tr
cach ien qui nh toi thieu 1M).
O IEN TR

101
o ien tr cach ien khi tat nguon ien
Trc khi o, mach c ngat ra khoi nguon. ien tr cach ien cua day
dan A so vi mass. Mot au cua day A c noi vao au L cua megohm-ke con
au E cua megohm-ke c noi au mass cua day dan (day trung tnh cua he
thong ien) (H.3.18). Nh vay ien tr c o la R
A
//(R
AB
+ R
b
). Neu R
AB
+

R
b

rat ln so vi R
A
th R
A
t sai so. Sau o lau R
b
, R
c
cua ba day dan c xac
nh ien tr cach ien vi day trung tnh. Con ien tr cach ien gia hai day
A B c o R
AB
//[R
A
+R
B
]. Tng t nh vay ien tr cach ien cua day BC
R
BC
//[R
B
+R
C
].

Hnh 3.18
o ien tr cach ien dung M ke
Hnh 3.19
Von ke V, V1 o ien tr cach ien
o ien tr cach ien trong trng hp co nguon
Trong trng hp day dan co nguon cung cap. Khi o chung ta dung von-
ke V o ien ap nguon cung cap, von-ke V
1
lan lt o ien ap V
A
, V
B
cua day
A, day B so vi day trung tnh (H.3.19). Dong ien I
1
qua R
B
.
= =
+
1
A
B B A V
V V V
R R R R [ // ]

vi: R
A
, R
B
- ien tr cach ien day dan A, B oi vi mass
R
V
- tong tr vao cua von-ke
Tng t khi von-ke c mac gia day B la co dong I
2
qua R
A
.
= =
+
2
B
A A B V
V V V
R R R R ( // )

T hai phng trnh tren suy ra:
CHNG 3

102
R
A
= R
V
A B
B
V V V
V

;

R
B
= R
V
A B
A
V V V
V

Neu nh R
A
R
B
khi von-ke V
1
c mac gia day A vi trung tnh, c
xem nh von-ke V
1
mac noi tiep vi R
B
hai au von-ke V.
Do o: R
B
= R
V
A
V
V
( ) 1

Tng t nh vay neu R
B
R
V
, th: R
A
= R
V
B
V
V
( ) 1

Nh vay neu ien ap V cua li ien khong oi th ien ap o gia mot
cuon day dan ien vi trung tnh phu thuoc vao ien tr cach ien cua day dan
ien th 2. Cho nen von-ke co the khac o theo ien tr cach ien.

Hnh 3.20
Hai von-ke o ien tr cach ien
Hnh 3.21
Ba von-ke o ie n tr cach ien
T tren ta suy ra tr cach ien gia hai day dan ien co the o c bang
cach mac nh hnh 3.20. Trong ieu kien bnh thng cua s cach ien, moi
von-ke se cho ket qua ien ap nguon cung cap day dan.
Bat ky s giam ien tr cach ien nao cua mot trong hai day dan, cung
se lam giam cach o cua von-ke nay, trong khi von-ke con lai se tang tr so
len.
Trng hp ba day dan cua nguon ien ba pha, ien tr cach ien cua ba
day dan c ch th bi ba von-ke (H.3.21). Neu nh ien tr cach ien cua
day dan A giam xuong th von-ke V
A
giam, con V
B
, V
C
se co s gia tang tr so.
O IEN TR

103

Hnh 3.22: Von-ke c mac vi bien ap o
oi vi nguon ien cung cap tren 1kV th cac von-ke c mac qua bien
ap ba pha o lng nh hnh 3.22. Bien ap ba pha dang nay khong thuan li
khi hoat ong trong trnh trang xau xay ra la mot trong ba pha b cham at.
Nh vay cuon s cap cua pha b cham at ngan mach, ien ap cac pha con lai
tang len lam chay cuon s cap cua bien ap cho nen phai co s bao ve cho phan
s cap cua bien ap.
o ien tr oan day ien b cham mass
Van e quan trong la xac nh c v tr cua ca p dan ien b cham mass
e mat thi gian va chi ph cho viec boc d ca oan day (neu loai ca p
ngam chon di at). Nhng h hong thng xay ra nh sau:
Lp cach ien cua cap b be
Lp cach ien b giam o cach ien, co s phong ien lam hong
lp cach ien.

Hnh 3.23: Vong Murray o ien tr cham mass
Phng phap thng dung e xac nh v tr cham mass la vong th
nghiem (test loop). Nhng phng phap nay u xac nh cho hong. Mach
thng dung la vong Murray va vong Varley. ay cung la mot ng dung cua
cau Wheatstone (H.3.23). Khi cau Wheatstone can bang (ieu chnh R
2
va thay
CHNG 3

104
oi R
1
).

+
=
2
1
a b X
X
R R R R
R R
. Suy ra: R
X
(R
1
+ R
2
) = R
1
(R
a
+ R
b
)
Vay
+
=
+
1
1 2
a b
X
R R R
R
R R
( )

Neu oan day R
X
co chieu dai L
X
; R
a
co chieu dai L
a
; R
b
co chieu dai L
b
.
Cac day co cung ien tr suat, L
a
= L
b
= L va cung thiet dien A:
a b X
L L L R
A R R A A
[ ] = +
+
1
1 2
;
X
R
L L
R R
' =
+
1
1 2
2
V du 3.13: oan day cap co cham mass c xac nh bang vong Murray can
bang khi R
1
= 100 va R
2
= 300. oan day A, B co chieu dai L
a
= L
b
= 5000m.
Day cap dan ien ong chat va ong nhat.
Giai: Chieu dai cho cap b cham mass

X a
L R R R L m [ /( )] ( / ) = + =
1 1 2
2 100 400 2 5000 = 2500m
hoac dung vong Varley.

Hnh 3.24: Vong Varley
Mach ien mac theo hnh 3.24, cau Wheatstone co them ien tr R
3
. a y
la phng phap xac nh them ien tr day cham at chnh xac nhat va s
ngan mach trong mot day cap co nhieu day dan ien. No c cai tien thch
hp nhat t vong Murray. Gia s cho b cham mass tren day dan ien co ien
tr R
a
. Noi hai au day dan. Sau o khoa S v tr a ieu chnh R
3
e sao cho
cau can bang.

+
=
2
1 3
a b
R R R
R R
. Suy ra: + =
3 2
2
a b
R R
R R
R

Nh vay ien tr day dan c xac nh. Sau o chuyen khoa S sang v
O IEN TR

105
tr b, ieu chnh en tr R
'
3
sao cho cau (vong VARLEY) can bang. Chung ta
co:

a b X
X
R R R R
R
R R
'
( ) +
=
+
2
1
3
; R
2
R
X
+ R R
'
2 3
= R
1
R
a
+ R
1
R
b
R
1
R
X

R
X
(R
1
+ R
2
) = R
1
(R
a
+ R
b
) R R
'
2 3

Vay:
a b
X
R R R R R
R
R R
'
( ) +
=
+
1 2 3
1 2

V du 3.14: Trong mach hnh 3.24 R
1
= 1k, R
2
= 2k, chieu dai cua oan day
cap L
a
= L
b
= 10Km, ien tr cua day cap 0,02/m. Khi khoa S a ieu chnh
R
3
=100 th cau can bang, con khi S b, R
3
= 99 th cau can bang. Xac
nh L
X
cho day cham mass.
Giai: Khi khoa S a:

a b
R R
R R
R

+ = = =
2 3
1
2000 100
200
1000

Khi khoa S b:

a b
X
R R R R R
R
R R
'
( ) +
=
+
1 2 3
1 2

( ) ( )
,

= =
1000 200 2000 99
0 67
3000

Vay chieu dai:
X
L m
m
,
, /
= =
0 67
335
0 02

3.7 O IEN TR AT
Coc o ien tr at
Thanh dan ien bang kim loai (thng bang ong) hoac nhieu thanh dan
ien c ong xuong at, vung at can o ien tr, khi o chung ta co coc
a t. Sau o cac coc at nay c noi vao mach o bang nhng day dan ien.
ien tr at
ien tr cua vung at can o tiep xuc vi coc at se c xac nh bi
ien ap ri tren ien tr at khi co dong ien i qua no. Trong thc te ien tr
at phu thuoc vao ieu kien moi trng xung quanh (nhiet o, o am), thanh
phan cua at.
CHNG 3

106
Khoang cach gia cac coc at
e cho ien tr at cua cac coc at khong anh hng vi nhau (ngha la
cac ien tr coc A la R
A
khong b anh hng bi vung at cua coc B co ien
tr at la R
B
). Ngi ta khao sat thc te nh hnh 3.25. Dong ien I i qua
vung at gia hai coc at se tao ra ien ap:
V
AC
= R
A
I vi: R
A
- ien tr at cua coc A
V
BC
= R
B
I R
B
- ien tr at cua coc B
Khi coc P c ong gia coc A va B bat ky v tr nao, th von ke gi a
coc AC co tr so thay oi theo ng bieu dien (H.3.25b). Nh vay ngoai pham
vi 10m th ien ap V
AC
khong thay oi (cac iem ngoai 10m ang the). Nh
vay hai coc at cach nhau 20m se co ien tr at khong anh hng len nhau.
(Trong thc te hai coc cach nhau 10m en 20m co the xem nh hai coc at
rieng biet).

Hnh 3.25: Khao sat ien tr at, va ien ap ri
tren ien tr at cung dong I i qua
Nguon ien ap cung cap cho mach o
Nguon tn hieu cung cap cho mach o la nguon tn hieu xoay chieu dang
sin hoac xung vuong. Chung ta tranh dung nguon DC do anh hng cua ien
giai se lam tang sai so o ien the ien cc. Neu dung ien li cua ien lc
th phai dung bien ap cach ly tranh anh hng dong trung tnh (neu co do ien
the li mat oi xng) va coc at cua day trung tnh.
3.7.2 Mach o ien tr at
Dung von-ke va ampe-ke
Phng phap trc tiep
Mach o c mac nh hnh 3.26.
O IEN TR

107

Co c A: coc o ie n tr at R
X;
Co c P: coc phu o ien a p; Co c C: coc phu o do ng ien
Hnh 3.26: Mach o ien tr at bang von-ke va ampe-ke
Theo mach tng ng cua ien tr at cua coc A, P, C (H.3.27)
ien tr cho bi von-ke V:
V
AP
= R
X
I + R
P
I
V
vi I = I + I
V
cho bi ampe-ke.
Neu: I
V
I th I I. Do o:
A
X
V
R

Hnh 3.27
Mach tng ng cua ba coc
A, P, C
Hnh 3.28
Mach o ien tr at bang phng
phap gian tiep
Vay ien tr c xac nh bi tr so oc cua von-ke va ampe-ke. Do o
neu chung ta quan tam en sai so do vo n-ke va ien tr coc phu thuoc ien ap
th R
X
co sai so tng oi:
R B B V
R R R [ /( )] % = + 100
trong o: R
B
- ien tr at cua coc phu ien ap B
R
V
- tong tr vao cua cua von-ke
Nh vay e sai so cang nho th R
B
R
V
.
CHNG 3

108
Phng phap gian tiep: Trong trng hp nay o ien tr at tng coc nh
hnh 3.28. Von-ke va ampe-ke co gia tr ien tr tng coc:

A P
V
R R + =
1
1

Sau o lan lt o ien ap cua hai coc BC va CA:

P C
V
R R + =
2
2

Tng t nh vay:
C A
V
R R + =
3
3

Sau o t ba phng trnh nay chung ta xac nh R
A
, R
B
, R
C

Trong phng phap nay ca ba coc at (gom coc o va hai coc phu) eu
c xac nh, loai tr c anh hng sai so do ien tr coc phu gay ra nh
a e cap trong phng phap trc tiep.
Dung cau Kohlrausch o ien tr at
ay la dang cau Wheatstone e o
ien tr cua dung dch co tnh chat ien
giai bang hai ien cc, no cung c
ng dung e o ien tr at (H.3.29)
ien tr R
A
+R
B
c xac nh khi cau
can bang (giong nh phng phap gian
tiep dung von-ke va ampe-ke).

A B
R
R R R
R
+ =
1
3
2

Phng phap o ien tr at dung
cau can bang co u iem la loai bo c
dong ien tan chay qua vung at can o ien tr.
May o chuyen dung e o ien tr at
May o dung t so ke t ien: mach o nguyen ly hnh 3.30.
Dong ien I
1
i qua cuon day I cua t so ke i qua vung at can o ien
tr. Dong ien I
2
i qua cuon day 2 co t so phu thuoc vao ien ap ri tren coc
o va coc phu ien ap. ieu chnh bien tr R
S
, I
2
thay oi. V V
AP
= (R
S
+ r
2
)
= R
X
I
1
. Suy ra
X S
I R R r / /( ) = +
2 1 2

ieu chnh R
S
cho en khi: I
1
= I
2
R
X
= R
S
+r
2

Hnh 3.29: o ien tr
bang cau o
O IEN TR

109
Nh vay vi R
S
tai tr so / =
2 1
1, se xac nh c R
X
khi r
2
a biet
trc.
Trong thc te dong I
1
qua t so ke la DC, con dong i
1
chay qua vung at
o la AC, do o co bo bien oi I
1
(DC) sang i
1
(AC) a vao coc o. Sau o
dong i
1
(AC) chuyen sang I
1
(DC) tr ve may phat G mot chieu bang bo chnh
lu, con ien ap V
AP
(AC) c chnh lu sang ien ap V
AP
(DC) tao ra dong
ien I
2
(DC).
Nh vay trong cac may o co ien, dung may phat (quay tay) thng co
truc quay gan lien vi bo bien oi DC sang AC, hoac chnh lu t AC ve DC
dung hien tng c ien.
a) b)
Hnh 3.30: May o dung t so ke
a) Mach o nguyen ly; b) Mach o thc te
Ma y o du ng c ca u ch th t ie n (H.3.31): Mach o co hai v tr cua SW
1

(cong tac chuyen mach) la v tr C dung e chnh may, ien tr chuan R
C

thay the ien tr at can o.
v tr M: Mach o hoat ong vi ien tr at can o. T nguon phat
xoay chieu G tao ra dong ien I i qua ien tr R
C
(khi chnh may) hay qua R
X

khi o ien tr at se tao ra ien ap: R
C
I
1
hoac R
X
I
1.
ien ap nay c so sanh vi ien ap I
2
R
as
vi I
2
phu thuoc vao K
I
I
1
,
trong o K
I
la t so bien dong CT va R
as
phu thuoc vao v tr S cua bien tr R
V.
Neu I
2
R
as
khac R
X
I
1
th V
1
= I
2
R
as
I
1
R
X
0.
Khi o V
2
= K
V
V
1
c chnh lu qua c cau ien t, kim ch th khac
G
M
R
MC
R
S
P
A
E
1
I
1
E
2
B
I
2
P
A
E
1 I
1
E
2
B
I
2
G
R
S
I
1
I
2
CHNG 3

110
kho ng.
Con chay S cua R
s
c ieu chnh cho en khi V
1
= 0, khi o kim ch th
cua c cau ien t ch khong: I
1
R
X
= K
1
I
1
R
as

Do o: R
X
= K
I
R
as

Nh vay ien tr R
as
xac nh ien tr at R
X
.

Hnh 3.31: Mach o cua may o ien tr at
CT: Bien dong, VT: Bien ap

1- Coc phu ap; 2- Co c phu do ng; 3- Coc at o
Hnh 3.32: S o khoi may o Hnh 3.33: Cach ong coc
Ma ch o ie n tr a t co s ke t h p vi mach ien t dung c cau t ien:
O IEN TR

111
S o khoi cua may o (H.3.32). Nguon tn hieu xung vuong tan so 500 Hz
c tao ra nh mach dao ong dung transistor, co dong cung cap cho ien tr
at can o vao khoang t 1020mA. Mach so sanh tach song ong bo (dung
phng phap tach song ong bo), co nhiem vu va chnh lu va so sanh hai
ien ap xoay chieu.
E
X
= R
X
I va E
S0
= R
S0
K
I
I
ieu chnh con chay e cho G ch 0
X S
R R
n
=
0
1
. Vi (K
I
=
n
1
).
Cach ong coc at e o cho nhng may o ien tr a t sau na y (loai ien
t): Ba coc at E (coc o); P (coc ien ap); C (coc dong ien) c noi vao
may o theo hnh 3.33. Khoang cach gia cac coc la t 5 en 10m. V tr cac
coc tao ra mot goc ln hn 100
o
. Khoang cach EC, EP can phai ln hn cac
coc trong trng hp ong thang hang.
Cach o ba ien ap ri tren coc at (H.3.34)
Co nhng may o ien tr at co phan o ien the ri tren coc at 1 vi
coc at 2, khi o bo ch th tren may o cho biet ien ap ri tren hai coc. V
du, o ien ap ri tren coc at c xem la coc an toan cua tai vi coc trung
tnh cua li ien (H.3.34).

1- Coc phu ap (Co c trung tnh); 2- Coc at o
Hnh 3.34: o ien ap ri tren coc at
Neu ket qua o c ien ap di 10V th kha nang an toan chap nhan
c va khi o chung ta co the o ien tr at cua coc at an toan cho tai.
Trong trng hp ien ap tren ln hn 10V th viec o ien tr at cua coc at
b anh hng va kha nang an toan phai lu y do co s hien dien cua dong r va
s hien hu cua dong trung tnh do s mat can bang cua li ien.
3.8 O IEN TR TRONG V.O.M. IEN T
3.8.1 Nguyen ly
CHNG 3

112
e o c ien tr trong may o ien t, ngi ta cung chuyen ai
lng ien tr sang ai lng ien ap, sau o a vao mach o ien ap cua
von-ke ien t. Mach o ien tr co hai dang:
Noi tiep
Mac re.
3.8.2 Mach o ien tr dang noi tiep
Mach o c mac nh hnh 3.35
Mach o tren co nam tam o 1 10 100 1k 10k. Ngha la
tr so oc c nhan vi he so nhan cua tam o. V du: tam 100 tr so oc tren
mat ch th la 36 th ket qua o cua R
X
= 3600.
Mach thay oi tam o gom co cac ien tr chuan noi tiep vi R
X
, cac
ien tr chuan nay la loai ien tr chnh xac, sai so nho hn 1%. Tam o ien
tr cang ln th ien tr chuan moi tam o cang tang. Dong ien cua moi tam
o giam tng ng (tam o tang 10 th dong ien giam 10).
Khi R
X
= 0 (noi tac hai au AB), V
o
= 0V
Khi R
X
(hai au AB e h), V
o
# 1,5V
V tong tr vao cua mach o ien ap DC rat ln so vi ien tr chuan cua tam
o, cho nen ien ap ri tren ien tr chuan khong ang ke trong trng hp
AB e h.

Hnh 3.35: Mach o ien tr dang noi tiep
Trng hp R
X
bat ky vi tam o tng ng co ien tr chuan R
1
.
Chung ta co:

X
o
X
R
V E
R R
=
+
1

O IEN TR

113

Hnh 3.36: Thang o ien tr
V du 3.15: tam o 1k ien tr o co tr so R
X
= 1k. Khi o V
o
co tr
so nh nhau.

1
1 5 0 75
1 1
, ,
o
k
V V V
k k
= =
+

Nh vay kim ch th se ch so 1 gia thang o.
Neu R
X
= 0,5K th:

0 5
1 5 0 5
1 0 5
,
, ,
,
o
k
V V V
k k
= =
+

Nh vay kim ch th ch so 0,5 1/3 thang o. Neu R
X
= 2k th:

2
1 5 1
1 2
,
o
k
V V V
k k
= =
+

Nh vay kim ch th so 2 2/3 thang o. Vay thang o ien tr trong
trng hp nay khong tuyen tnh.
3.8.3 Mach o ien tr dang mac re
Mach o c mac theo hnh 3.37. Trong mach o nay:
Khi R
X
= 0, khi o V
o
= 0V
Khi R
X
th
o
R
V E
R R
=
+
2
1 2

Khi R
X
co tr so bat ky.

[ ]
X
o
X
R R
V E
R R R
//
[ // ]
=
+
2
1 2
X
X X
R R
E
R R R R R ( )
=
+ +
2
2 1 2

Theo bieu thc nay khi:
= =
+
1 2
1 2
1 2
X
R R
R R R
R R
( // ) th
o
R
V E
R R
=
+
2
1 2
1
2

Khi o kim ch th 1/2 thang o
CHNG 3

114

Hnh 3.37
Mach o ien tr dang mac re
Hnh 3.38
Mach o ien tr loai mac re
V du 3.16: Co mach o ien tr sau ay:
C cau ch th co: I
max
= 50A, R
m
= 2k, E = 1,5V
Khi R
X
= 10 tam 1.. R
X
= 100 tam 10
Th
( )
M
I I
max
/ = 1 2 xac nh R
1
, R
2
.
Giai: Mach tng ng Thevenin cho mach o (H.3.39).

t
R
E E
R R
=
+
2
1 2

R
t
= [R
1
// R
2
]
V mach o co mach khuech ai he
so khuech ai bang 1 cho nen:
V
i
= V
o
, khi R
X
th:
V
i
(V
o
)
max
= R
m
I
max
.
(V
i
)
max
= (V
o
)
max
= 100mV
Do o khi: R
X
=
R R
R R
=
+
1 2
1 2
10 (1)
Th: V
o
= V
i
= 50mV = =
+
t
R
E E
R R
2
1 2
1 1
2 2
(2)
T phng trnh (1) va (2) ta co:

mV
R R R R R
E
( ) ( ) = + = +
2 1 2 1 2
100 1
15

Hnh 3.39
Mach tng ng Thevenin
O IEN TR

115
R
1
R
2
= 10(R
1
+ R
2
) = 1015R
2

Suy ra: R
1
= 150 va R
2
= / , = 150 14 10 7 .
Trong trng hp R
X
= 100 ( tam 10). Th R R R R /( ) + =
1 2 1 2
100
Suy ra R
1
R
2
= 100(R
1
+ R
2
) = 10015R
2

R
1
= 1500 va R
2
= 107,14
Vay mach o co the ve lai nh tren co hai tam o (H.3.40).

Hnh 3.40: Mach o ien tr co hai tam o
3.8.4 Mach o dong ien dung nguon dong khong oi
Trong cac mach o ien tr tren ta
dung nguon ap khong oi, nhng ien ap o
c chuyen t ai lng ien tr co dong
ien i qua thay oi theo ien tr o, cho nen
ien ap o nay a vao mach o khong tuyen
tnh theo ien tr R
X
, dan en thang o khong
eu. e cho ien ap o tuyen tnh theo ien
tr R
X
, ngi ta s dung nguon dong ien
khong oi khi R
X
thay oi: V
o
= IR
X

Trong trng hp nay R
X
V
o
tr so ln nhat cua tam o ien ap
R
X
0 th V
o
= 0V
Mach o ien tr tuyen tnh (linear ohmmeter) thng c dung trong
may o a dung ien t ch th so (digital multimeter).
Mach co nguon dong khong oi dung transistor (BJT)
Hnh 3.41: Mach o nguyen
ly nguon dong khong
CHNG 3

116
Nguon dong ien khong oi cung cap cho ien tr R
X
la dong I
C
cua Q
1,
R
1
,
R
2
ien tr phan cc cho cc nen Q
1
theo ien ap cua mach a cho.
Nh vay ien tr R
E
co ien ap 5V khong oi. Gia s, ieu chnh R
E
e cho I
C

= 1mA. Khi o ien tr R
X
= 5k th V
o
= 5k 1mA = 5V (tr so ln nhat cua
tam o).
Khi o ien tr ln hn 5k th phai chuyen tam o bang cach thay oi
nguon dong I
C
.
V du: thay oi R
E
e cho dong I
C
= 0,1mA, khi o ien tr o c en
50k.
Neu khong muon thay oi dong I (hoac khong the cho I
C
qua nho khi R
X

tang len ln) th thay oi tam o ien ap tng ng vi ien tr R
X
.

Hnh 3.42
Mach o ien tr tuyen tnh
Hnh 3.43
Ma ch o dung nguon do ng khong o i
O IEN TR

117
Dung nguon dong khong oi bang Op-Amp
Theo ac tnh mach khuech ai dung Op-Amp:
o X
V R R E ( / ) = . Chung ta
xem nh dong I khong oi: I E R / = ; V
o
= IR
X
. Khi R
X
thay oi th V
o
thay oi
tuyen tnh theo R
X
.
V du: E = +3V; R = 3k. Xac nh V
o
theo R
X
.
Ta co: V
o
= IR
X
, vi: 3 3 1 / / I E R k mA = = =
Vay V
o
= R
X
(1mA)
V du: R
X
= 100 V
o
= 100mV. Neu V
o
co tr so bao hoa 5V (ac tnh
Op-Amp) th khi o R
X
= 5k la ln nhat. Vay muon thay oi tam o th thay
oi R e co s thay oi I (nguon dong) tng ng vi moi tam o.
Mach o cu the dung nguon dong on nh nh s ieu khien cua mach
khuech ai Op-Amp. D
1
, D
2
, D
3
, D
4
la loai 1N4154.
R
1
= 330; R
2
= 3,3 k; R
3
= 33 k; R
4
= 330 k
R
S
= 2,2M; R
6
= 1M (ien tr tam o).

Hnh 3.44: Mach o ien tr tuyen tnh dung Op-Amp
CHNG 3

118
R
= 10k: ie n tr chnh tr so ln nha t cho ma ch o ien tr

R
Z
= 10k: ie n tr chnh 0 cho ma ch o
Q
1
, Q
2
(BC107): transistor co he so khue ch ai l n
Q
3
(BC309C): transistor tao nguon dong ien cho mach o ien tr.
S hoat ong cua mach o: Mach co hai Op-Amp 741.
Op-Amp(1): Co nhiem vu ket hp vi Q
3
tao ra dong ien I
C3
cua Q
3

c on nh khong b thay oi iem phan cc do nhiet o cua moi trng va
cua ban than transistor Q
3
.
Op-Amp(2): Dung lam mach o ien tr, mach nay co he so khuech ai
bang 1.
Qui trnh chnh Op-Amp ke : Trc het cho R
X
= 0 e chnh v tr 0 cho
thang o (co the chnh tr so ) moi lan thay oi tam o eu phai chnh tr so
ln nhat cho thang o e tranh sai so phi tuyen do ien tr tam o gay ra.
BAI TAP
3.1. Mot ohm-ke loai noi tiep co mach o (H.B.3.1). Nguon E
b
=

1,5V, c cau
o co I
fs
=

100A. ien tr R
1
+ R
m
= 15k.
a) Tnh dong ien chay qua c cau o khi R
x
= 0
b) Tnh tr gia R
x
e cho kim ch th co o lech bang 1/2 FSD, 1/4 FSD va
3/4 FSD (FSD: o lech toi a thang o).
Hnh B.3.1
O IEN TR

119
Giai:
a)
1
1 5
100
0 15
,
b
m
x m
E V
I A
R R R k
= = =
+ + +
(FSD)
b) o lech bang 1/2 FSD:

m
A
I A
= =
100
50
2
(v c cau o tuyen tnh).
+ + =
1
b
x m
m
E
R R R
I

1
1 5
15 15
50
,
( )
b
x m
m
E V
R R R k k
I A
= + = =

o lech bang 1/4 FSD:

= =
100
25
4
m
A
I A ;
1 5
15 45
25
,
x
V
R k k
A
= =

o lech bang 3/4 FSD:
I
m
= 0,75100A = 75A;
1 5
15 5
75
,
x
V
R k k
A
= =

3.2. Mot ohm-ke co mach o (H.B.3.2).
Biet: E
b
= 1,5V; R
1
= 15k; R
m
= 50; R
2
=
50, c cau o co I
fs
= 50A.
Tnh tr gia R
x
khi kim ch th co o
lech toi a: (FSD); 1/2 FSD va 3/4 FSD.
Giai: Kim lech toi a (FSD):
I
m
= 50A; V
m
= I
m
R
m
=
50A50 = 2,5mV

m
V mV
I A
R
,
= = =
2
2
2 5
50
50

Dong ien mach chnh: I
b
= I
2
+ I
m
= 50A + 50A = 100A.

1
1 5
15
100
,
b
x
b
E V
R R k
I A
+ = = =

R
x
= (R
x
+ R
1
) R
1
= 15k 15k = 0
Kim lech 1/2 FSD:
I
m
= 25A; V
m
= 25A50 = 1,25mV;
mV
I A
,
= =
2
1 25
25
50

I
b
= 25A + 25A = 50A

1
1 5
30
50
,
x
V
R R k
A
+ = =
; R
x
= 30k 15k = 15k
Hnh B.3.2
CHNG 3

120
Kim lech 3/4 FSD:
I
m
= 0,75 50A = 37,5A; V
m
= 37,5A50 = 1,875mV

mV
I A
,
, = =
2
1 875
37 5
50
; I
b
= 37,5A + 37,5A = 75A.

1
1 5
20 20 15 5
75
,
x x
V
R R k R k k k
A
+ = = = =

3.3. Mot Ohm-ke co mach o bai 2. Co nguon E
b
giam xuong ch con 1,3V.
Tnh tr gia mi cua R
2
? Tnh lai cac tr gia R
x
tng ng vi o lech cua kim:
1/2 FSD, 3/4 FSD.
Giai: Khi
x
R = 0;
1
1 3
86 67
0 15
,
,
b
b
x
E V
I A
R R k
= =
+ +

I
m
= 50A (FSD); I
2
= I
b
I
m
= 86,67A 50A = 36,67A
V
m
= I
m
R
m
= 50A50 = 2,5mV; = = =
2
2
2 5
6818
36 67
m
V mV
R
I A
,
,
,

Kim co o lech 1/2 FSD:
I
m
= 25A; V
m
= 25A50 = 1,25mV
= = =
2
2
1 25
18 33
6818
m
V mV
I A
R
,
,
,

I
b
= I
m
+ I
2
= 25A + 18,33A = 43,33A

1
1 3
30
43 33
,
,
m
x
b
V V
R R k
I A
+ = = =
R
x
= 30k 15k = 15k
Kim co o lech 3/4 FSD:
I
m
= 0,7550A = 37,5A; V
m
= 37,5A50 = 1,875mV

mV
I A
,
,
,
= =
2
1 875
27 5
6818
; I
b
= 37,5A + 27,5A = 65A

1
1 3
20
65
,
m
x
b
V V
R R k
I A
+ = = =
R
x
= 20k 15k = 5k
3.4. Tnh dong ien chay qua c cau o va o lech cua kim ch th cua ohm-ke
co mach o nh hnh ve khi ta s dung tam o R1 trong hai trng hp: a) R
x

= 0 va b) R
x
= 24.
O IEN TR

121

Hnh B.3.4

Giai: Mach tng ng cua ohm-ke khi ta s dung tam o R1 trong hai
trng hp R
x
= 0 va R
x
= 24 nh sau:
Khi R
x
= 0:
b
V
I
k k k
,
[ //( , , , )]
=
+ + +
1 5
14 10 9 99 2 875 3 82

b
V
I mA
k
,
,
( // , )
= =
+
1 5
62 516
14 10 16 685
.
Dong I
m
chay qua c cau o:

m
I mA
k
,
,
=
+
10
62 516
10 16 685

I
m
= 37,5A = I
fs
: kim lech toi a.
Khi R
x
= 24:

( )
b
V
I mA
k
,
,
( // ,
= =
+
1 5
31 254
24 14 10 16 685

m
I mA A
k
, , :
,
= =
+
10
31 254 18 72
10 16 685
kim lech 1/2 FSD
3.5. Tnh dong ien chay qua c cau o va o lech cua kim ch th cua Ohm-ke
co mach o nh bai 4, khi ta s dung tam o R100 va R 10K trong trng
hp R
x
= 0.

CHNG 3

122

Hnh B.3.5
Giai: Mach tng ng cua ohm-ke khi ta s dung tam o R100 va R
x
= 0.

b
V
I
k k k k
,
[ //( , , )]
=
+ + +
1 5
1470 1 9 2 875 3 82

V
A
k k
,
,
( // , )
= =
+
1 5
622 38
1470 1 15 695

m fs
k
I A A I
k k
, ,
,
= = =
+
1
622 38 37 5
1 15 695
: kim ch th lech toi a.
Mach tng ng cua ohm-ke khi ta s dung tam o R10k va
x
R =
0.

[ //( , , )]
15V
236k 10 2 875 3 82
b
I =
+ +

[ ]
V
A
k k k
,
// ,
= =
+
15
62 5
236 10 6 695

M fs
k
I A A I
k k
, ,
,
= = =
+
10
62 5 37 5
10 6 695
: kim ch th lech toi a.
3.6. Ta o ien tr bang cach dung phng phap V va A c mac re dai.
Ampe-ke ch 0,5A, von-ke ch 500V. Ampe-ke co R
a
= 10, von-ke s dung
tam o 1000V va co o nhay la 10k/V. Tnh tr gia
R.
Giai: E + E
A
= 500V; I = 0,5A
A
a
E E V
R R
I A ,
+
+ = = =
500
1000
0 5

R = 1000 R
a
= 1000 10 = 990
3.7. Cac ampe-ke, von-ke va ien tr R bai 6
c mac re ngan. Hay tnh o ch cua von-ke va
ampe-ke (nguon cung cap van la 500V)
Hnh B.3.6
Hnh B.3.7
k k k
O IEN TR

123
Giai: Noi tr cua von-ke:
R
v
= 1000V10k/V = 10M.
R
V
// R = 10M // 990 = 989,9
o ch cua von-ke:
V
a v
V R R V
E V
R R R
( // ) ,
( // ) ,

= = =
+ +
500 5000 989 9
495
10 989 9

o ch cua ampe-ke = + = = =
495
0 5
989 9
V
V
E V
I I A
R R
,
// ,
.
3.8. Mot Ohm-ke noi tiep co ien tr
1
R = 50k c cau o co I
fs
= 75 A va
= 100
M
R . ien tr mac shunt =
2
300 R , nguon cung cap E = 5V. Hay cho
biet tr gia ien tr
x
R o c tng ng vi o lech cua kim: 0,25%; 50%;
75%; va 100%FSD.
3.9. Mot Ohm-ke noi tiep co cac thanh phan sau: nguon cung cap = 3
b
E V,
ien tr noi tiep R k =
1
30 , ien tr shunt =
2
50 R , c cau o co
Ifs = 50 A , ien tr c cau o = 50
m
R . Cho biet tr gia
x
R o c tng
ng vi o lech: 1/4 FSD, 1/2FSD va FSD.
3.10. Hay ve mach o cho ohm-ke noi tiep co nhieu tam o. Hay giai thch s
hoat ong cua mach.
3.11. Gia s ohm-ke bai 3.9 co
b
E giam xuong con 2,5V, hay xac nh tr
gia mi
2
R can phai ieu chnh, va nh the tnh lai cac tr gia
x
R tng ng
vi o lech: 1/2FSD va 3/4FSD.
3.12. Ta o
x
R bang cach dung phng phap von-ke + ampe-ke co cach mac re
dai. Ampe-ke co noi tr = 10
x
R , von-ke co o nhay k V / 10 . Ampe-ke va
von-ke co cap chnh xac la 1%. Tnh tr gia that cua
x
R khi ampe-ke ch 0,5A
tam o 1A, va von-ke ch 500V tam o 1000V.
3.13. Ta o
x
R bang phng phap von-ke + ampe-ke co cach mac re ngan.
Ampe-ke co = 01
a
R , , von-ke s dung tam o 5V, co o nhay k V / . 10 Khi
von-ke ch 5V, ampe-ke ch 0,6mA tam o 1mA.
a) Tnh tr gia o c
x
R .
b) Tnh tr gia that
x
R neu von-ke va ampe-ke co cap chnh xac 1%.
3.14. Hay tnh
3
R e cau Wheatstone co the o c
x
R trong khoang t:
en k 1 100 bang phng phap can bang.
CHNG 3

124

Hnh B.3.14 Hnh B.3.15
3.15. Tnh dong ien
g
I i qua ien ke (H.B.3.15).
3.16. Neu ien ke hnh B3.16 co o nhay
g
S mm A / = 10 , hay xac nh o
lech cua ien ke?

Hnh B.3.16
3.17. Cho mach o nh hnh B.3.17. Xac nh
o
E theo
b
E va phan t cau o
trong cac trng hp sau:
a) R R R R R R R R R ; ( ) = + = = =
1 2 3 4

b) R R R R R R R R R ; ( ) = = + = =
1 3 2 4

c) R R R R R R R R R R ; ( ) = = + = =
1 3 2 4

Hnh B.3.17
O IEN DUNG, IEN CAM VA HO CAM

125
Chng 4
O IEN DUNG, IEN CAM VA
HO CAM
4.1 DUNG VON-KE, AMPE-KE O IEN DUNG, IEN CAM
VA HO CAM
4.1.1 o ien dung
Mach o c mac theo hnh 4.1. Tong tr cua ien dung C
X
c xac
nh bi von-ke va ampe-ke (neu s hao mat do ien moi cua tu ien khong
ang ke).
= =
1
CX
X
V
Z
I C
; Suy ra: =
X
I
C
V

Hnh 4.1: Mach o C
X
dung von-ke va
ampe-ke
Hnh 4.2: Mach o C
X
, R
X
dung von-ke,
ampe-ke va watt-ke
Nguon tn hieu cung cap cho mach o phai la nguon tn hieu hnh sin, co
o meo dang nho (hoa tan c xem khong ang ke). Bien o va tan so cua
tn hieu phai on nh (khong thay oi). Neu tn hieu co song hai (hoa tan) bac
cao th se tao ra sai so ang ke cho ket qua o. Trong trng hp mach o
dung them watt-ke (H.4.2), ien tr r R
X
cua ien dung C
X
c xac nh bi
bieu thc sau: R
X
= P/I
2

126
Tong tr cua ien dung:
X X
Z V I R C / ( / ) = = +
2 2
1
Va ien dung can o:
X X
C Z R / =
2 2
1
T ba bieu thc tren ta suy ra:
X
C V I P I
2 2
/[ / ( / ) ] =
2
1
Do o:
=

2
2 2 2
X
C
V P

S hao mat cong suat do ien dung cho bi:
= =
2
1
X
P VI I
C
cos sin , (v
=
2
)
: goc mat cua ien dung. Neu goc mat nho: tg sin = PC
X
/I
2
.
S chnh xac cua phng phap o nay co the bang hoac ln hn phng
phap o trc. Phng phap dung watt-ke khong chnh xac khi xac nh nhng
ien dung co goc mat nho. e o goc mat c chnh xac, ngi ta thng
dung phng phap cau o (e cap phan sau).
4.1.2 o ien cam

Hnh 4.3: Mach o L
X
, R
X
dung von-ke
va ampe-ke
Hnh 4.4: Mach o L
X
, R
X
dung von-ke,
ampe-ke va watt-ke
Mach o ien cam L
X
c mac nh hnh 4.3. Tong tr cua ien cam L
X

c xac nh: = = +
2 2 2
X X
V
Z R L
I

va ien cam: L
X =
2 2
1
X
Z R

vi: Z - c xac nh bi von-ke va ampe-ke; R
X
- c xac nh trc.
Trong trng hp dung them watt-ke nh hnh 4.4 cuon day co ien cam
L
X
c xac nh: =

2 2 2
2
1
X
L V P
vi P la cong suat ton hao cua cuon day c xac nh bi watt-ke .

127
4.1.3 o he so ho cam M

Hnh 4.5: Mach o M dung von-ke va
ampe-ke
Hnh 4.6: o M cua hai cuon day mac
noi tiep (quan cung chieu)
Theo mach o hnh 4.5, he so ho cam M gia hai cuon day c xac nh
bi: M =V I / ; V va I cho bi von-ke va ampe-ke.
Ngoai ra chung ta cung biet: M n n R / =
1 2

n
1
, n
2
: so vong day quan vao cuon day 1 va 2. R: t tr cua mach t
Trong trng hp hai cuon day c mac noi tiep vi nhau tren cung
mach t, co cung chieu quan (cc tnh cua cuon day c nh tren hnh 4.6),
th tong so ien cam cua hai cuon day c xac nh: L
a
= L
1
+ L
2
+ 2M
Do o L
a
c xac nh bi tong tr Z
a
cho bi von-ke va ampe-ke:
a a
L Z R R ( ) = +
2 2
1 2
1
vi Z
a
- tong tr cua hai cuon day.
Trong trng hp hai cuon day
c mac noi tiep vi nhau tren cung
mach t co chieu quan ngc nhau
(cc tnh cua cuon day c nh tren
hnh 4.7, khi o tong so ien cam cua
hai cuon day c xac nh.
L
b
= L
1
+ L
2
2M
va L
b
cung c xac nh bi tong tr
Z
b
cho bi von-ke va ampe-ke theo
bieu thc:
L
a

b
Z R R ( ) = +
2 2
1 2
1

Hnh 4.7: o M cua hai cuon day
mac noi tiep (quan ngc
CHNG 4

128
T hai gia tr cua L
a
, L
b
co the suy ra he so ho cam M nh sau:
L
a
L
b
= 4M Hoac M =
a b
L L ( )/ 4
4.1.4 o ien dung va ien cam trong may o a dung (V.O.M)
Co mot so may V.O.M ngoai chc nang o ien ap, dong ien, ien tr,
con co chc nang o ien dung hoac ien cam. Vi khoang tam o cho ien
dung, ien cam han che. Mach o cung dung nguyen ly o tong tr, nhng tr
so nay c chuyen sang nhng ai lng xoay chieu, c ch th tren thang
o, theo gia tr (n v mH hoac F) cua ien dung hoac ien cam. Theo mach
o nguyen ly hnh 4.8.

Hnh 4.8: o C
X
va L
X
bang V.O.M
e
S
: nguon tn hieu a biet c bien o va tan so (co trong may o V.O.M).
Bo ch th G bao gom mach chnh lu dong xoay chieu vi c cau ien t.
Dong ien I (tr hieu dung) qua G phu thuoc vao tr so C
X
hoac L
X
. Khi E
S

(tr hieu dung) va = 2f (tan so cua tn hieu e
S
) a c xac nh va on nh
th ta co I = E
S
C
X
hoac I = E
S
/L
X
.
4.2 DUNG CAU O O IEN DUNG VA IEN CAM
4.2.1 Cau Wheatstone xoay chieu
e n gian ta coi cau o AC c cau tao giong nh cau o Wheatstone
mot chieu (ca u o DC). Cac phan t cua cau la ien tr, ien dung hoac ien
cam. Nguon cung cap la tn hieu sin (o meo dang nho), tan so am tan
(khoang 1kHz hoac tan so ien li). Phng phap o dung cho ca u o AC
giong nh cau o DC. oi vi phng phap can bang hoac khong can bang,
chung ta ch e cap en phng phap can bang cho cau o AC.
ieu kien can bang cho cau o AC
Theo mach o cua cau o AC (H.4.9):
Z
1
. Z
3
= Z
2
. Z
4

T phng trnh nay ta co s can bang theo
Hnh 4.9
Cau Wheatstone AC

129
ieu kien:
Can bang suat: =
1 3 2 4
Z Z Z Z
Can bang pha: + = +
1 3 2 4
Z Z Z Z
Neu khai trien so phc cua phng trnh can bang, ta co:
Can bang phan thc: R
e
[Z
1
Z
3
] = R
e
[Z
2
Z
4
]
Can bang phan ao: I
m
[Z
1
Z
3
] = I
m
[Z
2
Z
4
]
Thiet b ch th s can bang cua cau o AC
Tai nghe (earphone hoac headphone): gia thanh re, tng oi nhay, c
dung pho bien co kha nang phan biet c s can bang cua cau mot cach
tng oi chnh xac. Tuy nhien con phu thuoc vao o thnh tai cua ngi lam
th nghiem.

Hnh 4.10: Cac thiet ke ch th can bang
a) Tai nghe; b) ien ke AC
c) ien ke AC co khuech ai; d) Dao ong ky tia am cc
Von-ke ien t hoac ien ke AC: ien ke DC
/
ket hp vi mach chnh lu
hoac bo bien oi AC/DC chung ta co ien ke AC. Muon tang o nhay cho cau
AC chung ta them mach khuech ai cho ien ke AC (H.4.10). Thiet b nay
chnh xac hn va khach quan hn so vi tai nghe. Ngoai ra con co the co nhieu
tam o nhay khac nhau thay oi theo ien ap kho ng can ba ng cua cau.
Dao ong ky tia am cc: Theo ieu kien thuan li cua phong th nghiem,
neu co c dao ong ky, chung ta cung co the dung e kiem tra s can bang
cua cau mot cach chnh xac hn vi moi tn hieu tan so bat ky cung cap cho
cau.
Cac phan t mau (ien tr mau, ien cam mau, tu ien mau) dung trong cau
AC
ien tr mau
CHNG 4

130

Hnh 4.11: a) Mach tng ng cua ien tr tan so cao
b) Kieu quan so vong thuan nghch ke can bang nhau
c) Kieu quan Curtis va Grover
oi vi phan t ien tr hoat ong tn hieu xoay chieu, gia tr ien tr
thng ln hn trong trng hp hoat ong vi dong ien DC. Hieu ng ngoai
mat cua day dan (skin effect) phu thuoc vao tan so tn hieu, thiet dien day da n
va ien tr suat. tan so am thanh (1kHz) hieu ng nay khong ang ke khi
day co ien tr suat ln va thiet dien nho c s dung. oi vi tn hieu AC
co tan so cao i qua ien tr mach tng ng cua ien tr co dang mach
tng ng nh hnh 4.11a. e giam c ien cam ky sinh ngi ta quan so
vong thuan nghch ke can nhau. Tuy nhien e anh hng cua tu ien ky sinh
giam ngi ta quan day dan theo kieu Curtis va Grover, khi ien tr co gia tr
ln ngi ta quan tren ba mong theo kieu an ro.
Tu ien: Trong thc te dong ien I qua tu ien khong lech pha 90
0
oi vi
ien ap ri tren tu ien v co ton hao ben trong tu ien. Ton hao nay do ien
moi trong tu ien co ien tr r (khong cach ien hoan toan). Do o mach
tng ng cua tu ien c dien ta theo hnh 4.12. Neu goi la goc mat cua
ien dung do ton hao cong suat tren ien dung, th ta co:
P = VI cos = VI sin, vi
=
2

Neu nho, cong suat hao mat tren ien dung P = VI. Cac tu ien mau
dung trong cau o xoay chieu c che tao bang cac ien moi co ton hao rat t
(o cach ien tot), goc mat co nh khong phu thuoc vao tan so tn hieu va
nhiet o cua moi trng. Co nhieu loai tuy theo khoang tr so tu ien can s
dung.

131

Hnh 4.12: a) Mach tng ng cua ien dung khi ln
b) nho; c) Gian o vect V-I
Tu ien co ien moi la khong kh: Tr so ien dung rat nho khoang vai
tram pF, goc mat nho khong e bui hay am.
Tu ien mica: ien moi la vat lieu mica co ien dung t vai pF
(picofarad) en 0,1F (microfarad), goc mat nho (khoang 10
4
rad).
Tu ien bang Polystyrene: Co ac tnh khong phu thuoc vao tan so nhng
anh hng v nhiet o rat ln, ch s dung di 70
o
C, co goc mat nho, co the
tch nho hn tu ien mica neu co cung tr so.
Ngoai ra, trong cong nghiep chung ta thng gap tu ien giay. ien moi
la giay tam dung dch cach ien, thng co tr so ln nhng goc mat cung ln.
Cuon day: Co ien cam L, ien tr R cua day quan va co mach tng
ng tan so cao nh hnh 4.13 con ien dung ky sinh gia cac vong da y
quan cua cuon day khong ang ke tan so tn hieu am tan, nhng c quan
tam en tan so cao.

Hnh 4.13: a) Ma ch tng ng cu a cuon day khi Q nho
b) tan so cao; c) Khi Q ln
Cac ien cam mau c che tao di dang ong day co kch thc xac
nh chnh xac. Cac ien cam mau thay oi c nh hai ong day ghep noi
tiep va phan thay oi c la loi cua cuon day. Tr so ien cam thay oi c
phu thuoc vao v tr cua loi.
CHNG 4

132
4.2.2 Cau o n gian o ien dung va ien cam
Cau o ien dung: Mach o c mac theo hnh 4.14.
Z
1
: la tu ien mau C
1
(co the thay oi c tr so)
Z
2
: tu ien can o C
X

Z
3
, Z
4
: la nhng ien tr mau thay oi c hoac la nhng hop ien tr
thay oi.
Khi cau can bang D ch 0.
Z
1
Z
4
= Z
2
Z
3
;
X
R R
j C j C
; =

3 4
1
1 1
Suy ra: =
3
1
4
X
R
C C
R

Vi gia tr cau o C
X
bat ky, chung ta ieu chnh t so
3 4
R R va C
1
(neu la
tu ien mau thay oi c) cho cau can bang e xac nh C
X
.

Hnh 4.14 Hnh 4.15
Cau o C
X
n gian Cau o L
X
n gian
Cau o ien cam cuon day: Mach o c theo hnh 4.15
Z
1
: cuon day mau L
1
;

Z
2
: cuon day do L
X

R
3
, R
4
: la ien tr mau (hop ien tr) thay oi c.
Khi cau o at c ieu kien can bang:
Z
2
R
4
= Z
1
R
3
;

jL
X
R
4
= jLR
3
;

X
L R R L ( / ) =
3 4

Trong hai cau o n gian tren chung ta ch xac nh thuan tuy gia tr C
X

va L
X
. Khong xac nh s hao mat tren ien dung cung nh tren ien cam can
o.
4.2.3 Cau pho quat (universal bridge) o ien dung va ien cam
He so hao mat cua ien dung: Trong thc te mach tng ng cua ien
dung co hai dang tuy theo s hao mat cua ien dung. Do o chat lng cua
ien dung c anh gia qua he so D cua ien dung (D factor).

133
Trng hp ien dung co hao mat nho: tr so D nho mach tng ng
bao gom [C
X
+ R
X
] (H.4.16).
He so D c xac nh bang bieu thc:
X X
Z Z D tg Re / Im( ) = =
Nh vay vi Z
X
= R
X
+
X
j C
1
;
X
X X
X
R
D R C
C ( / )
= =
1

Theo bieu thc tren D thng co gia tr nho (D<0,1).

Hnh 4.16: Mach tng ng cua C, L
Trng hp ien dung co hao mat ln, he so D ln. Mach tng ng
cua ien dung [C
X
//R
X
].
Tong tr Z cua ien dung co dang: = +
1 1
X
X X
j C
Z R

He so D c xac nh:
X
X X X
R
D
C R C
/
= =

1 1
; (D > 0,1: D ln).
He so Q cua cuon day: Pham chat cua cuon day co ien cam L
X
c xa c
nh bang he so Q. Neu cuon day co s hao mat nho (ien tr cua cuon day
nho) th co mach tng ng R
X
noi tiep L
X
co he so Q cua cuon day la:
=
X
X
phan ao Z
Q
phan thc Z
, (ngc lai vi he so cua ien dung)

=
X
X
L
Q tr so nho
R
*
( ) , (Q < 10: Q nho).
Neu cuon day co s hao mat ln (ien tr cua cuon day ln) th mach
tng ng (R
X
// L
X
): = +
1 1 1
X X X
Z R j R

X X
X X
L R
Q
R L
/
/
= =
1
1
(tr so ln); (Q > 10: Q ln).
Tuy theo gia tr cua D (ien dung ky sinh), Q (ien cam) ln hn hoac
nho se co mach cau o pho quat cho tng loai.
Cau pho qua t o ien dung: Cau pho quat o ien dung gom co hai loa i
ien dung co he so D ln va nho (H.4.47).

CHNG 4

134

Hnh 4.17: Cau pho quat o ien dung: a) Cau Sauty; b) Cau Nernst
Trong mach cau [R
X
+ C
X
].
Khi cau can bang:

=
X
R j C R j C
R R
/ /
3 1 1
3 4

Can bang phan thc:
X
R R R R ( / ) =
1 4 3

Can bang phan ao: 1/C
X
R
4
= 1/C
1
R
3
;
X
R R R C ( / ) =
3 4 1

T ket qua o c C
X
, R
X
chung ta xac nh c he so D cho ien
dung:
X X
R R
D C R C R
R R
= =
3 4
1 1
4 3
= C
1
R
1
Cho nen cau o pho quat cho chung ta gia tr D khi , R
1
, C
1
c xac
nh.
V du 4.1: C
1
= 0,1F; R
3
= 10k. ieu chnh: R
1
= 125; R
4
= 14,7k th cau can
bang xac nh C
X
, R
X
, D biet rang tan so tn hieu so cung cap cho cau f = 100
Hz.
Giai: Theo ieu kien can bang cua cau:
3
1
4
10
01
14 7
,
,
X
R k
C C F
R k
= =
; C
X
= 0,068F
3
1
4
14 7
125 183 3
10
,
,
X
R k
R R
R k
= = =
He so D = C
X
R
X
= 2100Hz0,068F183,8 = 0,008

135
Trong phng phap o C
X
dung cau pho quat dang nay. Tr so o C
X
, R
X

khong phu thuoc vao tan so cua tn hieu. Con trong mach cau o ien dung
[C
1
//R
1
], C
1
, R
1
cung c chuyen sang dang [C
1
//R
1
] khi cau can bang dan
en:
Z
1
Z
4
= Z
2
Z
3
;

Z
3
(1/Z
1
)

= Z
4
(1/Z
2
)
R
3
(1/R
1
+ j C
1
)R
4
(1/R
X
+ j C
X
)
Can bang phan thc =
3 4
1 X
R R
R R
; =
4
1
3
X
R
R R
R

Can bang phan ao R
3
C
1
= R
4
C
X
;

C
X
= (R
3
/R
4
)C
1
T o ta xac nh c he so D: D = 1/( C
X
R
X
) = 1/( C
1
R
1
)
Nh a phan tch tren tuy theo o r cua tu ien chung ta co R
X
mac
song song vi C
X
, R
X
la ien tr cua chat ien moi con C
X
la tr so thc cua tu
ien, nh vay neu o r cua tu ien cang nho th R
X
cang ln. Neu o r ln th
R
X
co gia tr nho. Cho nen mach tng ng cua ien dung trong cau o tao
thuan li cho viec xac nh C
X
, R
X
. u iem cua cac cau o tren khong phu
thuoc vao tan so cua tn hieu. Nhng ve phng dien tong tr cua hai mach
tng ng eu co tong tr nh nhau. Do o co s quan he gia thanh phan
thuan tr R
P
va khang tr X
P
vi thuan tr R
S
va khang tr X
S
, chung c xac
nh nh sau:
Trong mach tng ng [C
S
+ R
S
]: Z
S
= R
S
j(1/C
S
) = R
S
jX
S

Trong mach tng ng [C
P
// R
P
]:
P P P P P
Y R j C G j B / = + = + 1 ;
P P
Y Z / = 1 = tong dan
vi: G
P
- ien dan thuan (n v Siemen); B
P
- khang dan
Theo ac tnh co cung tong tr nh nhau:
S P P
Z Z Y / = = 1

= =
+
+
2 2
1
P P
S S
P P
P P
G j B
R j X
G j B
G B

Hoac:
+
+ = =
+
2 2
1
S S
P P
S S
S S
R j X
G j B
R j X
R X

Can bang phan thc:
= =
+
2 2
1
S
P
P
S S
R
G
R
R X
;
P S S
S
R R R
C
[ ]/ = +
2
2 2
1

Can bang phan ao:
CHNG 4

136
=
+
2 2
S
P
S S
X
B
R X
;
S
P
C
C
R C
2 2
S S
/
( / )
=
+
2
1
1

Suy ra: =
+
2 2 2
1
S
P
S S
C
C
R C

Cau pho qua t o ien cam: Cau pho quat o ien cam cung gom co hai
dang dung cho loai ien cam co he so Q nho va Q ln (H.4.18). Trong mach
cau o [L
X
+ R
X
]: Cau Maxwell.
Khi cau thoa ieu kien can bang:
X X
R j L
R j C
R R
( )
+
= +
1 3
4 3
1

Can bang phan thc: =
1
3
X
X
R R
R R
; =
4
1
3
X
R
R R
R

Can bang phan ao: =
3 1
4
X
L
C R
R
; L
X
= C
3
R
1
R
4

Do o he so Q cua cuon day [L
X
+R
X
] c xac nh:

= =
3 1 4
1 4 3
X
X
C R R L
Q
R R R R /
= C
3
R
3
.

Hnh 4.18: Cau pho quat o ien cam cuon day
a) Cau Maxwell-Wien; b) Cau Hay
V du 4.2: Trong cau Maxwell (H.4.18), ien dung mau C
3
= 0,1F, tan so tn hieu
cung cap cho cau f = 100Hz. Khi cau can bang R
1
= 1,26k; R
3
= 470 va R
4
=
500, tnh ien cam L
X
va R
X
, he so Q.
Giai: Theo ieu kien can bang cua cau:
L
X
= C
3
R
1
R
4
= 0,110
6
F1,2610
3
500 = 6310
3
H = 63mH

137

= =
3
4
1
3
1 26 10 500
470
X
R
R R
R
,
= 1,3410
3
= 1,34k
Tr so Q cua cuon day:

= =
3
3
2 100 63 10
1 34 10
X
X
L Hz H
Q
R
,
= 2954010
6
# 0,03
Con trong mach cau o [L
X
//R
X
], cau Hay, khi cau thoa man ieu kien
can bang:
X X
j
R R R
R j L C
( )
/ /
=

1 4 3
3
1
1
; (
X
R
1

X
j
L
)R
1
R
4
= R
3

j
C
3

Can bang phan thc: =
1 4
3
X
R R
R
R
; =
1 4
3
X
R R
R
R

Can bang phan ao: =

1 4
3
1
X
R R
L C
; L
X
= C
3
R
1
R
4

He so Q cua cuon day trong trng hp nay c xac nh nh sau:
X
X
R R R R
Q
L C R R
/
= =

1 4 3
3 1 4
= 1/R
3
C
3

Tng t nh mach tng ng cua ien dung, mach tng ng cua
ien cam [L
S
+ R
S
] va [L
P
// R
P
] cung c dien ta nh sau:
Z
S
= R
S
+ jL
S
= R
S
+ jX
S,
P P P
P P P
Y G j B
Z R j L
= = + =
1 1 1

Nh vay: = = =
+
1 1
P P P
S S S
Y G j B
Z R j X

Suy ra:
S S
P P
S S S S
R X
G B
R X R X
; = =
+ +
2 2 2 2

Do o:
S S S S
P P
S S
R X R X
R L
R X
;
+ +
= =
2 2 2 2

+
=
2 2 2
S S
P
S
R L
R
R
;
+
=
2 2 2
2
S S
P
S
R L
L
L

Cau o cuon day
Cau Owen o cuon day, dung ien dung mau. Khao sat mach hnh 4.19,
e co ieu kien can bang cua cau:
CHNG 4

138
=
1 2
3
1
X
R C R
C
; =
1 2 3 X
L C R R
Trong cau nay L c o vi o chnh xac kha cao, khong dung ien dung mau
phu thuoc vao tu C
3
, la hop ien dung co o chnh xac kem hn hop ien tr mau
R
3
, thch hp vi cuon day co Q nho (Q = 2fL
x
/R
x
)

Hnh 4.19 Hnh 4.20
Cau Owen o cuon day Cau Schering o ien dung

Cau o ien dung (H.4.20)
Cau Schering thng c dung e o ien dung va o ton hao trong vat
cach ien cao cap. Khi o ien dung nho, C
1
la ien dung khong kh. Khi o
ien dung ln, C
1
la tu mica that tot e goc mat bang khong.
ieu kien can bang:
=
3
4
1
X
C
R R
C
; =
3
1
4
X
R
C C
R

Goc mat: tg
X

X
= R
3
C
1
. Khi o s cach ien tong tr nhanh C
1
va
(C
x
+R
x
) rat ln so vi nhanh 4 va 3 neu cau s dung ien ap cao.
Cau Grover (H.4.21)
Tng t nh cau Sauty nhng cac cuon
day dung e so sanh tu ien can o vi tu
ien mau. Phng trnh can bang ve oi so
cho ta:
+ = +
1 4 2 3
Z Z Z Z
Hnh 4.21: Cau GROVER o
ien dung

139
Vi cac tu ien co goc mat nho va cac cuon day co he so pham chat Q
nho:

=
1 1
1 1
1
L
Z tg Q
R
;

=
1 3
3 3
3
L
Z tg Q
R

Z tg
R C
( )
1
2
2 2
1
= ( )

2
2

X X
Z tg
R C
( )
1
4
1
=
X
( )

2

T
X
+ Q
1
=
2
+ Q
3.
Suy ra:
X

2
= Q
3
Q
1
Cung vi gia thiet tren ta co the chng minh:
X
C C R R / / =
2 1 3

4.3 O HO CAM
4.3.1 Cau Maxwell e o ho cam (H.4.22)

Hnh 4.22: Cau Maxwell o he so ho cam M
Khi cau can bang G ch iem 0 ta co:
jM
1
i
1
= j(L
1
+ l)i
2
+ R
1
i
2
jM
X
i
1
= jL
X
i
2
+ R
2
i
2

Chia hai phng trnh tren cho nhau, ta co:

+ +
=
+
1 1 1
2 X X
M j L l R
M j L R
( )

M
1
(jL
X
+ R
2
) = M
X
[j(L
1
+ l) + R
1
]
Can bang phan thc va phan ao:
+
= =
1 1 1
2 X X
M R l L
M R L

Trong mach chung ta co: M
1
la ho cam mau (co the thay oi c), M
X
la
ho cam muon o, l la cuon day them vao e can bang ien cam trong mach,
CHNG 4

140
R
1
thng la hop ien tr.
4.3.2 Cau Heavyside

Hnh 4.23: Cau Heavyside o he so ho cam M
o ho cam dung cuon day mau nh tren hnh 4.23, M la ho cam can o
cua hai cuon day. Cuon day th cap co ien cam la L
2.
Khi cau can bang: G
ch iem 0 th:
R
2
i
1
= R
4
i
3 (
a)
(R
3
+ jL
3
)i
3
= (R
1
+ jL
1
)i
1
jM(i
1
+ i
3
) (b)
Chia (a) cho (b), rut gon, sau o can bang phan thc va phan ao.
Ta co c: =
2
1 3
4
R
R R
R
;
=
+
2 4 2 3
2 4
L R R L
M
R R

T phng trnh tren va theo hnh ve th M phai dng cho nen t so cua
bieu thc tnh M co ieu kien nh sau: L L R R / / >
2 3 2 4

4.3.3 Cau Carey Foster cai tien

Hnh 4.24: Cau Carey Foster cai tien o he so ho cam M

141
Dung tu ien mau e o he so ho cam. Khao sat mach hnh 4.24. Khi cau
can bang co phng trnh sau:
R C i R i
j
[ ( )] + =
2 2 1 4 3
1
(1)
jM(i
1
+ i
3
) = (R
1
+ jL
1
)i
1

[R
1
+ j(L
1
M]i
1
= jMi
3
(2)
Chia (2) cho (1) ta c.

R j L M j M
R j WC R
( )
/
+
=
1 1
2 2 4

Suy ra:
M
R R j R L M j MR
C
( ) + = +
1 4 4 1 2
2

T o can bang phan thc va ao ta c:
M = R
1
R
4
C
2
; L
1
= R
1
(R
4
+ R
2
)C
2

Theo ket qua tr so M phai dng, nh vay cc tnh phai mac ung nh
hnh 4.24 (khac vi cau Heavyside).
Cung theo phng trnh tren, M phai nho hn L
1
.
BAI TAP
4.1. Cho cau o nh hnh ve, biet C
1
= 0,1F va t so R R /
3 4
co the chnh c
thay oi trong khoang: 100/1 va 1/100. Hay tnh C
x
ma cau co the o c.
Giai: Ta co:
x
C C R R / =
1 3 4
. Vi: R R / / =
3 4
1001

x
C F F , ( /1) = = 01 100 10
Vi: R R F F / / , ( / ) , = =
3 4
1100 01 1100 0 001
Vay cau o co tam o: t 0,001F 10F.

Hnh B.4.1 Hnh B.4.2
4.2. Cho cau o ien dung nh hnh B.4.2, thanh phan mau C
1
= 0,1F; R
3
=
CHNG 4

142
10k. Biet rang cau can bang khi nguon cung cap co f = 100Hz;
R
1
= 125 va R
4
= 14,7k. Hay tnh tr gia R
s
, C
s
va he so ton hao D cua tu ?
Giai: Ta co:
s
C C R R / =
1 3 4
;

S
F k
C F
k
,
,
,

= =
01 10
0 068
14 7
;
S
R R k
R
R k
,
,

= = =
1 4
3
125 14 7
183 8
10

D = C
S
R
S
= 2100Hz0,068F183,8 = 0,008
4.3. Cho cau o ien dung nh hnh B.4.3. Biet thanh phan mau co
C
1
= 0,1F; R
3
= 10k. Cau can bang khi nguon cung cap co f = 100Hz; R
1
=
375; R
3
= 10k; va R
4
= 14,7k. Tnh tr gia R
p
, C
p
, va he so ton hao D cua
tu.
Giai: Ta co:

P
C R F k
C F
R k
,
,
,

= = =
1 3
4
01 10
0 068
14 7

= =
1 4
3
P
R R
R
R
k
k
,
,

=
375 14 7
551 3
10

P P
D
C R
=
1
Hz F , ,
=

1
2 100 0 068 551 3
= 42,5

Hnh B.4.3 Hnh B.4.4
4.4. Cau Maxwell o ien cam dung thanh phan mau C
3
= 0,1F, nguon cung
cap co tan so f = 100Hz. Cau can bang khi R
1
= 1,26k; R
3
= 470 va R
4
=
500. Tnh tr gia ien cam L
s
, ien tr R
s
va he so pham chat Q cua cuon
day.

143
Giai: Ta co: L
s
= C
3
R
1
R
4
= 0,1F1,26k500 = 63mH

S
R R k
R k
R
,
,

= = =
1 4
3
1 26 500
1 34
470

S
LS Hz mH
Q
R k
,
,

= = =
2 100 63
0 03
1 34

4.5. Cau Hay co nguon cung cap f = 100Hz can bang khi C
3
= 0,1F, R
1
=
1,26k, R
3
= 75 va R
4
= 500. Tnh ien cam L
p
, ien tr R
p
va he so pham
chat Q cua cuon day.
Giai:
L
p
= C
3
R
1
R
4
= 0,1F1,26k500 = 63mH
= =
1 4
3
P
R R
R
R
k
k
,
,

=
1 26 500
8 4
75

P
P
R k
Q
L Hz mH
,
= = =

8 4
212
2 100 63

4.6. Hay tnh thanh phan tng ng L
S
, R
s

cua cuon day co: L
p
= 63mH; R
p
= 8,4k (f = 100Hz).
Giai: =
+
2
2 2
P P
S
P P
R X
R
X R
; the: R
p
= 8,4k;
2
P
R = 7,05610
7
; X
p
= L
p

X
p
= 2100Hz63mH = 39,6
=
2
P
X 1,57 10
3
; + =
2 2 7
7 056 10
P P
X R ,

S
k
R
, ,
,
,

= =
3
7
8 4 1 57 10
0187
7 056 10
;

= =
7
7
7 056 10 39 6
39 6
7 056 10
S
X
, ,
,
,

= = =

39 6
63
2 100
S
S
X
L mH
Hz
,

4.7. Hay tnh thanh phan tng ng Cp, Rp cua tu ien co R
s
= 183,8 va Cs
= 0,068F (f = 100Hz).
Giai:
P s S S
R R X R ( )/ = +
2 2
;
2
S
R = (183,8 )
2
= 33,78210
3

S S
X fC Hz F / /( , ) , = = =
3
1 2 1 2 100 0 068 23 405 10

2
S
X = 5,47810
8

P
R M ( , , )/ , = + =
3 8
3378 10 5 478 10 183 2 99

Hnh B.4.5
CHNG 4

144

+ +
= = =
2 2 3 8
3
3
3378 10 5 478 10
23 41 10
23 405 10
S S
P
S
R X
X
X
, ,
,
,

P
C Hz k F /( , ) , = = 1 2 100 23 41 0 068
4.8. Hay ve cau tong quat. Viet phng trnh khi cau can bang.
4.9. Hay liet ke va so sanh cac thiet b ch 0 khac nhau dung vi cau AC.
4.10. Hay ve mach cau n gian o ien dung. Viet phng trnh can bang cua
cau.
4.11. Cho cau n gian o ien dung co ien dung mau C = 0,1F va hai ien
tr mau co tr gia thay oi t 1k en 200k. Hay tnh tr gia ien dung nho
nhat va ln nhat ma cau co the o c.
4.12. Hay ve cac thanh phan noi tiep Cs, Rs. Thanh phan song song C
p
, R
p
cua
tu ien. Tm bieu thc lien he cua chung vi nhau. Hay cho biet thanh phan
tng ng nao thch hp trong hai trng hp:
a) Tu ien co ien tr ien moi ln.
b) Tu ien co ien tr ien moi nho.
4.13. Hay cho biet tr gia he so ton hao D cua tu ien trong hai trng hp:
a) Tu ien co mach tng ng dang noi tiep.
b) Tu ien co mach tng ng dang song song.
4.14. Hay ve cac thanh phan noi tiep L
S
, R
S
, thanh phan song song L
P
, R
P
cua
cuon day. Tm bieu thc lien he cua chung vi nhau. Hay cho biet thanh phan
tng ng nao thch hp trong hai trng hp:
a) Cuon day co ien tr ln
b) Cuon day co ien tr be.
4.15. Hay cho biet tr gia he so pham chat Q cua cuon day trong hai trng
hp:
a) Cuon day co mach tng ng dang noi tiep
b) Cuon day co mach tng ng dang song song.
4.16. Cau o ien dang ien tr noi tiep, co ien dung mau C
1
= 0,1F. Nguon
cung cap co f = 1kHz, cau can bang khi R
1
= 109,5, R
3
= 1k va R
4
= 2,1k.
Hay tnh cac thanh phan Cs, Rs, D cua tu ien.
4.17. Cau o ien dung dang ien tr song song, co ien dung mau
C
1
= 0,1F, nguon cung cap co f = 1kHz, cau can bang khi R
1
= 547; R
3
= 1k

145
va R
4
= 666. Hay tnh cac thanh phan C
p
, R
p
, D cua tu ien.
4.18. Cho cau o ien cam nh hnh B.4.18. Biet rang cau can bang khi: L
1
=
100H; R
4
= 10k; R
1
= 37,1; R
3
= 27,93k; f = 1MHz. Hay tnh L
S
, R
S
, Q cua
cuon day.

Hnh B.4.18
4.19. Cho mach o hnh B.4.19.
Xac nh
o
e theo
s x
e L R , , .

Hnh B.4.19 Hnh B.4.20
4.20. Cho mach o hnh B.4.20.
Xac nh
o
e theo
s x
e L R , , .
4.21. Hay ve cau Maxwell o ien cam cua cuon day, va viet phng trnh
tnh toan L
S
, Rs, Q cua cuon day khi cau can bang.
4.22. Mot cuon day co L
S
= 100mH; Q = 21, khi f = 1kHz c o bi cau
Maxwell. Cau dung ien dung mau 0,1F va ien tr mau
R
1
= 1k. Hay tnh tr gia R
3
va R
4
e cau can bang.
4.23. Cau Maxwell o ien cam, co tu mau C
1
= 0,1 F, nguon cung cap f =
10kHz; R
1
= 100; R
3
va R
4
co the thay oi t 100 1k. Hay tnh tr gia L
S

va Q cua cuon day ma cau co the o c.
CHNG 5

146
Chng 5
O CONG SUAT VA IEN NANG
5.1 O CONG SUAT MOT CHIEU
Trong phng phap o cong suat mot chieu, chung ta co hai phng phap:
trc tiep va gian tiep. Phng phap gian tiep dung von-ke va ampe-ke,
phng phap trc tiep dung watt-ke c cau ien ong hoac sat ien ong.
5.1.1 Phng phap dung von-ke va ampe-ke

Hnh 5.1: Mac von-ke va
ampe-ke o cong suat
Hnh 5.2: o cong suat bang
von-ke va ampe-ke
Phng phap nay cho phep mac von-ke va ampe-ke nh hnh 5.1.
Von-ke cho biet: V = V
a
+ V
L
.
V
a
: ien ap ri tren von-ke. Dong ien I
L
cho bi von-ke.
Vay cong suat cua tai: P
L
= I
L
V
L
= I
L
(V V
a
) = VI
L
R
a
I
2
L

Ta tha y tr so cong suat P
L
c o bi von-ke va ampe-ke co sai so do
ien tr noi cua ampe-ke. Theo cach mac hnh 5.2, tr so cong suat cua tai
c xac nh bi von-ke va ampe-ke. V cho bi von-ke, con ampe-ke cho tr
so I va: I = I
V
+ I
L
.
do o: I
L
= I I
V
; P
L
= V(I I
L
) = VI VI
L
Nh vay sai so cach mac nay phu thuoc dong ien I
V
qua von-ke. Neu I
V

cang nho th o cang chnh xac.

147
5.1.2 Phng phap o dung watt-ke
Watt-ke c mac theo hnh 5.3, hai au 1, 2 cua watt-ke la cuon dong
ien (cuon day co nh), hai au 3, 4 la cuon ien ap (cuon day di ong). Nh
vay dong qua tai I
L
i qua cuon dong, con ien ap V
L
t le vi dong ien I
2
i
qua cuon day di ong.

Hnh 5.3: o cong suat bang watt-ke
a) Cuon ien ap mac sau; b) Cuon ien ap mac trc
Ch th cua c cau ien ong c xac nh nh sau:
= kI
L
I
a
ma I
a
= E/(R
S
+ R
2
)
vi R
2
la ien tr cua cuon day ien ap
Suy ra: = kI
L
E/(R
S
+ R
2
).
Vay phu thuoc vao cong suat cua tai P
L
= I
L
V
L
.
Theo cach mac mach nay neu ien tr noi cua cuon day dong ien cang
nho, ket qua o cang chnh xac. ien tr R
S
la ien tr han che dong ien qua
cuon day di ong cua watt-ke. Neu ien ap vao tai cang ln th R
S
cang ln.
Do chieu quay cua kim ch th c xac nh theo mot chieu a nh san,
nen trong trng hp watt-ke quay ngc th hoan oi hai au 1, 2 cua cuon co
nh. Co mot so watt-ke nh san au cung cc tnh cua hai cuon day, ta ch
viec mac hai au a nh san. Trong cach mac watt-ke chung ta lu y nhng
iem sau ay:
iem chung cua cuon dong va cuon ien ap la co the mac trc watt-
ke (H.5.3a) hoac mac sau watt-ke (H.5.3b). Trong cach mac nay co sai so gay
ra do dong ien i qua cuon ien ap, sai so nay cang giam khi ien tr cuon
ap va R
S
cang ln so vi R
L
(ien tr tai).
CHNG 5

148
ien tr R
S
khong c mac nh
hnh 5.4. Khi o ien hai au cuoi (au 2
va au 4) gan bang ien ap cua nguon. Do
vay no co kha nang gay nguy hiem cho s
cach ien cua cuon day gan nhau, hn na
sai so phu tang len do anh hng tnh ien
lan nhau cua hai cuon day cua watt-ke.
5.2 O CONG SUAT XOAY CHIEU
MOT PHA
5.2.1 Dung von-ke va ampe-ke
Mach o c mac nh hnh 5.5a. Trong trng hp ch co mot von-ke
xoay chieu th phai dung hai khoa oi v tr, S va S. Con neu co ba von-ke th
c mac hai au R, Z
L
va R + Z
L
.
Khoa S va S
/
v tr 1 va 1

von-ke cho tr so V
1
, ien ap nay cung pha
vi dong ien. Khi khoa S, S v tr 2, 2 von-ke ch th V
2
, ien ap nay lech
pha vi dong ien qua tai mot goc la . Khi khoa S, S v tr 1 va 2 von-ke
ch th V
3
, goc lech pha so vi dong ien la
1
. Theo gian o vect hnh 5.5b.

Hnh 5.5: a) Mach o cong suat tai xoay chieu
b) Gian o vect ien ap va dong ien
= +
2 2 2
2 3 1 1 3 1
2 V V V V V cos ;
+
=
2 2 2
3 1 2
1
1 3
2
V V V
V V
cos
trong khi o: V
2
cos = V
3
cos
1
V
1
;
=
3 1
2
V V
V
cos
cos
hoac: V V V V V cos = +
2 2 2
3 1 2 1 2 2
2
Hnh 5.4: ien tr R
S

mac sai watt-ke

149

V V V
V V
cos cos( ) cos

= = =
2 2 2
3 1 2
2
1 2
2

nh vay cong suat cua tai: P
L
= V
2
Icos
hoac:
L
V V V V
P V I V
V V
( )
[ ]
+
=
2 2 2 2
3 1 2 1
2 3
1 3
2
2
=
V V V
I
V
[ ]

2 2 2
3 2 1
1
2

5.2.2 Dung watt-ke ien ong
Tn hieu vao tai V co ien ap xoay chieu: V = V
m
sint
va dong ien co dang: i = I
m
sin(t + )
Nh vay dong ien i qua cuon ien ap cua watt-ke ien ong.
i
V
=
+
= +
m V
V V
V
V t
I t
Z
sin( )
sin( )
Z
V
la tong tr cua cuon ien ap va ien tr mac noi tiep vi cuon ien ap;
V

la goc lech pha ien ap va dong ien qua cuon ien ap.
Do o goc lech cua kim ch th c cau ien ong do momen quay trung
bnh, t le vi tch so i
V
va i: =
1
0
1
T
aV V
T K i i dt
T

Ngha la: = K
2
I
m
I
V
cos(
V
) =
2
m
m V
V
V
K I
Z
cos( ) =

2 m v
K I I cos( )
Neu
V
= 0 khi = K
3
P, coi nh cong suat cua tai c xac nh bi
goc quay cua kim ch th cua watt-ke.
Neu
V
0, nh vay se co sai so tao ra do s lech pha gia ien ap V
va dong ien qua cuon ien ap cua watt-ke.
Goi P = VIcos(
V
), ta se co sai so tng oi
P
.
V
P
VI VI p p
p VI
cos( ) cos '
cos

= =

P
p p
p
'
(%) %
= 100 =

100
V
cos( ) cos
%
cos

Neu
V
nho th:
P
(%) = (1 +
V
tg 1)100%,
p
(%) =
V
tg100%
e thuan li cho viec s dung o cong suat cua tai co dong va ap thay
oi, thong thng cuon dong ien c chia ra lam hai cap tng ng vi tam
CHNG 5

150
dong ien s dung, bang cach thay oi so vong day (giong nh c cau ien t).
Con e thay oi tam o ien ap, bang cach dung nhng ien tr noi tiep vi
cuon ien ap (giong nh thay oi tam o ien ap cua c cau ien t). ac
iem cua watt-ke la ket qua oc c phu thuoc vao tan so cua nguon ien,
do anh hng cua khang tr cua cuon day ien ap co s di pha gia ien ap va
dong ien.
u iem cua watt-ke ien ong: co o chnh xac cao (cap chnh xac = 0,5;
0,2; 0,1%) dung tien li cho nguon DC va AC tan so
4560Hz 500Hz.
Khuyet iem: T trng yeu, momen quay nho de b anh hng bi t
trng nhieu va khong chu ng c s qua tai, gia thanh cao.
e lam tang momen quay, giam bt t trng nhieu ngi ta dung c cau
sat ien ong, khi o chung ta co c cau watt-ke sat ien ong. Tuy nhien, c
cau sat ien ong nay tao nen nhng sai
so phu thuoc do tnh phi tuyen cua ng
cong t hoa, dong ien xoay va tnh tre.
S hao giam trong loi sat tao ra t thong
do dong ien qua cuon dong
I
, tre pha
vi dong ien mot goc (xem gian o
hnh 5.6). Do o kim ch th cua watt-ke
lech mot goc c xac nh:

2 m m V V
= K I V Z cos + ( / ) ( )
= K
3
IVcos( +
V
)
Neu =
V
th = K
3
IVcos
Nh vay, sai so do goc lech pha gia ien ap va dong ien qua cuon ien
ap bang khong. Trong trng hp tng oi ln, e lam tang s lech pha
V

ta dung ien tr noi tiep tng phan, hoac hoan toan vi cac cuon day (quan
nh xoan ch), theo nh cach mac cua watt-ke sat ien ong cua Nga D539
(H.5.7). Sai so do dong ien xoay va t tre, lam giam o chnh xac cua watt-
ke. e tang o chnh xac nen dung mach t Permaloy.
Hnh 5.6: Gian o vect cho
c cau watt-ke sat ien

151

Hnh 5.7: Cach mac mach cua watt-ke ien ong D539 (Nga)
5.2.3 Dung bien dong vi watt-ke

Hnh 5.8: a) Cach mac bien dong cua watt-ke
b) Gian o vect ie n ap va dong ien
CHNG 5

152
Trng hp cong suat cua tai co ien ap thap, khi o dong tai co tr so
ln, can phai dung bien dong e cho dong ien i qua cuon dong khong c
qua gii han cua watt-ke, cuon s cap cua bien dong xem nh c noi vi tai,
con dong th cap cua bien dong c noi vi cuon dong cua watt-ke theo cach
mac hnh 5.8a.
V
1
: ien ap cua tai; i
1
: dong ien tai; i
2
: dong ien cua th cap bien dong.
Khi o cong suat cho bi watt-ke: P
2
= I
2
V
1
cos
2

P
1
= I
2
k
nomV1
cos(
1
)
k
nom
: t so danh nh cua bien dong.
Trong thc te goc nho:
1

1
; I
2
k
nom
I
1

Do o co the viet: P
1
= I
1
V
1
cos
1
= Pk
no
Nh vay, cong suat cua tai c xac nh bang cach nhan tr so oc c
cua watt-ke vi t so bien dong. Tuy nhien sai so cua ket qua o, phu thuoc sai
so cua bien dong, goc lech pha cua dong s cap va th cap cua bien dong. Do
o cong suat cua tai c xac nh:
P
1
= I
1
V
1
cos( ). Va sai so c xac nh:
P
P P
P
'

=
1 1
1

=
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1
I V I V
I V
cos( ) cos
cos
=

1 1
1
cos( ) cos
cos

Hoac:
P
cos( )
% [ ] %
cos

=
1
1 100
5.2.4 Dung bien dong va bien ap phoi hp vi watt-ke

Hnh 5.9: a) Cach mac watt-ke vi bien dong va bien ap
b) Gia n o vect cua dong va ien a p

153
Trong trng hp tai co ien ap cao va dong ien ln, chung ta phai phoi
hp bien ap, bien dong va watt-ke e o cong suat cho tai (H.5.9)
Cuon ien ap cua watt-ke c mac hai au cuon th cap cua bien ap,
mot au cua cuon th cap va vo cua bien ap c noi vi at. Nh vay cong
suat o bang watt-ke c dien ta: P
W
= I
2
V
2
cos
2

Nhan vi t so cua bien ap va bien dong chung ta c cong suat cua tai:
P
L
= i
2
k
1
v
2
k
v
cos(
1
+
v

i
)
Neu nh goc lech
I
va
V
rat nho khi o co the am bao:
1
+
V

I
=
1

v: I
1
I
2
K
1
; V
1
= V
2
K
V
. Khi o: P
L
= P
W
K
1
K
V
= P
1
= V
1
I
1
cos
1

Nh vay cong suat cua tai, phan s cap cua bien ap va bien dong c
nh bang tr so oc bi watt-ke nhan vi t so bien ap va bien dong. Ket qua
o co sai so do t so bien ap, bien dong va goc lech pha do cuon dong va cuon
ap cua watt-ke.
5.2.5 o cong suat hieu dung cua tai bang bo bien oi nhiet - ien (cap nhiet
ien)
Do bo bien oi nhiet ien (cap nhiet ien) co u iem hoat ong vi tn
hieu co tan so cao va dang bat ky, cho nen no c ng dung trong watt-ke o
cong suat hieu dung cua tai hoat ong vi tn hieu dang khong sin, tan so bat
ky .
Mach o nguyen ly watt-ke bang bo bien oi nhiet ien c dien ta
hnh 5.9c. V bo bien oi nhiet ien khong the hoat ong vi ien ap va dong
ien co tr so ln nen chung ta phai s dung bien dong va bien ap.

Hnh 5.9c: Mach o watt-ke dung cap nhiet ien
(BA: bien ap; BD: bien dong)
CHNG 5

154
Theo mach ien dong i
i
cua phan th cap bien dong: i
i
= K
I
I
L

Va dong i
V
cua dong th cap bien ap: i
V
= K
V
E
vi K
I
: t so bien dong; K
V
: phu thuoc vao t so bien ap va ien tr R
1
, R
2
cua
bo bien oi nhiet ien.
Gia s tai thi iem t dong ien i
V
va i
i
co chieu dan nh trong mach o.
Nh vay, dong ien i
V
+ i
i
ot nong day ien tr R
1
cua bo bien oi TC
1
se tao
ra sc ien ong nhiet ien e
1
(DC).
Tng t dong ien i
V
i
i
ot nong day ien tr R
2
cua bo bien oi TC
2
,
cung tao ra sc ien ong nhiet ien e
2
(DC). Do e
1
va e
2
phu thuoc tr hieu
dung cua dong ien i
V
+ i
i
va i
V
i
I
. Cho nen:
e
1
t le (I
L
+ E)
2
= + +
2 2
2
L L
I E I E
va: e
2
t le (I
L
E)
2
= +
2 2
2
L L
I E I E
Vay bien ap ra cua hai bo bien oi nhiet ien: e
o
= e
1
e
2

e
o
t le + +
2 2
2
L L
I E I E ( +
2 2
2
L L
I E I E ) = 4EI
L

Ngha la ien ap cua hai bo bien oi nhiet ien (thng co ac tnh nhiet
ien giong nhau va R
1
= R
2
= R), phu thuoc vao cong suat cua tai. Trng hp
E va I cua tai co s lech pha mot goc , th ien ap ra cua bo bien oi nhiet ien
phu thuoc (I
L
+ Ecos)
2
va (I
L
Ecos)
2
. Nh vay ien ap ra e
1
e
2
phu thuoc
vao EIcos.
Trong thc te loai watt-ke dung cap nhiet ien dang cau (H.5.9d), thay
the cho bo bien oi nhiet ien kieu trc. Ngha la trong kieu cau dung cap
nhiet ien, dong ien i qua cap
nhiet ien ot nong trc tiep a u no i
(junction) cua cap nhiet ien.
V du: Cau cap nhiet ien tren hnh
5.9d, moi nhanh cau co hai bo cap
nhiet ien. Khi co dong ien o i
qua cac cap nhiet ien se tao ra tai
moi cap nhiet ien V
j
= 6mV. ien
ap ra gia C va D:
V
BD
= 4 V
j
4 6
mV = 24 mV
va dong ien I ot nong cap nhiet
Hnh 5.9d: Cau nhiet ien
co dong ien ot trc tiep

155
ien ma khong i qua mili von-ke at C va D cua cau cap nhiet ien.
u iem cua cau cap nhiet ien la sc ien ong cap nhiet ien ngo ra
c tang len, dong ien o i qua trc tiep, cap nhiet ien co dong i qua khong
s qua tai nh loai bo bien oi nhiet ien co ien tr ot nong rieng. Loai nay rat
de hong day ien tr khi qua tai 50% dong ien cho phep.
5.3 O CONG SUAT TAI BA PHA
5.3.1 o cong suat mach ien bon day
Trong trng hp he thong ien bon day (ba day pha mot day trung tnh).
Neu dung ba watt-ke mot pha mac nh hnh 5.10, cong suat cua tai:
P
C
= P
1
+ P
2
+ P
3
= V
A
I
A
cos
A
+ V
B
I
B
cos
B
+ V
C
I
C
cos
C

Ket qua o la tong so cua tr so cho bi ba watt-ke mot pha. watt-ke ba
pha ba phan t cau tao nh sau: Hnh 5.11 co ba cuon dong va ba cuon ap (ba
cuon di ong) co cung truc quay. Nh vay kim ch th so cho ket qua cong suat
cua tai.

Hnh 5.11: Watt-ke ba pha ba phan t

Hnh 5.10: o cong suat
cua tai ba pha bon day
CHNG 5

156
5.3.2 o cong suat mach ien ba day
Trong mach ien ba day, cung cap cho
tai ch co ba day pha khong co day trung tnh.
Neu dung watt-ke mot pha e o cong suat
cua tai th mac nh hnh 5.12
P
1
cong suat o c cua watt-ke 1.
P
1
= V
AC
I
A
cos( + 30
o
)
P
2
cong suat o c cua watt-ke 2.
P
2
= V
BC
I
B
cos(30
o
)
Cho nen: P
1
+ P
2
= V
AC
I
A
cos( + 30
o
) + V
BC
I
B
cos(30
o
)
Tai ba pha ba day
Trong tr ng hp ta i ba pha can ba ng
E
AC
= E
BC
= E 3 (E ien ap pha), va I
A
= I
B
= I
Do o: P
1
+ P
2
= 3EI[cos( + 30
o
) + cos(30
o
)]
= 3EI(2cos 30
o
cos) = 3EI ( / )cos 2 3 2 = 3EIcos
Vay P
1
+ P
2
la cong suat cua tai ba pha can bang cho nen ch can biet
ien ap va tai mot pha.
Trong tr ng hp ta i ba pha kho ng ca n bang.
P
1
= e
AC
i
A
cong suat tc thi cua watt-ke 1
P
2
= e
BC
i
B
cong suat tc thi cua watt-ke 2
Ma i
A
+ i
B
+ i
C
= 0, va e
AC
= e
AO
e
CO
; e
BC
= e
BO
e
CO

Nh vay: P
1
+ P
2
= e
AO
i
A
+ e
BO
i
B
+ e
CO
i
C
Do o:
T T T
AO A BO B CO C
O
P P e i dt e i dt e i dt
T
[ ] + = + +

1 2
0 0
1

Vay ch th cua hai watt-ke la tong cong suat cua tai ba pha.
Trong thc te neu mot trong hai watt-ke nao co kim ch th quay ngc th
khi o oi hai au cua cuon dong hoac cuon ap. Nhng ket qua cong suat o
c (v du: watt-ke W
2
quay ngc do khong mac ung th t pha):
P = P
1
P
2

Hnh 5.12: Mach o cong
suat tai ba pha ba day

157
5.3.3 Watt-ke mot pha c bien thanh watt-ke ba pha o tai can bang
khong co day trung tnh

Hnh 5.13: a) Watt-ke ba pha t watt-ke mot pha o tai can bang
b) Ca ch ma c day
Watt-ke mot pha c mac them ba ien tr R
V
, R
1 ,
R
2
co iem trung tnh gia
(H.5.13). Khi tai can bang va R
1
= R
V
/2 = R th i
1
= i
2
= i
V
/2
Nh vay: e
AC
= i
V
R
V
+ (i
V
/2)R, e
BC
= (i
V
/2)R + (i
V
/2)R;
V
R R/ = 2

AC BC V V V V V
e e i R R i R R i ( / ) + = + + = 2 4 ,
V AC BC V
i e e R ( )/ = + 4
Watt-ke ch th ket qua o tr trung bnh:
= = = +

0 0 0
1 1 1 1
4
T T T
V V L V V L AC BC L
P R i i dt R i i dt e e i dt
T T T
( )
EI [ (cos( ) cos( )] = + +
1
3 30 30
4
= EI cos
1
3
4

Vi EI la tr hieu dung cua ap va dong cua pha. Vay cong suat cua tai ba
pha c xac nh bang s ch th cua watt-ke mot pha nhan vi hang so t le
phu thuoc vao tr so R
V
va R
1
, R
2

5.3.4 Watt-ke ba pha o tai ba pha khong can bang
Watt-ke ba pha hai phan t
c cau tao gom co: hai cuon ien ap (hai cuon di ong) co cung truc quay
va hai cuon dong ien (cuon co nh) (H.5.14a). Phng phap o dung watt-ke nay
giong nh phng phap o dung hai watt-ke mot pha o tai ba pha ba day. Do o
cach mac mach ien cung giong nh trc.
CHNG 5

158

Hnh 5.14: a) Watt-ke ba pha hai phan t
b) Watt-ke hai phan t ri, cau tao va mach o
Watt-ke ba pha hai phan t ri
Loai watt-ke nay thng dung trong cong nghiep. Co cau tao nh sau:
Hai cuon ap co cung mot truc quay va ba cuon dong ien (cuon day th
3, mot na cuon ap 1, mot na cuon ap 2). Phng phap o va cach mac
mach o giong nh watt-ke ba pha, hai phan t cuon ap va loai ba phan t
phan cuon dong (H.5.14b).
5.3.5 o cong suat ba pha cua tai co bien dong va bien ap

Hnh 5.15: Watt-ke ket hp vi bien dong
Dung bien dong: Trong trng hp tai co dong ien qua ln vt qua tr
so dong ien cho phep cua watt-ke. Can ket hp o watt-ke vi bien dong e
o cong suat. Mach c mac nh hnh 5.15. Cong suat oc c cua watt-ke
c nhan vi k
1
- t so bien dong, ta se co c cong suat cua tai:
P
l
= P
W
k
I
P
W
: cong suat oc c tren watt-ke, k
I
: t so bien dong.

159

Hnh 5.16: Watt-ke ket hp vi bien dong va bien ap
Dung bien ap va bien dong: Trong trng hp tai co ien ap cao va dong
ien ln, phai dung en bien ap va bien dong e o cong suat cua tai. Khi o
cong suat cua tai c xac nh:
P
2
= P
W
k
I
k
V
; k
V
: t so bien ap.
5.4 O CONG SUAT PHAN KHANG CUA TAI
5.4.1 Cong suat phan khang cua tai mot pha
Theo nh ngha cong suat phan khang cua tai:
Q = VIsin = Vicos(90
o
)

Hnh 5.17: VAR-ke ien ong
Neu dung watt-ke e o cong suat phan khang cua tai th dong ien qua
cuon ien ap va cuon dong ien lech pha them mot goc 90
o
. Do o watt-ke
muon bien thanh VAR-ke (o cong suat phan khang), cuon ien ap c mac
noi tiep vi ien cam L (H.5.17). Hoac co the dung watt-ke, von-ke va ampe-
ke e o cong suat phan khang vi ieu kien:
CHNG 5

160
=
2
1 sin cos ; P I V sin /( ) =
2 2 2
1
P cho bi watt-ke; V, I cho bi von-ke va ampe-ke.
5.4.2 o cong suat phan khang cua tai ba pha
o cong suat phan khang trong he thong bon day
ien ap day BC, day AC, day AB tre pha 90
o
so vi ien ap pha A, pha
B, pha C tng ng. Theo cach mac hnh 5.18, watt-ke W
1
co tr so cong suat
phan khang Q
A
.
P
A
= I
A
V
BC
cos(90
o
) = I
A = 3 3
A A
V Q sin

Ngha la: = 3
A A
Q P , P
A
c oc tren watt-ke W
1
.
Tng t nh vay oi vi pha A, pha C. Cong suat cua tai ba pha bang
tong so ket qua cua ba watt-ke chia cho 3.

Hnh 5.18: Mach o cong suat phan khang cua tai ba pha
dung watt-ke mot pha

o cong suat phan khang trong he thong ba day

Hnh 5.19: Mach o cong suat phan khang cua tai ba pha ba day
ba

161
a) Trng hp tai can bang va ien ap oi xng: Mach ien c mac
nh hnh 5.19. Chung ta co the dung hai watt-ke mot pha hoac mot watt-ke ba
pha hai phan t. Cong suat o bang hai watt-ke mot pha cho:
P
W
= I
A
V
BC
cos(90
o
) + I
B
V
CA
cos(90
o
)
Tai can bang va ien ap oi xng cho nen: V
BC
= V
CA
va I
B
= I
A
V vay: P
W
= 2I
L
V
L
sin, = = 3 3
L A ph
V V V , = 3 2
W L
P VI . . sin
Tng t nh trong o cong suat tac ong cua tai ba pha.
= = 2 3 2 3
W W
P Q Q P /
Nh vay muon bien watt-ke thanh VAR-ke th tren thang o ket qua oc
phai nhan vi he so t le va n v la VAR (hoac KVAR).
b) Trong trng h p ien ap o i xng, tai khong can ba ng:
Cong suat phan khang c
o bang ba watt-ke, ba phan t
c mac nh hnh 5.20 khi o ket
qua c chia cho 3. Con neu
cach mac nay ma tai can bang, th
ket qua oc c tren watt-ke mot
pha c nhan vi 3 cho ke t qua
o phan khang.
That vay:
3 3
A B
I V sin =
0
3 90
A BC
I V cos( ) = = 3 3 3
B A B
I V I V sin sin
= 3 3
W A
P Q , P
W
: tr so oc c tren watt-ke.
Trong trng hp dung watt-ke hai phan t hoac hai watt-ke mot pha,
mach ien c mac nh
hnh 5.21
Mach ien ap cua hai
watt-ke va cac ien tr noi
tiep tao ra c mach sao
can ba ng. Do o ien ap
pha V
C
c ap vao mach
th nhat va pha A c ap
vao mach 2, oi vi pha B.
P
W
= P
W1
+ P
W2
= I
A
V
C
cos(60
o
) + V
A
I
C
cos(120
o
).
Tai
*
*
C *
*
A
B
Nguo n
W
W
Hnh 5.21: Cach mac hai watt-ke mot
Hnh 5.20: Cach mac watt-ke o
cong suat phan khang tai ba
CHNG 5

162
( ) ( )

= + +

0 5 3 2 0 5 3 2
ph ph
I V , cos sin , cos sin
= = 3 3
W ph ph ph
P I V Q sin ; = 3 3
W ph
P Q
Cong suat phan khang cua tai ba pha bang tr so oc c cua hai watt-
ke nhan 3 phan khang cua tai ba pha khong can bang.
5.5 O IEN NANG
5.5.1 ien nang ke mot pha
ien nang ke co c cau hoat ong tren nguyen tac c cau cam ng ien
t, c cau tao nh hnh 5.22 gom co mot bo phan ien t A noi tiep vi tai
(cuon dong ien quan tren mach t). Mac song song vi tai, cuon day quan
tren mach t (cuon ap B). Da nhom D co mep da nam trong khe h cua mach
t cuon ap va cuon dong. e cho da nhom quay eu co nam cham em M, va
bo c hoc E co banh rang an khp truc quay cua da nhom D.
Hnh 5.22: a) ien nang ke mot pha
b) S sap xep cac phan t ben trong va cach mac mach ien
//
2
i
/
V
i
/
2
i
D
M
E
D
B
A
) b
B
C
A
Cuo n
a p B
N Tai
D
P
Va
Va
Vt
) a

163
Suot trong thi gian hoat ong cua ien nang ke, dong ien I i qua ta i
tao nen t thong
i
trong loi sat t. ien ap V cung cap cho tai tao nen dong
i
V
trong cuon day ien ap va t thong
va
va
Vt
trong loi sat t B,
Vt
va
i

xuyen qua da nhom va tao ra dong ien xoay tren a nhom i
'
2
, i
''
2
va
V
i
'
. Do
o co tac dung tng tac gia dong ien xoay va t thong tao nen momen
ngau lc quay a nhom: T = Kf
imax
Vmax
sin
Neu nh loi cua cuon dong khong b bao hoa, khi o:
imax
I va tan so f khong oi.
Vmax
V (: t le)
Ket luan: Trng hp = 90
o
, th sin = cos
Nh vay khi cac ieu kien tren thoa th momen quay a.
T = K
1
VIcos = K
1
P
V vay momen quay t le vi cong suat cung cap cho tai.
Do co s hao giam t trong loi gay ra
s tre pha t thong
I
oi vi dong ien I
mot goc
1
(H.5.22c), va co dong I
V
chay
trong cuon ien ap tre pha vi ien ap V
gan bang 90
o
. T gian o vect co the xem
goc lech pha gia ien ap V va t thong tac
dung
Vt
tren a nhom la: = +
i
+ .
Neu thay = 90
o
, chung ta co:
= + + 90
o
= 90
o
+
i

T thong tac dung
Vt
xuyen qua a
nhom va cc oi nghch C c at di
a nhom. Khien cho co s hao giam ln
tren ng i nay va ac biet tren a nhom, t thong tac dung
vt
lech pha
oi vi dong ien I
v
ln hn t thong
V
va
Va
. T thong
Va
tao nen mach
kn i xuyen tam va hai ben cc cua mach t, khong ngan chan hoat ong cua
a nhom.
Goc lech pha co the bang hoac ln hn 90
o
+
i
. Nh vay co the ieu
chnh goc pha 90
o
+
i
bang cach thay oi hoac
i
.
Tren mach t cua cuon dong ien co mot so vong c quan noi vi
vong ien tr se lam cho dong ien cam ng phat sinh ra, lam tang s hao mat
Hnh 5.22c: Gian o vect
cua ien nang ke mot pha
CHNG 5

164
t doc theo ng i cua t thong
i
. Ket qua la, anh hng en tr so goc pha
i
. Do o, goc
i
c ieu chnh bang tr so cua vong ien tr e c
momen quay a nhom t le vi cong suat cua tai.
Ngoai ra tren a nhom con anh hng cua t thong tao ra nh nam cham
em M,
Br
momen em cho a nhom: T
br
= K
1
I
ed
Br

I
ed
la dong ien xoay chay tren a nhom.
Ma:
( )
= =
1 1 br ed Br ed d Br
T K I K E R = K
1
(K
br
n/R
d
)
Br
= K
2
n
vi K
2
la he so t le, n so vong quay cua a nhom
R
d
la tong tr ng i cua dong ien xoay
N la so vong quay cua a trong mot giay.
t thong
Br
co nh th momen em cho a quay: T
br
= K
2
n
van e them momen quay T
br
nham muc ch cho a nhom quay eu. Khi cong
suat cua tai khong oi, a nhom quay eu: T
br
= T
Hoac: K
2
n = K
1
P. Suy ra: P = K K n ( / )
2 1

Vay ien nang c xac nh: W = P

t = K
3
nt, ien nang tieu thu phu
thuoc vao vong quay cua a.
5.5.2 o ien nang cua tai ba pha
ien nang ke ba pha ba phan t

1, 2, 3 - cuo n a p; 4, 5, 6 - cuo n do ng
Hnh 5.23: ien nang ke ba pha, ba phan t dung
cho he thong bon da y
Cach mac ien nang ke ba pha loai nay giong nh cach mac watt-ke ba
pha ba phan t. Ca ba phan t nay lam quay ba a nhom co cung mot tru c
quay, hoac mot a nhom (thng dung trong thc te). Truc quay nay c

165
truyen ong sang bo em so trnh bay ket qua o. Cach bo tr cac phan t cu a
ien nang ke nh hnh 5.23.
ien nang ke ba pha hai phan t
c cau tao nh loai ba phan t
nhng co hai phan t lam quay hai a
nhom. Cach mac mach giong nh
watt-ke ba pha hai phan t. Sai so cua
watt-ke hai phan t khong phu thuoc
vao s can bang pha, ien ap khong
oi xng va theo tuan t ve pha cua
mach o. Thong thng ien nang ke
oi (gom hai ien nang ke n) c
dung thay the cho ien nang ke hai
phan t.
Khi ien nang ke oi c s
dung goc lech pha vt qua 60
o
, mot trong hai ien nang ke se quay theo
chieu ngc lai vi momen quay co gia tr am, ieu nay dan en sai so phu,
con dau cua momen bo chnh s ma sat van gi nh cu bat ky s thay oi
chieu quay cua a. Do o ket qua lam tang s ham toc o quay cua a.
5.5.3 o ien nang phan khang cua tai ba pha
Nang lng phan khang c o bi ien nang ke ba phan t (VAR-ke
gi) (H.5.25).

Hnh 5.25: ien nang ke phan khang ba phan t
Mach c mac nh trong VAR ke ba pha ba phan t. Hoac dung loai
co cuon phu noi tiep nh hnh 5.26. ay la loai hai phan t ri ma moi phan
t phan cuon day co nh co cuon chnh va cuon phu co so vong day bang
nhau ien ap can xng mach c mac nh hnh 5.26 va co gian o vect
Hnh 5.24: Cach mac ien
nang ke hai phan t
CHNG 5

166
nh a trnh bay trong hnh.

Hnh 5.26: a) ien nang ke phan khang hai phan t ri (gian o vect)
b) ien nang ke phan khang hai phan t ri.
Momen quay tac dung trong a nhom c dien ta nh sau.
T
1
= kV
BC
[I
A
(90
o

A
) I
B
cos(30
o

B
)]

BC A A B B B B
kV I I I sin ( / ) cos ( / ) sin = + 3 2 1 2
Momen quay cua phan t th hai.
o o
AB C C B B
T kV I I [ cos( ) cos( )] = +
2
90 150

AB C C B B B B
kV I I I [ sin ( / ) cos ( / ) sin ] = + + 3 2 1 2
Momen quay tong cong.
+ = + + =
1 2
3 3
ph A A B B C C
T T K V I I I KQ ( sin sin sin )
Do o momen quay t le vi nang lng phan khang. Nh vay thiet b nay
thch hp o nang lng phan khang. ien ap oi xng ket qua o khong
anh hng bi dong tai khong can bang.
Khi mac thiet b o nay vao mach ien can phai ung theo th t cua ba
pha c ghi tren thiet b o.

167
5.6 O HE SO CONG SUAT
Nh chung ta a biet dong ien va ien ap la hai tn hieu khi qua tai bat
ky (thuan tr hoac khang tr), co s lech pha hoac khong lech pha phu thuoc
vao ac tnh cua tai. Trong lnh vc o ien, chung ta can biet cos, la goc
lech pha, ma chung ta goi la he so cong suat. Con trong lnh vc o ien t
chung ta can quan tam en s lech pha gia hai tn hieu bat ky, chang han nh
s lech pha gia hai tn hieu vao va ra cua mach khuech ai hoac mot he
thong ieu khien. Trong chng nay chung ta e cap en nhng phng phap
va thiet b o s lech pha gia dong va ap qua tai, con mot so phng phap va
mach o lech pha gia hai tn hieu co tan so ln hn se e cap phan thiet b
o ien t. Cung nh van e o he so cong suat, chung ta ch e cap en
phng phap va thiet b o tan so tn hieu trong ien cong nghiep con van e
o tn hieu cao hn se c trnh bay trong thiet b o ien t.
5.6.1 o cos dung von-ke va watt-ke
o cos dung von-ke
e kiem tra hoac lay chuan cho cos ke hoac o s lech pha gia hai
tn hieu: e
1
= E
1
cost va e
2
= E
2
cos(t + )
Chung ta co the dung phng phap sau:
Dung von-ke o S, tong so cua hai tn hieu e
1
, e
2

va D hieu so cua chung theo gian o vect (H.5.27).
= + +
2 2 2
1 2 1 2
2 S E E E E cos
= +
2 2 2
1 2 1 2
2
D E E E E cos
Nh vay:
=
2 2
1 2
4
S D
E E
cos
Cung tng t nh phng phap nay
trong phan o cong suat cua tai khang bang
phng phap ba von-ke chung xac nh cos cho
tai.

=
2 2 2
3 1 2
1 2
2
V V V
V V
cos
V
1
: ien ap cua tai; V
2
: ien ap cua ien tr thuan; V
3
: ien ap cua R va
tai; : goc lech gia tai va thuan tr R, chnh la goc lech pha gia dong va
ien ap cho tai. Vi phng phap nay neu goc lech pha khoang 90
o
th sai so
Hnh 5.28: Cach mac von ke o
cos
Hnh 5.27: Gian o
vect gia hai tn
CHNG 5

168
khoang t 5
o
en 10
o
phu thuoc vao o chnh xac cua von-ke.
o cos bang von-ke, ampe-ke va watt-ke
ay cung la phng phap co ien
n gian, mach ien c mac nh sau
(H.5.29): Watt-ke cho biet cong suat
hieu dung P
e
cua tai, von-ke va ampe-
ke cho biet cong suat bieu kien: P
a
=
VI. Nh vay cos c xac nh:
=
e
a
P
P
cos
Trong phng phap o nay, sai so
tao ra do ampe-ke, von-ke va watt-ke
hai cach mac re ngan hoac re dai. Ngoai ra con co sai so do cuon day ien ap
cua watt-ke, do cau tao cua c cau ien ong (a c e cap en trong phan
tren).
5.6.2 Cos ke dung c cau t so ke ien ong
Trng hp tai mot pha
ac biet cuon day 1 c noi vi ien tr R, va cuon day 2 c noi vi
ien cam L e sao cho dong I
L
va I
R
lech pha /2, va hai cuon day c xep
at thang goc vi nhau. Cho nen chung ta co:
M
1
= Mcos; M
2
= Msin
M
1
: he so ho cam gia cuon
day di ong 1 vi cuon day co
nh.
M
2
: he so ho cam gia cuon
day di ong 2 vi cuon day co
nh.
M: he so ho cam ln nhat khi
cac cuon day di ong co t thong
(do cuon day co nh tao ra)
xuyen qua ln nhat.
Gia s tong tr cua hai cuon day di ong khong ang ke so vi ien tr R
va L. Cho:
= 2
L
v V t cos : ien ap cua tai.
A
Tai
W
V
Hnh 5.29: Cach mac von ke,
ampe-ke va watt-ke e o
Hnh 5.30: Cos ien ong mot pha

169
= 2
L
i I t cos( ) : dong ien qua tai.
V, I la tr hieu dung.
Khi o dong ien qua cuon day 1 va 2 la:

R L
i V R t vai V L t ( / )cos ( / )cos( ) = = 2 2
Do o momen quay trung bnh T
1
, T
2
cua cuon day 1 va cuon day 2.
=
1
1
dM VI
T
d R
cos ; =

2
2
dM VI
T
d L
sin
Tai tr so
i
cua cuon day di ong T
1
= T
2
, hai cuon day di ong ng yen
va goc lech pha gia hai tn hieu ien ap va dong ien cua tai c xac
nh: ( ) =
i
tg L R tg .
Neu nh cuon day di ong va mach ien che tao sao cho R = L th tai v
tr ch th cua hai cuon day co c:
i
=
Cos ke thng co vach o c khac o theo tr so cos cua goc lech pha
co tr so 0 gia, ve pha phai cua iem 0 la sm pha (lead) va ve pha trai
la tre pha (lag). Viec lay chuan cho
cos ke chu anh hng cua tan so
cua tn hieu, e cho no t b anh
hng bi tan so tn hieu, ngi ta
thay cuon day 2 bang hai phan t co
so vong day bang nhau, mot phan t
noi vi L, con phan t con lai noi vi
C nh hnh 5.31, tr so LC e sao cho
tan so hoat ong cua thiet b: LC
2
=
1
Dong ien qua L va C co khuynh
hng oi nhau, nhng co chieu quan cua hai phan t cuon day sao cho
momen quay hai phan t cong vao nhau. Ngha la tan so tang len th dong
ien i qua L giam, trong khi o dong ien qua C tang len e sao cho tong so
(o ln) cua hai dong ien nay gan nh khong thay oi. Nh vay momen quay
T
2
se khong thay oi khi tan so tn hieu thay oi. Trong s bo chnh nay co the
ap ng tot khi tan so tn hieu thay oi khoang 10 phan tram tan so hoat ong
nh danh cua thiet b o.
Trng hp tai ba pha
Trong trng hp nay goc lech pha c o gia dong ien mot day
Hnh 5.31: Cos ke co
bo chnh tan so
CHNG 5

170
pha so vi ien ap gia cac day pha cua tai ba pha, nh cach mac mach hnh
5.32. Cuon day co nh cua pha ke c mac noi tiep vi tai mot tren ba pha
ien cua tai, con hai khung quay 1 va 2 c mac gia cac pha cua tai qua
trung gian cua cac ien tr R co tr so ln va ien cam cua cac cuon day co tr
so khong ang ke. Momen quay trung bnh cua khung quay 1 va 2 la:
=
1 1 1 2
3 V
T MI I V V
R
sin cos( , ) va =
2 1 1 3
3 V
T MI I V V
R
cos sin( , )
Theo gian o vect:
I V V cos( , ) cos( )
= +
1 1 2
6
;

= =
1 1 3
6 6
I V V cos( , ) cos( ) cos( )
M: he so ho cam, M cc ai khi mot trong hai khung quay song song v i
truc cua cuon day co nh.
: goc cua khung quay 1 va phap tuyen cua vect cam ng
ur
B .

Hnh 5.32: Cach mac pha ke
ien ong ba pha
Hnh 5.33: Gian o Fresnel cua ien ap va
dong ien cua pha ke ba pha
Hai momen quay cua khung quay 1 va 2 luon luon oi khang nhau. Cho
nen tai
1
cua hai momen quay can bang, khung quay ng yen T
1
= T
2
, dan
en:
( ) ( )
+ = 6 6
i i
sin cos cos cos .
Do o:
( )
( )

=
+
6
6
i
tg
cos
cos

Suy ra: + = 1 3 1
i i
Si n tg tg [ ] cos [ ]

= =

+

4
3 3
1 4 4
i
i
i
tg tg
tg tg
tg tg
=

3
4
i
tg
Ghi chu:

171
a) Trai ngc lai pha ke mot pha, pha ke ba pha nay khong anh hng
bi tan so neu nh tan so tn hieu khong qua cao.
b) Phng phap o co the dung pha ke mot pha nh thc hien iem
trung tnh gia vi ba ien tr, iem di cua L va R c mac vao iem trung
tnh nay.
c) Thiet b cos ke sat ien ong co cung nguyen tac lam viec nh c cau
ien ong. Nhng cuon day co nh c quan tren loi sat t, ieu nay lam
giam t tre cua mach t va tang s ton hao cong suat tieu thu. Loi sat t gom
nhng manh sat t co o t tham cao, mong e lam giam anh hng cua dong
ien xoay trong trng hp tan so cao.
V du: Thiet b cu the trong cong nghiep pha ke hieu Chauvin Arnoux
50/60Hz. Cap chnh xac 2,5 dung cho ien li mot pha va ba pha bang vi
ien ap danh nh.
Mo t pha: 57,7 V + 10% en 100 V + 20 %
127 V + 10% en 220 V + 10%
Ba pha: 220 V + 10% en 380 V + 10%, dong ien danh nh 5 A.
5.7 THIET B CH TH ONG BO HOA (SYNCHRONOSCOPE)
Nh co thiet b ch th ong bo nay cho phep chung ta co the ghep hai
may phat ien khac nhau mot cach ong bo, hoac may phat ien vi li ien
cua ien lc. ay la loai pha ke mot pha ma cuon day co nh c cung cap
bi ien li, con hai khung quay cua t so ke c cung cap ien ap bi may
phat ien.
Vi cach ghep nay khong ch bang nhau ve tan so, ma phai con cung pha
gia ien li va ien t may phat.
Cho li ien co ien ap: V = V 2 t cos
Va ien cua may phat ien: = + 2 v V t
, ' ,
cos( )
Co the viet lai nh sau:
= 2 v V t
' '
cos( ) , vi:
= t
'
( )
Khung quay cua thiet b quay t do va
c noi vi cong tac trt, cho nen khi tan
so goc , hi khac biet th khung quay se
quay vi toc o tng ng vi s khac biet
Hnh 5.34: Cach mac ch
th ong bo hoa
CHNG 5

172
cua tan so. V du 1: vong trong 6 giay tng ng vi s lech 0,25 Hz. Chieu
quay cua khung quay giup cho s ieu chnh tan so cua may phat tang len, hay
giam xuong. en khi tan so cua hai tn hieu bang nhau th khung quay se
khong quay tron na ma se lech mot goc tng ng vi s lech pha cua hai
ien ap, s ong bo hoa gia hai tn hieu c xac nh ung khi kim ch th
ngay gia thang o.
V du thiet b cu the: Synchronoscope NE 96 Compteur Schlumberger. Co bo tr
hai en ch th pha.

Hnh 5.35: a) Ca ch mac khi ong bo ho a th e n chay
b) Cach mac khi o ng bo ho a th en ta t
Cong suat tieu thu:
Phan cho mach ien may phat la: 1,5VA
Phan cho mach ien li: 5VA
Calip cho ca hai mach 2100V, tan so 50Hz.

173
Ghi chu: Do oi luc co s h hong cua thiet b ong bo hoa chung ta co
the dung mach ien mac nh sau. a vao mach ien hai en neon c mac
nh hnh 5.35.
5.8 TAN SO KE
5.8.1 Tan so ke ban rung (tan so ke cong hng c hoc)
Cau tao va nguyen ly hoat ong: gom mot nam cham ien tao ra qua
cuon day ien quan tren loi sat t hnh ch U, mot mieng thep nam trong t
trng cua nam cham ien gan chat vao mot thanh, mang nhng thanh rung co
tan so dao ong rieng khac nhau. Tn hieu can o tan so c a vao cuon
day cua nam cham ien, se tao ra lc hut mieng thep vi tan so dao ong f,
khien cho cac thanh rung nao co tan so dao ong rieng bang tan so f th se dao
ong cc ai do cong hng rieng, con cac thanh khac khong cong hng se
khong dao ong cc ai. Nh vay chung ta se oc ket qua tai tr so tng ng
vi thanh rung cc ai.
Hnh 5.36: C cau tan so cong hng c hoc
5.8.2 Tan so ke ien ong hoac sat ien ong
Cau tao: ay la thiet b o dung c cau ch th t so ke ien ong hoac sat
ien ong (nh loai D506 cua Lien Xo cu). Mach o c mac vao c cau nh
hnh 5.37a. Cuon day di ong B
1
c mac vao tu ien C
1
va cuon day B
2
noi
vi cuon co nh A, au con lai cua cuon co nh A noi vi ien cam L, ien
dung C
2
va ien tr R
S
. Con ien tr R
Sh
mac song song vi hai au cuon B
2

dung e hieu chnh may sao cho dong ien qua cuon B
2
thch hp.
Lo i sa t t
Cuo n da y
Thanh rung
47 48 49 50 51 52
CHNG 5

174

Hnh 5.37: Mach o tan so ke c cau ien ong
Nguyen ly hoat ong: ien cam L va ien dung C
2
c ieu chnh cong
hng tan so gia cua thang o, ngha la:
=
2
1
av
av
L
C

Ket qua la dong ien cong hng I
2ES
cung pha vi ien ap cung cap V
va tre pha 90
o
so vi dong ien I
1
(H.5.37). Do o momen quay T
1
lam quay
cuon day B
1
bang khong, ngha la.
T
1
= kI
1
I
2RES
cos 90
o
= 0
Trong khi o momen T
2
c tao ra bi dong ien I
2
trong cuon day A va
B
2
lam di chuyen cuon day sao cho truc quay cua t thong tao nen bi cuon
day A va B
2
trung nhau. Nh vay dong ien I
2
se thay oi bat ky s lech tan
so cua tn hieu o do tan so goc cong hng
av
. S lech pha gia dong ien I
2

va ien ap V theo chieu dng khi tan so tang va theo chieu am khi tan so
giam.
tan so khac, vi tan so cong hng, momen quay T
1
khac khong se lam
cho cuon day B
1
quay, ong thi ket hp vi momen quay T
2
lam quay cuon
day B
2
va ngau lc nay phu thuoc vao s lech pha gia dong ien I
1
trong
cuon day B
1
va dong ien I
2
trong cuon day A (s lech pha nay nho hn hay
ln hn 90
o
). V hai momen nay quay ngc nhau nen kim ch th se dng lai
khi hai momen nay bang nhau va momen nay lai phu thuoc vao tan so cua tn
hieu. Tn hieu o tan so c a vao mach o thong qua bien ap t ngau co
cac au s cap tng ng vi cac tr so 36 100 127 220 V. Khoang tan so
can o cua thiet b o loai nay trong khoang 50 1500 Hz c chia ra lam
nhieu tam khac nhau. Tan so ke loai nay co the at o chnh xac ti 0,2%

175
(loai D506 cua Lien Xo cu).
5.8.3 Tan so ke dung c cau t so ke t ien co chnh lu
Cau tao: Bo phan ch th cua
thiet b la t so t ien. Mach o
dung hai nhanh song song, nhanh
song song th nhat bao gom cuon
day L
1
, ien dung C
1
va cau chnh
lu toan song R
e1
. Nhanh song
song th hai gom co ien tr R
2
va
cau chnh lu toan song R
e2
. V o
lech cua kim ch th phu thuoc vao
t so cua dong ien qua hai cuon
day, ma dong ien lai phu thuoc
vao tong tr cua hai nhanh song
song.
Ngha la: = F(I
1
/I
2
) = F(R
2
/Z
1
)
Ma: Z r fL fC
/
[ ( ) ] = +
2 2 1 2
1 1 1 1
2 1 2 ; r
1
: ien tr cua cuon day.
Con R
2
khong thay oi (thng ln hn so vi noi tr cuon day), cho nen
goc lech cua kim ch th phu thuoc vao tan so cua tn hieu cung cap cho
mach o.
5.8.4 Phng phap o tan so dung cau WIEN

Hnh 5.39: Mach cau o tan so
Hnh 5.38: Tan so ke dung c cau
t so ke t ien co chnh lu
CHNG 5

176
Hnh 5.39 bieu dien mach cau Wien c dung e o tan so. Khi:
Z
1
Z
4
= Z
2
Z
3
(ieu kien can bang cua cau)
Vi: j C
Z R
= +
1
1 1
1 1

Z R =
2 2
;
j
Z R
C
= =
3 3
3
; Z
4
= R
4

Nh vay khi cau can bang:

R j
R R R
j C R C R
( ) =
+
1
4 2 3
1 1 3 1
1

Hoac la:
R R C
j C R
R R C C R
( ) = + +
3 4 1
1 3
2 1 3 3 1
1

Can bang phan thc va phan ao:
= +
3 4 1
2 1 3
R R C
R R C

Va: R C
C R
=
3 1
3 1
1

Do o:
C C R R
=
1 3 1 3
1

Trong ieu kien: R
1
= R
3
= R; C
1
= C
3
= C.
Th:
R
R
4
2
= 2 hoac R
4
= 2R
2

Khi o tan so tn hieu cho bi: f =
RC
1
2
.
ien dung C khong oi tan so c cho bi: F = k(1/R)
Nh vay trong c cau thiet ke sao cho R
1
va R
3
cung thay oi, e ieu
kien R
1
= R
3
bao am luon luon c thoa.
e cho cau c de can bang th dang tn hieu phai khong co hoa tan,
ieu nay co the at c bang cach noi tiep vi bo phan ch th s can bang
cua cau bang mach loc. Neu bo phan ch th can bang cua cau dung tai nghe
cua ien thoai, th s can bang cua cau c xac nh bi tn hieu am thanh c
ban (vao khoang 1 kHz). Phng phap nay co the co o chnh xac t
0,1 0,5% va thuan li cho khoang tan so t 100Hz 100kHz.
Cau T oi (mach loc T oi)

177
Cau T o i c mac theo hnh 5.40. Tn hieu o tan so f
X
c a vao
ngo vao mach loc. Khi cau can bang co ieu kien:
=
2 2
2 1 2
2
x
R C C
Va: =
2 2
1 1 2
2 1
X
C R R
Khi R
2
= 2R
1
va C
2
= 2C
1
x
C R R C R C R
= = =
2
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 2 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
2
2 2 4

Th:
x x
f
R C R C
= = =
1 1 1 1
1 1
2
2 2

Hay:
x
f
R C
=
1 1
1
4

Hnh 5.40: Cau T oi e o tan so
Bo phan ch th can bang gom mach khuech ai (K) va ien ke.
Phng phap o dung cau T o i co the o t vai chuc Hz en vai tram
kHz sai so trong khoang t 0,5% en 1%. Sai so nay phu thuoc vao o chnh
xac cua phan t cau, o nhay cua bo phan ch th s can bang cua cau.
Ngoai ra chung ta con nhng phng phap so sanh dung hnh Lissajous,
mach cong hng hap thu va may em tan so se c e cap en trong phan
thiet b o ien t.
CHNG 6

178
Chng 6
O AI LNG C HOC VAT
THE RAN
6.1 CAM BIEN V TR VA S DCH CHUYEN
Nhng cam bien nay c dung rat pho bien. Mot mat, do viec kiem soat
v tr va s dch chuyen la mot phan quan trong trong viec hieu chnh hoat
ong cac may moc, cac may cong cu chang han. Mat khac, do mot so ai
lng vat ly co the o c v s dch chuyen nh chi tiet th nghiem. o la
trng hp cua nhng lc, nhng ap suat, gia toc, nhiet o, v.v... Co hai
phng phap c ban c dung e xac nh v tr va o s dch chuyen.
Phng phap 1 thng c dung. Cam bien tao ra tn hieu gan lien vi
v tr cua mot trong nhng thanh phan cua cam bien lien ket vi oi tng di
ong, ac tnh quan trong cua nhom nay la tong tr cam bien phu thuoc vao
ac tnh hnh hoc hoac kch thc cam bien thay oi theo v tr cua phan t di
ong. o la trng hp cac cam bien: bien tr o lng, ien cam co loi di
ong, ien dung co loi di ong, bien ap co o ghep thay oi.
Phng phap 2 t thong dung. Cam bien tao ra mot xung ng vi moi lan
phan t di chuyen: v tr va s dch chuyen c xac nh bi s em xung
phat ra, hoac tr ra tuy theo chieu chuyen ong. Nhng cam bien c goi la
gii han hai au c ac trng bi khong co lien ket c kh vi vat ma no
o khoang cach hoac chuyen ong. Chung co o tinh ln, s lien ket gia vat
chuyen ong va cam bien c thc hien nh mot s lien ket t trng, ien
t trng hoac tnh ien ma cng o ghep phu thuoc vao v tr tng oi gi a
vat va cam bien, xac nh ap ng cua cam bien.

179
6.1.1 Cam bien ien tr
1- Bien tr o lng
o la loai cam bien co nguyen ly cau tao n gian, cho phep thc hien
vi gia thanh re, tn hieu tao ra co the thu c mc o tng oi ln va
khong can mot mach bien oi ac biet. Tuy nhien, s hien dien cua con chay
do s trt la nguyen nhan tao ra tieng on va s hao mon, ieu nay dan en s
suy giam chat lng cam bien (tuyen tnh, chnh xac) va co so lan van hanh
gii han ma no khong b h hong. Mat khac, cam bien co the hoat ong moi
trng khong kh am, bui.
a) Dang hnh hoc
Hnh 6.1: Nhng dang bien tr
a) Bien tr thang; b) Bien tr goc; c) Bien tr helice
1
R()
R
n
c)
3
L
1
2
R(l )
R
n
l
0
a)

M
2
1 3
R()
R
n
b)
CHNG 6

180
Mot bien tr gom mot ien tr co nh R
n
, va tren ien tr co mot tiep
iem goi la con chay. ien tr R gia con chay va mot trong hai au co nh
co ac tnh: mot mat, phu thuoc vao v tr con chay (tc phan di ong ma ta
muon bien oi v tr ra tn hieu ien), mat khac no phu thuoc vao ien tr co
nh. Khi ien tr c cau tao ong nha t, bien tr tuyen tnh v co mot t le
gia R va v tr con chay. Tuy theo dang hnh hoc cua ien tr co nh va s di
ong con chay, ta phan biet:
Bien tr dch chuyen thang: R (l) =
n
l L R ( / )
Bien tr dch chuyen goc: R
M n
R ( ) ( / ) =
vi
M
la goc dch chuyen toi a.
Trong o: bien tr dch chuyen vong:
M
< 360
o
.
bien tr dch chuyen helice:
M
> 360
o
.
b) ien tr: c cau tao bi day quan hoac dang mang (piste). Day ien
tr phai neu nhng ac tnh sau: he so nhiet o cua ien tr suat, sc ien
ong nhiet, o on nh tinh the. Nhng hp kim thng c dung: NiCr, Ni
Cu, NiCrFe, AgPd. Day quan c thc hien tren vat lieu cach ien (thuy
tinh, gom hoac nha), day quan co lp vo cach ien. ien tr mang c cau
tao bi mot mieng plastique phu mot lp than dan ien, hoac lp oxyd kim
loai, kch thc cua nhng hat kim loai vao khoang 10
-2
m. Gia tr ien tr R
n

thong thng co gia tr t 1k 100k va co the at en vai M.
Sai so cua ien tr: nhng bien tr c che tao vi sai so cua R
n
tuy
theo trng hp 20% hay 10%, no co the at 5%.
o chnh xac cao oi vi tr so ien tr, trong trng hp tong quat th
khong can thiet bi v tn hieu ra la ket qua cua ty so R (x)/R
n
.
He so nhiet o cua ien tr: thong thng rat cao oi vi ien tr mang
(khoang 3.10
-4
/
o
C).
Tuyen tnh: s khong ong nhat trong che tao hoac do thanh phan vat
lieu, mot s khong oi xng nho trong kch thc co the keo theo mot s
khong tuyen tnh.
O AI LNG C HOC VAT THE RAN

181
2- Bien tr khong co con chay dang c
S bat li cua con chay dang c la s trt tren piste (gay ra s hao mon,
tieng on) co the loai bo bang cach thay ket noi c kh gia truc di ong va
mang ien tr bi lien ket quang, hoac t.

Hnh 6.2: Nguyen tac cua bien tr con chay dang quang
Trong loai bien tr goc co con chay dang quang, mang ien tr o c
tach biet vi mang ien dan tiep xuc bi mot bang mong dang quang ien dan
(CdSe), tren mang mong nay nhan mot lng anh sang di chuyen cung luc khi
ta xoay truc cua bien tr. ien tr cua lp quang ien dan c chieu sang se
giam i, tao thanh mot s ket noi gia mang ien tr o va mang tiep xuc.

Hnh 6.3: S thay oi ien tr cua lp quang ien dan di
tac ong cua s chieu sang trong thi gian ngan
Loai bien tr t c cau tao bi hai phan t tr R
1
va R
2
mac noi tiep.
Mot nam cham co cung truc quay vi bien tr tao ra mot t trng xuyen qua
mot phan ien tr R
1
va R
2
thay oi vi v tr goc cua truc quay. T trng
CHNG 6

182
cam ng gay nen mot s thay oi quan trong ien tr cua nhng phan R
1
va R
2

no xuyen qua. ien ap cung cap E
S
c ap vao hai au 1 va 3, ien ap o
c lay iem chung 2 va mot trong hai au con lai.

Hnh 6.4: Bien tr goc loai t
a) Nguyen tac theo goc quay; b) ap ng ien; c) Mach bu tr nhiet
6.1.2 Cam bien ien cam
1- Nguyen ly va ac tnh tong quat
S dch chuyen ma ta muon bien oi thanh tn hieu ien c thc hien
nh mot trong nhng phan t mach t, keo theo mot s thay oi t thong trong
cuon day. Khi phan t di chuyen la mot loi sat t, mot s chuyen oi s dch
chuyen thang hay quay tron c the hien bi:
S thay oi he so t cam (ien cam thay oi).
S thay oi o ghep gia cac cuon day s va th cap cua bien ap (bien
ap vi sai, microsyn) gay ra mot s thay oi ien ap th cap.
Khi cuon day quay tron so vi mot cuon co nh, th mot cuon gi vai tro
phan cam, con cuon kia phan ng, no tac ong nh mot bien ap co o ghep
thay oi. Cuon s la phan cam, cuon th la phan ng va tao ra mot ien ap
hoat ong theo goc quay (bien tr ien cam, resolver). Nhng thay oi he so
t cam va ho cam M theo s dch chuyen cua loi sat thong thng co s tuyen
tnh kem, ieu nay co the cai thien ang ke v viec bo tr hai cuon day oi
khang ma he so t cam L va ho cam M thay oi ngc nhau oi vi cung mot
chuyen ong, nh vay ta a thc hien mot s bu tr mot phan khong tuyen
tnh (hoat ong push - pull). Cam bien ien cam c dung trong mach co
nguon cung cap bi mot nguon ien ap sin, co tan so thng gii han c hang
chuc kHz e giam bt nhng mat mat ve t va dong ien Foucault, cung nh
anh hng ien dung ky sinh. ien ap o v
m
, la ket qua cua s bien oi bien

183
o cua ien ap cung cap E
S
cos
S
t bi s dch chuyen x(t): v
m
= K . x (t).E
S
cos
(
S
t + ).
Rat hiem, nhng s thay oi phan t ien cam co the c dung bien oi
tan so cua mach dao ong, t le vi s dch chuyen. Trong moi trng hp, bat
ky loai bien oi nao, tan so f cua s chuyen ong phai rat nho so vi tan so
song mang f
S
e de dang cho viec tach song: f<f
S
/10. Nhng cam bien ien
cam nhay oi vi nhng t trng nhieu, la ly do tai sao can at nhng mang
bao ve t trong cuon day.
2- ien cam thay oi
He so t cam L cua cuon day co N
vong day c dien ta theo t tr R cua
mach t.

mach t
dl
N
L vi R
S
R
= =

2

- o t tham; S - tiet dien mach t.
Khi tiet dien cua mach t khong oi
trong tng oan:

f
o
o f f o o
l
l
R
S S
= +

trong o: l
f
, l
o
- chieu dai trung bnh cua ng sc trong loi sat va
trong khong kh
S
f
, S
o
- tiet dien mach t va khe h khong kh

f
- o t tham tng oi cua vat lieu t (vao khoang 10
3

en 10
4
) va
o
= 4 . 10
7
MKSA.
a) Mach t co khe h khong kh thay oi (H.6.5)
Ta thiet lap de dang, t cong thc tong quat, he so t cam L:

o o f f
L N S l l [ /( / )] = +
2
1
e cho t cam L nhay oi vi s thay oi cua khe h khong kh, ta phai
chon l
o
l
f
/
f
. Luc o ta co:
o o
L N S l / =
2

Mot s di chuyen x cua phan ng dan en mot s thay oi l
o
= 2x cua khe
h khong kh, he so t cam se at tr gia mi.
Hnh 6.5: Cam bien loai khe
h khong kh thay oi
CHNG 6

184

o
o o
N S
L L
l x l /
+ =
+
2
1
1 2

o
o
o
N S x
L
x l
l
/

=
+
2
2
2
1 2

o o
L x
L l x l /

=
+
1
2
1 2

Neu x l
o
, ta co:
o
o o
o
N S x x
L x
l l
l
[ ( ) ]

= + +
2
2
2
2 2 2
1 L

o
o o
o
N S L x x
S
x l l
l
[ ( ) ]

= = + +
2
2
2
2 2 2
1 L
o nhay phu thuoc vao v tr
ban au l
o
cua phan ng, no cang
ln neu l
o
cang be. Mat khac no
co the coi nh khong oi neu s
dch chuyen rat be so vi l
o
, ieu
nay khien cho viec s dung cam
bien b gii han oi vi nhng
dch chuyen be, c mm.
o nhay va s tuyen tnh
c cai thien, neu ta dung t cam cua hai loi mach t giong nhau at oi
xng oi vi phan ng di ong va nh vay khe h khong kh co s thay oi
ngc chieu oi vi hai loi mach t. S thay oi he so t cam L cua cuon day
th hai:

o
o
o
N S x
L
x l
l
'
( / )

=

2
2
2
1 2

oi vi x l
o
:
o
o o
o
N S x x
L x
l l
l
[ ( ) ]

= + +
2
2
2
2 2 2
1 L
Hai cuon day co L va L
c at trong hai nhanh cua cau o. ien ap

lech khi o t le vi L
L:

o
o
o
N S x
L L x
l
l
[ ( ) ]

= + +
2
2
4 2
1 L
Nh vay o nhay cua to hp ien cam tang gap oi, s khong tuyen tnh
c cai thien.
b) Cuon day co nong di ong (H.6.7)
Hnh 6.6: To hp hai loi mach t
co khe h khong kh thay oi

185
He so t cam cua cuon day tuy thuoc vao v tr nong sat. Cach tnh he so
t cam L nh sau: ta xem ien cam la to hp noi tiep cua ien cam moi trng
khong kh; chieu dai l
o
; he so t cam L
o
; ien cam cua loi sat t co chieu dai
l
f
; he so t cam L
f
; he so ho cam M.
Ta co: L = L
o
+ L
f
+ 2M. Vi M =
o f
K L L .
K: he so ghep, gia s khong oi (0 K 1).
Ta co the viet theo ac tnh cua mach:

o o o o o o f
N N
L S l S l l
l l
( ) = =
2 2
2 2

f o o f f f
N
L S S l
l
( ( ) ) = +
2
2
1
o o f f f o o f f f f
N
L S l S l K S S S l l l
l
[ ( ) ( ( ) ). ( ). ] = + + +
2
2
1 2 1
S dch chuyen l
f
cua loi sat t keo theo mot s thay oi L cua ien
cam, no tuy thuoc vao l
f
va hoat ong khong tuyen tnh theo l
f
. Tng t nh
trng hp ien cam co khe h khong kh thay oi, s khong tuyen tnh co the
giam bt bang cach mac push-pull, hai cuon day co cung chung mot nong sat
t.

Hnh 6.7: S o nguyen ly cua cuon
day co nong sat di ong
Hnh 6.8: Hai cuo n day co cu ng chung
mot nong sat hoat ong pushpull

3- Bien ap vi sai (H.6.9)
Bien ap vi sai la mot loai cam bien c chu y en pham chat tuyen tnh,
o tinh. So sanh vi cam bien ien cam co nong di ong, hoat ong pushpull
co cung mot so tnh chat, loai cam bien vi sai co mot so iem li hn.
Cach mac day n gian, khong can thc hien can bang cau o.
Mot s oc lap gia mach kch thch va mach o.
CHNG 6

186
a) Nguye n ly: Bien ap vi sai c cau tao gom mot cuon day s cap va hai
cuon day th cap c bo tr oi xng so vi cuon s cap. Cuon s cap c
cung cap bi sc ien ong sin: e
1
= E
1
cost. S dch chuyen cua nong sat t
lam bien oi o ghep gia cuon s va hai cuon th. Nhng cuon th c mac
xung oi sao cho sc ien ong cam ng cua chung tr nhau.

Hnh 6.9: Bien ap vi sai: a) Loai dch chuyen thang,
b) Dch chuyen goc, c) S o mach ien tng ng.

187
Vi mach ien n gian, o ta bo qua ien dung ky sinh. Nhng phng
trnh oi vi mach s va mach th cap:
e
1
= R j L i j M x M x i
' ''
( ) [ ( ) ( )] + +
1 1 1 2

i
R R R j L L i j M x M x i
' '' ' ''
[ ( )] [ '( ) "( )] + + + + + =
2 2 2 2 2 1
0
Ta co the tnh theo e
1
, ien ap V
m
= R
i
i
2
hai au thiet b o mac vao th
cap.
i
m
i i
j R M x M x e
v
R R R j L R L R R L L M x M x
[ "( ) '( )]
( ) [ ( )] [ ( '( ) "( )) ]

=
+ + + + +
1
2 2
1 2 2 1 1 2 1 2

vi: L
2
= L L
' ''
+
2 2
va R
2
= R R
' ''
+
2 2
.
Ve nguyen tac v
m
= 0 khi nong sat v tr chnh gia cach eu oi vi hai
cuon th cap, o la v tr ban au x = 0 va ta co M(0) = M(0). Trong thc te v
tr o ta co v
m
nho nhat ch khong hoan toan bang 0, co hai nguyen do:
Nhng hoa tan tao ra bi ac tnh khong tuyen tnh cua ng cong t
hoa loi sat.
ien dung ghep gia cuon s va cuon th.
b) ac tnh o lng
o nhay:

= =
+
1
2 2 2
1 1
2
m
V aE
S
x
R L
; V
m
: bien o tn hieu
oi vi nhng tan so kch thch thap (f < R
1
/2L
1
): S aE R / =
1 1
2
o nhay trong trng hp nay t le vi tan so cua nguon s cap, no co the
b dao ong vi nhng thay oi nhiet cua R
1
, tuy nhien ieu nay co the bu tr
bang cach at noi tiep vi R
1
mot ien tr r
1
ma nhng thay oi do nhiet
ngc vi R
1
hoac cung cap cho s cap mot nguon dong.
oi vi nhng tan so kch thch cao (f > R
1
/2L
1
): S aE L / =
1 1
2
o nhay f oc lap vi tan so cung cap va anh hng nhiet c xem nh
thu nho, o nhay t le vi bien o cua ien ap s cap nhng s ot nong cua
cuon s va s bao hoa cua mach t khong cho phep gia tang E
1
qua mot gia tr
gii han c nha che tao ch ro.
Khi cuon day s cap c bo tr xen
gia hai cuon day th cap dan en
mot so bat li:
pha ngoai cuon day s
cap, mot t trng hoan toan khong
P
S ca p
S
1
Th ca p

S
2

Th ca p
Hnh 6.10: Cach bo tr ba cuon
day e cai thien tuyen tnh va
gia tang khoang o
CHNG 6

188
giong nhau doc theo truc, ieu nay dan en mot s khong tuyen tnh.
Mot s gii han khoang o cua s dch chuyen nong sat, t tam i en
mot trong hai cuon day th cap. Nhng ieu bat li nay co the c khac phuc
bang s bo tr ba cuon day chong len nhau (H.6.10).
Mot vai ac tnh cua bien ap vi sai:
Khoang o: Dch chuyen thang: 1mm en 500mm
Dch chuyen goc: 45
o nhay: Dch chuyen thang: 1 en 500mV/1V/mm
Dch chuyen goc: 1 en 10mV/1V/1o
o tinh: Loi di ong t 0.5gam en vai chuc gam.
ien ap cung cap t 1 en 50V hieu dung.
Tan so cung cap: 50Hz en 25.000Hz.
c) Mach o: s kch cuon s c cung cap t mot mach dao ong ma tan
so va bien o rat vng.
Tn hieu t cam bien c khuech ai va chnh lu, tn hieu co pha phu
thuoc vao chieu chuyen ong. S o khoi mach o nh hnh tren.
4- Microsyn
o la loai may ien nho, gom co stator bon cc va rotor bang vat lieu sat
t. Tren bon cc cua stator co hai cuon day s va th, tren rotor khong co
quan day va gi nhiem vu bien oi.
Nhng cuon day s cap mac noi tiep
c cung cap bi ien ap sin vao khoang
vai chuc von toi a va ta n so di 10kHz.
T thong cam ng trong moi cuon day th
cap mot sc ien ong co dang:

i i i i i
e d dt t t / sin ; ( sin ) = = =
Nguo n
cung ca p
Ma ch
dao ong
Kie m soa t
bie n o
Kie m
soa t pha
Ca m bien
Hoa n ie u
o ng bo
Khue ch
a i
Chnh 0
Khue ch
a i
Hnh 6.11: Nguyen tac cau
tao Microsyn

189

Nhng cuon day th cap mac noi tiep sao cho sc ien ong e
1
va e
3

xung oi vi e
2
va e
4
, luc o ien ap th cap:
v
m
= e
1
+ e
3
e
2
e
4

v
m
= (
1
+
3

2

4
) sint
V tr goc quay cua rotor an nh t tr cua mach t va nh the an nh t
thong cc ai trong nhng cuon day, khi rotor v tr la truc oi xng oi vi
hai cap cc, nhng t thong i qua bon cuon day th cap bang nhau, co gia tr
o
, ien ap th cap v
m
= 0, o la iem 0 cua cam bien. Khi rotor quay quanh v
tr nay, se co mot s bien thien t tr va t thong trong nhng cuon day th
cap:
i
=
o
+
i
.
Nhng s bien thien nay bang nhau trong nhng cuon th cap S
1
va S
3
; S
2

va S
4
:
2
=
4
= ,
1
=
3
= .
Sc ien ong cam ng tong cong: v
m
= 2 [ ] sin t
Mat khac nhng thay oi va trai dau nhau, oi vi goc quay
be, ta co the viet: = a + b()
2
; = a + b ()
2

Cach mac day nh the chnh la cach mac push-pull. ieu nay cho phep
mot s bu tr khong tuyen tnh oi vi s thay oi cua t thong:
v
m
= 4a sin t.
Nh vay o ln cua ien ap th cap trong gii han goc quay chung quanh
tr gia 0 t le vi goc dch chuyen .
ac tnh o lng:
Khoang o 10
o
.
o nhay: 0,1V oi vi ien ap 1 von va goc lech 1 o.
Khoang cach tuyen tnh: 0,5 en 1% khoang o.
5- Bien tr ien cam
Gom co stator va rotor c cau tao bi vat lieu sat t. Tren stator va
rotor co bo tr mot cuon day quan nh hnh 6.12.
Rotor c noi vi truc quay ma ta muon bien oi chuyen ong ong vai
tro cuon s cap va c cung cap bang mot nguon dang sin: E
1
cost.
CHNG 6

190

Hnh 6.12: Nguyen tac cau tao cua cam bien bien tr ien cam
Dong s cap co dang: I
1
cos(t+), tao ra mot t thong thang goc vi mat
phang cuon day s cap.
Cuon day stator ong vai tro cuon day th cap co mot t thong xuyen qua
se phat sinh sc ien ong ng co o ln: E
2
= M()I
1
.
M(): he so ho cam hai cuon day. Ta at:
M() = M
o
cos; : Goc lech gia hai cuon day.
trong nhng ieu kien nay: E
2
= M
o
I
1
cos
o ln E
2
bang 0 khi / = 2, v tr nay ta xem nh v tr ban au cua goc
quay, ta co the viet: E
2
= M
o
I
1
sin, ta at / = + 2.
E
2
= M
o
I
1
, oi vi nho
Mot s bo tr thch hp nhng cuon day cho phep ni rong khoang tuyen
tnh, vi goc quay cc ai
M
gan bang / 2.
Khoang o: 120
o
en 180
o
.
o nhay: 0,5 en 20mV oi vi 1 von ien ap va goc lech 1
o
.
Khoang cach tuyen tnh: 0,1 en 0,5 % khoang o.
6- Synchrodetecteur (Sel Syn)
o la mot tap hp hai may ien giong nhau: mot may truyen, mot may
nhan. Moi may gom mot rotor va mot stator ba pha, ba cuon day c bo tr
lech nhau 120
o
va mac theo Y. Nhng cuon day stator cua may truyen va nhan
c noi vi nhau nh hnh 6.13. Phan quay cua may truyen (transmetteur)
c cung cap bi mot ien ap: Ecost, se tao ra mot t trng
r
b ma t thong
i qua cac cuon day stator S
t1
, S
t2
, S
t3
phat sinh sc ien ong ng e
t1
, e
t2
, e
t3
.
Goi
t
la goc lech gia rotor va cuon day stator S
t1
, nhng sc ien ong cam
ng trong S
t1
, S
t2
, S
t3
.

191

Hnh 6.13: Nguyen tac cau tao cua synchrodetecteur
=
1 t t
e KE t cos .cos( )

t
e KE t t cos( )cos( )
= +
2
2
3

t
e KE t t cos( )cos( )
=
3
2
3

vi K va tuy thuoc ac tnh hnh hoc va ac tnh ien cua cac cuon day.
Nhng dong ien i
1
, i
2
, i
3
trong cac cuon S
t1
, S
t2
, S
t3
tao nen t trng
r
t
b
ngc chieu vi
r
b.
Nhng dong ien nay se chay trong cac cuon day stator cua may nhan
(recepteur) S
r1
, S
r2
, S
r3
, co chieu ngc vi dong ien chay trong may truyen
va tao ra t trng
r
r
b ngc chieu vi
r
t
b nh vay cung chieu vi
r
b. Goi goc
lech gia rotor cua may nhan va cuon day satator S
r1
la
r
. T thong cam ng
trong rotor t le vi cos(
t

r
), nh vay sc ien ong ng vi hai au rotor, co
mach so , va o ln:
E
r
= K.Ecos(
t

r
)
K oi vi mot may cho trc tuy thuoc vao cach thc hien va .
Trng hp khi:
r
/ = 2; E
r
= K.E sin
t

CHNG 6

192
Vi
t
gan bang 0: E
r
= KE
t

Nhng ac tnh o lng
Khoang o 360
o
, o nhay ( gan iem 0) t 10mV en 100mV oi vi 1V
ien ap va goc lech 1
o
. Synchrodetecteur c dung trong nhng thiet b o v
tr goc lech, no tao nen mot ien ap co o ln E
r
phu thuoc khoang cach gia
v tr truc muon o c noi vi may truyen va v tr co nh chon trc cua
phan quay may nhan.
6.1.3 Cam bien ien dung
1- Nguyen ly va ac tnh tong quat
ay la nhng tu ien dang phang hoac dang tru ma mot trong nhng ban
cc di ong dan en mot s thay oi ien dung. Khong ke en hieu ng phu,
ta co:
oi vi tu phang:
r o
C A D / =
r
: hang so ien moi cua moi trng gia hai ban cc, A va D la tiet die n
va khoang cach gia hai ban cc.
oi vi tu ien tru:
r o
l
C
Logr r /

=
2 1
2

l - o nam sau cua hnh tru ban knh r
1
trong hnh tru ban knh r
2
.
Trong he thong n v MKSA:
o
= 8,85 . 10
12
.
S dch chuyen cua ban cc di ong co the c thc hien:
Trng hp tu ien phang:
S dch chuyen trong mot mat phang song song vi ban cc co nh: A
thay oi, D co nh.
S dch chuyen trong mat phang thang goc vi ban cc co nh: D thay oi,
A co nh.

193
Trng hp tu ien tru: l thay oi doc theo truc.
Nhng cam bien ien dung can c lu y bi cau tao n gian cua no,
cho phep thc hien cam bien chac chan va tinh. ien moi thng dung la
khong kh. Tuy theo mach bien oi i kem vi cam bien, tn hieu co the hoat
ong tuyen tnh oi vi:
S thay oi ien dung C.
Hay s thay oi tong tr Z.
Hoac s thay oi tng oi Z/Z; (Z/Z = C/C).
e viec s dung thiet b o thch hp nhat, can phai xac nh moi loai
cam bien ien dung nhng o nhay khac nhau oi vi o dch chuyen x.
o nhay ien dung:
C
S C x / =
o nhay tong tr:
Z
S Z x / =
o nhay tng oi:

= =

1 1
r
C Z
S
C x Z x
. .
Nh vay neu o nhay S
C
cua ien dung la hang so, ta chon trc mach
bien oi ma ien ap ra v
m
thay oi theo C:
v
m
= K.C = KS
C
.x
K: hang so ac trng cho mach bien oi c dung, ngc lai neu S
Z
la hang
so ta chon cach mac sao cho: v
m
= K Z = KS
Z
x,
Trong moi trng hp, tn hieu thu c t le vi o dch chuyen x.
2- Tu ien co tiet dien thay oi
a) Tu ien n
o la tu ien phang vi ban cc di ong xoay tron hay tu ien dang tru
co ban cc di chuyen doc truc nh hnh 6.14. Trong ca hai trng hp, ien dung
thay oi tuyen tnh theo dch chuyen x: C(x) = K.x
oi vi tu ien xoay:
o
r
K
D .

=
2
360
, x = : o
oi vi tu ien tru:
( )
o
K
Log r r /

=
2 1
2
, x = l: m
o nhay S
C
la hang so: S
C
= K; Ngc lai tong tr hoat ong khong
tuyen tnh theo x va: =
2
1 1
Z
S
K
x
. .
o nhay tng oi
r
S x / = 1 . o nhay S
Z
va S
r
rat ln trong khi x nho.
CHNG 6

194
Ngay ca oi vi s dch chuyen dx, s khong tuyen tnh rat ln. Viec s dung
mot tu ien th hai hoat ong push-pull vi cach mac vi sai cho phep mot s
bu tr.

Hnh 6.14: Nguyen ly cam bien ien dung co tiet dien thay oi
Tu ien n: a) Xoay tron; b) Dch chuyen thang
Tu ien kep: c) Xoay tron; d) Dch chuyen thang
b) Tu ien oi vi sai
Ban cc di ong A
1
di chuyen gia hai ban cc co nh A
2
va A
3
tao thanh
hai tu ien ma ien dung cua chung la C
21
va C
31
thay oi ngc dau vi nhau
theo s dch chuyen x (H.6.14c,d). V tr c xem la goc ban au cua s dch
chuyen x la cua ban cc di ong, tai o hai ban cc co nh oi xng, va nh
the hai ien dung C
21
va C
31
bang nhau. Vi gia tr K va x c xac nh
trc, vi s dch chuyen cc ai X, ta co:

o
x x
C K X x KX C
X X
( ) ( ) ( ) = + = + = +
21
1 1

o
x x
C K X x KX C
X X
( ) ( ) ( ) = = =
31
1 1
Ta at KX = C
o
vi X = L/2
L - chieu dai cua ban cc di ong trong trng hp tu ien tru.
M M
X / , = 2 : goc tao nen t tam cua ban cc di ong trong trng
hp tu xoay.
ieu li cua cach mac vi sai hien ro trong to hp ien dung C
21
va C
31
.
Ly do: khi lu y rang oi vi mot phng phap o tot, nhng t so phan ap sau
ay hoat ong tuyen tnh theo s di chuyen:

195

Z C x
Z Z C C X
( ) = = +
+ +
31 21
21 31 21 31
1
1
2

C Z x
Z Z C C X
( ) = =
+ +
31 21
21 31 21 31
1
1
2

3- Tu ien co khoang cach thay oi (H.6.15)
ay la nhng tu ien dung e bien oi s dch chuyen thang.

Hnh 6.15: Nguyen ly cua cam bien ien dung co khoang cach thay oi
a) Tu ien n, b) Tu ien oi vi sai.
a) Tu ien n: ta goi d la khoang cach dch chuyen vi khoang cach goc
D
o
, ta co:

o
o
A
C d
D d
( )

=
+
;
o
C
o
A
S
D d ( )
=
+
2
;
Z
o
S
A
=

1
;
r
o
S
D d
=
+
1

Trong trng hp nay s thay oi cua tong tr th tuyen tnh theo s dch
chuyen. o nhay S
C
va S
r
ln khi D
o
nho, chung co the xem nh khong oi
khi o d D
o
. o nhay S
C
cua tu ien co khoang cach thay oi rat ln so vi
o nhay S
C
tu ien co tiet dien thay oi.
V du: Tu ien c cau tao vi nhng ban cc tiet dien vuong co canh la
a, c at canh nhau vi khoang cach D
o
(D
o
a), ta co:
oi vi s dch chuyen song song vi mot trong hai canh S
C(//)
=
o
o
a
D
.
oi vi s dch chuyen nho, thang goc vi ban cc:
o o o C C C
S a D vaS S a D
( ) ( ) (//)
/ / /

= =
2 2
1
Ngc lai tu ien co khoang cach thay oi ch co the dung e o s dch
chuyen nho (< mm), trong khi tu ien co tiet dien thay oi co khoang o tng
oi ln (> cm).
b) Tu ien oi vi sai: Ban cc di ong A
1
dch chuyen theo hng thang
goc vi mat phang cua ban cc co nh A
2
va A
3
. Neu goi d la khoang cach
CHNG 6

196
dch chuyen so vi v tr goc ban au th D
o
la khoang cach oi xng cua hai
mat phang, ta co:

o o
o
o o o o
A A
C C
D d D d D d D ( / ) ( / )

= = =

21
1 1
1 1

o o
o
o o o o
A A
C C
D d D d D d D ( / ) /

= = =
+ + +
31
1 1
1 1

Vi:
o o o
A D C / = .
Tng t trong trng hp tu oi co tiet dien thay oi, to hp nay co ac
tnh ang chu y la t so phan ap tuyen tnh theo s dch chuyen.
o
Z C d
Z Z C C D
( ) = = +
+ +
31 21
21 31 21 31
1
1
2
;
o
C Z d
Z Z C C D
( ) = =
+ +
31 21
21 31 21 31
1
1
2

6.1.4 Cam bien o s dch chuyen gii han hai au
Loai cam bien nay c ac trng bi s khong co lien ket c kh gia
thiet b o va vat chuyen ong, ma bang s lien ket cua mot trng co lien he
vi v tr tng oi cua vat chuyen ong.
Trng cam ng t oi vi nhng cam bien t tr thay oi, hieu ng
Hall oi vi vat lieu khang t.
Trng ien t oi vi nhng cam bien loai dong ien Foucault.
Trng tnh ien oi vi nhng cam bien ien dung.
Nhng ac tnh cua cam bien o s dch chuyen gii han hai au la:
Mot bang thong rong
o tin cay va o tinh ln.
Nhng ieu bat li:
Khoang o thng nho (khoang mm)
Hoat ong khong tuyen tnh
Nhat la oi vi mot so cam bien co ap ng phu thuoc vao hnh dang,
kch thc va vat lieu cua oi tng, ieu nay can thiet cho s lay mau, c
thc hien trong nhng ieu kien rieng biet khi s dung.

197

Hnh 6.16: Nhng ng dung cam bien o s dch chuyen gii han hai au:
a) V tr; b) Dch chuyen thang; c) Dch chuyen theo hai truc;
d) ng knh; e) Dch chuyen do c va ngang; g) Be day ca ch ie n tren kim loa i; h)
ng knh kim loai; i) Kiem tra kch thc v.v...
1- Cam bien t tr thay oi (H.6.17)
o la mot bien ap ma mach t bao gom vat chuyen ong can o. Vat
chuyen ong phai la vat lieu sat t,
hoac t nhat mang mot be mat bang
vat lieu sat t. Khoang cach gia
oi tng ma ta muon o vi au
cam bien, ong vai tro khe h
khong kh xac nh t tr cua mach
t va nh the xac nh t thong,
ien ap cuon th cap co dang
khong tuyen tnh khi cuon s cap
c cung cap:
Hnh 6.17: Cam bien t tr
CHNG 6

198

o
m m
V V
ax ( )
=
+
2
1
1

vi: x - khoang cach gia oi tng va cam bien

o
m
V - phu thuoc vao o t tham, dang hnh hoc va kch thc cua oi tng.
Tn hieu thu c co the tuyen tnh hoa oi vi nhng dch chuyen d be
chung quanh mot khoang cach D
o
cho trc bang cach bo tr hai cam bien hoat
ong push-pull. Hai cuon day s cap c mac noi tiep hoac song song, hai
cuon day th cap xuat hien cac ien ap V
m1
va V
m2
c mac xung oi, ien
ap o c:
V
m
= V
m2
V
m1
vi:
o
m m
o
V V
a D d [ ( )]
=
+ +
1
2
1
1
;
o
m m
o
V V
a D d [ ( )]
=
+
2
2
1
1

Neu:
m m o
o o
ad ad
V V D
aD aD
[ ] ( ) =
+ +
2
4
1
1 1

2- Cam bien dong ien Foucault (H.6.18)
Phan t chnh cua cam bien la mot cuon day c cung cap dong ien tan
so cao, no se tao ra mot t trng thay oi chung quanh cuon day. Mot vat kim
loai nam trong vung t trng nay se xay ra hieu ng dong ien Foucault.
Theo nh luat Lenz, dong ien nay co chieu chong lai nguyen nhan tao nen
no, tao nen mot t thong ngc lai vi t thong cua cuon day, ieu nay dan
en lam giam he so t cam cua cuon day.

Hnh.6.18: Cam bien dong ien Foucault va mach tng ng
Cam bien t tr thay oi ch dung vi nhng oi tng vat lieu sat t,
cam bien dong ien Foucault c dung ca nhng vat la kim loai. Tuy nhien
ap ng khong ch phu thuoc vao khoang cach oi tng, ma con phu thuoc
ac tnh ien (ien tr suat, o t tham) va nhng ac tnh hnh hoc (dang va
kch thc). oi tng va cam bien thng at trong moi trng khong kh,
viec lap at co the bo tr trong moi trng cach ien, ieu nay cho phep ton

199
hao t oi vi tan so dong ien hoat ong. Ly thuyet n gian ve hoat ong
cua loai cam bien nay c xay dng da tren viec xem oi tng kim loai
nh mot mach ien co ho cam M vi cuon day. Ta co:
Z
1
= R
1
+ fL
1
: tong tr cuon day
Z
2
= R
2
+ jL
2
: tong tr tng ng cua oi tng
M = K
1 2
L L : he so ho cam
K: he so ghep gia cuon day va oi tng, phu thuoc vao v
tr cua oi tng.
Ta co phng trnh:
S ca p: (R
1
+ jL
1
) i
1
+ j M i
2
= e
1
Th ca p: (R
2
+ jL
2
) i
2
+ j M i
1
= 0
Rut gon:
M M
R R j L L i e
R L R L
[ ( )]

+ + =
+ +
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2

Khi cuon day c cung cap, tong tr cuon day s cap a c bien oi
do ghep them vi cuon th cap.
ien tr cuon day s cap gia tang:

eq
M
R R R
R L
= +
+
2 2
1 1 2
2 2 2
2 2

ien cam cuon day giam:

eq
M
L L L
R L
=
+
2 2
1 1 2
2 2 2
2 2

Trong trng hp oi tng la vat dan ien tot:

L M
R L K
L
R L

+
2 2
2 1
2 2
2 2 2
2
2 2

Va tong tr tng ng cuon day s cap rut gon:
R
1eq
= R
1
+ K
2
1
2
L
L
R
2
; L
1eq
= L
1
(1 K
2
)
3- Cam bien hieu ng Hall
Hieu ng Hall c ac trng bi s xuat hien ien ap V
H
thang goc vi
dong ien chay trong vat dan at trong vung t trng B, o ln V
H
phu thuoc
phng va o ln cua B. Hieu ng Hall la ket qua cua lc Laplace tac o ng
tren ien tch di chuyen. Cam bien hieu ng Hall gom:
Phan au do: la mot thanh mong, thng la chat ban dan co dong ien
CHNG 6

200
chay qua, va hai au cua thanh ta o V
H
.
Mot nam cham: tao t trng B, o ln cua t trng trong vung at
au do phu thuoc vao v tr cua nam cham.

Hnh 6.19: Nguyen ly au do hieu ng Hall
Mot trong hai phan t (au do hoac nam cham) co nh va ngc lai.
Thng au do co nh, trong trng hp nay khoi lng nam cham tng oi
nho, ieu nay dan en han che pham vi o lng. ieu li cua cam bien la
cho phep xac nh v tr va o dch chuyen xuyen qua mot hanh lang bang vat
lieu khong phai bang sat t ngan cach au do va nam cham.
a) Hieu ng Hall
Ta xem mot thanh dan mong hnh ch nhat (chieu dai L, chieu rong l,
chieu day e), mot ien ap V cung cap tao ra mot dong ien I co chieu doc theo
chieu dai nh hnh 6.19. S dan ien c xem nh do cac am ien t co ma t
o n, o linh ong , ta co:
= = =
1 V L
I vi R
R el q n .
, q = 1,610
19
C
V = E
X
L . E
X
: cng o ien trng doc theo chieu dai.
I = q n E
X
el
Thanh dan at trong vung t trng
ur
B , lc Laplace F
L
tac ong len mot
am ien t van toc V:
L X
F qV B vi V E , : = =
uur uur ur uur uur


201
Lc nay co chieu theo truc y tang dan va co gia tr:
F
L
= q E
X
B
N

vi B
N
la thanh phan cua
ur
B thang goc vi mat phang thanh dan.
Di tac dung cua lc F
L
cac am ien t tch tu tai be mat canh truc Oy
theo chieu tang, ieu nay tao nen be mat oi dien mot ien tch co o ln
bang no nhng khac dau. Cac ien tch nay tao nen mot ien trng E
y
song
song vi Oy, va tac ong len am ien t mot lc F
y
= qE
y
.
Va t lieu ie n tr sua t 25
o
C (ohm.m)
Hie u sua t Hall 25
0
C
(m
3
.C
1
)
210
3
1,710
3

GaAs
4.510
5
1,510
5

10
3
3,710
3

InAs
510
5
1,110
4

510
5
3,810
4

InSb
610
6
1,910
5

Trang thai can bang c xac lap khi hai lc bang nhau.
E
y
= E
X
B
N

ien ap V
H
phu thuoc vao E
y
va be rong l.
V
H
= E
y
l = E
X
B
N
l =
N N
H
B I B I
K
qn e e
=
=
1
H
K
qn
: hang so Hall
V du: Mo t thanh da n ba ng atimoniuredindium, ie n tr sua t 510
5
m, day
0,1mm, dong ien chay qua 1mA, at trong t trng thng trc la 1T. ien
ap Hall la 3,8mV.
b) Cach thc hien
o nhay cam bien:
N
B H N H
S V B K I e / / = =
o nhay cam bien
N
B
S phu thuoc vao dong I va cach thc hien ca m
bien, be day e va vat lieu: K
H
.
Khi cam bien dung e bien oi v tr, hoac s dch chuyen, nam cham tao
ra t trng ong vai tro chi tiet th nghiem la thc hien viec o s cap. V tr
hoac s dch chuyen c bien oi thanh ai lng B
N
nhay oi vi cam bien.
o nhay v tr:
CHNG 6

202
N
N N H H
X X B
B B V K I
S S S
x e x x

= = =

o nhay S
X
t le vi
N
B
S va t le vi
N
B x /
N
B x / : phu thuoc vao loai nam cham va khoang cach nam cham so vi
au do. Thong thng tr gia nay la hang so.
Chon vat lieu: ien ap Hall t le vi dong I, nhng I b gii han do hieu
ng Joule ot nong au do, cong suat tieu tan P
d
:

d
L
P RI R
q n el
; = =
2
1

d N d
H H H N
P B P l
V K K B
R e Le
/
[ ] . = =
1 2

Vi cong suat P
d
cho trc am bao s ot nong khong lam h hong au
do va neu ien ap V
H
c o vi thiet b co tong tr ln, th ta chon c vat
lieu ma he so K
H
/n cc ai.
6.2 CAM BIEN IEN TR BIEN DANG (IEN TR JAUGE)
(H.6.20)
Viec hieu biet nhng lc nen c kh trong mot cau truc, ieu kien s
dung cho phep tham nh s an toan trong hoat ong. Nhng lc nen tao nen
s bien dang va gia chung co s lien he c giai thch bang ly thuyet ie n
tr cua vat lieu. Viec o s bien dang vung nh trc, cho phep tnh nhng
lc nen vung nay. Cam bien o s bien dang thng c s dung la ien
tr jauge va c at tren cau truc ma ta muon o s bien dang, chung co kch
thc rat be c mm hoac cm tuy loai.
Nhng ng dung ien tr bien dang con c dung o cac ai lng vat
ly khac nh ap suat, lc, gia toc, ngau lc. ien tr jauge va chi tiet th
nghiem (chi tiet i kem) cau tao thanh cam bien o cac ai lng vat ly kha c
nhau.
6.2.1 nh ngha nhng ai lng c hu dung
o bien dang : o la t so gia s thay oi kch thc l vi kch thc
ban au l: l l / =
S bien dang an hoi: S bien dang bien mat cung luc vi lc tac ong.
Lc ep : Lc tac ong tren n v tiet dien.
Gii han an hoi: Lc ep cc ai khong dan en s bien dang thng
trc ln hn 0,2%, n v tnh kGf/mm
2
: thep 20 80; ong 3 12; ch 0,4 1.

203
nh luat Hooke: Trong pham vi an hoi, s bien dang t le vi lc ep.
o ln Young Y: Xac nh s bien dang theo chieu cua lc nen.
= =
1 1 F
Y S Y
//
. . n v tnh: kGf/mm
2
.
thep: 18 000 29 000; ong: 9900 14000; ch: 500 1800
He so Poisson : Xac nh s bien dang thang goc vi lc nen:

=
//

Trong pham vi an hoi thong thng 0,3.
6.2.2 Nguyen ly tong quat
Cac ien tr bien dang la nhng cam bien thu ong, no bien oi s bien
dang cua chnh no thanh s thay oi gia tr ien tr, s bien dang nay chnh
bang s bien dang cua cau truc lap at ien tr bien dang. Pham vi bien dang
co the c o vi o chnh xac at 0,1% trong pham vi o 10
5
en 210
1
.
Thong thng ien tr jauge c cau tao di dang hnh li, gom day
dan co ien tr suat , tiet dien S va chieu dai nl; l: chieu dai mot cong va n la
so cong, n thong thng t 10 20 oi vi nhng ien tr kim loai va la 1 oi
vi ien tr ban dan.

Hnh 6.20: ien tr jauge: a) Kim loai; b) Ban dan
Day dan c at tren mot gia cach ien bang giay hoac bang
plastique, tat ca c at tren cau truc can o s bien dang. Ket qua ien tr
jauge chu s bien dang giong nh cau truc theo phng song song vi cong
day dan, tc o bien dang l/l.
ien tr Jauge c dien ta: R n l s ( / ) =
CHNG 6

204
Di anh hng s bien dang, ien tr jauge thay oi R:

= +
R l s
R l s

S bien dang theo chieu dai cua day, dan en s thay oi kch thc
ngang la cac canh a va b oi vi tiet dien ch nhat, s thay oi ng knh d
oi vi tiet dien tron, s bien dang ngang t le vi s bien dang dai.

= = =
a b d l
a b d l

vi : he so Poisson, 0,3 trong vung bien dang an hoi.
Ket qua: neu S = a.b hay s
=
2
4
d , th:

= 2
s l
s l

Nhng ien tr jauge kim loai va ban dan c phan biet bi bieu thc
dien ta s thay oi ien tr suat /. oi vi ien tr kim loai, cong thc
Bridgman cho ta biet s lien he gia ien tr suat va s thay oi the tch V:
C V V / . / = ; C: hang so Bridgman.
vi: V = snl; V V l l / ( ) / = 1 2
va:

=
1 2
l
C
l
( ) ; n gian:
R l l
C K
R l l
[( ) ( )]

= + + = 1 2 1 2
K: he so Jauge = (1 + 2) + C(1 2).
Vi gia tr biet trc ( 0,3; C 1), he so K cua ien tr jauge kim loai
thong thng la 2. Vi ien tr jauge ban dan, s thay oi ien tr suat c
dien ta bi bieu thc lc ep sigma va he so ap ien tr : Y l l / / = = ;
Y: o ln Young.
He so ap ien tr tuy thuoc: phng cua cong ien tr so vi phng
cua truc tinh the va phng cua lc nen.
Loai ban dan P hay N.
oi vi ien tr jauge ban dan:
R l
Y
R l
[( ) )]

= + + 1 2 vi K = 1 + 2 + Y
Trong ieu kien s dung bnh thng ngi ta lay K = Y
6.2.3 ien tr kim loai
ien tr suat cua hau het kim loai giam khi ap suat gia tang. That vay
khi giam the tch, khoang cach gia cac nguyen t giam ieu nay dan en
giam . V ien tr suat cua kim loai phu thuoc vao s khuech tan cua am

205
ien t trong mang tinh the, kha nang khuech tan gia tang theo o ln cua dao
ong nguyen t trong mang tinh the. Khi the tch tinh the thu nho, lc lien ket
cac nguyen t gia tang, ket qua dao ong giam i va kha nang khuech tan am
ien t giam i, ngha la ien tr suat giam. Vat lieu thng dung la hp kim
nickel.

H p kim Tha nh pha n He so Jauge
Constantan 45% Ni, 55% Cu 2,1
Isoe lastic 52% Fe, 36% Ni, 8% Cr, 4% (Mn,
Mo)
3,5
Karma 74% Ni, 20% Cr, 3% Cu, 3% Fe 2,1
Nichrome V 80% Ni, 20% Cr 2,5
Platine tungstene 92% Pt, 8% W 4,1

6.2.4 ien tr ban dan
Ly thuyet cac vung thung lung cho phep giai thch hieu ng ap ien tr
oi vi chat ban dan silicium loai N. Trong tinh the silicium N doc theo mo i
truc tinh the co mot mc nang lng cc tieu o la vung thung lung. V ly do
oi xng, ba vung thung lung giong nhau va co cung mat o ien t giong
nhau. Trong moi vung, o linh ong
//
cua am ien t doc theo truc th cc
tieu, ngc lai theo hai phng thang goc o linh ong
th cc ai.
o dan ien theo mot truc bat ky: = qn (
//
+ 2
)
n: mat o am ien t trong moi vung thung lung.
Khi co mot lc nen tac ong lam thay oi kch thc he thong, keo theo
s thay oi mat o ien t thung lung.
V du: Lc cat doc theo truc Ox se tao nen s dch chuyen n am ien t
vung thung lung x di chuyen ve vung thung lung y va z. ieu nay dan en 1 s
thay oi o dan ien. Khi ien trng E song song vi lc nen (H.6.21b), s
thay oi
1
cua o dan ien (hieu ng doc truc):

= + =
1
q n n q n
// //
( ) ( )
va:
> >
1
0 v
//

CHNG 6

206

Hnh 6.21: S phan bo ien t theo ly thuyet vung thung lung
trong tinh the silicium N
a) Khong co lc nen; b) Lc nen song song vi E
c) Lc nen thang goc vi E
Khi E thang goc vi lc nen (H.6.21c), s thay oi
t
cua o dan ien
(hieu ng ngang):

t
n n q
q n n
// //
( ) ( )

= + =
2 2 2
=
1
1
2

Di tac ong cua lc nen, s di chuyen cua am ien t theo hai phng:
n/ 2 am ien t en vung y va n/ 2 en vung z.
Khi o ta co hieu ng doc:
( )
=
l
q n
//

Hieu ng ngang:
t
q n
//
( / ) ( )
= 2
Co hai loai ien tr jauge ban dan khac nhau la ket qua cua hai cach che
tao. ien tr jauge dang cat c kh va ien tr jauge khuech tan.
ien tr jauge dang cat c kh: Co dang mot cong duy nhat c hnh
thanh nh viec cat c kh trong mot tinh the ban dan silicium.

Hnh 6.22: Cau tao ien tr jauge ban dan loai khuech tan
Kch thc: chieu dai t vai 10
1
mm en vai mm, day vai 10
2
mm.
Cong ien tr c at tren mot e plastique.
ien tr jauge khuech tan: Co c do viec khuech tan mot chat khac
vao mot phan cua chat nen la tinh the silicium. ien tr ban dan jauge loai N
co c nh khuech tan mot chat thuoc nhom 5 bang phan loai tuan hoan (P,
Sb) vao trong chat nen la silicium P. ien tr ban dan loai P la ket qua cua s

207
khuech tan mot chat thuoc nhom 3 (Ga, In) trong chat nen la silicium N. Moi
noi gia chat nen va ien tr hnh thanh mot diod ma s phan cc luon la
phan cc nghch e tach ien tr jauge ra khoi chat nen.
Tat ca c che ch bang mot lp SiO
2
.
Mot ng dung quan trong cua phng phap che tao khuech tan la ngi
ta co the che tao cung luc bon ien tr giong nhau tren cung mot nen, chung
c noi vi nhau thanh cau Wheatstone, chat nen silicium khi o c dung
lam chi tiet th nghiem.
6.3 CAM BIEN O TOC O
Trong ky nghe, o toc o quay thng gap. V ly do an toan, van toc quay
cua may phat phai c kiem soat. Trong trng hp o van toc dch chuyen
thang ta thng quy ve viec o van toc quay tron. V the cac cam bien o toc
o quay thng la cac cam bien o toc o goc. Trong ky nghe cac cam bien
dung e o toc o quay da tren nh luat Faraday: e = d dt

Hnh 6.23: Cau tao toc o ke ien t DC
Khi co mot t thong xuyen qua mot mach ien (x) =
o
F(x), x la khoang
dch chuyen thang hay goc. S dch chuyen gia t thong (phan cam) va mach
ien t thong xuyen qua (phan ng), tao nen trong mach ien sc ien ong ma o
ln t le vi van toc dch chuyen va nh the tn hieu ra cua cam bien co dang:
o
dF x dx
e
dx dt
( )
= . Cam bien o toc o loai nay la cam bien ien t. Khi cac
chuyen ong co tnh tuan hoan, v du chuyen ong quay tron nh the, viec o
toc o co the bat au t viec o tan so. o la loai cam bien o dch chuyen
gii han hai au, ma cam bien o at cach oi tng mot khoang cach thay
oi tuan hoan, va tn hieu thu c co tan so bang hoac la boi so tuy theo cau
tao cua oi tng va tan so cua chuyen ong. V du, tren mot a gan vao truc
cua chuyen ong ma ta muon o van toc, co trang b nhng phan trong suot va
Co gop
CHNG 6

208
can quang xen ke nhau se ong vai tro mot cong ieu tiet nguon sang nhan
c cua mot bo phan phan tch quang. Nh the bo phan phan tch quang se
tao ra nhng tn hieu dang xung co tan so t le vi van toc. Loai toc o ke nay
goi la toc o ke loai xung. Trong trng hp nhng chuyen ong rat cham, v
du goc quay kem hn o/1 gi, nhng phng phap ke tren khong the ap dung
c, khi o ngi ta co the dung hoi chuyen ke Laser, ma nguyen tac da
tren s khac biet bc song gia hai song t nguon phat Laser truyen theo hai
chieu ngc nhau trong cung mot moi trng chuyen ong quay. S khac bie t
bc song t le vi van toc goc quay va c the hien trong giao thoa ke.
6.3.1 Cam bien o toc o quay loai ien t
1- Toc o ke ien t loai DC (H.6.23)
Phan ng hay goi la phan cam c cau tao bang vat lieu sat t mang
2p cc c hnh thanh do s quan day tren cc t hoac phan cam la nam
cham thng trc. Phan quay hay phan ng co cau tao dang tru, do cac la sat
ghep lai, phan ng co mang nhng ranh song song vi truc cua rotor, trong
ranh co at n = 2K day dan, hai au day dan c noi vi co gop, co gop co
dang tru cung truc vi rotor. Hai choi than c bo tr tiep xuc vi co gop. Sc
ien ong thu c co dang: ( )
o o
E n Nn = = 2 ,
Mot cach tong quat:
o
p
E n
a
.
=
2

trong o: p - so oi cc; - van toc goc
a - so ng quan song song; n: so day dan

209
2- Toc o ke ien t loai AC: Loai nay co li la khong co co gop, khong
co choi than. ieu nay dan en ben hn, khong co giam ien ap do choi than,
khong co nhieu do tia la ien. Ngc lai loai nay mach o phc tap hn, s
xac nh o ln tn hieu thng phai chnh lu tn hieu thu c.
a) May phat ong bo (H.6.24): o la may phat xoay chieu, loai nho. Phan
quay c noi vi truc ma ta muon o toc o. Phan quay la mot nam cham co
hai hoac nhieu cc. Phan ng c quan day mot pha hoac ba pha. Sc ien
ong thu c stator co dang:
e = Esint
vi: E = K
1
; = K
2
; K
1
, K
2
: phu thuoc vao cau tao may.

Hnh 6.24: May phat ong bo
a) Mo t pha hai cc; b) Ba pha bon cc c no i hnh sao
V du ve ac tnh cua toc o ke ien t (hang che tao Chauvin-Arnoux).
Rotor: Nam cham thng trc ba cap cc.
Stator: mot pha.
Loai 64: Van toc cc ai: 3000v/phut. ien ap 24V 1%, 50Hz
1000v/phut.
Loai 64 GV: Van toc cc ai 6000v/phut. ien ap 24 V 1%, 200Hz
4000v/phut.
b) May phat khong ong bo (H.6.25)
Cau tao giong nh ong c khong ong bo loai mot pha. Phan quay co
dang tru bang vat lieu kim loai khong dan t, c keo vi van toc goc ca n
o, rotor co khoi lng nho e giam quan tnh.
CHNG 6

210

Hnh 6.25: Nguyen tac may phat khong ong bo
Phan ng c cau tao bang tole silic ghep thanh va mang hai cuon day
c bo tr thang goc nhau, mot cuon day kch t c cung cap tn hieu V
e
, co
mach so
e
rat vng: v
e
= V
e
cos
e
t
Mot cuon day o, ni ay se thu c mot sc ien ong e
m
, co bien o t
le vi :
m m e e e
e E t K V t cos( ) . cos( ) = + = +
K - hang so phu thuoc vao cau tao cua may.
Goc lech pha thay oi khoang vai o trong pham vi van toc o. Khi
rotor khong quay, se xuat hien mot ien ap be hai au cuon day o. Hien
tng nay la do cong nghe che tao khong hoan toan oi xng: s khong oi
xng cua rotor hoac s bo tr hai cuon day khong hoan toan thang goc. Sau
ay la vai ac tnh o lng:
Pham vi o: 10 vong/phut 210
4
vong/phut
ien ap o 1000 vong/phut: 1 10 von
Khoang cach tuyen tnh: 0,1 2% khoang o.
ien ap lech: 10 en 100 mV
Momen quan tnh cua rotor: vai g.cm
2
6.3.2 Toc o ke ien t o toc o thang
Trong trng hp s dch chuyen
thang tng oi ln (> m), viec o van toc
thang c qui ve o van toc goc. V du
nh con lan nho van toc di chuyen thang
cua cac tam tole qua con lan c bien oi
thanh van toc di chuyen goc cua con lan t
le vi van toc thang.
o la trng hp van toc di chuyen
Hnh 6.26: Cam bien o van
toc thang cuon day di

211
thang cua tam tole i qua may can c xac nh nh van toc goc cua rulo.
Trng hp van toc goc dch chuyen be, mot cam bien ien t hnh thanh nh
mot nam cham va mot cuon day, mot trong hai thanh phan nay co nh, thanh
phan con lai c noi lien vi oi tng di ong can xac nh van toc, sc
ien ong thu c t le vi van toc dch chuyen.
Trong trng hp cuon day di chuyen trong vung t trng cua nam
cham, sc ien ong thu c t cuon day:
e = 2 r n BV = l BV
trong o: r - ban knh cuon day; n - so vong day quan cuon day
V - van toc dch chuyen; B - cam ng t tao bi phan cam.
oi vi s dch chuyen cc ai c vai mm, o nhay c von/m/giay va
khoang cach tuyen tnh c 10%.

Hnh 6.27: Cam bien loai nam cham di ong
a) Cau tao; b) Noi gia cac cuon day o
oi vi s dch chuyen tng oi ln, co the at ti 0,5m, luc o cam
bien c cau tao co nam cham di ong.
Sc ien ong ng trong moi cuon day o do s dch chuyen cua nam
cham t le vi van toc dch chuyen va co dau ngc nhau, o la ly do tai sao
hai cuon day c mac ngc chieu e co sc ien ong khac khong.
6.3.3 Toc o ke loai tn hieu xung
Chi tiet th nghiem thng la mot a c gan len truc quay ma can xac
nh van toc goc. a thng c cau tao co dang tuan hoan, tren a thng
c chia lam p phan bang nhau, moi phan c anh dau mang mot ac tnh
nh: lo, rang, v.v...
Mot cam bien phan tch c at oi dien vi chi tiet th nghiem, phan tch
so phan t anh dau i ngang qua ong thi tao ra mot tn hieu xung tng ng.
Tan so f cua tn hieu xung tao bi cam bien co gia tr:
f = p N (Hz)
CHNG 6

212
trong o: N - so vong quay cua chi tiet th nghiem trong n v thi gian
p - so phan t c anh dau tren a.
Viec chon cam bien c gan lien vi loai vat lieu lam a quay cung
nh phan t anh dau tren a. Ngi ta s dung tuy theo trng hp, hoac
mot trong nhng cam bien o s dch chuyen gii han hai au hoac mot cam
bien quang.
Cam bien t tr thay oi oi hoi chi tiet th nghiem la mot a bang vat
lieu sat t, ma phan t anh dau la thanh phan mach t gian oan.
Cam bien dong ien Foucault rat nhay oi vi khoang cach thay oi cua
phan t dan ien.
Cam bien quang va nguon chieu sang cho phep phan tch nhng phan t
anh dau cau tao bi nhng lo, nhng khe.
ieu li cua toc o ke loai xung bao gom: mot phan do cau tao n gian,
chac chan, viec bao quan de dang. Mat khac, no khong tao nen tieng on,
nhieu ky sinh, hn na viec bien oi thanh di dang so rat n gian.
a) Ca m bie n t tr thay oi (H.6.28)
Cuon day phan tch co nong sat t
cho phep mot t thong xuyen qua no, tao
ra t mot nam cham thng trc, cuon
day c at oi dien vi mot a (bang
vat lieu sat t). S di chuyen cua thanh
phan mach t gian oan (do cau tao phan
rang, lo), c mang bang a tao nen
mot s thay oi tuan hoan t tr cua
mach t cuon day. Nh the trong cuon
day se co sc ien ong cam ng ma tan
so t le vi van toc quay.
o ln cua sc ien ong tuy thuoc vao khoang cach gia cuon day va
a, va giam rat nhanh khi khoang cach tang, thong thng khong vt qua vai
mm, sc ien ong con t le vi van toc quay. oi vi nhng van toc be o ln
cua sc ien ong thu c qua nho va nh the ta goi la vung chet khong the
o c.
b) Toc o ke quang hoc
Cau tao n gian, gom mot nguon
sang va mot bo phan phan tch quang:
Hnh 6.28: Nguyen tac cua
toc o ke loai t tr thay
Hnh 6.29: Nguyen tac toc o
ke quang hoc

213
Loai Diod quang hoac transistor quang. a quay c trang b nhng phan
trong suot va ngan sang xen ke nhau. a c at gia nguon sang va bo
phan phan tch quang.
Bo phan phan tch quang nhan c mot lng sang c ieu khien
bang a quay, se tao ra mot tn hieu ien co tan so t le vi van toc quay, va
bien o oc lap oi vi van toc. Khoang o van toc phu thuoc:
So lan gian oan tren a (so phan t anh dau tren a: lo, khe...).
Bang thong cua bo phan phan tch va mach ien i kem.
c) Cam bien dong ien Foucault: Trong cam bien nay, a quay bang vat
lieu khong t tnh. Cuon day co ien cam L la mot phan t cua mach dao
ong sin. Ta biet khi a mot thanh kim loai en gan cuon day th ac tnh L
va R cua cuon day thay oi, ieu nay dan en s tat cua mach dao ong. Nh
the khi a quay, moi lan a a phan rang en oi dien vi cuon day se lam
tat mach dao ong va ieu nay co the phan tch c. V du bang viec kiem
soat dong cung cap cho mach dao ong. Tn hieu thu c co tan so t le vi
van toc quay va bien o cua no khong phu thuoc vao van toc nay, nen khong
co vung chet va thng dung e o nhng van toc quay be.
6.3.4 Hoi chuyen ke (H.6.30)
Hoi chuyen ke la nhng thiet b c gan tren nhng phan t chuyen
ong (nh may bay, hoa tien), cho phep xac nh van toc goc cua chung. Tuy
theo nguyen ly hoat ong ta co cac loai hoi chuyen ke:
Hoi chuyen ke c kh: hoat ong da tren nguyen tac con vu quay.
Hoi chuyen ke quang hoc: loai laser va si quang da tren hien tng
truyen song.
Hoi chuyen ke loai quang
Nguyen tac: Khi song anh sang truyen trong moi trng chuyen ong,
quang ng truyen se khong giong nhau ma phu thuoc vao phng truyen
cung chieu, hay ngc chieu vi chieu chuyen ong.
V du: Co hai gng phang M
1
va M
2
at cach nhau L, gia hai gng co
s truyen cua song anh sang. Neu hai gng ng yen, quang ng truyen
cua song theo chieu t M
1
M
2
la d
12
va theo chieu t M
2
M
1
la d
21
: Ta co
d
21
= d
12
= L.
Khi hai gng dch chuyen vi van toc la
uur
V gia s theo chieu t
M
1
M
2
, quang ng truyen d
12
= L( ) + 1 V C . V i V C, C la van toc
CHNG 6

214
truyen cua anh sang, d
21
se giam i: d
21
= L
( ) 1 V C .
S sai biet quang ng truyen t le vi V: d
12
d
21
= 2L( ) V C
Khi s truyen cua hai song theo hai chieu ngc nhau tren mot ng
tron ban knh r, chu vi 2r quay vi van toc goc , s sai biet quang ng
truyen se la: d
12
d
12
= 2L r C
Cach thc hien:

Hnh 6.30: Hoi chuyen ke quang hoc
a) Loai Laser; b) Loai si quang
Hnh 6.30a gom co mot bay cong hng Laser at trong moi trng
chuyen ong. S truyen cua hai song theo hai chieu ngc nhau se dan en s
khac biet quang ng truyen cua hai song co tan so khac nhau. S chong
chap cua hai nguon sang se cho ta biet khoang cach f cua hai song (t le vi
van toc quay):
= 4 f A L
trong o: A - dien tch bay cong hng; L - chieu dai quang ng
- o dai song trung bnh cua nguon phat.

215
ay la nguyen tac cua hoi chuyen ke Laser o van toc goc rat be: 10
2
o/gi
Hnh 6.30b: au ra cua si quang ta co hien tng giao thoa cua hai
nguon sang. Viec em so Z van giao thoa dch chuyen do van toc quay cua
si quang cho phep xac nh van toc:
= 2 Z Lr C
trong o: L - chieu dai si quang; - o dai song Laser.
Vi hoi chuyen ke loai si quang cho phep tang L bang cach thc hien
quan nhieu vong si quang, ieu nay cho phep o van toc goc nho hn hang
tram lan so vi loai laser.
6.4 CAM BIEN O LC, TRONG LNG
6.4.1 Cam bien ap ien
Hieu ng ap ien bao gom s xuat hien phan cc ien, hoac s thay o i
phan cc, a hien hu san trong vai chat ien moi trong thien nhien (thach
anh, tourmaline, ...) hoac nhan tao (sulfate de lithium, quartz de synthese ...).
Cac tinh the nay khi b bien dang di tac ong cua lc theo mot phng thch
hp, se dan en s di chuyen cua cac ien tch trai dau nhau ve tap trung hai
be mat oi dien. Nh the mot hieu ien ap c hnh thanh, t le vi lc ap
dung. Mot cam bien cho phep o cac lc, cac ai lng vat ly khac nhau nh
ap suat, gia toc, c goi la cam bien ap ien.
oi vi chat ien moi, khi ap mot ien trng vao se dan en s di
chuyen cua cac ien tch. S xuat hien va thay oi cac momen lng cc se
keo theo s thay oi kch thc tinh the. Neu trong tinh the chat ien moi co
mot tam oi xng th hien tng xay ra theo cac phng, t le bnh phng
ien trng va c goi la hien tng ien giao. Neu mau tinh the khong co
tam oi xng th se xay ra hieu ng ap ien ngc, bien o rat ln so vi hieu
ng ien giao, mau tinh the, trong trng hp nay co s phan cc mc o
ln hien hu thng xuyen trong vat lieu va s phan cc nay co the thay oi
do lc tac ong (hieu ng ap ien) va con thay oi do nhiet o ma ta goi la
hieu ng quang hoa ien. Tat ca chat quang hoa ien eu la chat ap ien,
nhng khong ngc lai v chat quang hoa ien co s phan cc trc rat ln.
Tom lai, cac tinh the tuy theo cac thanh phan oi xng cua chung, va cac
tnh chat vat ly, co the c phan loai nh sau:
32 loai tinh the:
CHNG 6

216
21 loai khong co tam oi xng, trong o co 20 loai la chat ap ien
gom:
* 10 loai khong phai chat quang hoa ien.
* 10 loai la chat quang hoa ien
11 loai co tam oi xng.
Trong moi trng chat ap ien, cng o va dau cua hieu ng ap ien
tuy thuoc:
Hng quan sat, tc v tr at cac be mat thu ien tch
Phng cua lc tac ong.
a) Nhng ai lng c kh
Mot cach tong quat, nhng lc nen tac ong la ket qua cua to hp cac
thanh phan lc doc truc va be mat. Ta e y thanh phan
ij
la thanh phan lc
truc i (i = x, y, z) cua lc nen tac ong tren n v dien tch cua be mat thang
goc truc j (j = x, y, z) trong khoi vat lieu.

Hnh 6.31: Lc nen tac ong tren ba be mat
cua mot khoi tinh the
Hnh 6.32: Lc doc truc
2

Ta co:
ij
=
ji
va chu y:
Thanh phan doc truc:
xx

1
;
yy

2
;
zz

3

Thanh phan be mat:
yz

4
;
zx

5
;
xy

6
.

217
b) Ma tran o ln ap ien
Mot cach tong quat, ngi ta dien ta
hieu ng ap ien bi mot ma tran cac he
so vi trng bang 0, cac lc ep (
1

6
)
va cac ien tch q thu c be mat thang
goc vi truc Ox, Oy, Oz (hay truc 1, 2, 3)
Ta co:
q
1
= d
11
1
+ d
12
2
+ d
13
3
+ . . . +
d
16
6
.
q
2
= d
21
1
+ d
22
2
+ d
33
3
+ . . . + d
26
6
.
q
3
= d
31
1
+ d
32
2
+ d
33
3
+ . . . + d
36
6
.
Hoac n gian: q
m
= d
mn
n
.
V du: Thach anh, trong trng hp nay, ta goi truc 1 la truc ien, truc 2
la truc c, truc 3 la truc quang. Ma tran o ln ap ien:
d
11
d
11
0 d
14
0 0
0 0 0 0 d
14
2d
11

0 0 0 0 0 0

V du: Cho mau thach anh co be
day e, kch thc L va l nh hnh 6.34
(ta thu ien tch be mat thang goc
truc x). Neu co mot lc F
1
theo phng
Ox, se xuat hien ien tch hai be mat
oi dien (thang goc truc x):
q
1
= d
11
1
ien tch tong cong Q
1
t le vi lc:
Q
1
= Llq
1
= d
11
F
1
.
Neu lc tac ong ngang, theo
phng y co tr gia F
2
(lc ep F l e / =
2 2
), mat o ien tch be mat: q
'
1
=
d
12
2
= d
11
2

ien tch tong cong: Q
1
= Ll q
'
1
= d
11 L e F ( / )
2

Hnh 6.33: Lc be mat
4

Hnh 6.34: Mau thach anh
dang Curie
CHNG 6

218
c) Cau tao cam bien

Hnh 6.35: Cac loai bien dang cua mau tinh the ap ien
a) Bien dang theo chieu dai; b) Bien dang theo chieu ngang
c) Lc cat be day; d) Lc cat be mat
S bien dang cua tinh the xac nh cach hoat ong cua cam bien nh hnh
ve tren.
e tien s dung, chang han trong cach mac day hoac n gian e tang o
nhay, mot hay nhieu cam ap ien c ghep vi nhau, tuy theo s phan cc va
tuy theo s bien dang cua cam bien co the c ghep vi nhau nh sau: hai
cam bien ghep song song, hai cam bien ghep noi tiep, nhieu cam bien ghep
song song.

Hnh 6.36: a) Hai cam bien ghep song song
b) Hai cam bien ghep noi tiep; c) Nhieu cam bien ghep song song
6.4.2 Cam bien t giao
Cac vat lieu sat t di tac ong cua t trng se chu mot s thay oi
cau truc hnh hoc (s thay oi kch thc co kem theo hoac khong co thay oi
the tch, ngau lc, lc uon), va thay oi
c (o ln Young Y) hieu ng t giao trc
tiep c dung trong viec truyen song
ngan, o phan t sat t hoat ong cong
hng c. Mot cach ho tng, nhng lc
ep di tac ong cua lc can o se lam
thay oi ng cong nam cham hoa va
ngi ta co the trien khai s thay oi o
Hnh 6.37: Cam bien t giao
co ien cam thay oi

219
t tham hoac t d e o lc.
a) Cam bien co o t tham thay oi
Cam bien gom mot cuon day co loi bang vat lieu sat t b bien dang bi
lc can o. S thay oi cua o t tham cua loi sat t co t tr R xac nh
o thay oi L ien cam L cua cuon day:

= = =
R L
k
R L

b) Cam bien thay oi o ghep
Cam bien gom mot khoi vat lieu sat t gom nhieu la ghep lai, co bon ca
so c bo tr thang goc, tren cac ca so co bo tr hai cuon day s va th. Cac
cuon day bo tr 45
o
so vi phng cua lc tac dung, o t tham cua vat lieu
ong nhat. V du oi vi permalloy khi co lc tac ong doc truc, ket qua la
giam o t tham theo phng cua lc nen, va mot s gia tang o t tham theo
phng ngang. S oi xng cua ng t sc khong con na, mot tn hieu xuat
hien cuon th cap khi cuon s cap c cung cap tn hieu, bien o tn hieu t
le vi lc can o, mot goc lech pha gia s va th cho biet chieu cua lc.

Hnh 6.38: Cam bien t giao loai thay oi o ghep
a) Cau tao; b) ng sc cua cam ng t cua cam bien khi khong co lc tac
ong; c) Khi co lc tac ong
c) Cam bien t d thay oi
Mac du co s thay oi ng cong nam cham hoa, vi s thay oi B
tng oi ln di tac ong cua lc, ngi ta van thch o s thay oi t d v
ly do viec o t d thay oi th on nh va n gian. Ta xem mot cuon day co
nong sat bang vat lieu nickel, hien hu t d Br, di tac ong cua lc can o,
v du lc ep (d < 0), Br gia tang, ta co:
dBr d Wb m N m / , . / .

=
9 2 2
1 5 10
S thay oi t thong dan en cam ng mot sc ien ong trong cuon day
t le vi dBr/dt, ien ap o c khi mach h:
CHNG 6

220
m
dBr dBr d
v K K
dt d dt
.

= =

K: he so t le phu thuoc so vong day va tiet dien cua day.
6.4.3 Cam bien ien tr jauge
Cam bien nay o lc, lc o (ai lng s cap) tac ong tren chi tiet th
nghiem, di tac dung cua lc cat, nen, uon cong dan en s bien dang (ai
lng th cap) c bien oi thanh tn hieu nh ien tr jauge at tren chi tiet
th nghiem, cac ien tr jauge c noi day hnh thanh cau Wheatstone. Cac
chi tiet th nghiem co nhieu dang khac nhau nh dang nhan ong lc tron, cac
chi tiet th nghiem phang dang hnh ch nhat, tam giac, v.v...

Hnh 6.39: Cac dang chi tiet th nghiem c dung e o lc
6.4.4 Cam bien o lc bang s dch chuyen

221

Hnh 6.40: a) Lo xo helice
b) Cam bien o lc dung lo xo helice + bien ap vi sai
Lc tac ong can o se tac dung len chi tiet th nghiem lam thay oi kch
thc l, s thay oi nay c o nh mot cam bien o s dch chuyen, V
m
la
tn hieu thu c:
m
m
v
v l
F l F
,

=

m
v
l
: t so bien oi cua cam bien v tr
l
F
: t le nghch vi o cng, goi la o mem cua chi tiet th nghiem
o mem ln se tang o nhay, tuy nhien se giam o tinh. Nhng cam bien
loai nay thng dung e o nhng lc tng oi yeu, chi tiet th nghiem phai
co o mem ln. Nhng chi tiet th nghiem thng dung la: nhan ong lc, lo
xo helice.
Cam bien o s dch chuyen: tuy theo ieu kien s dung, nhng loai cam
bien sau ay c s dung:
Bien tr o lng co trang b can khuech ai c s dch chuyen
Cam bien ien cam loai t tr thay oi, hoac bien ap vi sai
Cam bien ien dung.
V du ve cach thc hien va ac tnh o lng:
Cam bien FTA-G-1 K: Dung lo xo helice + bien ap vi sai (H.6.40). Khoang
o: 1daN.
o ln tn hieu ra tng ng vi gia tr thang o: 1,1V hieu dung (tng
ng nguon kch thch 5V, 2,5 kHz). o chnh xac: 0,25%
6.5 CAM BIEN O NGAU LC
CHNG 6

222
1- o ngau lc dung hieu ng t giao
Khi cho lc tac dung len vat lieu sat t se keo theo s thay oi o t
tham . V du: gia tang trong vung keo dai ra va giam i trong vung nen lai.
Neu mot thanh sat t hnh tru chu tac ong cua ngau lc va momen co phng
trung vi truc sat t th ket qua lc tac ong gom hai thanh phan thang goc
nhau tao thanh goc 45 so vi truc hnh tru va doc theo chung nhng t tham
1
va
2
thay oi cc ai co dau ngc nhau. e phan tch s thay oi nay,
ngi ta co the s dung mot loi hnh ch thap tren co bo tr cuon day s cap p
va hai cap cuon day th cap S
1
va S
1
noi tiep, S
2
va S
2
noi tiep, hai cap nay
mac xung oi. Khi khong co ngau lc th
1
=
2
, v
1
= v
2
, v
m
= 0.
Khi ngau lc co phng nh hnh ve th
1
>
2
, v
1
> v
2
v
m
> 0

Hnh 6.41: o ngau lc dung hieu ng t giao
a) Dang loi sat mang cac cuon day
b) Cach bo tr; c) Mach ien tng ng
2- o ngau lc dung bien tr bien dang

Hnh 6.42: Thiet b o ngau lc dung cau ien tr
jauge + chi tiet th nghiem dang tru
a) Nguyen tac; b) V tr ac cac ien tr Jauge J
1
, J
2
, J
3,
J
4
Khi chi tiet th nghiem co dang tru, cac ien tr jauge c at v tr
tao thanh mot goc 45
o
so vi truc hnh tru nh hnh 6.42. Ta co trong trng

223
hp chi tiet th nghiem dang hnh tru ac ban knh R, o cng G, momen xoan
, s bien dang se la: =
3
R G
ien tr jauge c mac thanh cau Wheastone nham muc ch:
S tuyen tnh cua cau o.
o nhay cao.
S bu tr nhng lc nhieu.
6.6 O GIA TOC, O RUNG VA S VA CHAM
- Khai niem tong quat
Theo nh luat tong quat ve c, gia toc dien ta s lien he gia lc va khoi
lng. Cac cam bien o gia toc da tren nh luat vat ly nay va t s lien he
nay ngi ta thu c mot tn hieu ien.
Cac cam bien o gia toc c phan loai theo nguyen ly hoat ong cua
cam bien va co the o trc tiep lc tac ong (cam bien ap ien, cam bien can
bang ngau lc) hoac o gian tiep bi s dch chuyen hoac bien dang cua chi
tiet th nghiem.
- Nguyen tac gia toc ke chan ong (H.6.43)
Mot khoi chan ong M c noi vi hop kn nh mot bo phan c (tinh
the ap ien, lo xo, thanh mong)
S dch chuyen cua khoi chan ong bien oi thanh tn hieu ien.
1- Gia toc ke ap ien
Nguyen tac hoat ong: Trong loai nay, khoi chan ong c at tren mot
cai e bang chat ap ien, nh the se tao ra tn hieu ien t le vi lc an hoi
do s dch chuyen cua khoi chan ong, tat ca c cau tao chac chan va c
at trong mot cai hop kn.
Mot cach tong quat, cac gia toc c o theo hai chieu doc theo phng
cam ng cua cam bien. Va nh s lien ket c kh, lc tac ong tren cam bien
co the la: lc nen, lc cat, lc keo va thng cam bien chu tac ong cua mot
lc trc nham ni rong thang o gia toc theo hai chieu. Ngi ta phan cac
cam bien nay theo ten goi cua lc tac ong len cam bien.
CHNG 6

224

Hnh 6.43: Nguyen tac cua gia toc ke chan ong
a) Gia toc ke ap ien loai nen.
Nhng ac tnh rieng cua cam bien loai nay:
Tan so cong hng kha cao.
Cau tao chac chan.
Nhay oi vi hieu ng ap ien cho nen can thiet trang b phng tien
bu tr khi ieu kien s dung khong nh mong muon.

Hnh 6.44: Cac kieu gia toc ke ap ien loai nen
b) Gia toc ke ap ien loai cat
Cac gia toc ke loai nay c cau tao:
Gom mot chong cac thanh ap ien c ket noi bang bu lon gia hai
mieng kim loai dung lam khoi chan ong (H.6.45a).
Gom mot phan t ap ien co dang hnh nhan (H.6.45b) hoac di dang
nhieu phan t phang chu tac ong cua lc cua khoi chan ong va truc trung
tam (H.6.45c).

225

Hnh 6.45: Cac kieu gia toc ke ap ien lc cat
c) Gia toc ke ap ien hnh cai phan.
Trong loai nay, ngi ta s dung mot cap thanh mong chat ap ien gan
chat vao nhau, mot au thanh mang khoi chan ong nh hnh 6.46.

Hnh 6.46: Nguyen tac gia toc ke ap ien hnh cai phan
2- Gia toc ke ien tr piezo
Nguyen tac: Khoi chan ong M c gan vi mot thanh an hoi tren o
co bo tr hai hay bon ien tr bien dang c mac thanh cau Wheastone. S
uon cong cua thanh an hoi se dan en s bien dang cua ien tr jauge mot
cach trc tiep (gia toc ke tan so thap) hoac gian tiep nh ket hp vi bo khuech
ai c (gia toc ke tan so trung bnh).
CHNG 6

226

Hnh 6.47: Nguyen tac gia toc ke ien tr piezo
3- Gia toc ke thch nghi
Trong loai nay ngi ta dung lc an hoi cua khoi chan ong tao ra tn
hieu ien: S di chuyen cua khoi chan ong di s tac ong cua lc khi o se
tao nen mot phan ng chong lai no lam giam thieu s dch chuyen. Khi can
bang, tn hieu ien (dong ien) la nguon goc cua tac ong bu tr, cho ta ket qua
o gia toc, ac tnh cua loai cam bien nay la:
o chnh xac cao
Bang thong: T vai Hz en vai tram Hz
Tn hieu ra kha cao: vai mA
Gia thanh cao, de v.
* Gia toc ke thch nghi can ba ng ngau lc (H.6.48).

Hnh 6.48: Gia toc ke thch nghi can bang ngau lc
a) Nguyen tac; b) Cach thc hien

227
Mot khung quay rat nhe giong nh khung quay trong c cau o t ien
(ien ke) c treo trong vung t trng nh mot gia co o ma sat rat be,
ve mot pha cua khung co gan mot khoi chan ong e o. Di tac ong cua
lc quan tnh tao ra do gia toc, khoi chan ong di chuyen va keo theo khung
quay chuyen ong.
Khung c trang b hai mieng mong hai ben hoan toan can bang di
chuyen trc mat hai cuon day c cung cap bi mot nguon xoay chieu co
tan so cao (loi 1MHz). Khi khung quay di chuyen, hai mieng mong di chuyen
trc mat hai cuon day, ien cam cua chung thay oi, nh the ien ap hai
cuon day thay oi. ien ap nay c chnh lu va so sanh vi mot ien ap
chuan, khoang cach ien ap c khuech ai va bien oi thanh dong ien I
chay trong mach khung quay va tao ra mot ngau lc khang Cr:
Cr = KI
vi: K - he so t le vi cam ng t va so vong day quan cua khung.
Khi can bang ngau lc khang Cr bu tr ngau lc C
m
tao bi lc quan tnh.
Khi goc quay be, ta co:
C
m
= MR
vi: M - khoi chan ong; R - ban knh chuyen ong; - gia toc can o.
KI = MR I = K
1
vi K MR K / =
1

Dong ien t le vi gia toc can o, gia tr nay biet c bang cach bo tr
mot ien tr noi tiep trong mach cung cap cho khung quay va o ien ap xuat
hien hai au ien tr.
CHNG 7

228
Chng 7
O NHIET O
7.1 THANG O NHIET O
7.1.1 Nhng thang o nhiet o khac nhau
Gom cac thang o Celcius (
o
C), thang o Fahrenheit (
o
F), thang o Kelvin
(
o
K), thang o Rankin (
o
R).
T(
o
C) = T(
o
K) 273,15 T(
o
F) = T(
o
R) 459,67
T(
o
C) = [T(
o
F) 32](5/9) T(
o
F) = (9/5)T(
o
C) + 32
7.1.2 S lien he gia cac thang o nhng nhiet o quan trong

Kelvin (
o
K) Celcius (
o
C) Rankin (
o
R) Farenheit (
o
F)
0 272,15 0 459,67
273,15 0 491,67 32
273,16 0,01 491,69 32,018
373,15 100 671,67 212
7.2 O NHIET O BANG IEN TR
7.2.1 o nhay nhiet
Mot cach tong quat gia tr ien tr tuy thuoc vao nhiet o T:
R(T) = R
o
.F (T T
o
)
R
o
: la ien tr nhiet o T
o
va ham F phu thuoc vao ac tnh cua vat
lieu, co gia tr la 1 khi T = T
o
. Nh the ta co:
oi vi ien tr kim loai: R(T) = R
o
(1 + AT + BT
2
+ CT
3
)
T: tnh bang
o
C, T
o
= 0
o
C.

229
oi vi nhiet ien tr bang oxyde ban dan:
o
o
R T R B
T T
( ) .exp[ ( )] =
1 1

T: nhiet o tuyet oi (
o
K).
Nhng he so trong cong thc tnh ien tr R thng c biet trc mot
cach chnh xac nh o gia tr ien tr R nhiet o biet trc.
Vi s thay oi nho T cua nhiet o chung quanh gia tr T, nh ly tong
quat ve s thay oi ien tr co the c tuyen tnh hoa:
R(T + T) = R(T).(1 +
R
.T)
vi:
R
R T dR dT [ / ( )] / = 1 ;
R
: la he so phu thuoc nhiet o cua ien tr hay
con goi o nhay nhiet o nhiet o T,
R
tuy thuoc nhiet o va vat lieu.
V du 0
o
C oi vi platine
R
= 3,910
3
/
o
C. oi vi mot vai loai nhiet
ien tr
R
= 5,210
2
/
o
C.
Neu ta o nhiet o co gia tr chung quanh o 0
o
C nh cau o Wheastone
ma mot trong nhng nhanh cau o c cau tao bi ien tr o nhiet va ba
nhanh con lai c mac bi ba ien tr co nh co gia tr bang nhau R
o
tc gia
tr ien tr o nhiet nhiet o 0
o
C th:
ien ap lech cua cau:
S S
m R
o
E E R
V T
R
= =
4 4

Vi: E
S
= 2V; T = 1
o
C V
m
= 1,9mV oi vi ien tr platine.
V
m
= 26mV oi vi nhiet ien tr.
Lu y: nhng gia tr nay ln hn so vi trng hp cap nhiet ien:
Fer/constantan: V
m
= 0,05mV
Pt Rh (10%)/Pt: V
m
= 0,005mV
ac tnh cua may o an nh mot gia tr ien tr thay oi toi thieu co the
o c: (R/R
o
) min.
Ket qua la mot gia tr toi thieu nhiet o co the o c:
R o
R
T
R
min
( )
1
min
oi vi trng hp: (R/R
o
) min = 10
6
va o nhiet o co gia tr gan 0
o
C,
ta co:
CHNG 7

230
oi vi ien tr platine: T
min
= 2,610
4o
C.
oi vi nhiet ien tr: T
min
= 2,010
5o
C.
S thay oi cua ien tr theo nhiet o, ve nguyen ly lien quan en s
thay oi ien tr suat va kch thc hnh hoc cua ien tr, oi vi day ien
tr hnh tru (chieu dai l, tiet dien S), ta co:
= = +
1 1 1 1
R
dR d dl dS
R dT dT l dT S dT
. .
vi:
1 d
dT
: he so nhiet o cua ien tr suat cua vat lieu
=
1
1 dl
l dT
. va =
1
1
2
dS
S dT
. ,
l
: he so gian n dai cua vat lieu
Ket qua:
R
=

l
.
Trong pham vi s dung ien tr,
c 10
3
/
o
C trong khi
l
c 10
5
/
o
C.
Trong nhng ieu kien thc te
R

.
7.2.2 ien tr kim loai
1- Nhng tieu chuan e chon vat lieu
Tuy thuoc vao pham vi o nhiet o ma ngi ta chon vat lieu thch hp,
ngi ta thng s dung ien tr bang bach kim, nickel va oi khi bang ong
hay tungstene.
Bach kim: co the cau tao rat tinh khiet (99,999%) ieu nay cho phep ta
biet c ac tnh ien cua no mot cach chnh xac va khong thay oi. No
thng s dung nhiet o t 200
o
C en 1000
o
C.
Nickel: co u iem la o nhay nhiet rat cao, t 0
o
C en 100
o
C ien tr
cua no c nhan cho 1,617 trong khi bach kim c nhan vi 1,385. Nickel
chong lai s oxyde hoa, thng c dung nhiet o nho hn 250
o
C.
ong: c s dung v ac tuyen rat tuyen tnh cua s thay oi ien tr
theo nhiet. Tuy nhien v phan ng hoa hoc nen khong cho phep s dung
nhiet o ln hn 180
o
C, va v ien tr suat be, nen khi dung e am bao co
gia tr ien tr nhat nh, chieu dai day phai ln gay nen mot s cong kenh
bat tien.
Tungstene: Co o nhay nhiet cua ien tr ln hn bach kim trong trng
hp nhiet o cao hn 100
o
K va no thng c s dung nhiet o cao hn bach
kim vi o tuyen tnh hn bach kim. Tungstene co the cau tao di dang nhng
si rat manh cho phep che tao ien tr cam bien co tr so ln, nh vay vi tr
O NHIET O

231
so ien tr cho trc, chieu dai day se giam thieu.
Sau ay la mot so ac tnh vat ly cua cac kim loai noi tren:

o ng Nickel Ba ch kim Tungste ne
Tf (
o
C) 1083 1453 1769 3380
C (J
o
C
1
Kg
1
) 400 450 135 125
t
(W
o
C
1
m
1
) 400 90 73 120
l
(
o
C
1
) 16,7. 10
6
12,8 . 10
6
8,9 . 10
6
6 . 10
6

(m) 1,72 . 10
8

10 . 10
8

10,6 . 10
8

5,52 . 10
8

(
o
C
1
) 3,9 . 10
3

4,7 . 10
3

3,9 . 10
3

4,5 . 10
3

C - t nhiet 20
o
C;
t
- he so dan nhiet;
l
- he so dan n dai
- ien tr suat;
- he so nhiet o cua ien tr suat 20 C.

2-Thc hien au do cua nhiet ke
Tr gia cua ien tr va kch thc cua day ien tr: mot cach tong quat s
thay oi ien tr do nhiet R = R
R
T tao ra ien ap o:
V
m
= R.i
i la dong ien trong mach o co tr so gii han vai mA e giam thieu s
ot nong au do. Nh vay e co c o nhay tot, ngi ta phai s dung ien
tr co tr so tng oi ln, ieu nay giai thch:
Mot s giam thieu tiet dien day ien tr, va c gii han bang s
mong manh de b t khi keo.
Mot s gia tang chieu dai cua day va c gii han bang s choan cho.
Thong thng e ien tr co tr so 100 nhiet o 0
o
C, trong trng hp
bach kim, ng knh day co tr so vai chuc microns va chieu dai day vao
khoang hang chuc cm. Sau khi quan day, chieu dai au do vao c vai cm.
Tren th trng au do ien tr 0
o
C co tr so la 50, 500, 1000 nhng gia
tr ien tr cao c dung trong trng hp nhiet o o thap e co o nhay
cao.
au do tha chm: c bo tr tha chm trong moi trng muon o nhiet o
va co cau tao quan day dang helice. Cach quan day nay co the tao nen dang
khong co ien cam nham muc ch cho phep o dong ien AC va giam thieu
nhng ien cam ky sinh.
CHNG 7

232

Hnh 7.1: Cac ien tr mau bang bach kim
Nhng thong so chu y khi thc hien au do nh sau:
- Ni rong pham vi o nhiet o
- Bao ve chong lai s an mon hoa hoc
- Bao ve chong lai s rung ong va va cham
S khac nhau ve he so tan nhiet cua ien tr kim loai va vat lieu lam gia
cam bien lam thay oi o nhay nhiet cua ien tr.
- Van toc ap ng cang nhanh khi lng calo cua au do cang be.
oi vi nhng ien tr bach kim s dung lam ien tr mau, nhng iem
1, 2 va 4 la nhng ieu kien au tien bi v nhng ien tr nay c s dung
e o trong nhng ieu kien c che ch chong rung va va cham. Day ien
tr c quan tren loi cach ien (thach anh, alumine). Day quan c at
trong mot vo bang thep kn, day ra i qua moi trng cach ien. Vo c cha
ay mot loai gaz hoa hoc, dan ien tot (v du helium).
oi vi ky nghe, s can thiet bao ve hu hieu chong rung va va cham,
ien tr c thc hien boc kn trong thuy tinh hoac s va c at trong mot
vo thep kn.
O NHIET O

233

Hnh 7.2a: Cac au do trong ky nghe dung ien tr bach kim
7.2.3 Nhiet ien tr
ac tnh au tien cua loai ien tr nay la o nhay nhiet rat cao, vao
khoang 10 lan ien tr kim loai. Mat khac he so nhiet o co gia tr am, va tuy
thuoc vao nhiet o.
Chung c cau tao t hon hp cac oxyde kim loai nh: MgO, MgAl
2
o
4
,
Mn
2
O
3
, Fe
3
O
4
, CO
2
O
3
, NiO, ZnTiO
4
.
Nhng oxyde kim loai ban dan dang bot c nen lai di ap suat va
c nung len nhiet o khoang 1000
o
C co ap suat kiem soat c. Nhng
nhiet ien tr c cau tao di cac da ng: da, tru, nhan v.v... phan t cam
bien co the c che ch hoac khong, bang cach c cau tao dang kn hoac
co vo boc. Cac vat lieu co ien tr suat ln cho phep che tao nhng ien tr
o co kch thc ien tr be (c mm), ket qua:
ien tr co kch thc be cho phep o nhiet o chnh xac.
Mot lng calo be khien cho van toc ap ng cao.
S on nh cua nhiet ien tr tuy thuoc vao viec che tao va nhng ieu
kien s dung. Dang ien tr kn hay dang co vo boc cho phep che ch chong
lai s an mon hoa hoc va gia tang s on nh. Pham vi s dung nhiet ien tr,
tuy theo loai t vai o tuyet oi en loi 300
o
C. Tren th trng cac nhiet ien
tr co tr so thay oi t 500 en vai chuc M 25
o
C.
7.2.4 ien tr silicium
Loai ien tr ban dan nay c phan biet vi nhiet ien tr bi nhng
iem sau:
- He so nhiet o cua ien tr suat co tr gia dng, vao khoang
, /

2
0 7 10 C 25 C, va s thay oi theo nhiet o cua he so nhiet o rat be
ieu nay cho phep che tao cam bien co tnh tuyen tnh cao.
CHNG 7

234
- Pham vi s dung gii han trong khoang 50 C 120 C , cac ien tr
loai nay thng la loai ban dan N c che tao bi phng phap planar: cho
khuech tan chat khac vao tinh the n chat silicium.
Viec kiem soat cac thong so an nh tr gia ien tr cho phep giam thieu
sai so di 1% so vi tr gia danh nh.
S thay oi theo nhiet cua ien tr suat cua silicium phu thuoc vao cach
che tao va nhiet o.
7.3 O NHIET O BANG CAP NHIET IEN
7.3.1 ac tnh tong quat - o nhay nhiet
Mot trong nhng phng phap thong dung e o nhiet o c dung trong
khoa hoc va ky nghe la s dung hieu ng nhiet ien. Mot cap nhiet ien gom
hai day dan A va B c cau tao bi vat lieu khac nhau, tai iem noi chung
cua chung co nhiet o T
2
, va hai au con lai cua cap nhiet ien co nhiet o
T
1
se xuat hien mot sc ien ong nhiet ien
T T
A B
E
/
1 2
co o ln phu thuoc vao
vat lieu cua A va B cung nh s sai biet ve nhiet o gia T
2
va T
1
.

Hnh 7.2b: Nguyen ly cap nhiet ien
T
2
la nhiet o moi noi chung (con c goi la moi noi o) la nhiet o
c
T
at c khi at moi noi chung trong moi trng nghien cu co nhiet o
khong biet
x
T , nhiet o
c
T phu thuoc vao
x
T va phu thuoc vao s trao oi
nhiet co the co vi nhng moi trng khac (hanh lang, moi trng ben ngoai).
Hai au con lai cua cap nhiet ien co nhiet o biet trc va gi khong
oi la
r ef
T T =
1
c goi la moi noi chuan va c noi vi mach o ap. Trong
cac thiet b o nhiet o dung cap nhiet ien loai re tien, moi noi chuan c
gi nhiet o moi trng. Cap nhiet ien c cau tao vi kch thc rat be:
- No cho phep o nhiet o rat chnh xac.
- So lng calo cua cam bien c thu nho cho phep van toc ap ng
O NHIET O

235
nhanh. Hai u iem nay cho thay cap nhiet ien c s dung co li iem hn
ien tr. Ngoai ra con co mot li iem na la, tn hieu c tao ra di dang
sc ien ong ma khong can tao ra dong ien chay qua cam bien nh vay
tranh c hien tng ot nong cam bien. Tuy nhien no co iem bat li la
trong khi o, nhiet o cua moi noi chuan phai biet ro, tat ca s khong chnh
xac cua
r ef
T se dan ti s khong chnh xac cua
c
T .
Cap nhiet ien c cau tao bi cac kim loai hoac hp kim khac nhau va
co khoang o rong t 270 C 2700 C, ap ng cua cap nhiet ien khong
tuyen tnh khi nhiet o thay oi ln, tnh khong tuyen tuyen trong moi quan he
gia sc ien ong nhiet ien va nhiet o c the hien qua cong thc tnh
nh sau:

i n
i
i
i o
E a T
=
=
=

vi: E - sc ien ong nhiet ien tnh bang V
T - nhiet o tnh bang C.
So cac phan t
i
a cung nh tr gia cua no phu thuoc vao loai cap nhiet
ien va nhiet o o (nhiet o moi noi chuan 0 C).
Hoac n gian hn, ta co the s dung cong thc gan ung:
E C T T K T T ( ) ( ) = +
2 2
2 1 2 1

vi: C, K - cac hang so phu thuoc vao cap nhiet ien
T
2
- nhiet o moi noi o; T
1
- nhiet o moi noi chuan.
V du: Cap nhiet ien Cu/constantan co C mV , /
=
12
375 10 C va
K mV , /
=
5 2
4 50 10 C , neu T =
2
100 C , T =
1
0 C, sc ien ong nhiet ie n:

E C T T K T T
mV mV mV
( ) ( )
, ( ) , ( )
, , ,

= +
= +
= + =
2 2
2 1 2 1
2 5 2 2
375 10 100 0 4 50 10 100 0
375 0 45 4 20

o nhay cap nhiet ien
c
T c tnh theo bieu thc:

A B
c
dE
S T
c
T
/
)
(

=
0 C
c
dT

Ro rang
c
S T ( ) la mot ham theo nhiet o va c tnh bang V/ C .
V du, oi vi cap nhiet ien Fer/constantan ta co:
CHNG 7

236
S V ( / 0 C) =52,9 C va S V ( / 700 C) =63,8 C
oi vi cap nhiet ien P
t
Rh(10%)/P
t
ta co:
S V ( / 0 C) =6,4 C va S V ( / 1400 C) =11,93 C
T v du tren ta thay o nhay cua cap nhiet ien nho hn nhieu so vi
nhiet ien tr. o nhay cua cap nhiet ien thng khong vt qua tr so
V/ 60 C.
7.3.2 Hieu ng nhiet ien
1- Hieu ng Peltier
Tai moi noi cua hai day dan A va B khac nhau nhng co cung nhiet o T
(H.7.3a) se hnh thanh mot hieu ien ap ch tuy thuoc vao loai day dan va
nhiet o cua chung: V
m
V
n
=
T
A B
P
/
. o chnh la sc ien ong hieu ng
Peltier.
nh luat Volta: Trong mot mach kn ang nhiet c cau tao bi nhng
day dan khac nhau, sc ien ong Peltier tong cong bang khong. Trong mach
c cau tao bi nhng vat lieu A, B, C va D (H.7.3b).
Ta co:
T T T T
A B B C C D D A
P P P P
/ / / /
+ + + = 0
2- Hieu ng Thomson
Gi hai iem M va N co nhiet o khac nhau, ben trong mot thanh dan
ong nhat A (H.7.3c) se hnh thanh mot sc ien ong ch tuy thuoc vao loai
day dan va nhng nhiet o T
M
, T
N
.
M
M N
N
T
T T
A A
T
E h dT =

1

o la sc ien ong Thomson, h
A
la he so Thomson cua day dan A va la
mot ham cua nhiet o.
nh luat Magnus: Neu hai au cua mot mach ien c cau tao bang
mot day dan duy nhat va ong nhat, ong thi co cung nhiet o th sc ien
ong Thomson bang khong.
O NHIET O

237

Hnh 7.3: Hieu ng nhiet ien
a) Hieu ng Peltier; b) nh luat Volta
c) Hieu ng Thomson; d) Hieu ng Seebeck
3- Hieu ng Seebeck
Neu trong mot mach ien kn, c cau tao bang hai day dan A va B ma
hai moi noi cua chung co nhiet o T
1
va T
2
se hnh thanh mot cap nhiet ien
(H.7.3d). Cap nhiet ien se tao ra mot sc ien ong goi la Seebeck
2 1
T T
A B
E
/
o
la ket qua cua hieu ng Peltier va Thomson.
That vay: Sc ien ong gia a va b: =

2
1
T
ab A
T
e h dT
Sc ien ong gia b va c: =
2
T
bc A B
e P
/

Sc ien ong gia c va d: =

1
2
T
cd B
T
e h dT
Sc ien ong gia d va a: =
1
T
da B A
e P
/

Sc ien ong tong cong chnh la tong cac sc ien ong ke tren va
chnh la sc ien ong Seebeck.
CHNG 7

238
= +
2
2 1 2 1
1
T
T T T T
A B A B A B A B
T
E P P h h dT
/ / /
( )
e thuan tien ta chon T
1
chang han co gia tr chuan biet trc (0
o
C) sc
ien ong cua cap nhiet ien ch phu thuoc vao T
2
.
7.3.3 Cac loai cap nhiet ien va ac tnh s dung
Cac cap nhiet ien va nhng gii han s dung.
Ca p nhie t ie n Nh. o s du ng E

(mV) Ca p chnh xa c
Cu / Constantan 270
o
C
e n 370
o
C
6,258
e n 19,027
2%
t 100
o
C e n 40
o
C
Loa i T
(ng knh 1,63 mm)
0,8%
t 40
o
C en 100
o
C
0,75%
t 100
o
C en 350
o
C
Fer / Constantan
Loa i J
(ng knh 3,25 mm)
210
o
C
e n 800
o
C
8,096
e n 45,498
3
o
C
t 0
o
C e n 400
o
C
0,75%
t 400
o
C en 800
o
C
Chromel / Alumel 270
o
C
e n 1250
o
C
5,354
e n 50,633
3
o
C
t 0
o
C e n 400
o
C
Loa i K
(ng knh 3,25 mm)
0,75%
t 400
o
C en 1250
0
C
Chromel/Constantan 270
o
C
e n 870
o
C
9,835
e n 66,473
3
o
C
t 0
o
C e n 400
o
C
Loa i E
(ng knh 3,25 mm)
0,75%
t 400
o
C en 1250
o
C
Platine Rhodium
(10%) / Platine
50
o
C
e n 1500
o
C
0,236
e n 15,576
2,5
o
C
t 0
o
C e n 600
o
C
Loa i S
(ng knh 0,51 mm)
0,4%
t 600
o
C en 1600
o
C
Platine Rhodium
(13%) / Platine
Loa i R
(ng knh 0,51 mm)
50
e n 1500
o
C
0,226
e n 17,445
1,4
o
C
t 0
o
C e n 538
o
C
0,25%
t 538
o
C en 1500
0
C
Platine Rhodium
(30%)/Platine Rhodium
(6%)
Loa i B (ng knh 0,51
mm)
0
o
C
e n 1700
o
C
0
e n 12,426
0,5%
t 870
o
C en 1700
o
C
Tungste ne Rhenium
(5%)/
Tungste ne Rhenium
(26%)
0
o
C
e n 2760
o
C
0
e n 38,45

O NHIET O

239
7.3.4 Cach s dung va lap at cam bien
1- Cach thc hien va bao ve
Can tranh nhng sc ien ong ky sinh trong khi mac day cam bien hoac
do cau tao khong ong nhat cua cam bien lam thay oi ac tnh nhiet ien cua
cam bien.
Nhng s khong ong nhat trong cau tao co ba nguyen nhan chnh:
Lc ep c kh co c do s sap xep hoac do s cang day, thong
thng chung co the loai bo c nh s nung lai.
Nhng tac ong hoa hoc: hai day dan phai c che ch chong lai moi
tac nhan co the tac ong en chung, ac biet ieu che vat lieu can thiet phai
c tinh khiet.
Nhng tia bc xa hat nhan gay ra nhng chuyen oi trong vai hp kim
cap nhiet ien.
Phan han (moi noi) cua cap nhiet ien phai co the tch giam thieu nham
tranh nhng iem co nhiet o khac nhau tai moi noi, ieu nay dan en nhng
sc ien ong ky sinh, cung nh nhng thay oi hoa hoc cua vat lieu do mc
o han. Mot trong ba ky thuat sau thng c s dung:
1- Han bang thiec khi nhiet o s dung khong qua cao (cap
nhiet ien loai T).
2- Han t sinh bang gio a la ky thuat thng c s dung.
3- Han ien.
Hai day dan co the c xoan lai vi nhau mot oan gan moi noi nham
gia tang bao ve c kh, nhng no tuy thuoc vao van toc ap ng.
e tranh nhng iem tiep xuc khac ngoai moi noi, hai day dan c at
ben trong vo cach ien bang s. Cap nhiet ien vi vo cach ien thng c
che ch them bang mot lp vo e chong s xam pham cua cac kh cung nh
nhng ot bien nhiet, lp vo thng bang s hoac thep trong trng hp bang
thep moi noi co the c cach vi vo hay tiep xuc vi vo, ieu nay co li la
van toc ap ng nhanh nhng nguy hiem hn (H.7.4).
CHNG 7

240

Hnh 7.4: a) Moi noi c cach vi vo; b) Moi noi tiep xuc vi vo
2- Nhiet o chuan
r ef
T ( )
Ta biet rang sc ien ong nhiet ien phu thuoc vao s sai biet gia
nhiet o moi noi o
c
T va nhiet o moi noi chuan
r ef
T , e xac nh c
nhiet o
c
T ta can phan biet ba trng hp: 0 C
r ef
T = ,
r ef
T khong oi nhng
khac vi 0 C,
r ef
T bang vi nhiet o moi trng.
* Trng hp
r ef
T gi nguyen khong oi 0 C: Viec o sc ien ong
nhiet ien cho phep ta xac nh ngay nhiet o
c
T nh s dung bang ac tnh
cua cap nhiet ien s dung.
*
r ef
T khong oi nhng khac vi 0 C: Khi nhiet o moi trng thay oi
ln, trong ky nghe ngi ta co the chon
r ef
T khong oi va ln hn nhiet o
moi trng. Viec chon trc
r ef
T va s dung bang ac tnh cua cap nhiet ie n
s dung ta biet c
A B
E
ref
T
/
0 C
, khi o sc ien ong nhiet ien cua cam bien,
ta se tnh c:

c
T C
A B
E
/
0
=
c r ef
T T
A B
E
/
+
r ef
T C
A B
E
/
0
t o xac nh c
c
T
*
r ef
T bang vi nhiet o moi trng: Khi biet trc nhiet o moi trng
a
T ong thi tien hanh o sc ien ong nhiet ien cua cam bien nhiet
ong
c
T , t o xac nh c nhiet o
c
T nh sau:

c
T C
A B
E
/
0
=
/
c a
T T
A B
E +
a
T C
A B
E
/
0

Tuy nhien trong trng hp nay can co mach bu nhiet o chuan
r ef
T (thay oi
theo nhiet o moi trng) e tao nen ien ap
a
T
a A B
V T E
/
( )

=
0 C
theo oi mot cach
t ong theo nhiet o moi trng nh hnh 7.4A.
ien ap
a
V T ( ) co c nh s dung nhiet ien tr c gi nhiet o
moi trng: tr gia nhiet ien tr R(T
a
) xac nh ien ap
a
V T ( ) nh s dung
cau Wheatstone DC.
O NHIET O

241

Hnh 7.4A: Mach bu nhiet o chuan:
a) Nguyen tac; b) Cau Wheatstone s dung lam mach bu
Cau Wheatstone cho phep bu nhiet o khi nhiet o moi trng thay oi
xung quanh tr gia 0 C, cac tr gia
o
R ,
o
R
'
va
o
R
''
oc lap vi nhiet o trong
khi nhiet ien tr
a
R T ( ) thay oi tuyen tnh vi he so nhiet o la
R
. Cau
can bang khi nhiet o 0 C, nhiet o
a
T ien ap ngo ra cua cau co tr
gia:

o o o
a R a
o o
R R R
V T E T
R R
' ''
'
( )
( )
( )
=
+
2

Cac gia tr ien tr
o
R ,
o
R
'
,
o
R
''
c chon lam sao e co:

a
T
o o o
R a A B
o o
R R R
E T E
R R
/
' ''
'
( )
( )

=
+
0 C
2

3- Phng phap o
Sc ien ong nhiet ien ch co the biet chnh xac neu ta giam thieu o
giam ap do dong ien chay qua cap nhiet ien va cac day noi, cac ien tr
nay thng khong biet chnh xac do chung phu thuoc vao nhiet o moi trng
va nhiet o o. Hai phng phap thng s dung e o sc ien ong nhiet
ien:
- S dung millivon ke co noi tr ln
- S dung phng phap bien tr (phng phap xung oi)
* Phng phap millivon ke

Hnh 7.4B: o sc ien ong nhiet ien dung millivon ke
CHNG 7

242
Goi
x
R la ien tr cua cap nhiet ien,
l
R la ien tr noi day,
v
R va
m
v
la noi tr va ien ap hai au millivon ke:

c r ef c r ef
T T T T
v t l
m m A B A B
t l v v
R R R
v E E v
R R R R
/ /
[ ]
+
= = +
+ +
1
e ket qua o chnh xac
c r ef
T T
m A B
E v
/
( ) ta can phai co
v t l
R R R + .
* Phng phap bien tr
c trnh bay phan 2.4 (o ien ap DC bang phng phap bien tr), cho
ta ket qua o chnh xac hn dung phng phap millivon ke.
4- Day bu
Ngi ta co the lap at e s dung chieu dai day dan cua cap nhiet ien
ngan nhat co the, trong trng hp sau:
- V ly do tie t kiem, khi s dung cap nhiet ien co gia thanh cao nh Pt-
Rh/Pt.
- Tranh lam t day dan cua cap nhiet ien khi ma ieu kien o s dung
day dan cap nhiet ien rat manh, khi o ngi ta at xen ke gia cap nhiet
ien va mach o cac day A va B ma khong lam thay oi sc ien ong nhiet
c
T
A B
E
/
0 C
tao ra bi cap nhiet ien A/B.

Hnh 7.4C: S o cach mac day bu
e tranh lam t day dan cap nhiet ien ngi ta noi them vao cac day
dan co cung loai vi cap nhiet ien nhng co ng knh ln hn.
e giam gia thanh cap nhiet ien ngi ta noi them vao cac day dan
khac loai vi cap nhiet ien nhng co ac tnh biet trc: o la cac day bu.
Bay gi ta xet ac tnh cua day bu:
Trong trng hp day dan cua cap nhiet ien c keo dai en mach o:

c
c c
T
T T
m A B A B A B A B
v E P P h h dT
/ / /
( )

= = +
0 C 0 C
0

Trong trng hp s dung day bu:
O NHIET O

243
' '
' ' ' '
c
c
c
T T T
T T T
m A A B B
B B Cu A A A A B B Cu
T T T
v P h dT P h dT P h dT P h dT P
/ / / / /
'

= + + + + + + + +

2 2
2 2
2 2
0
0 C 0 C
0

Ta co moi quan he:
B Cu Cu A B A A B
P P P P
0 0 0 0
' / / ' ' / ' ' / '

+ = =
C C C C

T T T T T T T
B B B B A A A B B A A B B A
P P P P P P P
/ ' / ' ' / ' / ' ' / ' / ' /
+ = + + = +
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

c
c
T T
T T T
m A B A B A B A B A B A B
T
v P P h h dT h h dT P P
' / ' ' ' / ' / ' /
'
( ) ( )
= + + +

2
2 2
2
0 C
0

e
m m
v v
'
= ta can co:
T T
T T
A B A B A B A B A B A B
P P h h dT P P h h dT
/ ' / ' ' ' / ' / '
( ) ( )

+ + = +

2 2
2 2
0 C 0 C
0 C 0 C

T T
A B A B
E E
2 2
/ ' / '

=
0 C 0 C

Nh vay e cac day bu A va B khong lam thay oi sc ien ong nhiet
ien tao ra bi cap nhiet ien A/B ta can co ieu kien:
1- Cac moi noi A/A va B/B co cung nhiet o T
2
.
2- Cac cap nhiet ien A/B va A/B co cung sc ien ong nhiet ien
nhiet o T
2
.
7.4 DUNG DIOD VA TRANSISTOR O NHIET O
7.4.1 ac tnh tong quat, o nhay nhiet

Hnh 7.5: Cac thanh phan c s dung lam cam bien o nhiet o
a) Diod; b) Transistor mac nh diod
c) Hai transistor giong nhau c mac nh diod
CHNG 7

244
Nhng phan t c s dung, diod hay transistor silicium c mac nh
diod (cc nen va cc thu noi chung) c cung cap theo chieu thuan dong ien
I khong oi, ien ap V hai au cc cua chung tuy thuoc vao nhiet o, ieu
nay co the xem nh tn hieu i ra t cam bien tuy thuoc vao nhiet o.
o nhay nhiet S cua diod hay transistor c mac nh diod c xac nh
bi S = dV/dT co tr gia khoang 2,5mV/
o
C, no khong hoan toan oc lap vi
nhiet o. Mat khac o nhay cung nh ien ap V tuy thuoc vao dong ien
ngc I
o
, dong nay co the co gia tr khac nhau oi vi cac phan t diod hay
transistor khac nhau. Cac diod, transistor ch co the oi cho nhau khi cac ac
tnh cua chung giong nhau (cung tr gia V oi vi mot dong ien cho trc va
co cung tr gia I
o
).
e cai thien s tuyen tnh va ket qua co the hoan v cho nhau, s dung
hai transistor c cung cap bi hai dong I
1
va I
2
, ta o s sai biet ien ap gia
cac cc nen va phat (H.7.5c).
o nhay nhiet co the dien ta: =
1 2
S d V V dT ( )
V du: S = 86,56 Log
1 2
I I tnh bang V. K
1
.
Nhng tr gia o nhay cua diod va transistor thng ln hn o nhay cap
nhiet ien va khong can s hien hu cua nhiet o chuan. Tuy nhien nhng tr
gia nay thap hn so vi o nhay nhiet ien tr co i kem vi mach bien oi.
Do ac tnh ien cua cam bien lam gii han pham vi s dung o nhiet o trong
khoang t 50
o
C en 150
o
C, trong khoang nay ac tnh ien cua cam bien rat
on nh.
7.4.2 S lien he ien ap va nhiet o
1- Diod hay transistor mac nh diod
Dong ien I va ien ap V c lien he bi cong thc.
I = I
o
qV
KT
[ ( ) ] 1 exp

T:
o
K ; K: kang so Boltzman
Neu phan cc thuan (I I
o
) ta co:
I = I
o
exp
qV
KT
( ) vi I
o
= C T
m
exp
qV
KT
( )

O NHIET O

245
trong o: V
- o cao vung cam tnh bang volt, oi vi silicium co tr

gia 1,12 von.
m - thong thng co tr gia la 3.
c - he so oc lap oi vi nhiet o T nhng tuy thuoc vao
dang hnh hoc moi noi.
Nh the ta co the tnh V:
V = V
+ KT/qLogI KT/qmLogT KT/qLogC

Hang so c va dong I co the loai ra khoi bieu thc tren neu ta e y la ien
ap co gia tr V
1
oi vi cung dong ien I nhng nhiet o la T
1
.
V = V
1
T T T KT
V m Log
T T q T
( )
+ +
1
1 1
1

Bieu thc tren cho thay ien ap khong tuyen tnh theo nhiet o. Khoang
cach tuyen tnh t 20
o
C en 150
o
C cua transistor MTS 102 (hang Motorola)
c gii thieu nh hnh 7.6.

Hnh 7.6: Cam bien transistor o nhiet o
a) So sanh sai so tuyen tnh cua transistor vi ien tr bach kim va cap nhiet
ien; b) Mach o
2- ien ap sai biet gia hai transistor giong nhau c mac
theo hnh 7.5c
Hai transistor Q
1
va Q
2
giong nhau, co cung dong I
o
c cung cap cac
dong I
1
va I
2
, cac ien ap nen va phat la V
1
va V
2
.

o
o
qV I KT
I I V Log
KT q I
= =
1 1
1 1
exp

o
o
qV I KT
I I V Log
KT q I
= =
2 2
2 2
exp
CHNG 7

246
Viec o ien ap sai biet V
d
= V
1
V
2
cho phep loai anh hng cua I
o
.
= =
1
2
d
I KT KT
V Log Logn
q I q

n: t so cac dong ien khong oi = I I /
1 2

Hnh 7.7: Cam bien o nhiet o dung hai transistor
a) Sai so tuyen tnh khi dung hai transistor so sanh vi trng hp mot
transistor; b) Mach o
V du: V
d
= 86,56TLogn; V
d
: tnh bang V; T:
o
K. Neu n = 2 suy ra: V
d
=
59,73.T.
o nhay nhiet: S = =
d
dV K
Logn
dT q

V du: S = 86,56.Logn. Tnh bang V.K
1
.
o nhay nhiet nho hn so vi cach mac mot diod, hay mot transistor
nhng no oc lap vi nhiet o T, ieu nay cai thien rat nhieu s tuyen tnh.
7.5 O NHIET O BANG IC
Ky thuat vi ien t cho phep che tao nhng mach ket gom nhng
transistor giong nhau c s dung e lam cam bien hoan hao o nhiet o da
vao viec o s khac biet ien ap V
BE
di tac ong cua nhiet o. Cac ca m
bien nay tao ra dong ien hoac ien ap t le vi nhiet o tuyet oi, vi o
tuyen tnh cao, li the cua no la van hanh n gian, tuy nhien pham vi hoat
ong gii han 50
o
C en 150
o
C. V du: cam bien IC AD590.
O NHIET O

247
Cam bien nay tao ra mot dong ien thay oi tuyen tnh theo nhiet o
tuyet oi, c dung o nhiet o trong trng hp dung day dan vi khoang
cach xa. S o n gian ve cau tao cam bien nh hnh 7.8.

Hnh 7.8: Cam bien o nhiet o dung IC AD 590
a) S o nguyen ly; b) Mach o nhiet o; c) Mach bu tr
Cac transistor Q
3
va Q
4
co cung ien ap V
BE
va co dong cc phat giong
nhau bang I
T
/2; dong ien nay qua Q
4
cung chnh la dong ien cc phat cua
Q
1
, no xac nh ien ap nen phat la:
T
BE
o
I KT
V Log
q I
( ) =
1
2

Dong ien
T
I /2 chay qua Q
3
i qua Q
2
, co ien ap nen phat (thc te
gom tam transistor giong Q
1
, moi transistor co dong ien I
T
/16) la:
T
BE
o
I KT
V Log
q I
( ) =
2
16

S sai biet gia ien ap V
BE1
va V
BE2
xuat hien hai au ien tr R co
dong ien 2
T
I / chay qua.
CHNG 7

248
= =
1 2 1 2
8
2
T
BE BE BE BE
RI KT
V V Log V V
q
. =
2
8
T
KT
I Log
R q
. .
IC AD 590 c dung e o nhiet o nh hnh 7.8. Dong ien I
T
tao
nen hai au ien tr R (1K) mot ien ap co tr so bang T(mV). Vi T la nhiet
o tuyet oi cua cam bien.
Nguon ien ap chuan do IC AD580L co E
ref
= 2,5V va nh mach chiet ap
tao ra ien ap co tr gia khoang 273,15mV (lien quan en tr gia ien ap hai
au R nhiet o
o
C )vi bo khuech ai co o li G = 10, ngo ra tn hieu V
o
t le
vi nhiet o cua cam bien tnh theo
o
C:
V
o
= 10(T 273,15)mV = 10(T
o
C)mV.
7.6 DUNG CAM BIEN THACH ANH O NHIET O
Mot ng dung co ien cua thach anh la thc hien bo dao ong co o vng
ln, tan so dao ong ch phu thuoc vao nhiet o. Ban thach anh co phng tinh
the nh trc ac trng cho s thay oi nhiet o anh hng en tan so dao
ong.
Khi dung lam cam bien o nhiet o, ban thach anh co phng tinh the
lam cho tan so dao ong thay oi gan nh tuyen tnh vi nhiet o cua ban
thach anh. Cam bien nay rat chnh xac va nhay, mat khac viec xac nh nhiet
o dan en viec em tan so co li do:
Viec o rat chnh xac.
Viec chuyen oi ra dang so rat de dang oi vi thong tin lien quan en
tan so.
7.6.1 Cong hng c cua thach anh
Tinh the thach anh SiO
2
, co dang mot lang knh co sau mat, cau truc cua
no co nhng ac tnh vat ly co the ac trng bi ba nhom truc:
Truc quang Z (noi lien nhng iem nh cua tinh the) va trong mat
phang thang goc vi truc Z:
Ba truc ien X, X, X moi truc noi lien hai nh oi dien cua mat
phang sau canh.
O NHIET O

249
Ba truc c Y, Y, Y moi truc thang goc vi hai canh oi dien cua mat
phang sau canh.

Hnh 7.9: Tinh the thach anh
a) Dang tong quat; b) Tiet dien thang goc vi truc quang
Trong tinh the c cat theo dang tiet dien vuong, tam giac hoac tron,
cac ac tnh phu thuoc vao dang hnh hoc, va kch thc cua chung cung nh
phng tinh the. Thach anh la mot chat ap ien. Trong trng hp cac mat
phang thu ien tch thang goc vi truc ien se xuat hien cac ien tch trai dau
tren mat phang. o la hieu ng ap ien trc tiep.
Mot s thay oi be day cua ban thach anh, nen lai hoac be ra tuy thuoc
theo dau cua ien ap khi a vao cac be mat, o la hieu ng ap ien ngc.
Mot ban thach anh co the xay ra cac dao ong c lien quan en cac loai
bien dang khac nhau: s keo dai ra, uon cong, cat. Tan so dao ong c xac
nh bi dang hnh hoc, kch thc, phng tinh the cua ban thach anh va co
the dien ta bi cong thc:
f n l c p ( / ) / =
trong o: c - o ln an hoi, phu thuoc phng tinh the
- trong lng rieng cua thach anh
l - kch thc cua ban thach anh theo phng truyen dao ong
n - so nguyen; 1 < n < 5.
Khi ap vao hai mat cua ban thach anh mot ien ap xoay chieu ma tan so
bang vi tan so dao ong co the, hieu ng ap ien ngc xay ra keo theo s
dao ong cua ban thach anh. Nh the co the xay dng mot hien tng dao
ong c ien vi s bien oi tuan hoan nang lng c ra nang lng ien va
ngc lai, va nang lng mat mat rat be. He so pham chat Q ac trng cho
CHNG 7

250
hien tng cong hng co c:
= 2
nang l ng c hoac i en cc ai
Q
nang l ng ti eu tan tuan hoan

oi vi ban thach anh, Q co gia tr rat cao, thng t 10
4
10
5
. V tr hai
ban cc thu ien tch so vi truc tinh the cua ban thach anh xac nh lc cat. V
du:
Lc cat X goi la mau Curie: hai ban cc thang goc vi truc X. mot ien
ap xoay chieu c ap vao hai mat oi dien, ban dao ong co the dao ong theo
chieu dai va hai tan so cong hng quan trong la:
f e / =
1
2860 va f l / =
2
2860 ; f tnh bang kHz
e va l: be day va be rong cua ban tnh bang mm.
Lc cat AT, hai mat ban cc quay chung quanh truc X va tao thanh
mot goc gan bang 35
o
so vi truc Z, ban dao ong co the dao ong theo lc cat
be day va tan so dao ong co tr gia:
=
1675
f n
e
.
f: kHz; n: so nguyen 5

Hnh 7.10: a) Lc cat X; b) Lc cat AT
Vi nhng lc cat khac c s dung: tan so dao ong c luon luon t
le nghch vi mot trong nhng kch thc cua chung.
Cac ien cc cho phep at mot ien ap vao ban dao ong, no c ca u
tao bang thanh kim loai at tiep xuc vi ban dao ong.
O NHIET O

251
Chung quanh tan so cong hng c, ve phng dien ien ban thach anh
co the c bieu th bang mot lng cc cau tao bang hai nhanh song song.
Mot nhanh L, C, R. Cac phan t nay
co gia tr c xac nh bi ac tnh hnh
hoc, c kh va tinh the cua ban dao ong
va co o ln:
L: t vai H en 10
4
H, C: t 10
2
pF en 10
1
pF,
R: vai k en vai chuc k
Mot nhanh gom ien dung C
o
o la ien dung c hnh thanh bang
cac ien cc kim loai co gia tr khoang: 1 en 100 pF; t so C/C
o
co gia tr tong
quat t 10
2
en 10
3
.
Lng cc nay co the co hai tan so cong hng ien:
Cong hng noi tiep cua nhanh L, C, R tan so f
S
:
S
f
LC
=
1
2

Cong hng song song, gia C
o
va nhanh L, C, R tan so f
P
:
p
o
f
LC
C C ( / )
=
+
1
1
2
1

Cac tan so nay rat gan nhau:
p S
S o
f f
C
f C
=
1
2

7.6.2 o nhay nhiet
Tat ca s thay oi nhiet o keo theo mot s thay oi kch thc cua ban
dao ong, trong lng rieng va he so an hoi, ket qua:
Mot s thay oi tan so cong hng c: = f n l c
Mot s thay oi cac gia tr cac thanh phan L, C, R ac trng cua ban
dao ong, ve phng dien ien.
Mot cach tong quat: f(T) = f
o
(1 + aT + bT
2
+ dT
3
); T:
o
C
=
0
f f aT + bT
2
+ dT
3
vi f = f(T) f
o
.
Cac he so a, b, d tuy thuoc lc cat ban dao ong (H.7.11).
CHNG 7

252

Hnh 7.11: S thay oi theo nhiet o tan so cong hng cua thach anh oi vi
cac lc ca t khac nhau
Vi lc cat LC (tuyen tnh) ve nguyen tac cac he so b va d bang 0. o
nhay nhiet cua tan so cong hng la mot hang so:

o
f
S a f
T
.
= =

vi: a = 35,4510
6
/
o
C va f
o
= 28,208 MHz; ta co: S = 1000 Hz/
o
C.
Lc cat LC thng c s dung oi vi ban thach anh dung lam cam
bien o nhiet o. Hnh 7.12 cho thay s thay oi o nhay nhiet cua ban thach
anh co lc cat LC.

Hnh 7.12: o nhay thay oi theo nhiet o
cua thach anh co lc cat LC
O NHIET O

253
7.6.3 Mach dao ong dung ban thach anh
Mot dao ong sin c cau tao gom mot mach khuech ai va mot mach
hoi tiep (H.7.13).
A - o li mach khuech ai
a
- goc lech pha tao bi mach khuech ai .
- t so hoi tiep, o la t so tn hieu au vao va au ra cua mach khuech
ai,
r
goc lech pha tao bi mach hoi tiep. ieu kien Barkhausen e cho mach dao
ong: 1 A. va
a
+
r
= 2.
Hnh 7.13 la mot mach dao ong n gian.

Hnh 7.13: a) S o nguyen ly mach dao ong
b) Mach dao o ng n gian du ng thach anh
7.6.4 Cach che tao nhiet ke va cach o
e o nhiet o bang cam bien thach anh ta at ban thach anh ben trong
hop thep cha helium nham muc ch gia tang s dan nhiet gia thach anh va
hop. Thach anh c noi vi cac phan t tac ong nh day cap va se tao nen
mach dao ong vi tn hieu o e
m
:
e
m
= E
m
cos
m
t vi
m
= 2f
m

f
m
= f
o
+ f va f = S (T T
o
) = ST khi T
o
= 0
o
C
Vi mach dao ong chuan bang thach anh, tao nen tn hieu chuan e
r
tan
so f
o
, oc lap vi moi trng.
r r o o o
e E t f cos .( ) = = 2
CHNG 7

254
Cac tn hieu e
m
, e
r
c a vao mach thay oi tan so (mach nhan chang
han) se tao nen tn hieu V
o
:
V
o
= Ke
m
e
r
= E
o
[cos(
m

r
)t + cos(
m
+
r
)t]
Vi mot mach loc thap qua no gii han tan so cao au ra:
V
o
= E
o
cos(
m

r
)t = E
o
cos 2f.t
Mot bo em tan so cho phep xac nh f va vi S biet c, ta se biet T =
f/ S.
ac tnh o lng cua cam bien thach anh o nhiet (hang che tao Hewlett
Packard):
Khoang o: 80 en 250
o
C.
Khoang cach tuyen tnh: 0,05% khoang o.
o nhay: 1000 Hz/
o
C.
Kha nang o: 0,0001
o
C.
o nhanh: hang so thi gian nhiet 2,5 giay trong nc co van toc
2m/giay.
O CAC AI LNG C HOC CHAT LONG

255
Chng 8
O CAC AI LNG C HOC
CHAT LONG
8.1 O VAN TOC CHAT LONG
Phng phap o van toc chat long thng c o mot cach gian tiep bi
viec thc hien thng da tren:
ac tnh vat ly cua chi tiet th nghiem.
Mot hieu ng vat ly ma van toc chat long la mot trong nhng thong so
va hieu ng xay ra oi vi chi tiet th nghiem.
Chi tiet th nghiem co the c cau tao bi chat long can o hoac chi tiet
th nghiem la mot phan t cau tao nen cam bien.
Khi chi tiet th nghiem la chnh chat long can o, van toc c xac nh
bi:
Ap suat ong:
U
; : =
2
2
khoi lng rieng; U: van toc.
Hieu ng Doppler xay ra vi mot nguon laser hoac mot nguon sieu am.
Trong trng hp nay ngi ta s dung cam bien thch hp oi vi ai
lng vat ly can o: ap suat, nguon sang, song ngan. Nhng cam bien nay
khong ac trng cho tnh chat c cua chat long va viec tm hieu chung c
trnh bay ni khac, tuy nhien nhng phng phap o se c trnh bay sau.
Khi chi tiet th nghiem la mot phan t cua cam bien at trong chat long,
van toc cua chat long c xac nh bi ac tnh vat ly:
Nhiet o va ien tr cua mot si day ot nong c cung cap nh
nguon DC.
Van toc quay cua mot chong chong.

256
Nhng cam bien loai nay rat ac trng cho viec o van toc chat long va
se c trnh bay sau.
8.1.1 Toc o ke loai cong hay thanh ien tr un nong
1- Nguyen ly, cau tao va nh luat trao oi nhiet
Khi ngi ta at trong vung chat long di chuyen, mot cong hoac mot
thanh ien tr c un nong nh hieu ng Joule co nhiet o ln hn nhiet o
dong chay, se xay ra mot s trao oi nhiet cho nhau. Viec trao oi phu thuoc
vao ac tnh vat ly cua chat long, van toc chat long va khoang sai biet nhiet
o gia ien tr ot nong va chat long.
Nhiet o can bang cua cong hoac thanh ien tr cam bien c xac nh
do viec o ien tr cam bien, no tng ng vi cong suat Joule tieu tan va do
o van toc cua dong chay c xac nh.
Kim loai dung lam cam bien phai co he so nhiet ien tr cao, trong chat
kh ngi ta thng dung mot si bach kim hoac tungstene rat manh (0,6m <
D < 10m), trong chat long v ly do can chac chan, cam bien la tam bach kim
mong, at tren cay hnh tru cach ien va co vo c boc thach anh (H.8.1).

Hnh 8.1: Cong va thanh un nong dung lam toc o ke
Cong suat Joule P
j
tieu tan tren mot ien tr nhiet o T, tr gia R(T), dong
ien I
DC
chay qua c dien ta: P
j
= R(T)I
2
.

257
S trao oi nhiet vi chat long nhiet o T
a
, cong suat trao oi co the
viet:
P
C
= hS
1
(T T
c
)
vi: h - he so trao oi nhiet
S
1
- tiet dien ngoai cua cam bien oi vi dang cong (tiet dien tron):
S
1
= Dl
D - ng knh; l - chieu dai.
oi vi dang thanh (tiet dien ch nhat):
S
1
= 2Dl
vi: D - chieu rong; l - chieu dai.
Khi can bang nhiet P
j
= P
C
R(T) I
2
= h . S
1
(T T
a
).
Van toc U cua chat long tham gia vao bieu thc tnh h va nhng cong
thc khac nhau cho phep tnh tr gia h nh sau:
Cong thc King: h = a + b U
a, b: la nhng hang so oi vi moi chat long va cam bien cho trc, ta co the
n gian: R(T) I
2
= (A + B U )(T T
a
)
Vi A = a S
1
; B = b S
1
.
e thay ro nhng thong so lam anh hng en viec o, ta at mot cach
tong quat: h Nu D / =
- o dan nhiet cua chat long
D - ng knh cua cong hoac be rong cua thanh
Nu - he so Nusselt. Nh the phng trnh can bang co the viet:
R(T)I
2
= Nu D / . S
1
(T T
a
)
Trong trng hp dang cong:
a
Nu R T I l T T ( ) / ( ) =
2

Co nhieu bieu thc khac nhau e tnh c Nu, va thng c ky hieu
N
uf
( nhiet o
a
f
T T
T
+
=
2
) nh sau:
Cong thc Kramer: N
uf
= 0,42Pr
f
0,2
+ 0,57Pr
f
0,33
.R
ef
0,5
.
R
ef
=UD/ : hang so Reynold; V: van toc chat long; D: ng knh bnh
ng chat long; : o nht.
P
rf
= / : hang so Prandtl; : he so khuech tan cua chat long.
CHNG 8

258
Cong thc Collis va Williams: N
uf
= (A + BR
ef
n
)
a
a
T T
T
,
( )
+
017
2

vi: n = 0,45; A = 0,24; B = 0,56 neu 0,02 < R
e
< 44.
hay: n = 0,51; A = 0; B = 0,48 neu 44 < R
e
< 150.
2- Mach o
Co hai loai mach o c dung cho van toc ke loai cong hoac thanh un
nong: cach mac dong ien khong oi va cach mac nhiet o T khong oi.
* Cach mac dong ien khong oi:
Dong ien I chay qua ien tr cam bien c gi khong oi, nh mot
ien tr mac noi tiep vi cam bien, va c cung cap nh mot nguon dong. Ta
biet cong suat nhiet trao oi phu thuoc van toc chat long, chat long co van toc
thay oi dan en nhiet o cam bien thay oi, ien tr cua cam bien phu thuoc
vao nhiet o cua no, nh vay ien ap hai au ien tr cam bien phu thuoc vao
van toc chat long.
Hnh 8.2 cho ta thay s o nguyen tac mach o loai dong ien khong oi
va co mach bu tr quan tnh nhiet e cai thien van toc ap ng.

Hnh 8.2: Cach mac mach o dong ien khong oi
* Cach mac nhiet o khong oi:
Trong trng hp nay, nhiet o va ien tr cua cam bien c gi khong
oi. ien tr cam bien c mac vao mot nhanh cua cau Wheastone va dong
ien c ieu chnh cho cau can bang se phu thuoc vao van toc chat long nh
hnh 8.3.

259

Hnh 8.3: Cach mac mach o nhiet o khong oi
8.1.2 Toc o ke dung canh dang Coupelles va canh dang helice
Loai toc o ke nay c thiet ke nh banh xe nc, gom co mot chi tie t
th nghiem mang nhng canh Couplles hay dang canh helice no se quay di
tac ong cua dong chay. Van toc quay, c o bi mot thiet b o van toc
thch hp t le vi van toc chat long.
1- Toc o ke dang Coupelles
Nhng Coupelles co dang na trai cau rong, vi so lng ba hay bon na
trai cau tuy theo kieu, moi cai c gan tren mot nhanh cua truc quay (H.8.4).

Hnh 8.4: Van toc ke dang Couplles
a) Loai ba Coupelle
b) Hnh ve van toc ke co bon Coupelles trong phan tnh toan
at trong vung dong chay, toc o ke dang Couplles se quay di tac
ong cua he so keo co gia tr phu thuoc vao dong chay tac ong vao mat nao
cua hnh ban cau rong.
Phng trnh can bang c thiet lap mot cach de dang bang cach quan
sat toc o ke thi iem hai na ban cau (v du 1 va 3) v tr thang goc vi
CHNG 8

260
van toc
uur
U cua dong chay, nhng lc tac ong tren hai na ban cau con lai (2
va 4) t can bang (hnh ve tren). Hai na ban cau 1 va 3 co van toc
uur
V va
uur
V
co cung phng vi van toc
uur
U , nhng lc keo tac dung len hai ban cau nay co
tr so tng ng.
F
1
=
x
C S U V ( )
2
1
2

vi: - khoi lng rieng chat long, S - ngau lc chnh.
F
3
=
x
C S U V
'
( ) +
2
1
2

vi: C
x
va
x
C
'
la nhng he so keo oi vi moi be mat cua ban cau rong.
Ta co: C
x
. (U V)
2
= C
x
(U + V)
2

x x
x x
C C
U V
C C
'
'
+
=

Ta co: C
x
= 1,42 va
x
C
'
= 0,38 oi vi ban cau rong va U = 3,1V.
Lu y : viec tnh toan tren ch la cach tnh toan n gian. Nhng he so C
x
thay oi oi vi he so Reynolds mot cach phc tap phai ke en nhng hieu
ng re song. Neu van toc tng oi ln nhng hieu ng khong tuyen tnh phai
ke en.
2- Toc o ke loai helice
Truc quay cua toc ke helice c at song song vi van toc dong chay
Trong trng hp khong ke en s trt, ta co the viet c:
U = h . N
trong o: U - van toc dong chay
N - so vong /giay cua helice
h - hang so.
Nhng cong thc khac co the c
neu ra co tnh en hieu ng trt, ch
dung luc khi hanh:
U = a + b N
U = a N + b N
2
+ C (Baumgarten)
U = a + b N + C U / (Rateau)
Hnh 8.5: Toc o ke loai

261
Nhng hang so tham gia trong cac cong thc tren d nhien phu thuoc vao
ac tnh cua helice va chat long. Hn na mot vai ac tnh co the thay oi, v
du s hao mon do tac ong cua dong chay.
3- Mach bien oi, cach thc hien
Mot mach bien oi tn hieu i ra t banh xe nc c thc hien bang
bon phng phap.
Phng phap co ien la viec bien oi bang c kh. Noi au ra bang mot
bo phan em vong quay bang c ta gap trong thiet b o van toc bang c kh
ten goi Chronometre.
Phng phap th 2 la noi lien mot may phat o toc o vi truc quay.
Thong thng ngi ta s dung hai phng phap:
Phng phap th 3: at 1 nam cham nho tren helice, ieu nay dan en
mot xung ien xuat hien moi khi nam cham i ngang qua cuon day.
Phng phap th 4: Dung mot cam bien quang ien, cam bien b che
khuat moi lan tam chan i ngang qua. Mot s phan tch tn hieu bang cach o
tan so cho phep ta biet c van toc hoac nh mot mach bien oi tan soien
ap ta co ien ap mot chieu t le vi van toc can o.
8.1.3 Phng phap o toc o bang nhng cam bien khong ac trng
ay ta e cap en nhng phng phap o trong o viec xac nh van
toc mot cach gian tiep, nhng cam bien c s dung thch hp rieng cho viec
o cac ai lng vat ly cu the.
1- o van toc nh ong Pitot

Hnh 8.6: Cau tao ong Pitot
Phng trnh Bernouilli cho biet s lien he van toc U co ap suat P
1
va P
2

iem 1 va 2 tng ng:
U P P ( )/ =
1 2
2
trong o: - khoi lng rieng cua chat long.
S sai biet ap suat P
1
P
2
c o nh mot cam bien ap suat vi sai.
2- Van toc ke laser
Nguyen tac: Hai nguon sang phat xuat t nguon laser hoi tu tai tieu iem
CHNG 8

262
cua he thong thau knh trong vung the tch khoang 0,1mm
3
cua chat long se xay ra
hien tng giao thoa. Khoang cach van giao thoa:
d
sin( / )
=
2 2

Hnh 8.7: Van toc ke laser
a) Cau tao, day chuyen o lng; b) S phu thuoc tan so
c) Mach em tan so; d) Dang tn hieu
- chieu dai bc song nguon sang; - goc hp bi hai nguon sang.
Neu cac phan t chat long vung giao thoa di chuyen, se xay ra hieu ng
Doppler anh sang se b khuech tan va ong thi c tiep nhan nh mot cam
bien quang hoc (chang han photodiod) va no se c bien ieu vi tan so f
D

(tan so Doppler) phu thuoc vao van toc dong chay U va khoang cach van giao

263
thoa d:
= =
2
2
D
U U
f
d
sin
vi U la thanh phan van toc dong chay vuong goc vi van giao thoa.
Tan so f
D
t le tuyen tnh vi van toc U va gia tr co the o bang phng
phap nay, thong thng t 10
3
m/giay en 10
3
m/giay. Hai ky thuat co the s
dung e phan tch tn hieu i ra t cam bien quang: s phu thuoc tan so va
viec em tan so.
- Phng phap th nhat (H.8.7b): tan so f
D
cua tn hieu Doppler c loc
va so sanh vi tan so cua mot nguon dao ong co the ieu chnh c. Khoang
cach tan so c chuyen oi thanh mot ien ap t le tac ong len bo dao ong
sao cho tan so cua nguon dao ong co gia tr f
D
. Mot bo bien oi tan so-ien
ap tiep theo cho phep co c mot tn hieu t le vi van toc cua chat long. He
thong nay co li la tn hieu DC nhng no oi hoi so phan t di chuyen kha
nhieu e khong cat t tn hieu Doppler.
- Phng phap th hai (H.8.7c): ap dung cho dong chay co mat o nho.
Tn hieu Doppler c loc co cung dang c xac nh nh mot tn hieu thi
gian chuan co tan so cao F
H
, ngi ta em so chu ky N
H
cua tn hieu chuan F
H

nam trong so chu ky co nh N
D
cua tn hieu Doppler:
=
D
D H
H
N
f F
N

3- Toc o ke sieu am
Song am thanh truyen trong moi trng cho
trc co van toc C tuy thuoc theo nhiet o moi
trng. V du trong khong kh: C = 331,4m/giay
8
o
C va 342,9 m/giay 20
o
C.
S truyen tieng ong trong chat long nhanh
hn trong moi trng khong kh:
C = 1435 m/giay trong nc 8
o
C.
Neu moi trng di chuyen vi van toc
uur
U so
vi quan sat vien, van toc C c o nh quan
sat vien la:
C = C + Ucos
vi la goc tao bi van toc
uur
U va phng truyen song nh hnh 8.8.
Hnh 8.8: Nguyen tac
cua toc o ke sieu
CHNG 8

264
Thiet b o gom co mot may phat nhng xung sieu am va mot may nhan
at cach nhau L, thi gian t
P
truyen cua xung sieu am t may phat en may
thu la:
( )
P
t L C U / cos = +
May phat va thu la nhng ban mong bang chat ap ien, phan phat c
cung cap bang mot ien ap co tan so cao (chang han 1MHz), phan thu tao ra
tn hieu ien co dang phu hp vi s thay oi ap suat cua song sieu am ma no
nhan c.
8.2 LU LNG KE
Viec o lu lng la mot van e quan trong trong he thong chuyen ch
chat long va viec trang b trong ky nghe o can kiem soat lng chat long
tham gia vao qui trnh san xuat: Nhng phan ng hoa hoc, trung tam san xua t
nang lng, ong c ot trong v.v...
8.2.1 Lu lng ke ien t

a) Nguye n tac: Trong thi gian dt, s di chuyen cua thanh dan M
1
M
2
chieu
dai l, tao vi van toc U mot goc , trong vung t trng B, ta co the viet:
Dien tch quet: dS
C
= lUsin dt
Hoac di dang vect: = =
uuur r uur r uuuuuur
1
2
c
dS l U dt vi l M M
T thong xuyen: =
ur ur
c
c
d B dS dt .
Sc ien ong ng:
= =
ur uur ur
c
d
e B U l
dt
.
khi
uur
U thang goc vi l va
ur
B thang goc vi mat phang tao bi
r
l va
uur
U , ta co: e = B.l.U
Cong thc tren c tong quat hoa cho trng hp chat long co van toc
uur
U thang goc vi
ur
B di chuyen ben trong mot ong dan ng knh D thang goc
vi
ur
B va
uur
U : e = BD U
That ra, van toc thay oi doc theo ng knh cua ong dan, tuy nhien khi

265
s phan bo van toc oi xng so vi truc cua ong dan, ta xem van toc U o
c la van toc trung bnh cua dong chay. Trong nhng ieu kien nay, tn hieu
e t le vi lu lng.
b) Cach thc hien

Hnh 8.9: Lu lng ke ien t: cau tao va phan tch tn hieu
Cam ng t co o ln t 10
3
en 10
2
Tesla, c tao nh hai cuon da y
at hai ben day o bang vat lieu khong nhiem t, mat trong day o c phu
mot lp cach ien chong lai s an mon do s di chuyen cua dong chay. Hai
ien cc e thu tn hieu c at tai hai au cua ng knh thang goc vi ng
sc. Hai cuon day c cung cap nh dong ien xoay chieu (v du 30 Hz) e lam the
nao tranh s phan cc. Tn hieu thu c co dang.
e = U. D. Bo cos (t + )
B
0
: gia tr cc ai cua cam ng t
Bien o tn hieu t le vi U va o ln c mV, tn hieu tach ra nh bo hoan
ieu ong bo.
c) ac tnh o lng: Cac chat long phai co o dan ien toi thieu. Mat
khac, may phat tn hieu phai co noi tr rat thap so vi ien tr vao cua may
o.
Khoang o: No tuy thuoc vao ng knh cua day o, van toc dong chay
thong thng thay oi t 1 en 10m/giay.
V du: ng knh 10mm lu lng toi thieu 0,28m
3
/gi.
Lu lng cc ai: 2,8m
3
/gi
ng knh 1 m. Lu lng min: 2800m
3
/gi
Lu lng max: 28000m
3
/gi.
CHNG 8

266
Khoang cach tuyen tnh: < 0,25% khoang o.
o chnh xac: 1% khoang o.
Hang so thi gian khoang 1 giay.
Nhng ieu li khi s dung lu lng ke ien t:
Viec o khong tuy thuoc vao ac tnh vat ly cua chat long (t trong, o
nhn, o dan ien mien la o dan ien phai ln hn mot gia tr toi thieu).
Viec o thc te oc lap oi vi viec phan bo van toc cua dong chay,
ieu nay cho phep at lu lng ke trong trng hp can kiem soat lu lng
gan mot chng ngai vat (nh coude, van v.v...)
Khong co s mat mat lu lng khi van hanh bi v khong tao nen mot
chng ngai vat khi o.
Khong co nhng phan t di ong tranh c s hao mon.
Chong lai s an mon (v du nh acid) nh viec chon lp phu ben trong
thch hp (teflon, email, verre) va vat lieu ien cc (titane, palette).
8.2.2 Lu lng ke c kh vi bo bien oi tn hieu ien
Mot chi tiet th nghiem c at trong thiet b o cho phep chat long di
chuyen se tao nen s chuyen ong turbine (rotor turbine) hoac s dch chuyen
(phao noi cua rotametre, palette).
Mot cam bien thch hp, cam bien o toc o quay trong trng hp au,
hoac cam bien o v tr trong trng hp th hai tao ra tn hieu t le vi lu
lng.
1- Lu lng ke dang turbine: nguyen tac giong nh thiet b o van toc
chat long co chong chong quay dang helice. Dong chay trong trng hp nay
se keo turbine quay tron c at doc theo truc cua thiet b o van toc quay
tron N (vong/giay) t le vi lu lng Q:
Q = K.N
he so K tuy thuoc vao cau tao cua lu lng ke, nhng ve nguyen tac oc lap
oi vi chat long.

267

Hnh 8.10: Lu lng ke dang turbine Hnh 8.11: Nguyen ly
cua Rotametre
2- Rotametre: c cau tao gom mot phao noi nho at trong mot bo phan
hng dan dang con theo chieu thang ng.
Phao noi at can bang mot mat di tac ong cua lc ay Archimede va
lc keo, mat khac do trong lng cua no.
x o
SU
gV C gV
+ =
2
2

vi: V,
o
: - the tch va khoi lng rieng cua phao
U, : - van toc va khoi lng rieng cua chat long; C
x
- he so keo
S - tiet dien cua phao. S =
o
D
2
4
; g: gia toc trong trng.
phao di chuyen en v tr ma van toc U c tnh:
o
x
gV
U
C S
( )
2
1
ng knh cua phan t hng dan thay oi tuyen tnh theo chieu cao Z:
D = D
o
+ aZ
Lu lng Q: Q =
o o
D aZ D [( ) ]
+
2 2
4
o
x
gV
C S
( )
2
1
Neu s phan ky cua phan t hng dan nho, ta co :

o
x
gV
Q aZ KZ
C S
. ( )
= =
2
1
CHNG 8

268
Viec anh dau v tr cua phao noi c thc hien bang viec oc trc tiep
tren mat chia vach cua phan t hng dan cau tao bang thuy tinh, hoac bang
cac te bao quang ien at cach khoang eu an, cuoi cung bang to hp phao
noi + ti noi vi loi cua bien ap vi sai.
Cac chi tiet cua Rotametre rat khac nhau va nh the, lu lng o c
rat khac nhau, khoang o t 10
4
en 200m
3
/gi.
3- Lu lng ke Palette
Di tac ong thuy lc cua
dong chay se ay Palette len xuong
nhieu hay t phu thuoc vao lu
lng, ngoai ra Palette con chu tac
ong cua trong lng va lc chieu
hoi cua lo xo.
V tr can ba ng cua Palette phu thuoc vao lu lng va c bien oi ra
tn hieu ien nh mot bien tr co truc quay c gan chat vao Palette. ap
ng co the tuyen tnh hay khong phu thuoc vao dang tn hieu a vao mach
o. ieu li cua loai nay la cau tao n gian, chac chan va gia thanh re.
8.2.3 Lu lng ke loai khoi nhiet

Hnh 8.13: Lu lng ke loai khoi nhiet
a) Nguyen ly cau tao; b) S phan bo nhiet o ve hai pha cuon day
c) Mach un nong va mach o
a) Nguyen tac: Thiet b o la loai cam bien c cau tao bang mot mieng
Hnh 8.12: Lu lng ke Palette

269
kim loai mong, ng knh nho, ben ngoai mieng kim loai ngi ta at mot
cuon day un nong, va oi xng ve hai pha cuon day co at hai cam bien o
nhiet o tng ng T
1
va T
2
. Khi lu lng bang khong, s un nong oi xng T
1

= T
2
; khi co lu lng, T
1
giam T
2
tang, o sai biet: T = T
2
T
1
t le vi lu
lng Q can o.
b) Ca ch th c hie n: Nhng cam bien o nhiet o co the la hai cap nhiet
ien, hoac hai nhiet ien tr c mac vao hai nhanh cua cau o Wheastone
vi hai ien tr co nh khac c mac trong hai nhanh con lai cua cau, ien
ap khong can bang chnh la tn hieu o.
Trong cach thc hien khac, viec un nong va viec o T c am bao
ong thi nh hai cap nhiet ien tr c cung cap bi dong ien u lam un
nong dong chay.
8.3 O VA DO MC CHAT LONG
Cong viec sang nhng va cha chat long trong cac bon cha oi hoi
viec xac nh mc chat long, hay noi mot cach khac mc chat long at c
bao nhieu tai iem khao sat. Cong viec ghi nhan lien quan en mc chat long
co the thc hien di hai hnh thc: viec o lien tuc hoac viec tham do n
thuan.
Trong viec o lien tuc, mot cam bien va mach bien oi tao ra tn hieu
ien ma o ln hoac tan so gan lien vi mc chat long trong bnh cha. Bat ky
luc nao, ngi ta cung co the biet c chnh xac the tch chat long hien co
hoac the tch con co the cha c chat long.
Trong viec tham do mc chat long, ta bo tr thiet b tham do, bao gom
mot cam bien tao ra mot thong tin kep bieu hien mc chat long, at hay khong
at so vi mc chat long nh trc. Tham do mc cao cua chat long cho phep
viec ngng cho them chat long, tranh s tran ay. Tham do mc thap cua chat
long dan en viec ngng chnh xac am bao so khoi lng chat long d tr toi
thieu tranh c tnh trang cac bm chay khong tai.
Viec do mc cao va thap cua chat long cho phep thc hien them vao hay
lay ra mot lng chat long mot cach t ong.
Cong viec tham do va o co the da tren nhng phng phap thng
c s dung nh sau:
Phng phap thuy tnh vi bo bien oi ien.
Phng phap da tren ac tnh ien cua chat long.
CHNG 8

270
Cac phng phap s dung e xac nh mc chat long thng chu y en:
ac tnh vat ly va hoa hoc cua chat long cung nh nhng thay oi: o
dan ien, hang so ien moi, khoi lng rieng, o nhn, ac tnh an mon.
Nhng ieu kien cha chat long: nhiet o, ap suat, co u phan the tch
e dan n.
8.3.1 Phng phap thuy tnh
Ket qua co c do viec bo tr thiet b o hoat ong lien tuc theo o cao
cua mc chat long, khong phu thuoc vao ac tnh ien cua chat long nhng
phu thuoc vao khoi lng rieng.

Hnh 8.14: Phng phap thuy tnh o chat long
a) Phao noi; b) Trai chm; c) Cam bien ap suat vi sai
Mot phao noi (H.8.14a) c gi ngang mat chat long, c cau tao
chac chan nh gan vi mot cam bien o v tr qua he thong puli va day cap,
tao ra tn hieu ien gan lien vi mc chat long.
Mot trai chm (H.8.14b) c cau tao bang mot hnh tru tha chm trong
chat long ma o cao cua no gan bang vi chieu cao cc ai cua chat long
trong bnh cha. Trai chm c treo nh mot cam bien o lc, chu tac ong
cua mot lc (trong lng bieu kien), phu thuoc vao chieu cao h cua chat long.
F = P gSh
trong o: gSh - lc ay Archimede tac ong len phan the tch trai
chm nam trong chat long
- khoi lng rieng chat long; g - gia toc trong trng.
Mot cam bien o ap suat vi sai (H.8.14c) c at ay bnh cha co
ap suat P:

271
P = P
o
+ gh
trong o: P
o
- ap suat nh bnh cha
gh - ap suat thuy tnh do chieu cao h cua chat long.
Cam bien co chi tiet th nghiem dang mang cho phep mot mat cua chi
tiet chu tac ong cua ap suat P, con mat kia chu tac ong cua ap suat P
o
. S
bien dang cua chi tiet th nghiem dang mang c bien oi thanh tn hieu
ien t le vi o cao h.
8.3.2 Phng phap ien
ay la nhng phng phap s dung nhng cam bien ac biet, bien oi
trc tiep mc chat long ra tn hieu ien, tien li cua phng phap nay la bo tr
thiet b n gian, van hanh de dang,
1-Cam bien o o dan ien

Hnh 8.15: Cam bien o o dan ien xac nh mc chat long
a) S dung hai ien cc; b) Mot ien cc; c) Phat hien mc chat long
Hnh 8.15a: dung hai ien cc (bnh cha cach ien).
Hnh 8.15b: dung mot ien cc (bnh cha dan ien).
Hnh 8.15c: do mc chat long.
Ch s dung oi vi chat long dan ien, khong an mon, khong ac trng
cho tnh cach ien.
au do c cau tao bang hai ien cc hnh tru, mot trong hai ien cc
c the bang bnh cha (bang kim loai). au do c cung cap bi ien ap
xoay chieu co tr so thap (khoang 10V) e tranh hien tng phan cc cac ien
cc.
e o mc chat long, au do c at theo phng thang ng va chieu
dai chung h cua ien cc thay oi theo mc chat long. Dong ien tao ra co o
ln t le vi chieu dai ien cc nam trong chat long, gia tr nay tuy thuoc vao
o dan ien cua chat long.
CHNG 8

272
e do mc chat long, ta at mot ien cc ngan theo chieu ngang tng
ng vi mc chat long. Mot dong ien co bien o khong oi xuat hien khi mc
chat long at en v tr au do.
2- Cam bien o ien dung
Khi chat long la chat cach ien, mot tu ien c hnh thanh gia hai
ien cc hnh tru, hoac gia mot ien cc va vo cua bnh cha bang kim loai.
Moi trng ien moi bao gom chat long trong khoang hai ien cc chm trong
chat long va khong kh phan ien cc ben ngoai.
Viec gan cac ien cc e o hoac do mc chat long c thc hien giong
nh trng hp cam bien o o dan ien. Viec o va do mc chat long d
nhien dan en mot s thay oi ien dung quan trong neu hang so ien moi
r

cua chat long ln hn gia tr cua moi trng khong kh. Ngi ta thng s
dung phng phap nay vi ieu kien
r
> 2. Trng hp chat long dan ien,
ngi ta ch s dung mot ien cc c bao phu bang vat lieu cach ien, ong
vai tro ien moi cua tu ien va ban cc con lai c hnh thanh do s tiep xuc
vi chat long dan ien.
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273
Chng 9
O AI LNG QUANG
9.1 CAC AC TNH RIENG CUA CAM BIEN QUANG
Cac cam bien quang cho phep tao ra cac tn hieu ien khi no nhan c
cac nguon sang co o dai song nam trong hoac gan ke vi vung anh sang thay
c.
Tn hieu ien au ra cua cam bien quang thong thng co dang dong
ien. Gia tr dong ien va nhng s bien oi theo cac thong so phu thuoc vao
cau tao cam bien.
9.1.1 Dong ien vung toi
o la dong ien thng c tao ra bang s bo tr cam bien quang trong
vung toi va c phan cc trong nhng ieu kien xac nh.
Dong ien vung toi co hai nguon goc chnh:
Nguon goc ben trong: tao bi nhng ien tch t do. Do s kch thch
nhiet, tien trnh nay tr nen quan trong nhiet o cho trc khi chieu dai bc
song rieng
S
cua vat lieu kha ln, noi cach khac nang lng ion hoa kha nho
(o la trng hp cac vat lieu nhay oi vi cac tia bc xa hong ngoai).
Nguon goc ben ngoai: tao bi tia bc xa nhiet, trong vung tia hong ngoai,
do moi trng chung quanh bc xa va c tiep nhan vi cam bien se xay ra
hieu ng quang ien khi cam bien nhay oi vi cac tia bc xa.
Ket qua dong ien vung toi ac trng:
o nhay oi vi nhiet o, ieu nay nguy hiem do viec dong nhiet ien
co the tron lan vi nhng thay oi cham cua tn hieu.
Nhng dao ong quanh mot tr gia trung bnh.
Nh the se co li khi chon va s dung cam bien sao cho dong ien vung
toi rat thap so vi dong quang ien cc tieu cua tn hieu. ieu nay dan en

274
nhng cam bien nhay oi vi tia bc xa hong ngoai phai at trong mot hop
lam nguoi, mot mat e giam s kch thch nhiet, mat khac e gii han s tiep
xuc vi tia bc xa cua moi trng chung quanh.
9.1.2 o nhay
Quang thong cua tn hieu quang c tiep nhan nh cam bien tao ra mot
dong quang ien I
P
cong them vi dong ien vung toi I
o
, xac nh dong ien I
chay qua cam bien: I = I
o
+ I
p

Dong ien I
p
cho biet ac tnh ap ng cua cam bien oi vi tia bc xa
tiep nhan. No tuy thuoc vao mot phan cau tao cua cam bien, mat khac phu
thuoc vao loai tia bc xa, thanh phan pho va quang thong.
Khi I
o
khong oi, s bien thien I cua dong ien cam bien bang s bien
thien I
p
cua dong quang ien.
Cam bien di tac ong cua quang thong tao ra dong quang ien I
p
, o
nhay cua cam bien c xac nh bang t so I vi s thay oi ai lng o
:
p
S I I / / = =
Tuy theo n v quang thong, o nhay c dien ta bi A/W hay A/lumen
hoac A/lux khi quang thong ac trng bang chieu o ma no tao ra.
oi vi cam bien tuyen tnh, o nhay oc lap oi vi va bang o nhay
tnh:
p
S I / =
1- o nhay pho S()
o la o nhay cam bien khi tia bc xa nhan c la n sac, no c ac
trng bi o dai song :
p
S I ( ) / ( ) =
oi vi cam bien tuyen tnh:
p
S I ( ) / ( ) =
ng cong ap ng pho cho biet s bien thien theo bc song cua o
nhay tng oi: S()/S(
p
) vi
p
la bc song co o nhay pho cc ai.
Mot s ap dung ly thuyet cho phep d oan dang ng cong o nhay
pho.
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275

Hnh 9.1: Dang tong quat ng cong o nhay pho
Vi >
s
(
S
: o dai bc song rieng) dong ien I
P
ve nguyen tac
bang khong.
Vi
S
, dong ien I
p
t le vi so ien tch t do G trong mot giay:
p
I ~ G =
1 (
vi: S() ~

=

1
P P
R S
va
h C S
( ) ( )
. ( )
vi
P
=
S
.
va R tuy thuoc vao , ng cong ap ng pho co dang nh phng trnh
tren.
2- o nhay tong cong S
t
: o la o nhay cam bien quang khi nhan tn hie u
quang khong phai n sac, ma tuy thuoc mot phan vao o nhay pho cua cam
bien oi vi cac o dai song cua tia bc xa nhan c, mat khac phu thuoc
vao s phan bo pho. Bieu thc o nhay tong cong co the bieu dien de dang,
gia s cam bien tuyen tnh: S
t
=
p
I / . Dong ien I la tong cac dong ien
dI
P
() oi vi cac o dai song nhan c, neu d () la quang thong trong
khoang va + d:
P
dI S d d d d d
( )
( ). ( ); ( ) [ ( )/ ]
= =
vi: d d ( )/ - mat o pho cua quang thong co o dai song , cho phep dien
ta quang thong tong cong nhan c.

d
d
d
( )
[ ]
2
1

vi:
1
,
2
- o dai song gii han cua pho tia bc xa.
Dong ien tong cong I
P
co gia tr :
CHNG 9

276

P
d
I S d
d
( )
( )[ ]
2
1

o nhay tong cong ly thuyet la:

t
d
S d
d
S
d
d
d
( )
( )
[ ]
( )
[ ]
2
1
2
1

o nhay tong cong d nhien luon nho hn o nhay pho cc ai
p
S( ) .

9.2 IEN TR QUANG
Cam bien dang ien tr nay c ac trng nh anh hng cua quang
thong bc xa nhan c va s phan bo pho tac ong len gia tr ien tr cam
bien. Vi mot mach bien oi i kem, ien tr quang la mot trong so nhng
cam bien quang co o nhay cao. Hieu ng vat ly c s dung o la: quang
dan ien - ket qua cua hieu ng quang ien ben trong. S phong thch cac
ien tch ben trong cac vat lieu di tac ong cua nguon sang va he qua la s
dan ien gia tang.
9.2.1 Hieu ng vat ly
Xet mot thanh ban dan co
the tch V, cha cac nguyen t
chat cho (donneurs) co mat o N
d
,
mc nang lng kem hn W
d
so
vi mc nang lng vung dan.
Ta gia s W
d
kha ln e cho
ieu kien nhiet o moi trng
bnh thng va trong vung toi cac donneurs b ion hoa do hieu ng nhiet la rat
be .
Trong vung toi, mat o cac am ien t c phong thch trong n v
thi gian do hieu ng nhiet cua cac nguyen t chat cho, t le vi mat o cac
nguyen t chat cho khong b ion hoa:
a (N
d
n
o
) vi a ~ exp( qWd/KT)
Hnh 9.2: Nguyen tac cua ien tr
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277
So am ien t tai hp trong n v thi gian vi cac nguyen t ion hoa,
t le vi mat o nguyen t ion hoa n
o
, va mat o cac am ien t, nh vay t le
vi bnh phng n
o
: r.
o
n
2
; r: he so tai hp.

Hnh 9.3: S dch chuyen ien t trong chat ban dan
a) Trong vung toi; b) Trong vung sang
S thay oi mat o am ien t t do c dien ta bang phng trnh:

o d o o
dn dt a N n r n ( ) =
2

trang thai can bang thng trc, ta co:
o
dn dt = 0
vi: n
o
=
d
aN a a
r r
r
/
[ ] + +
2
1 2
2
2
4

S dan ien vung toi c dien ta:
o
= qn
o
.
q - tr gia tuyet oi ien tch cua am ien t.
- o linh ong cua am ien t.
Khi nhiet o gia tang, o linh ong giam nhng mat o n
o
gia tang nhieu
do hieu ng nhiet va ket qua la s dan ien gia tang.
Khi chat ban dan c chieu sang, cac photon co nang lng h W
d
ion hoa
cac donnueurs tao ra g am ien t trong mot n v thi gian bi mot n v
the tch, cong them cac ien t t do, do s kch thch nhiet.
g =
G R
V A L h
( )
.

=
1 1

vi: V = A.L
a
G n R
hC
( ( ) )
= = 1
n
a
- so photon hap thu trong mot giay
- hieu suat lng t
R - he so phan chieu cua vat lieu.
Phng trnh ong hoc tr thanh:
d
dn dt a N n g r n / ( ) = +
2

CHNG 9

278
Tia bc xa tao ra cac ien t t do thng rat ln so vi cac ien t gay
ra bi s kch thch nhiet: g a(N
d
n); n n
o
.

Vi ieu kien tren, n gian
phng trnh ta co c mat o ien t t do di tac ong cua nguon sang:
n g r
/
( / ) =
1 2
. S dan ien lien quan en = qn, nh vay s dan ien t le
khong tuyen tnh oi vi quang thong, no thay oi t le vi
/
1 2
.
9.2.2 He so o li
So ien t tai hp moi giay trong mot n v the tch t le thuan vi mat
o ien t hien dien n, va t le nghch vi i song cua no
n
, nh vay so ien
t tai hp t le vi
n
n/ .
Khi can bang, so ien t tai hp moi giay
n
n/ trong mot n v the tch
bang vi so ien t phong thch g bi tia bc xa trong mot n v the tch, ta
co:
n
n g = .
Vi
n
la mot ham theo quang thong.
ien tr R cua ien tr quang c tnh:

L L
R
A q n A
= =

1 1

Khi cung cap ien ap V, dong
p
I chay qua ien tr quang:

p
A
I q n V
L
=
Cng o ien trng:
V
E
L
=
Cac ien t di chuyen vi van toc trung bnh: v E =
Thi gian di chuyen cua ien t:
tr
L
v
=
Dong ien
p
I co the c viet lai:

n
p
tr
I q G q F G . .
= =

Nh vay dong ien
p
I chay qua ien tr quang ln gap F lan ien tch
c tao ra moi giay, F la he so o li va tr gia cua no vao khoang
5
10 , ieu
nay giai thch cac ien tr quang co o nhay cao.
Ta co the viet lai nh sau:
O AI LNG QUANG

279

n n
tr
V
F
L

= =
2

Nh vay dong ien
p
I , ket qua cua hieu ng quang ien, cang ln khi:
- i song
n
cua cac ien t t do cang dai
- ien ap cung cap cho ien tr quang cang ln
- Chieu rong L cua ien tr quang cang ngan.
9.2.3 Vat lieu s dung
ien tr quang c che tao nh cac vat lieu ban dan ong nhat a tinh
the hoac n tinh the, tinh chat hoac co tap chat (dope).
Vat lieu a tinh the: CdS, CdSe, CdTe, PbS, PbSe, PbTe.
Vat lieu n tinh the: Ge va Si tinh chat hoac dope bi Au, Cu, Sb, Zn,
SbIn, AsIn, PIn, CdHgTe.
9.2.4 ac tnh cua ien tr quang
1- ien tr

Hnh 9.4: Vung pho s dung oi vi cac vat lieu
ien tr quang khac nhau

CHNG 9

280

Hnh 9.5: S thay oi cua ien tr quang
di tac ong cua nguon sang
Gia tr ien tr vung toi R
o
tuy thuoc dang hnh hoc, kch thc, nhiet o
va thanh phan ly hoa cua ien tr quang. Co gia tr rat cao (10
4
en 10
9

25
o
C) oi vi PbS, CdSe,CdS. Co gia tr tng oi thap (10 en 10
3
25
o
C)
oi vi SbIn, SbAs, CdHgTe.
ien tr R
c
cua ien tr quang di tac dung cua tia bc xa giam rat
nhanh theo chieu o.
ien tr quang co the c bieu dien bi s o mach tng ng gom ien
tr vung toi R
Co
, at song song vi ien tr R
CP
c xac nh bi hieu ng
quang ien co dang:
R
CP
= a
-
vi: a tuy thuoc vao vat lieu, nhiet o va pho cua tia bc xa
thng co gia tr trong khoang 0,5 va 1.
Trong nhng ieu kien nay R
C
co the viet:
Co Cp
Co
C
Co Cp
Co
R R
R a
R
R R
R a
.

= =
+
+

trong ieu kien thng s dung R
cp
R
o
, ta co: R
C
= a

O AI LNG QUANG

281
S thay oi ien tr theo quang thong khong tuyen tnh, co the tuyen tnh
hoa trong mot vung quang thong gii han, nh mot ien tr co nh at song
song vi ien tr quang.
ien tr R
C
di tac ong nguon sang tuy thuoc vao nhiet o, tuy nhien
o nhay nhiet qua be so vi tac dung cua nguon sang.
2- Co ng suat tieu ta n
Cong suat cc ai tieu tan c mW oi vi mm
2
be mat cam bien. S thay
oi cong suat tieu tan P
d
theo hoat ong cua R
c
tuy thuoc vao nguon cung cap.
ien ap V cung cap khong oi:
d C
P V R / =
2

Dong ien I cung cap khong oi: P
d
= R
C
I
2
.
Cung cap bi nguon sc ien ong E
S
noi tiep vi ien tr R
S
.
= =
+
2 2
2
4
C S S
d d
S
S C
R E E
P P
R
R R
max
;
( )
khi R
C
= R
S

S ot nong lam gii han cong suat tieu tan co the chap nhan c.
Viec s dung bo phan giai nhiet cho phep lam giam s gia tang nhiet o
nhng lam kch thc cong kenh.
3- o nhay ien tr quang
Theo s o mach ien tng ng cua ien tr quang, o dan ien
c
G
cua ien tr quang:
c co cp
G G G = +
vi:
co
co
G
R
=
1
: o dan ien vung toi

cp
cp
G
R a

= =
1 1
: o dan ien do hieu ng quang ien.
Goi V la ien ap cung cap, dong ien I chay qua ien tr quang:

c co cp o p
I G V G V G V I I = = + = +
vi:
co o
G V I = : dong ien vung toi

cp p
G V I = : dong ien hieu ng quang ien.
Trong ieu kien s dung thong thng:
o p
I I va
p
V
I I
a

= =
Tr trng hp ac biet = 1, dong ien I khong tuyen tnh theo quang
thong bc xa. oi vi quang thong bc xa co phan bo pho c xac nh, ty so
bien oi tnh:
I V
a
1

CHNG 9

282
o nhay:
I V
a

1
, ta nhan thay:
- o nhay co o ln bang vi ty so bien oi tnh nhan vi .
- ien tr quang la mot cam bien khong tuyen tnh, tr trng hp ac
biet = 1, o nhay giam khi quang thong tang, tuy nhien cam bien co the coi
nh tuyen tnh oi vi tn hieu nho khi ma tn hieu co quang thong thay o i
be xung quanh mot tr so khong oi ln.
- o nhay t le thuan vi ien ap V cung cap, ieu nay ch co y ngha khi
V co tr so tng oi nho bi v hieu ng Joule t le vi V se lam gia tang nhiet
o cua cam bien, ma s gia tang nhiet o se lam giam o nhay. Khi tia bc xa
n sac, dong
p
I di tac ong quang thong cho trc la mot ham theo :
p
I qFG =
vi: F - o li; G - so ien tch tao ra trong 1 giay.

n
p
V R
I q
hC
L
( )
( )

=
2
1

s
( )
vi:
n
la mot ham theo ( ) ; R , phu thuoc vao .
o nhay pho
I
S( )
( )
=

thng c` xac nh bang tr gia tng oi
bi ng cong ap ng pho; o ln cua o nhay pho cc ai (tuy thuoc vao
vat lieu), co tr so trong khoang
1
10 en
2
10 A/W oi vi ien ap cung cap
10V va be mat tiep nhan anh sang cm
2
1 .
o nhay pho S( ) la mot ham theo nhiet o, khi nhiet o giam ngi ta
nhan thay gia tr S( ) gia tang.
Khi tia bc xa khong n sac, o nhay tong cong
t
S phu thuoc vao phan
bo pho cua quang thong va ng cong ap ng pho cua cam bien.
4- Thi gian ap ng cua ien tr quang
Thi gian ap ng cua ien tr quang cho phep xac nh tnh nhanh cua
cam bien c hieu la thi gian can thiet e ien tr quang thay oi tr so khi
co s thay oi ot ngot quang thong bc xa.
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283
Thi gian ap ng cua cam bien khac vi thi gian ap ng cua mach
ien c hnh thanh t nhom cac ien tr, tu ien trong mach ien bao gom
ca ien tr quang va c an nh bi hang so thi gian RC cua mach ien.
Thi gian ap ng cua ien tr quang thng ln hn hang so thi gian
cua mach ien. Thi gian ap ng cua ien tr quang tuy thuoc vao vat lieu
va cach che tao:
s , 01 oi vi SnIn, AsIn, CdHgTe
ms , 01 100 vi PbS, PbSe, CdSe
Thi gian ap ng giam khi s thay oi o sang gia tang.
5- ng dung ien tr quang
S dung ien tr quang co nhng iem li la o nhay cao, cach mac day
s dung n gian.
Nhng ieu bat li la:
ap ng khong tuyen tnh oi vi quang thong
Thi gian ap ng tng oi cao, bang thong gii han
Can phai lam nguoi oi vi mot vai loai cam bien
ac tnh khong on nh (do s bao hoa).
ien tr quang c ap dung chnh trong viec nghien cu, khong dung e
xac nh chnh xac mc o quang thong ma dung e dien ta cac mc o quang
thong khac nhau (toi sang, cac xung anh sang). Tuy nhien viec s dung
chung e o lng anh sang co the thc hien c vi ieu kien cac ac tnh
cua chung c xac nh trc chnh xac va on nh.

Hnh 9.6: Cach mac ien tr quang ieu khien rle
a) ieu khien trc tiep; b) ieu khien nh noi vi transistor khuech ai
Viec o cac ien tr quang hay phan tch s thay oi ien tr quang co
the thc hien c nh mot trong nhng mach bien oi cam bien ien tr:
CHNG 9

284
Nguon cung cap khong oi, cach mac phan ap, cau Wheastone, mach khuech
ai, mach dao ong RC.
Mot vai v du ve ng dung ien tr quang:
- ieu khien: s tiep nhan lng sang ln hn mc o nh trc, se lam
ien tr cam bien giam nhieu, keo theo s xuat hien dong ien I trong mach
mot cach trc tiep, hoac nh mot mach khuech ai, thiet b se thay oi gia
hai trang thai:
M va ong mot r le.
Ngng hoac dan Thyristor v.v...
- Tiep nhan tn hieu quang: ien tr quang va mach bien oi cho phep
bien oi cac xung anh sang nhan c thanh cac xung ien (trong cac thiet b
em, thiet b o van toc quay nh mot a tren truc quay).
9.3 DIOD QUANG
9.3.1 Cau tao va nguyen ly hoat ong
Ta biet rang hai ben moi noi ban dan loai P hoac N se co mot s
khuech tan cac ien tch t do cho en khi at s can bang do s hnh thanh
mot ien trng. hai ben moi noi hnh thanh mot ien ap moi noi V
b
.
Neu khong co ien ap ben ngoai tac ong vao, dong ien chay qua moi
noi bang khong.

Hnh 9.7: Moi noi PN va ien ap moi noi
Khi ap vao moi noi mot ien ap ben ngoai se lam thay oi ien ap moi
noi keo theo s thay oi dong ien do s xuat hien cac ien tch t do, do s
ion hoa cac chat dope va lam thay oi be rong cua vung khuech tan.
Khi ien ap V
d
ap vao moi noi, dong ien I chay qua moi noi.
O AI LNG QUANG

285

d
o o
T
qV
I I I
K
exp( ) =
oi vi ien ap ngc u ln, dong ien do cac ien tch t do cua chat dope
tr nen khong ang ke va ch co dong I
o
do cac ien tch tao bi tac ong
nhiet, o chnh la dong ien ngc cua diod: I
r
= I
o
.
Khi diod chu tac ong cua tia bc xa co o dai song
S
(
S
: o dai
song rieng) se dan en xuat hien cac cap ien t lo trong. e cho cac ien
tch nay co the tao nen dong ien, ieu can thiet la tranh hien tng tai hp,
do vay oi hoi phai tach chung nhanh nh mot ien trng. Trng hp nay
ch co the xay ra trong vung khuech tan va s dch chuyen cac ien tch cung
chieu vi cac ien tch tao bi hieu ng nhiet dan en mot s gia tang dong
ien ngc.

Hnh 9.8: Cap ien t -lo trong c tao ra do hieu ng quang ien trong vung
khuech tan cua moi noi PN
Tia bc xa i en vung khuech tan cua moi noi khong c giam nhieu.
Quang thong truyen i giam dan theo be day truyen qua.
(x) =
o
exp( x), vi vao loi 10
5
cm
1
, ieu nay tng ng vi o
giam 63% oi vi be day truyen qua c 10
3
A
o
. Khi thc hien diod quang can
lu y:
CHNG 9

286
Vung khuech tan phai rong e viec hap thu tia bc xa c ln.
Chat ban dan c chieu sang phai rat mong e s truyen quang thong
de dang.
Cac vat lieu c ban cho viec che tao diod quang silicium va
Germanium oi vi tia bc xa trong vung anh sang thay c va gan vung
hong ngoai, GaAs, InAs, InSb, HgCdTe oi vi tia bc xa trong vung hong
ngoai.
9.3.2 Cach hoat ong
1- Cach mac diod quang
Cach mac c ban gom nguon E
S
, diod
c phan cc nghch, va ien tr R
m,
hai
au ien tr ta thu tn hieu.
Khi V
d
< 0: ien ap nghch a vao
diod, dong ien nghch I
r
chay qua diod
c dien ta.

d
r o o p
qV
I I I I
KT
exp( ) = + +
I
P
: dong ien tao ra do hieu ng quang ien trong vung khuech tan do
quang thong truyen qua vung P be day X:
P o
q R
I X
h C
( )
exp( )
.

=
1

Cac thong so trong bieu thc tren a c xac nh. Vi ien ap ngc
V
d
u ln, thanh phan ham mu tr nen khong ang ke, ta co:
I
r
= I
o
+ I
p

Ngoai tr nguon sang qua yeu, ta co: I
r
= I
p

Ta co phng trnh can bang: E
S
= V
R
V
d
, vi V
R
= R
m
I
r
.
Cach hoat ong diod quang th
tuyen tnh v ien ap V
R
giong nh
I
r
t le vi quang thong. Ngi ta
bieu dien diod quang bang s o
mach ien tng ng.
Hnh 9.9: Cach mac c ban
Hnh 9.10: S o mach ien
tng ng cua diod quang
O AI LNG QUANG

287
S o gom:
Nguon dong I
r
= I
o
+ I
P
.
ien tr r
d
song song vi nguon dong, no ac trng cho ien tr ong
moi noi.
Trong cach mac ien tr quang diod c phan cc nghch r
d
co tr so rat
cao vao c 10
10
.
ien tr r
S
mac noi tiep:
o la ien tr cac phan t ban
dan gia hai au diod va vung
khuech tan, r
S
co tr so c vai
chuc va khong ang ke so vi
ien tr R
m
.
ien dung C
d
song song
vi r
d
, ien dung co tr gia

c
vai chuc pF khi cha co ien ap
a vao moi noi, ien dung nay
giam kha nhieu khi co ien ap
ngc a vao diod theo cach
mac ien tr quang.
2- Cach mac ien ap quang
(photovoltaic)
Khong co s phan cc do nguon
ben ngoai cung cap, diod ong vai tro
bien oi nang lng, tng ng mot
may phat, ngi ta o ien ap h
mach hoac dong ien ngan mach.
ien ap h mach V
Co
:
V
Co
=
p
o
I
KT
Log
q I
( ) + 1
ien ap h mach thay oi theo
quang thong tac ong.
Nguon sang yeu: I
p
I
o

p
Co
o
I
KT
V
q I
. =
ien ap V
Co
, trong trng hp nay rat be va tuyen tnh theo quang
Hnh 9.11: Diod quang vi cach
mac ien ap quang: ien ap
h mach theo quang thong bc
xa
Hnh 9.12: Diod quang vi cach
mac ien ap quang: Dong
ngan mach theo quang thong
bc xa
CHNG 9

288
thong nhan c bi diod ( KT q mV / = 26 khi T K = 300 ).
Nguon sang manh:
I
p
I
o
; V
Co
=
p
o
I
KT
Log
q I
( )
ien ap V
Co
trong trng hp nay rat quan trong (0,10,6V) nhng t le
vi logarit theo quang thong nhan c.
ien ap V
Co
co the o c trong thc te khi ien tr tai R
m
co tr so rat
ln so vi r
d
.
o dong ien ngan mach I
CC
: Khi ta mac hai au diod vi ien tr R
m
co
tr gia nho hn r
d
, dong ien chay qua trong mach la I
p
, o la dong ien ngan
mach cua diod va dong ien nay t le vi quang thong tac dung.
Dong ien ngan mach thay oi theo quang thong tac ong.
ac tnh quan trong cua cach mac ien ap quang la do khong co ien ap
phan cc nen khong co dong ien vung toi, ieu nay cho phep o nhng quang
thong rat yeu.
Bang tom tat ac tnh cua diod quang theo cach mac khac nhau
Tia b c xa
Ca ch ma c
diod quang
Ca ch ma c
ie n a p quang
Nguon pha n c c nghch Kho ng co nguo n pha n cc.
Quang tho ng be
I
r
= I
o
+ I
p
V
Co
= . ; =
p
cc p
o
I
KT
I I
q I

Quang tho ng l n
I
r
= I
p
V
C
o = . ; =
p
cc p
o
I
KT
Log I I
q I

ien dung C
d
giam ien dung C
d
ln
9.3.3 Dong ien vung toi cua diod quang
Dong ien vung toi
o
I trong cach mac ien tr quang co o ln c nA
nhiet o moi trng. Dong quang ien
p
I co o ln xap x vi
o
I khi tiep
nhan nhng quang thong yeu trong khoang
8
10 en W
10
10 tuy theo loai
cam bien. Tuy nhien dong ien
o
I se gia tang nhanh khi nhiet o tang, ieu
nay dan en ien ap
Co
V vi canh mac ien ap quang nhay vi nhiet o, he so
nhiet o cua no
Co
Co
dV
V dt
1
vao khoang , %/ 0 8 C.
9.3.4 o nhay
O AI LNG QUANG

289
oi vi nguon sang co thanh phan pho c xac nh, dong quang ien
p
I c xac nh chnh xac t le thuan vi quang thong bc xa, dong
p
I t le
tuyen tnh vi quang thong bc xa. o nhay pho:

p
s
I
q R X
S
hC
( ) ( )
( ) ; ( )

= =
1 exp

Ro rang S( ) phu thuoc vao , vao hieu suat lng t , he so phan
chieu R va he so hap thu .
oi vi moi loai diod quang, o nhay pho c xac nh da tren ng
cong ap ng pho
p
S S ( )/ ( ) (
p
la o dai song co o nhay pho cc ai) va
da tren tr gia
p
S( ) ;
p
S( ) thng co tr gia trong khoang A W , / 01 1 . S
giong nhau cua bieu thc dong quang ien
p
I trong hai cach mac ien tr
quang va ien ap quang
cc p
I I ( ) = dan en s giong nhau cua o nhay pho
trong hai cach mac.
o nhay pho chu anh hng cua nhiet o, o nhay co thay oi nho khi
nhiet o gia tang, do luc nay o dai song
p
co o nhay pho cc ai di
chuyen cham theo chieu tang, he so nhiet o cua dong quang ien
p
p
dI
I dT
1

vao c , %/ 01 C.
9.3.5 Thi gian ap ng
S xuat hien dong quang ien rat nhanh ngay khi diod quang c chieu
sang: thi gian tre
dm
t vao khoang
12
10 giay. Tuy nhien, s tang nhanh cua
dong ien c o bi thi gian len
m
t (hoac khi dong ien giam do khong
c chieu sang ta o thi gian xuong
c
t ) c xac nh bi s o tng ng
cua diod va mach o i kem (H.9.12bis), trong mach ien thong thng ien
tr
m
R c mac song song vi ien dung ky sinh
p
C hnh thanh do day cap
chang han (H.9.12bis).

CHNG 9

290
Hnh 9.12bis: S o tng ng cua diod quang va mach o i kem
a) S o ay u ; b) S o n gia n
e n gian viec tnh toan, ien tr
s
r co tr so thng khong ln hn c
chuc ohm nen ta co the bo qua, hang so thi gian cua mach ien:

d m
d p
d m
r R
C C
r R
) = ( +
+

do
m d
R r
11
10 , ta co:

d p m
C C R ) = ( +
Hang so thi gian lien quan en
m
t va
c
t tuy thuoc vao:
- Cach mac diod quang, no xac nh tr so
d
C .
- Tr so ien tr tai
m
R .
Vi diod quang 4203 (Hang Hewlett Packard) trong cach mac vi
p
C pF = 2 va
m
R = 50 , ta co:
- Vi cach mac ien tr quang:
m c
t t ns , = = < 2 2 1
- Vi cach mac ien ap quang:
m c
t t ns , = = = 2 2 300
vi cach mac ien tr quang, ien dung
d
C giam do viec s dung ien
ap phan cc ngc, ieu nay dan en thi gian ap ng rat ngan va chnh v
vay cach mac ien tr quang c s dung cho trng hp quang thong bc xa
hien dien di dang nhng xung cc ngan.
9.3.6 Mach ien i kem vi diod quang
Ngi ta chon cach mac diod quang phu thuoc vao cong viec nghien cu.
Cach mac ien tr quang, co nhng ac tnh:
Tuyen tnh
Thi gian ap ng ngan va bang thong rong

O AI LNG QUANG

291
Hnh 9.13: Cach ma c diod quang
a) Cach mac c ban:
o m r
R
V R I
R
( ) = +
2
1
1
b) Ca ch mac co o a p ng nhanh : V
o
= (R
1
+ R
2
).I
r

Cach mac ien ap quang, co ac tnh:
Hoat ong tuyen tnh hoac t le logarit tuy theo tai.
Thi gian ap ng ln va bang thong hep.
o nhay nhiet ln.

Hnh 9.14: Cach mac ien ap quang
a) Cach mac tuyen tnh. o dong ien ngan mach I
cc
: V
o
= R
m
.I
cc

b) Cach mac t le logarit. o ien ap h mach V
Co
:
o Co
R
V V
R
( ) = +
2
1
1
9.4 TRANSISTOR QUANG
9.4.1 Cau tao va nguyen tac hoat ong
No hoat ong giong nh mot transistor thong thng la transistor silicum loai
NPN, co chat ban dan cc nen c chieu sang, va thng ch co cc thu va
cc phat c phan cc ngoai.
Moi noi gia cc nen va thu c phan cc nghch, trong khi ien ap moi
noi nen va phat khong thay oi (V
bc
0,6V 0,7V).
Khi vung moi noi nen thu c chieu sang, no hoat ong giong nh mot
diod quang, c mac nh mot ien tr quang co dong ien ngc:
I
r
= I
o
+ I
p
vi: I
o
- dong ien vung toi
CHNG 9

292
P o
q R X
I =
h C
( )exp( )
.

1
: la dong quang ien do nguon quang
thong
o
xuyen qua be day cc nen X, co o dai song nho hn o dai song
rieng
S
. Dong I
r
ong vai tro dong ien cc nen va se keo theo dong ien cc
thu I
C
cua transistor:

Hnh 9.15: Transistor quang
a) Cach ma c day; b) Ma ch tng ng
c) Tach cac ien tch t do do s chieu sang cc nen
I
C
= ( + 1). I
r
= ( + 1). I
o
+ ( + 1) I
P

vi: - o li cua transistor theo cach mac cc phat chung
( + 1) I
o
= I
Co
: dong ien vung toi transistor
( + 1) I
P
= I
CP
: dong ien cc thu do quang thong tao ra.
Nh the ta co the bieu dien mot transistor quang la mot to hp diod
quang va mot transistor.
9.4.2 Dong ien vung toi
Dong ien vung toi I
Co
25
o
C vao khoang 10
8
en 10
9
A, no tuy thuoc
ien ap thu-phat va nhiet o.
O AI LNG QUANG

293
9.4.3 o nhay
Tiep nhan quang thong
o
, o dai song <
S
diod nen thu tao ra dong
ien I
P
, keo theo dong ien transistor: I
CP
= ( + 1) I
P
.
CP o
q R X
I
hC
( ) ( )exp( )
. .
+
=
1 1

Dong ien cc thu I
C
= f (V
CE
) phu thuoc I
B
c thay the bi quang
thong
o
, vi
o
cho trc, ng cong ap ng pho c xac nh bi loai
diod nen thu. Vat lieu cau tao, thng la silicium va chat dope. Vi o dai
song cho trc dong ien cc thu I
C
khong hoan toan tuyen tnh oi vi quang
thong hay chieu o, v o li tuy thuoc vao dong ien I
C
va hau qua o nhay
I
C
/
o
tuy thuoc vao
o
. Chang han oi vi transistor BPW22 o nhay c
nhan vi 1,6 khi chieu o trong khoang 1mW/cm
2
en 8mW/cm
2
.

Hnh 9.16: Dong ien vung toi cua transistor quang thay oi theo
a) ien ap thu phat; b) Nhiet o moi noi (transistor quang BPW22)
o ln cua o nhay pho phu thuoc vao o dai song.
S (
P
) t 1 en 100 A/W.
o nhay tong cong thng c xay dng da vao nguon bc xa cua
ngon en co tim bang tungstene c nung nong vao khoang 2850
o
K. o
nhay tong cong thap hn o nhay pho va tuy thuoc vao o dai song, no giam
theo nhiet o cua tim en, va cung nh o nhay pho no tuy thuoc vao quang
thong tac ong.

CHNG 9

294

Hnh 9.17: a) Cac ac tuyen cua transistor quang
b) ng cong ap ng pho (transistor quang BPW22)
9.4.4 Thi gian ap ng
Cac ai lng khac nhau ve thi gian ap ng co the tnh toan khi da
vao s o mach tng ng Giacoletto cua transistor quang va ien tr tai
m
R . Ta nhan thay:
- Thi gian tre
dm
t , thi gian len
m
t , thi gian xuong
c
t , ca ba se giam
khi dong ien cc thu tang.
-
m
t va
c
t tang theo ien tr tai
m
R , ieu nay cung ung vi
dm
t khi
m
R c k tr len.
Tuy theo loai transistor quang va tuy theo iem hoat ong, ien tr tai,
cac ai lng thi gian thay oi t vai s en hang chuc s .
9.4.5 Cach mac transistor
Transistor quang co the c s dung trong viec chuyen oi, hoac c
s dung trong viec tuyen tnh.
Trong viec chuyen oi no, thay the diod quang va cho phep dong ien
tng oi ln.
Trong viec tuyen tnh, nham em lai o khuech ai ln nen ngi ta
thch dung no hn diod quang trong cac hoat ong tuyen tnh.
O AI LNG QUANG

295
1- Transistor quang hoat ong chuyen oi (H.9.18)
Thong tin trong trng hp nay co hai trang thai: tia bc xa hien hu
hoac khong hien hu, hoac nguon sang ln hn hay khong so vi mc o nh
trc. Transistor ngng dan hay bao hoa se ieu khien trc tiep, hoac sau khi
khuech ai mot r le, mot cong logic, mot thyristor hoac mot triac.
o nhanh cua s chuyen oi c gii han bang ien tr tai cu a
transistor quang, c cai thien ang ke neu nh ta thc hien tiep theo cach
mac co tong tr nhap thap:
Cach mac cc nen chung
Bien oi dong ien-ien ap.

Hnh 9.18: S dung transistor hoat ong chuyen oi e ieu khien
a) R le; b) Mot r le sau khi khuech ai; c) Cong logic; d) Thyristor
2- Transistor hoat ong tuyen tnh (H.9.20)
Co hai loai ap dung:
Viec o o sang khong oi, o transistor quang cho phep thc hien
cac lux ke n gian.
Tiep nhan tn hieu bien ieu di dang: (t) =
o
+
1
(t)
o bien ieu
1
(t) co bien o kha be, mot mat khong lam transistor bao
hoa, khong lam transistor ngng dan, mat khac, e co o nhay xem nh hang
so. Trong ieu kien nay, dong ien cc thu transistor co dang:
i
c
(t) = I
c
(
o
) + S
1
(t)
Transistor quang vi phan cc co nh cc nen, co li la cho phep chon
iem hoat ong tuyen tnh toi u.
Dong ien vung toi transistor T
1
co the c gii han qua tai bang cach
s dung mot transistor th hai T
2
giong T
1

co cung dong ien vung toi. T
2

khong chieu sang nhng cung nhiet o vi T
1
, dong ien vung toi co gia tr
CHNG 9

296
chung va khong chay qua tai.

Hnh 9.19: Cach mac cho phep gia tang van toc chuyen oi
a) Cach mac cc nen chung; b) Bien oi dong - ap

Hnh 9.20: Transistor quang hoat ong tuyen tnh
a) S o lux ke; b) Chon iem hoat ong nh phan cc cc nen
c) Giam dong ien vung toi i qua tai
9.5 CAM BIEN PHAT XA QUANG
Hieu ng quang ien co the chia lam ba loai: hieu ng ien tr quang
(photoconductive), hieu ng ien ap quang (photovoltaic) va hieu ng phat xa
quang (photoemissive).
Trong cam bien ien tr quang, ien tr cua cam bien thay oi khi c
chieu sang; trong cam bien ien ap quang, cam bien tao ra mot ien ap t le
vi cng o tia bc xa. Trong cam bien phat xa quang, cam bien khi tiep
nhan nguon sang se tao ra tn hieu ien do hieu ng phat xa quang: so lng
cac ien t c phat xa t be mat cua am cc quang t le vi so pho-ton
chieu vao am cc quang, cac ien t s cap nay tao nen dong ien am cc va:
O AI LNG QUANG

297
- Tap trung dng cc trong en quang ien chan khong.
- Ion hoa cac phan t kh do s va cham trong en quang ien kh hiem.
- Tao nen phat xa ien t th cap trong en nhan quang ien.
9.5.1 S phat xa quang, vat lieu phat xa quang
Chung ta can phan biet ba qua trnh trong hieu ng phat xa quang:
- S giai phong ien t ben trong vat lieu khi hap thu pho-ton.
- S di chuyen en be mat vat lieu cua cac ien t t do.
- S phat xa ien t be mat vat lieu.
oi vi chat ban dan tinh khiet, s giai phong ien t ben trong vat lieu
ch hien hu vi nang lng pho-ton nho hn hay bang chieu rong vung cam
E
g
, do vay ien t khong u nang lng e di chuyen en be mat vat lieu. S
di chuyen cua ien t t do co tnh cha t ngau nhien va theo moi hng: mot t
le rat nho trong so o i en c be mat vat lieu, so con lai khi di chuyen
nhng oan ngan se co s ung, va cham vi cac ien t khac hoac vi cac
pho-ton, ieu nay lam giam nang lng cua chung.
S phat xa ien t be mat vat lieu ch co the xay ra khi ien t co the
vt qua rao can ien ap ngan cach gia chat ban dan va ben ngoai o chnh
la ai lc ien t
a
E .
Hieu suat lng t (so ien t trung bnh phat ra be mat vat lieu khi
hap thu mot pho-ton) cua vat lieu khong bao gi vt qua 30% va thng nho
hn 10%.
Hieu suat lng t trong vung pho s dung la tieu ch e chon vat lieu
s dung. Ngi ta thng s dung hai nhom vat lieu:
- Hp kim alcalim: AgOCs nhay vi tia hong ngoai. Cs Sb,
3

s
Cs Na KSb K C Sb ( ) ,
2 2
nhay vi vung anh sang thay c va vung o dai
song ngan hn.
s
Cs Te Rb Te C I , ,
2 2
nhay vi tia cc tm.
CHNG 9

298
- Hon hp thuoc nhom 3 va 5: c cau tao t cac phan t thuoc nhom 3
va 5 cua bang phan loai tuan hoan:
x x x x n x x
GaAs Sb Ga I n As I As P , ,
1 1 1
s dung trong vung hong ngoai
m ( ) 1 va tuy thuoc vao thanh phan hon hp (x), chung co ai lc ien t
a
E yeu: hieu suat lng t co the at 30%.
9.5.2. Dong ien am cc
Co hai ky thuat e thc hien am cc (H.9.21):
- at vat lieu phat xa quang tren mot gia bang kim loai, tat ca c
at trong mot lp vo che: Cac ien t s cap se phat xa khi be mat am cc
c chieu sang.
- Mot lp mong (c 100A) vat lieu phat xa quang c at tren be mat
ben trong lp vo che: cac ien t s cap se phat xa be mat oi dien vi be
mat c chieu sang, ky thuat nay thng c s dung nhat.

Hnh 9.21: Cac ca ch thc hie n a m cc quang
a) S phat xa bi be mat chieu sang
b) S phat xa bi be mat oi dien
1- Dong ien vung toi
Hieu ng nhiet ion hoa phat xa ien t cua catot la nguon goc chnh cua
dong ien am cc vung toi
ko
I , gia tr dong ien tang theo nhiet o c xac
nh bi nh luat Richardson Dushman:
ko
Ws
I ACT
KT
exp[ ]
=
2

vi: A - dien tch cua am cc quang, m ( )
2

C - hang so: C = 1,20
6
10 (MKSA)
W
s
- Sai biet nang lng gia lo trong va mc Fermi cua vat lieu phat xa
quang.
O AI LNG QUANG

299
2- o nhay
oi vi tia bc xa co o dai song ln, o nhay c xac nh bi vat lieu
phat xa quang dung lam catot va no an nh hieu suat lng t.
Ngc lai, oi vi song ngan no b hap thu cua lp vo hoac ca so cua
cam bien va c ac trng bi he so truyen T( ) .

Hnh 9.22: He so truyen T( ) cua vat lieu khac nhau
qua ca so cam bien theo o dai song
Nh vay to hp vat lieu phat xa quang va vat lieu lam vo xac nh ap
ng pho va to hp nay c ky hieu di dang
n
S .
Ky hie u Va t lieu pha t xa quang Va t lieu la m vo
1
S
s
AgOC
Thu y tinh
11
S
3
Cs Sb
Thu y tinh
13
S
3
Cs Sb
Tha ch anh
20
S ( )
2 s
Na KSb C
Thu y tinh
23
S
2
Rb Te
Tha ch anh
Tia bc xa co quang thong ( ) co o dai song cha n
i
pho-ton:
i
n
h hC
( ) ( )
= =

t
n - so hat pho-ton xuyen qua ca so i en catot:
t i
n T n ( ) =
( ) - hieu suat lng t o dai song
e
n - so ien t s cap phat xa moi giay bi catot, hnh thanh dong ien
am cc
k
I . Ta co:
e t
n t n ( ) = ;
k e k
q T
I qn I
hC
( ) ( )
( )

= =
Ro rang dong ien am cc t le thuan vi quang thong bc xa.
CHNG 9

300
o nhay pho cua dong ien catot bao gom ca lp vo:
k
K
I q T
S
hC
( ) ( )
( )
( )

= =

Hnh 9.23: o nhay cua nhng to hp vat lieu
lam vo va catot quang
Hnh 9.23 cho thay s thay oi o nhay pho theo o dai song tia bc xa
cua nhng to hp vat lieu khac nhau lam vo va catot quang.
o nhay pho cc ai
k
S p ( ) co gia tr trong khoang 10 en 100mA/W.
9.5.3 en quang ien chan khong
Gom mot catot bang vat lieu phat xa quang va mot dng cc, c at
ben trong mot lp vo co ca so trong suot, ap suat ben trong en vao khoang
6
10
8
10 mmHg. Hnh dang va s bo tr v tr tng oi gia cac ien cc
am bao catot nhan c quang thong bc xa cc ai va dng cc thu c
cac ien t phat xa t catot.

Hnh 9.24: V du ve cach thc hien cac
e n quang ie n chan khong
O AI LNG QUANG

301
1- Quan he dong - ap
Cach mac c ban cua en quang ien nh hnh 9.25a. S thay oi dong
ien anot
a
I theo ien ap anot - catot
ak
V vi o chieu sang khac nhau c
gii thieu nh hnh 9.25b. Ta nhan thay tren cac ac tuyen co hai vung:
- Vung ien tch khong gian: tai ay dong ien tang theo ien ap
ak
V ,
mot phan cac ien t phat ra bi catot tao nen ien tch khong gian, ong thi
ay ngc cac ien t mi phat ra ve hng catot lam gii han dong ien
anot. Anh hng cua ien tch khong gian se giam khi gia tang ien ap
ak
V .
- Vung bao hoa: tai ay dong ien phu thuoc rat t vao ien ap
ak
V , cac
ien tch phat ra bi catot c thu nhan bi anot. Dong ien
a
I trong vung
nay that s ch phu thuoc vao quang thong bc xa. S dung ac tuyen trong
vung bao hoa, en quang ien c xem nh mot nguon dong co tr so ch phu
thuoc vao quang thong nhan c.

Hnh 9.25: en quang ien chan khong
a) Cach mac c ban; b) ac tuyen tnh
2- Dong ien vung toi
c hnh thanh t hai nguyen nhan chnh:
- S phat xa ien t do hieu ng nhiet ion hoa
- Dong ien ro gia cac ien cc, ieu nay co the giam thieu bi cong
nghe che tao bang cach at xa cac au ra cua ien cc va tranh e en b am
t. Dong ien vung toi khoang

8
10 A
13
10 .
CHNG 9

302
3- o nhay
Dong ien anot trong vung bao hoa that s bang vi dong ien catot va
bieu thc o nhay pho cua en giong nh o nhay pho cua dong ien catot,
ket qua la cam bien hoat ong tuyen tnh, o nhay pho cc ai co gia tr trong
khoang t 10 100mA/W, he so nhiet o cua o nhay thng rat be.
4- o nhanh
Thi gian di chuyen cua ien t cang ngan khi ien ap
ak
V cang cao: no
co the nho hn
9
10 giay, v vay thong thng thi gian di chuyen cua ien t
khong dung e xac nh tnh nhanh cua ap ng ma ngi ta s dung hang so
thi gian cua mach ien bao gom ca cam bien, co mach tng ng nh hnh
9.26.

Hnh 9.26
S o mach ien tng ng
Hnh 9.27
Ma ch o quang thong da ng xung
Hang so thi gian cua mach
m p
R C = .
Thi gian len
m
t , thi gian xuong
c
t :
m c m p
t t R C , = = 2 2 .
Ta can lu y:
- Cac en quang ien bo tr e o quang thong be s dung ien tr
m
R
co gia tr cao (t 1 100 M) nham thu c hai au ien tr mot ien ap
thch hp.
- Cac en quang ien bo tr e o cac xung quang thong ln tao ra dong
ien co tr nh ln va nh vay ien tr
m
R khong can ln, th du
m
R = 50
chang han.
V du: en 150TV (hang RTC): Dong nh cc ai 25 A ;
m
R M = 1 ; C
p
=
20pF;
m c
t t s = = 44 .
O AI LNG QUANG

303
en AVHC 201 (hang RTC) o cac xung quang thong ln:
Dong nh cc ai: 30A;
m
R = 50 ; C
p
= 30pF;
m c
t t ns , = = 3 3 .
9.5.4 en quang ien kh hiem
c cau tao giong nh en chan khong nhng ben trong en cha kh
hiem, thong thng la kh argon ap suat thap t
1
10 en
2
10 mmHg. Khi
ien ap dng cc u ln, cac ien t bc xa bi catot se di chuyen va va
cham vao cac nguyen t kh hiem tao nen s ion hoa, ket qua dong ien
dng cc se ln hn t 5 en 10 lan dong ien catot.
1- Quan he dong - ap
Khi ien ap nho hn khoang 20V, cac ng ac tuyen dong ap giong
nh trng hp en chan khong, luc nay cac ien t bc xa t catot di chuyen
vi van toc tng oi cham, khi va cham vi kh hiem, nang lng khong u
e ion hoa cac nguyen t kh hiem, nhng khi ien ap
ak
V gia tang, s ion hoa
kh hiem se bat au xay ra va tang nhanh khi
ak
V tang, ien ap
ak
V thng
gii han mc 90 von e tranh pha huy catot quang.

Hnh 9.28: en quang ien kh hiem
a) ac tuyen tnh; b) Anh hng ien ap
ak
V oi vi o nhay
2- Tnh chat cua en quang ien kh hiem
o nhay cua en ln hn t 5 en 10 lan so vi en chan khong va tang
theo quang thong, ieu nay dan en ap ng khong tuyen tnh.
Mat khac, o nhay giam theo thi gian van hanh do s di chuyen cua cac
ion dng en catot lam cho catot phat xa ien t giam i.
Tnh nhanh cua en b gii han do s gia tang thi gian di chuyen cua ien
t v ien t b va cham va o linh ong be cua ion dng.
CHNG 9

304
ap ng khong tuyen tnh, o on nh khong cao, o la nhng ly do ngi
ta khong s dung cam bien nay va thay no bang transistor quang.
9.5.5 en nhan quang ien (photomultiplier tube)
1- Nguyen tac cau tao
Khi be mat cua chat ran chu s va ap cua cac ien t co nang lng u
ln, no se phat xa cac ien t: o la s phat xa th cap. Khi so ien t phat ra
ln hn so ien t va ap, co the xem nh mot s khuech ai tn hieu s cap va
c ng dung trong en nhan quang ien.
Tn hieu s cap c hnh thanh t cac ien t phat xa di tac ong cua
tia bc xa hap thu bi catot quang c at trong bau chan khong. Cac ien t
se hoi tu tai ien cc th nhat cua chuoi ien cc goi la ong cc (dynode),
cac ong cc c phu bi vat lieu ma hieu ng phat xa ien t th cap rat
ln. ien ap cung cap cho cac ong cc c cung cap bi mot mach phan ap
co ien ap tang dan theo cac ong cc lam sao cho cac ien t phat xa th cap
ong cc th k se c hap thu bi ong cc th (k+1) va moi ien t se tao
ra nhieu ien t th cap.

Hnh 9.29: S o nguyen tac en nhan quang ien
Neu moi ien t khi ap vao ong cc se tao ra trung bnh ien t th
cap, vi n ong cc ma hieu ien ap gia hai ien cc ke nhau la bang nhau
th dan en so ien t phat xa th cap bi n ong cc gay ra bi mot ien t
la: M =
n
.
O AI LNG QUANG

305
That ra, tat ca cac ien t phat xa bi catot se khong i en ong cc th
nhat mot cach ay u: neu goi
t
la gia tr hieu dung di chuyen, bieu thc o
li M c viet lai:

n
c t
M ( ) =
vi: n - so ong cc, thng t 5 15.
- he so phat xa th cap, co tr gia t 5 10.
c t
, - gia tr hieu dung tap hop va di chuyen thng ln hn 90%.
o li M cua en nhan quang ien t
6
10
8
10 .
o li M phu thuoc nhieu vao s phat xa ien t th cap, o la l do v
sao trong en nhan quang ien ngi ta chon vat lieu co phat xa th cap ln
nh ta a biet: ,
3
s 2 s b
C Sb K C S ,
2 s
Na KC Sb, GaP( )
s
C , AgOMg, BeOCu
( )
s
C .

Hnh 9.30: He so phat xa th cap
theo nang lng ien t s cap
2- Cach mac c ban
Viec thc hien mach o s dung en nhan quang ien can thiet:
- Xac nh mach ien cung cap cho cac ong cc (H.9.31).
- Xac nh ien tr tai
m
R .

Hnh 9.31: Mach ien cung cap cho cac
ong cc en nhan quang ien
CHNG 9

306
Mach ien cung cap cho cac ong cc: dung e cung cap cho cac ong
cc cac ien ap thch hp, cau tao bi mot mach chiet ap c cung cap bi
ien ap cao
HT
V , ien ap sai biet gia cac ien cc tuy thuoc vao loai en va
tuy thuoc vao o li, no co the thay oi t vai chuc en vai tram von. Tuy
nhien, ien ap
kd
V
1
gia catot va ong cc th nhat phai c an nh chnh
xac bi anh hng cua no en gia tr hieu dung di chuyen cua ien t phat xa
catot cung nh t le gia dong ien va quang thong bc xa, chnh v vay ie n
ap nay can on nh nh mot diod Zener. Dong ien I trong mach chiet a p
thng phai ln hn nhieu so vi dong ien anot trung bnh
a
I nham e am
bao ien ap cung cap cho cac ong cc cung nh o li cua en khong b anh
hng bi dong ien mach vong cua cac ong cc tao ra bi s phat xa th
cap.
Ngi ta thng chon I > 100
a
I , I co tr gia trong khoang 0,1 1mA.
iem chung (mass) cua mach o co the at canh anot hoac catot. Trong
trng hp at canh anot, tn hieu ien lay t ien tr tai co the cung cap trc
tiep cho mach o pha sau, cach mac nay thch hp e o nguon sang co s
thay oi rat cham.

Hnh 9.32: Cac loai ket noi ien tr tai khac nhau
a) Ket noi trc tiep; b) Ket noi tu ien; c) Bien oi dong - ap.
O AI LNG QUANG

307
Trong trng hp iem mass at gan catot, ien tr tai c ngan cach
vi mach o pha sau bi mot tu ien, cach mac nay co li trong trng hp
quang thong thay oi nhanh, ngi ta nhan thay viec at iem mass gan catot
se lam giam nhng dao ong dong ien vung toi.
ien ap cao (HT) thng co tr so trong khoang t 700V en 3000V, an
nh o li M va v vay can on nh, ta co:

HT
HT
dV dM
n
M V
=
n la so lng ong cc, vi n = 10 e o li M co o on nh 1%, ien ap
cao
HT
V can co o on nh la 0,1%.
3- Dong ien anot vung toi
Dong ien anot vung toi
ao
I tng ng vi trng hp khong co quang
thong bc xa, no co nguon goc:
- S phat xa ien t do hieu ng nhiet ion hoa catot tao nen dong ien
catot vung toi
ko
I
- Cac dong ien ro xuat hien gia cac ien cc, co the giam thieu cac
dong ien ro xuong mc o khong ang ke bang cach tranh e en b am t.
Trong ieu kien nh vay ta co:
ao ko
I MI =
Dong ien vung toi
ao
I phu thuoc vao:
- Giong nh o li M, phu thuoc vao ien ap cao HT va ien ap gia cac
ong cc.
- Giong nh dong ien
ko
I , phu thuoc vao nhiet o catot, vi viec lam
lanh 20 C thong thng cho phep giam dong ien
ko
I t 10 100 lan so
vi nhiet o moi trng.
4- o nhay
Ta co:
a k
I MI =
o nhay M tuy thuoc vat lieu phu cac ong cc, s bo tr va so lng cac
ong cc, ien ap cao
HT
V .

=
k
q T
I
hc
( ) ( )
( )

=
a HT
q T
I M V
hc
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
CHNG 9

308

Hnh 9.33: o li M theo ien ap cao
va theo so ong cc
Trong o lng dong
a
I khong vt qua mot gia tr cc ai nh trc o
li M oc lap oi vi
a
I va ac tnh cua en nhan quang ien th tuyen tnh,
o nhay pho anot
a
S ( ) c tnh:

= =

a
a HT
I q T
S M V
hc
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )

a HT k
S M V S ( ) ( ) ( ) =
vi
k
S ( ) la o nhay pho catot.
Thong thng cac ai lng tren co tr so nh sau:
M: t
5
10
8
10

k
S p ( ) : t 10 100mA/W

a
S p ( ) : t
3
10
7
10 A/W
en nhan quang ien co o nhay ln nen c dung trong viec o nguon
sang yeu.
S thay oi theo nhiet cua o nhay ve o ln va ve dau tuy thuoc vao vat
lieu lam catot va o dai song vao khoang 0,1% 1%/ C. e o ai lng
quang mot cach chnh xac, en nhan quang ien c bo tr lam the nao e co
c nhiet o on nh.
5- Thi gian ap ng
Tnh nhanh cua en nhan quang ien c xac nh bi thi gian di
chuyen cua cac ien t gia catot, cac ong cc, anot. oi vi cau truc cac
ong cc cho trc, thi gian di chuyen trung bnh gia catot va anot tuy thuoc
O AI LNG QUANG

309
vao gia tr ien ap
HT
V :

tr
HT
hang so
T
V
=
vi
tr
T thng co tr so t 10 100ns
S o mach ien tng ng cua en nhan quang ien va ien tr tai
m
R nh hnh 9.34.

Hnh 9.34: S o tng ng cua en nhan quang ien
va ien tr tai
m
R
vi:
a
I - dong ien anot
d
R - ien tr noi cua en nhan quang ien,
d
R >
12
10
C
p
- ien dung ky sinh gia anot va mass.
Trong trng hp
m d
R R , hang so thi gian cua mach ien
m p
R C = , ta co:
Thi gian len
m
t ' va thi gian xuong
c
t
'
:
m c m p
t t R C ' ' , = = 2 2
Vi
m
R = 50 , C
p
= 10 F
m c
t t ns ' ' , = = 0 5 .
Vi so lieu tren cho thay viec s dung ien tr tai
m
R tng oi nho la
ieu co the c do o nhay cao cua en nhan quang ien, ieu nay cho phep
lam giam hang so thi gian cua mach ien.
CHNG 10

310
Chng 10
DAO ONG KY, TIA AM CC
VA MAY GHI X-Y
10.1 ONG PHONG IEN T (CRT)
10.1.1 Cac bo phan trong CRT (cathode ray tube)
Tim en F: Dung e ot nong catot cua CRT, ien the ot tim en la 6,3
VAC.
Catot C: be mat co phu mot lp oxit kim loai khi tiep thu nhiet nang se
bc xa ien t (hien tng nhiet phat xa).
Li ieu khien: Co dang cai ly bang nikel, co mot lo e cho chum ie n
t qua, li ieu khien nay bao quanh catot. ien the phan cc gia catot va
li se tao ra ien trng ieu khien so ien t c phep ra khoi li. Khi
V
GK
(ien the gia li va catot) cang am th so ien t thoat ra khoi li cang
t, neu V
GK
at en ien the ngng dan th chum tia ien t khong thoat ra
c khoi li.
Ban cc gia toc A
1
(H.10.1) co nhiem vu lam tang toc cho chum tia ien
t, ban cc nay co dang hnh tru, mot au h hng chum tia ien t i vao,
mot au kn ch cha mot lo nho tai tam cho chum tia ien t tap trung lai va
i qua.
A
2
A
3
: Hai ban cc nay phoi hp vi ban cc A
1
tao thanh he thong thau
knh ien t (H.10.2). Do s phan cc ien ap khac nhau gia A
1
, A
2
va A
2
, A
3

chung ta co lc tnh ien tac ong len chum tia ien t, lc tac ong nay phu
thuoc vao cac ng ang the. Cac s phan cc ien ap nay thay oi th cac
ng ang the thay oi se tao ra s thay oi o hoi tu cua chum tia ien t.

311

Hnh 10.1: Ong phong tia ien t CRT

Hnh 10.2: He thong thau knh hoi tu chum tia ien t
dung tnh ien
Ban lech doc va ban lech ngang: Khi chum tia ien t i qua ban lech doc
hoac lech ngang, th ien trng gia hai ban cc nay se lai chum tia ien t
lech theo chieu doc va chieu ngang bang lc tnh ien (ieu nay khac vi s
lech chum tia ien t cua en hnh trong ti vi bang lc ien t, ngha la co
cuon day lech thay cho ban cc lech). o lech cua chum tia ien t theo chieu
doc hoac ngang phu thuoc vao ien ap gia hai ban cc.
V du 10.1: Ban cc lech doc co hai au, mot au ien ap E ( / ) + 2 mot au
ien ap E ( / ) 2 (H.10.3), th khi o ien ap gia hai ban cc la E ve pha tren,
do o chum tia ien t b keo lech ve pha tren.
CHNG 10

312

Hnh 10.3: S keo lech chum tia ien t
Con neu ien ap 2 E ( / ) ban lech tren va + 2 E ( / ) ban lech di th
chum tia ien t b keo ve pha di.
o lech tia c xac nh:
A1
d VLl 2DV / =
trong o: V - ien ap gia hai ban cc
L - chieu dai cua ban cc
l - khoang cach t ban cc en man anh huynh quang
D - khoang cach gia hai ban cc
V
A1
- ien ap at vao ban cc so vi mass.
Thong thng o lech c xac nh tren man anh n v (1V/cm). Do o
o nhay S c xac nh:
= =
1
2
A
DV V von
S von cm
d cm l L
( )
( / )
( )

V du 10.2: D = 1cm; l = 2cm, L = 15cm va ien ap gia A
1
va catot bang 50V.
Do o o nhay cua o lech:
cm V
S V cm
cm cm
( )

=
2 1 50
2 15
100
= V/ cm)
30
(
Gia hai ban cc lech doc va lech ngang cua dao ong ky co mot ban
chan noi mass e ngan cach anh hng ien trng cua hai ban lech doc va
lech ngang lan nhau.
Man huynh quang: mat trong cua man anh ong CRT c phu mot lp
phat quang, tuy theo vat lieu cua lp phat quang nay ma tia sang phat ra khi
chum tia ien t ap vao man anh huynh quang se co mau khac nhau:
DAO ONG KY, TIA AM CC VA MAY GHI X-Y

313
Chat phat quang (Zn
2
SiO
4
va Mn): cho mau xanh la
Chat phat quang muoi sulfuric cadnium: cho mau vang.
Lp than ch xung quanh ong canh man anh thu nhan cac ien t phat
xa th cap (cac ien t ap vao man anh doi tr lai). Do o ien the am
khong tch tu lai tren man anh.
ien ap phan cc cho anot co tr so rat ln vao khoang kV (10
3
V) no
rat manh (tang toc) cho chum tia ien t ap manh vao man huynh quang.
Cac vong ien tr hnh xoay oc ben ngoai c noi mass se lam cho
cac ien tch tu, do ien trng ln gia catot va anot b trung hoa ien tch.
10.1.2 S phan cc cho cac bo phan CRT

Hnh 10.4: Mach phan cc cua ong phong tia am cc
ien the phan cc cho li, v du: 2 kV (Vg), khi thay oi bien tr P
1

ien the V
GK
thay oi V
K
= 1950V. Nh vay V
GK
< 0 anh hng en s phong
ien t ra khoi li. Vay P
1
ieu chnh o sang cho chum tia ien t.
CHNG 10

314
Bien tr P
2
thay oi ien trng cho cac ban cc hoi tu A
1
, A
2
, A
3
nh
a e cap tren, phan hoi tu chum tia ien t.
Bien tr P
3
dung e thay oi ien the gia hai ban cc lech doc. V du
con chay cua bien tr P
3
dch chuyen ve pha trai th ien ap Y
1
tang so vi
ien ap Y
2
, tia sang (chum tia ien t) b keo lech ve pha tren (pha Y
1
).
Con neu con chay lech ve pha phai, ien the Y
1
giam dan so vi Y
2
,
chum tia ien t keo lech ve pha di (Y
2
). Khi con chay gia bien tr P
3

hieu ien ap gia Y
1
, Y
2
bang khong, chum tia ien t khong b keo lech ve
pha nao.
Bien tr P
4
dung e thay oi chum tia ien t theo chieu ngang (ly luan
nh phan ieu khien tia sang quet doc)
Bien tr P
4
: co nhiem vu thay oi ien ap ban cc phu e ieu chnh
o lech cua chum tia ien t do t trng nhieu tao ra.

10.2 CAC KHOI CHC NANG TRONG DAO ONG KY
10.2.1 Tong quat (H.10.5)

Hnh 10.5: Cac kho i chc na ng trong dao ong ky
Nguon cung cap tao ra ien ap mot chieu anot (vao khoang vai kV)
cho li, catot, cc gia toc va tat ca ien the DC cho cac mach ien trong dao
ong ky.
Khoi khuech ai tn hieu ieu khien chum tia ien t quet theo chieu
doc .

315
Khoi tao tn hieu rang ca lam chuan thi gian cho truc X cua man
anh dao ong ky
Khoi khuech ai tn hieu ieu khien chum tia ien t quet theo chieu
ngang .
Khoi tao tn hieu xung kch cho s ong bo hoa, ieu khien chum tia
ien t quet doc va ngang e cho hnh anh hien th tren man anh ng yen
(ngha la phai co s phoi hp ong bo cho s ieu khien quet doc va quet
ngang cua chum tia ien t)
10.2.2 Khoi khuech ai quet doc (H.10.6)

Hnh 10.6: Mach khoi khuech ai quet doc
Tn hieu vao thanh o (prope) c a qua mach phan tam o (mach
giam - attenuator network) e tn hieu a vao mach tien khuech a i
preamplifier) ay la mach khuech ai ien ap nh phan von-ke ien t.
Ngo vao cua mach phan tam o co khoa S
1
cho hai cach ghep:
Ghep trc tiep DC (direct coupling), tn hieu DC va AC eu c a
vao.
Ghep gian tiep AC (alternative coupling) ch cho tn hieu DC vao. Co n
v tr O khoa S
1
noi mass khong co tn hieu vao.
Tuy theo v tr cua nut thay oi tam o (theo n v Volt/Div), mach giam
co khoa S
2
v tr tng ng.
Sau o tn hieu a vao mach khuech ai vi sai (Q
2
, Q
3
) co mach khuech
ai theo ien ap (mach khuech ai em) Q
1
, Q
4
. Cuoi cung tn hieu C
2
, C
3

(V
C2
V
C3
) c a vao mach khuech ai cong suat (main frame amplifier).
ien ap hai au ra cua mach khuech ai cong suat a vao hai ban cc lech
doc (ket hp vi ien ap DC co san cua ban cc lech doc).
CHNG 10

316

Hnh 10.7: Mach phan tam o va mach khuech ai ien ap
10.2.3 Khoi khuech ai quet ngang (H.10.8)

Hnh 10.8: Mach khoi khuech ai quet ngang
Khoi khuech ai quet ngang giong nh khoi khuech ai quet doc. Ngoai
ra tn hieu vao co hai cach phu thuoc vao v tr cua khoa S
2
. Neu khoa S
2
v
tr EXT, tn hieu quet ngang c a t ngoai vao. Neu S
2
v tr INT th tn
hieu quet dang rang ca t mach tao tn hieu quet rang ca (sweep generator)
c a vao.

317
10.3 TRNH BAY TN HIEU TREN MAN ANH CUA DAO ONG
KY
10.3.1 S phoi hp cua tn hieu y = f(t) va x = Kt
e trnh bay tn hieu can quan sat tren
man anh tn hieu quan sat c a vao
ngo quet doc (vertical input) con tn hieu
song rang ca mach tao tn hieu quet a
vao ngo quet ngang (horizontal input).
Tn hieu dang rang ca nay con c
goi la tn hieu chuan thi gian (time base).
Nh vay canh len cua tn hieu quet ngang
la ng thang t le theo thi gian t: X = Kt
He so K co the thay oi c khi thay
oi tan so cua tn hieu quet dang rang ca.
Cho nen khi tn hieu vao, gia s la tn hieu
sin, co bieu thc:
= y Asi n t
Khi o tn hieu c bieu dien tren
man anh:
Y A si n x K ( / ) =
Nh vay s phoi hp gia hai tn hieu
quet doc va quet ngang cua hnh 10.9a,b se
cho hnh 10.9c bieu dien hnh anh cua tn
hieu tren man anh.
10.3.2 S ong bo hoa gia hai tn hieu quet doc va quet ngang
canh len OA cua tn hieu quet dang rang ca the hien hnh 10.9b se
cho tn hieu sin xuat hien tren man anh en iem so 9. Sau o trong thi gian
canh xuong AB cua tn hieu quet rang ca, chum tia ien t c quet ngang
tr lai. Nhng trong luc chum tia ien t quay tr ve th tn hieu quan sat van
tiep tuc hien hu theo thi gian. Do o dan en iem bat au chu ky quet
th hai cua tn hieu khao sat khong cung tai v tr cua lan quet th nhat (v du
lan quet th nhat (H.10.9c) bat au tai so (1) nhng lan quet th hai tai iem khac).
Nh vay chung ta co hien tng tn hieu quan sat tren man anh chay
(nhanh hoac cham) tren man anh. o la hien tng khong ong bo cua tn
Hnh 10.9: S bieu th hnh
sin tren man anh
a) au vao dao ong doc
b) au vao dao ong
CHNG 10

318
hieu quet ngang va doc.
Trong thi gian chum tia ien t quay tr ve th canh xuong cua tn
hieu quet rang ca i vao mach xoa ng hoi (blanking), se tao ra ien the
li V
GK
rat am e cho khong co tn hieu quet ngang cua chum tia ien t xuat
hien tren man hnh trong thi gian nay.

Hnh 10.10: S o khoi cua mach quet tn hieu rang ca
co s ieu khien
e cho tn hieu quan sat va tn hieu rang ca co cung v tr khi au
moi lan quet, th tn hieu rang ca khong c t do xuat hien ma phai xua t
hien khi co xung kch ma xung kch co tan so phu thuoc vao tn hieu quan sat
nh trnh bay cua s o khoi hnh 10.10.
Tn hieu quan sat c qua mach khuech ai trigger (trigger amplifier)
tuy theo cach lay ngo ra se co tn hieu V
o1
va V
o2
trai pha. Sau o c a

319
vao mach kch Schmitt, mach vi phan (differentiator), mach xen (clipper). ay
la khoi ong bo hoa cho tn hieu quet rang ca e cho tn hieu rang ca xuat
phat cung tai v tr khi au cua tn hieu quan sat phan quet doc (H.10.11)

Hnh 10.11: Tn hieu quet rang ca c ong bo
vi tn hieu sin quan sat
Hnh 10.11a: e the hien mot chu ky tn hieu sin tren man anh cua dao
ong ky, th tn hieu xung kch (gai am) phai xuat hien trc khi canh len cua
tn hieu quet rang ca at en mc kch tren cua mach kch schmitt ngay tai v
tr cuoi cua chu ky cua tn hieu sin khao sat. ieu nay lam cho canh cua tn
hieu quet ot ngot giam ve 0. e bat au quet cho chu ky tn hieu sin ke
tiep cho iem bat au giong nh trc. Nh vay s hoat ong cua tn hieu quet
rang ca c ieu khien bang xung kch (gai am), ong thi khi o tai ca nh
xuo ng cua tn hieu rang ca cung lam cho mach xoa ng hoi (blanking) tao
ra ien ap V
GK
rat am e khong co chum tia ien t xuat hien tren man anh
(H.10.12).

CHNG 10

320
Hnh 10.12: a) Tn hieu khong co mach xoa ng hoi
b) Tn hieu co mach xoa
Con hnh 10.11b la s the hien hai chu ky cua tn hieu sin, thi ie m
bat au chu ky th hai cua tn hieu sin nh co mach hold-off (khong cho tn
hieu xung kch xuat hien) tai v tr nay cua xung rang ca, cho nen tn hieu
rang ca tiep tuc quet ngang e cho chu ky th hai cua tn hieu sin c xuat
hien tren man anh. Cho en khi tn hieu rang ca at gan en mc tren cua
mach kch th xung kch (gai am) xuat hien e tn hieu rang ca co canh xuo ng
va lam cho tn hieu quet tr lui. iem bat au cua tn hieu quan sat tren man
anh phu thuoc vao ien ap ra cua mach khuech ai ien ap kch (triggering
amplifier) ien ap ra nay c ieu chnh bi bien tr R
10
nh hnh 10.13.
Khi ien ap ra co tr so gan bang mc kch tren cua mach kch schmitt th iem
bat au xuat hien cua tn hieu sin mc 0.

Hnh 10.13: S thay oi ien the DC cho mc kch
e ieu xung xung kch

321
Hnh 10.13b: Khi ien ap ra cach xa mc kch tren cua mach kch
schmitt th iem bat au cua tn hieu quan sat xuat hien mc cao hn, phu
thuoc vao khoang cach cua hai mc nay.
10.4 DAO ONG KY HAI KENH
10.4.1 Tong quat
e co the cung luc quan sat c hai tn hieu khao sat tren man anh,
ngi ta thc hien dao ong ky hai kenh (hoac nhieu kenh). Trc het, cai tien
ong phong tia ien t (CRT).

Hnh 10.14: Ong phong ien t co hai tia sang
xuat hien tren man anh
Co hai loai:
- Loai hai catot phat ra hai chum tia ien t (dual beam) (H.10.14a)
- Loai mot catot phat ra mot chum tia ien t nh khoa chuyen oi ien t
thc hien tuan t chum tia ien t c quet doc moi kenh (do tan so
chuyen mach ln hn tan so lu anh cua mat cho nen chung ta thay c hai
hnh anh cua hai kenh tren cung mot man anh).
Nh vay mach khuech ai quet doc se co hai mach cho moi kenh. Tn
hieu quet ngang tuan t phoi hp vi tn hieu moi kenh A va B theo hnh
10.16.

CHNG 10

322

Hnh 10.15: S o khoi dao ong ky

Hnh 10.16: S trnh bay tn hieu hai kenh tren man anh

323
chu ky th nhat tn hieu quet ngang phoi hp vi tn hieu sin cho kenh
A.
chu ky th hai cua tn hieu quet ngang phoi hp vi tn hieu dang rang
ca cua kenh B (H.10.16c).
Ket qua hai tn hieu hai kenh cung xuat hien tren man anh.
10.5 THANH O (PROBE) CUA DAO ONG KY
Thanh o cua dao ong ky co hai mc thay oi ien ap.
- Mc ien ap 1: 1
- Mc ien ap 10: 1.
ien dung
C
c
- ien dung ky sinh cua day dan.
C
i
- ien dung ngo vao quet doc.
R
i
- ien tr vao cua ngo quet doc.
trong trng hp nay tong tr vao cua ngo quet doc:

[ ]
= +
i c i i
Z C C R //
Trng hp thanh o co bo giam 10:1 (H.10.18). Trong thanh o co ien
tr R
1
, tu C
1
, Cs (thay oi) Cc khi co ien ap vao V
1
cua ngo vao quet doc
i
V :

i 1
V = V
c s i i
s c i i
C + C + C R
C R C C C R
[( )// ]
[ // ][( )// ] + +
1 1

at: C
2
= C
s
+ C
c
+ C
i
.

= =
+
+
i
i
i
C R
V V V
C R C R C R
C R
//
( // ) ( // ) ( // )
( // )
2
1 1
1 1 1 1 2 1
2
1
1

do o e thanh o co: =
i
V V
1

th: =
1 1
2
9
i
C R
C R
//
//

Ngha la: =
+ +
1
1 1 2
9
1 1
i
i
R R
j C R j C R

hoac:
+
=
+
1 1 1
2
1
9
1
i i
R j C R
R j C R

CHNG 10

324
Nh vay e cho tn hieu ngo vao quet doc giam i 10 lan va khong phu
thuoc vao tan so tn hieu th phai thoa them ieu kien sau:
1 1 2 i
C R = C R , khi
o
1 i
R = 9R

Hnh 10.17: Thanh o khong co giam ap

Hnh 10.18: Thanh o co giam ap 10:1
V du 10.3:
1 i c
R M C =10pF; R = 2M C (khong bi et); ; ; =
1
9
i
C =10pF;
C
s
la tu ien thay oi (co tr so ln nhat 100pF), suy ra muon cho mach o la
bo giam 10:1 va khong phu thuoc tan so tn hieu th:
1 1 i 2
R C = R .C
1 1
c s i
i
R C M
C = C +C +C = pF
R M
2
9
10
1
=
s c
C + C + 10pF = 90pF
Suy ra: C
s
+ C
c
= 80 pF
Khi o neu C
c
trong khoang t 1pF en 80pF th chung ta thay oi c
C
s
e thoa ieu kien tren. Trong trng hp C
c
> 80pF th phai thay oi C
1
cho
phu hp.
Gia s C
c
= 100pF, th C
1
phai thay tr so ln hn (v du C
1
= 15pF).
Khi o: C
s
+ 100pF = (135pF 10pF); ieu chnh: C
s
= 25pF.
Khi a tn hieu xung vuong vao, se co anh hng en dang cua tn hie u
tu C
1
va C
2
nh a noi tren. Neu tn hieu xung vuong xuat hien tren man
anh co dang hnh 10.19a.

325

Hnh 10.19: Cac dang tn hieu xung vuong ap ng
vi tn hieu xung vuong a vao ngo quet doc
ap ng cua mach RC ngo vao cua dao ong ky khong thch hp vi tan
so cao (bo chnh tan so yeu). Khi o chung ta ieu chnh Cs e tn hieu xung
vuong co dang nh hnh 10.19c (bo chnh tan so ung).
Neu tn hieu xuat hien co dang nh hnh 10.19b mach RC ap ng qua
mc oi vi canh len va xuong cua xung. Chung ta phai ieu chnh tu C
s
e co
ap ng nh dang hnh 10.19c.
10.6 BO TAO TRE
oi vi tn hieu khao sat co tan so cao, e cho van toc bay cua chum tia
ien t catot en ban lech doc hoac lech ngang, phu hp vi toc o truyen cua
tn hieu t ngo vao en ban cc lech doc hoac lech ngang, ngi ta thng cho
tn hieu i qua bo tao tre (v toc o truyen tn hieu ln hn van toc bay cua
ien t).
Bo tao tre thng co hai dang loai day song hanh hoac day ong truc, co
hai dang mach nh sau:

Hnh 10.20: Mach tao tre

Khi tn hieu i qua mot mach LC, no se co thi gian tre la:
CHNG 10

326
{ } = t s LC L(H), C(F) ( )
Khi o tn hieu i qua n bo se co thi gian tre: T = nt
Va ien tr tai R = L C e co s ieu hp tong tr, giup cho cong
suat tn hieu ra khong b suy giam.
V du 10.4: = 0 25 T n=11bo; R= 600 . , sec; Xac nh t, tr so L va C
Giai: Thi gian tre cua 1 bo t = , / sec
6
0 25 10 11
Do o
6 2
0 25 10 11 600
= =
2
LC vaR =L C , / sec /
Suy ra
2
L C ; C ( , )/ sec
= =
2 2 6
600 600 0 25 10 11
C
,

= =
6
12
0 25 10 2500
10
11 600 66

C = 37,87pF # 38pF

L H # ,
=
4 12
36 10 38 10 13 68
Loai day ong truc.
Khi tn hieu truyen qua day co thi gian tre
m
t s
V m s
( )
( / )
=
1

V: toc o truyen tn hieu, vi V LC / = 1 , L, C la ien cam va ien dung
cua cap ong truc.
Hnh 10.21: Cau tao cua day ong truc
V du 10.5: Cap ong truc co = 10 L H ; C = 40pF. Xac nh t
Giai: Thi gian tre t cua tn hieu truyen qua day
t V LC LC / /( / )

= = = =
6
1 1 1 4 10 sec , sec
= =
8
2 10 0 02
Do o toc o truyen tn hieu: V m s
LC
, /
= = =
8
8
1 1
0 5 10
2 10

1- Loi polyetilene
2- Da y kim loai xoa n o c
3- L p ca ch ien
4- Da y da n ngoa i
5- Vo bo c ba o ve

327
10.7 NG DUNG CUA DAO ONG KY
10.7.1 o bien o va chu ky
o bien o: Phu thuoc vao nut phan tam o (theo n v Volt/Div).
V du 10.6: Nh hnh 10.22 bien o nh cua cac tn hieu:
A : V
A
= 450mV (p-p);
B : V
B
= 200mV(p-p)
o chu ky: phu thuoc vao nut chu ky cua tn hieu quet rang ca (n v
di v sec / ) .
Chu ky cua tn hieu A:
A A
T di v 0,5 msec di v = 4,4msec T m , / , sec = = 2 8 8 2 2
Chu ky cua tn hieu B:
V
A
= (4,5DIV) 100mV/DIV; V
B
= (2DIV) 100mV/DIV
2T
A
= (8,8DIV) 0,5ms/DIV; 6T
A
= (8,8DIV) 0,5ms/DIV

Hnh 10.22: Cach tnh bien o va chu ky cua tn hieu quan sat
6T
B
= 8,8div 0,5msec/div = 4,4msec
B
T m m , sec / , sec = = 4 4 6 0 73
CHNG 10

328
10.7.2 o s lech pha gia hai tn hieu (H.10.23)

Hnh 10.23: Cach tnh s lech pha gia hai tn hieu A va B

Tn hieu A va B co s lech pha c tnh theo truc thi gian:
t T di v di v / , / , / = = 1 4 8 0 7 4ma = 2 T radian = 360 suy ra goc lech pha
tng ng vi t :
t
T
= = 360
,
=
0 7
360 63
4

Dung hnh Lissajous e o s chenh lech pha gia hai tn hieu (H.10.24). Tn
hieu A a vao ngo quet doc, tn hieu B a vao ngo quet ngang.
A, B cung pha: hnh Lissajous la ng thang (H.10.24c).
A, B trai pha (H.10.24d)
A, B lech pha 90 (H.10.24e).
A, B lech pha bat ky hnh elip (H.10.24f, g). = 2 2 B A sin

329

Hnh 10.24: Dung hnh Lissajous e o s lech pha
gia hai tn hieu
CHNG 10

330
V du: 2A = 6div, 2B = 4div, = 2 3 = 41 8 sin
(trng hp hnh elip ve pha phai).
= 131 8 (trng hp elip ve pha trai)

Hnh 10.25: Cach tnh t
r
, t
f

10.7.3 o thi gian len t
r
cua xung: theo nh ngha t 10% bien
o en 90 % bien o
r
t di v 5 s di v , / , sec = = 0 5 2 5
Va thi gian xuong = 0 6
f
t di v 5 sec = 3 sec ,
Con toc o ap ng cua xung canh len.

r
V di v 2V di v
2,9von sec
t
, /
/
, sec

= =
3 6
2 5

10.7.4. Ve ac tuyen V-I cua linh kien ien t
Ve ac tuyen I
d
= f(V
d
) (H.10.26a)
Mach c phan cc bi tn hieu rang ca hoac tn hieu sin, ien ap hai
au ien tr R
1
vao ngo doc Y, co ien ap hai au diod a vao ngo quet
ngang X (iem 0 noi mass cua dao ong ky).
ac tuyen I
d
= f(V
d
) c xuat hien tren man anh dao ong ky (H.10.26b)

331

Hnh 10.26: Mach ve ac tuyen I
d
= f(V
d
) va I
c
= f(V
CE
)
cua diod va transistor
a) Mach ve ac tuyen V - I cua diod
b) ac tuyen V - I cua diod tren man hnh dao ong ky
c) Mach ve ac tuyen V
CF
- I
C
cua transistor BJI theo thong so I
B

d) ac tuyen V
CF
- I
C
tren man hnh dao ong ky
Ve ac tuyen I
C
= f(V
CE
).
Cc nen c phan cc bi ien ap mot chieu
R
V thay oi, A- ke theo doi
dong phan cc I
B
. ien ap cua tn hieu rang ca c cung cap cho cc C-E
cua transistor (co the cung cap bi tn hieu sin nhng phai mac noi tiep vi
diod chnh lu ban ky dng cung cap cho mach).
d)
CHNG 10

332
10.8 VON KE T GHI KET QUA (Voltmeter Recorder)
Nguyen ly hoat ong:
Dung phng phap o ien ap bang bien tr t can bang (self balancing
potentiometer) (xem hnh 10.27).

Hnh 10.27: Mach nguyen ly cua may ve X - Y
c i
V V KE = 0 se c khuech ai bi A, ieu khien ong c servo M
quay theo chieu kim ong ho neu
> V 0 hoac quay ngc lai neu V
< 0, qua
he thong truyen ong c hoc se lam dch chuyen con chay cua bien tr o
lng
v
R e ieu chnh ien ap KE cho en khi V
= 0 th ong c dng lai.

ong thi cung lam dch chuyen but ghi ket qua o
i
V tren bang giay.
S o khoi cua von ke t ghi ket qua o:
S o khoi c dien ta bi hnh 10.28
Von ke t ghi co ac iem nh sau:
- ap ng vi nhng tn hieu
i
V thay oi co tan so thap (do ap ng tan
so cua he thong c hoc).
- S tuyen tnh phu thuoc vao o tuyen tnh cua bien tr o lng.
- o c nhng ien ap khoang millivon (millivon-ke t ghi), khong phu
thuoc vao noi tr cua nguon ien ap o.


333

Hnh 10.28: Von-ke t ghi ket qua tren giay theo thi gian
10.9 MAY GHI TREN HE TRUC X - Y (X - Y recorder)

Hnh 10.29: S o khoi cua may ghi X Y
May ghi X - Y gom co hai khoi hoat ong tren nguyen ly bien tr t can
bang.
But ghi V di chuyen trt tren thanh H khi ien ap vao X thay oi.
Thanh H di chuyen theo tn hieu vao Y trt tren thanh S.
Ham truyen cua tn hieu y theo x c but ghi ve tren giay kho A
4
at
tren ban ve D.
E THI

334
PHU LUC
1. E THI KY THUAT O - LP DD 96 HOC KY 2/99

Cau 1: a) Giai thch tai sao phai dung he so dang k
f
va he so nh k
p
trong
von-ke ien t o ien ap A.C.?
b) Cho biet quan he tn hieu ra cua mach tch phan hai o doc trong bien
oi A/D cua von-ke ch th so theo ien ap o V
IN
, ien ap chuan E
r
, thi gian
nap t
1
va thi gian xa t
2
?
Cau 2: a) Cho biet s chnh xac cua phan t o dung cau o phu thuoc vao
yeu to g cua cac phan t trong cau o?
b) Vi mach cau o hnh 1, hay tnh L
x
, R
x
va Q cua cuon day can o
theo cac phan t con lai cua cau khi cau can bang.
Cau 3: Ve mach o cong suat tac dung, cong suat phan khang va cos cho
tai ba pha dung watt-ke ba pha, var-ke ba pha loai 2,5 phan t va Cos -ke ba
pha ket hp vi bien dong.
Phan t chon (SV lam phan A hoac B)
Phan A
Cau 4a: Cho mot von-ke ien ong co thang o DC va AC trung nhau tai tan
so f
o

a) Hay ve mach tng ng cho von-ke tren
b) Tnh sai so tng oi 100
AC DC AC
V V V % theo cac thanh phan
tng ng R va L khi o ien ap AC tai tan so f
1
.
c) Ap dung khi f
o
= 50Hz; f
1
= 1kHz; L = 100mH; R = k 1 .
Hnh 1

335
Cau 5a: Cho mach o nh hnh 2
a) Xac nh R, Zi (tong tr vao).
b) Tr so tam o V
2
, V
3
, khi tam o V
1
=0,1V, R
1
= k 900 , R k =
2
90 ,
3
10 R k = ; I
FS
= 50 A;
G
R k = 1
Phan B
Cau 4b: Ngi ta o mot ien tr co tr so danh nh la 20k bang von va
ampe theo hai cach re dai va re ngan. Vi ampe co:
noi tr R
A
= 1 ; von-ke co thang o 0 50V va o nhay k V / 20 .
a) Hay tnh gia tr ien tr o c t hai cach tren theo so ch cua von
va ampe.
b) Tnh gia tr sai so tng oi phan tram cua hai so lieu o tren. T o
hay cho biet nen dung cach o nao th phu hp?
Cau 5b: Cho mach o dong nh hnh 3. Biet rang khung quay t ien co I
FS
=
50 A,
G D 1
R k ; V RMS (V); I RMS (A); ( ) ( ) , = = = 2 2 2 1 00005 2
=
2
3 00015 2 I RMS (A). ( ) , Tn hieu o co = = 2
p f
k k .
a) Hay ve dang cua dong ien can o.
b) Tnh cac tr so cua ien tr R
1
va R
2
theo tr hieu dung cua cac dong
ien cho tren hnh 3.
c) Neu dong ien o co dang sin th cac thang o mi se la bao nhieu neu
cac ien tr nh cau b.
Hnh 2
E THI

336

Hnh 3

2. E THI KY THUAT O - K95 NAM HOC 97-98

Cau 1: Cho biet nguyen ly hoat ong cua may o ien tr at dung t so ke t
ien (H.1). Trong thc te dong I
1
, I
2
va dong qua ien tr at la dong DC hay
AC. ien ap E
1
, E
2
la DC hay AC. Nh vay may o thc te co them bo phan
g?
Cau 2: Trong cau o (H.2) sinh vien hay cho biet cau o nao o cuon day Z co Q
ln va cuon day Z co Q nho. Tnh L
X
, R
X
, Q cho hai dang cau o.

Hnh 1 Hnh 2
Cau 3: Tai sao tn hieu thi chuan (tn hieu quet ngang) trong dao ong ky co
dang rang ca? Giai thch.
Cau 4: Giai thch watt-ke 3 pha 2( 1 2) phan t c chuyen thanh
var-ke o cong suat phan khang tai 3 pha thc hien nh the nao? Noi mach o
(H.3) cho hp ly.
E THI

337

Hnh 3 Hnh 4
Cau 5: Khao sat tn hieu ra cua mach tch phan hai o doc (H.4).
a) Cho biet t
1
, t
2
, V
o
co ac iem g va phu thuoc vao yeu to nao cua
mach o va dung lng cua bo em.
b) Xa c nh ie n a p o (V
I
)
MAX
khi o do c l n nha t (K
I
)
MAX
= 1mV/msec. Cho biet
dung lng bo em 2000 xung co chu ky T = 1msec.
Cau 6: Khao sat mach o va dang tn hieu o (H.5).
a) Xac nh ien tr R khi V
D
= 0,3V (RMS)
C cau o M (I
MAX
= 50 A, R
I
= 1K)
He so dang k
f
= 1,155; He so nh k
p
= 1,732.
b) Vi R a c xac nh cau a, th V
O
(hnh sin) co tr so bao nhieu?
Biet k
f
= 1,11 ; k
p
= 1,414

Hnh 5
E THI

338
3. E THI MON KY THUAT O LP D95

Cau 1: Cho biet khac nhau cua nguyen ly o cua Ohm-ke thng va Ohm-ke
ien t.

Hnh 1 Hnh 2

Hnh 3 Hnh 4a
Cau 2: a) Cho mach o sau ay (H.1) xac nh L
X
, R
X
, he so Q cua cuon day.
b) Cho biet tai sao phai dung Q-ke e o he so Q tan so cao.
Cau 3: Giai thch nhiem vu cua tng khoi trong hnh 2.
Cau 4: a) Cho biet u iem cua watt-ke 2,5 phan t so vi watt-ke hai phan
t.
b) Noi mach o hp ly cho hnh 3.
50 A
E THI

339

Phan t chon (Chon cau 5A hoac 5B)
Cau 5a: Cho mach o sau (H.4a)
a) Xac nh R
1
, R
2
, R
3
khi Z
I
= 1M (tong tr vao) va V
2
= 1V(DC), V
3
=
10V(DC).
b) Xac nh V
1
, V
2
, V
3
(AC) khi them diod noi tiep vi c cau ch th co
V
D
= 0,3 V (R
1
, R
2
, R
3
van co tr so khong oi).
Cau 5b: Cho mach tch phan hai o doc (H.4b). Xung vuong ieu khien co ban
ky tng ng vi 1563 xung clock, biet rang xung clock co tan so 1MHz.
Mach theo ien ap
E THI

340
Thi gian T
2
tng ng vi 1500 xung clock, khi ien ap can o V
i
= 1V.
Hay tnh tr gia nguon dong I
r
khi R
5
= 10k , C
1
= 0,1 F.

4. E THI MON KY THUAT O HK1 1999-2000

Cau 1: a) Chng minh goc quay cua khung quay ien ong t le thuan vi
cong suat tac dung cua tai xoay chieu.
b) Trnh bay tat ca cac phng phap o cong suat tac dung cua tai ba pha
bang watt-ke mot pha.
Cau 2: Mot ohm-ke co mach o nh hnh 1. Cho biet c cau o co noi tr
m
R k = 5 , dong = 100
FS
I A, nguon
1
V = 3,2V, khi
X
R k = 6 kim lech
na thang o. Tm gia tr cua
1
R va
2
R (biet
1
R ln hn
2
R ).
Cau 3: Cho mach o hnh 2a va dang ien ap nh hnh 2b.
a) Tnh gia tr ien tr R. Biet rang khung quay co = 50
FS
I A,
1
m
R k =
Tn hieu o co he so dang = 2 3
f
K ; he so nh = 3
a
K
b) T gia tr R va tnh, neu tn hieu o co he so dang = 2 2
f
K ; he
so nh = 2
a
K hay tnh gia tr hieu dung ln nhat cua tn hieu nay ma may
o c.
Sinh vien chon mot trong hai phan sau:

Hnh 1 Hnh 2a Hnh 2b
Phan A
Cau 4: ng dung cac dang ellip lissajour e lay mau tan so mot may phat tn
hieu dang song sin.
Cau 5: Phng phap tron song e o L hoac C.
Cau 6: Trnh bay ro phng phap nac thang trong von-ke so.
Cau 7: Mach bien oi dang tn hieu tam giac sang dang sin.
Phan B
E THI

341
Cau 8: Ve s o khoi cua tang ong bo trong dao ong ky tia am cc. Dang
song sau moi khoi? Nguyen tac e tao song rang ca mach quet?
Cau 9: Nguyen tac hoat ong cua Q ke? Cach o L va C bang Q ke?
Cau 10: Phng phap tch phan hai o doc (s o, dang song, bieu thc tnh).

5. E THI MON KY THUAT O HK2/ 1999-2000
LP BT98 CN T VT

Cau 1: Cho biet nguyen ly phan tam o cua ampe ke thng va ampe ke ien
t, giai thch?
Cau 2: Cho biet tai sao co hien tng khong ong bo cua tn hieu quan sat
tren dao ong ky? Lam the nao e co s ong bo?
Cau 3: Viet phng trnh can bang cua cau o (H.1).

Hnh 3
Hnh 1
Hnh 2
E THI

342
Xac nh Z
X
= R
X
+ jX (X la cam hoac dung khang) e sao cho tr so cua
phan t o khong phu thuoc vao tan so va tnh he so Q (hoac D) cua phan t
o?
Cau 4: Ve mach o cong suat tac dung va phan khang cua tai ba pha vi watt-
ke ba phan t va var-ke 2,5 phan t theo hnh 2.
Cau 5: Cho mach o sau ay (H.3):
Mach o co cho sai sot, hay ve lai cho ung; bo ch th co
m
I A vaR R k
max
. = = = 50 1 Xac nh R
1
e cho tr so = 100
x
R
.max
tam
o X1.
Khi thay oi tam o (X10, X100...) th R
1
co tr so nh the nao?

Phu luc: Dang tn hieu va he so dang
f
K he so nh
p
K

Da ng tn hie u
Tr hie u
du ng
RMS
Tr trung
bnh
MAD
He so
da ng
=
f
RMS
K
MAD

He so nh
p
K
So ng sin
m
V
2

0,707
m
V
m
2
V

0,637
m
V
2 2
=1,111
2 =1,414
Xung vuong
o i x ng
m
V
m
V
1 1
So ng tam gia c
hoac rang ca
m
V
3

m
V
2

2
3
=1,155
3 =1,732
Chuoi xung
o rong
m
V
m
V
1
=
1

m
V
m
V
1 1
0,25 0,3333
m
0,5V
m
0,25V
2 2
0,0625 0,0667
m
0,25V
m
0,0625V
4 4
0,0156 0,0159
m
0,125V
m
0,0156V
8 8
Be rong xung
0,01 0,0101
m
0,1V
m
0,01V
10 10

343
Tai lieu tham khao

1. David A. Bell, Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements, Prentice
Hall International Edition.

2. Larry D. Jones and Foster Chin, Electronic Instruments and
Measurement, John Wiley & Sons, xuat ban lan 1, 1987; Practice Hall
International,

3. H. S. Kalsi, Electronic Instrumentation, Ta Ta Mc Grawhill Publishing
Company Limited - New Delhi, 1995.

4. Clyde F. Coombs Jr. Edition Chief, Electronic Instrument Handbook, Mc
GrawHill Inc, 1995.

5. V. Bopov, Electrical Measurements, Mir Publisher - Moscow, 1982.

6. Georges ASCH ef collaborateurs, Les Capteurs en instrumentation
industrielle, Dunod edition, xuat ban lan 3, 1998.

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AI HOC QUOC GIA THANH PHO HO CH MINH

TRNG AI HOC BACH KHOA

O IEN AP VA DONG IEN

= 10k: ie n tr chnh tr so ln nha t cho ma ch o ien tr

c at trong hai nhanh cua cau o. ien ap

- he so nhiet o cua ien tr suat 20 C.

- o cao vung cam tnh bang volt, oi vi silicium co tr

+ KT/qLogI KT/qmLogT KT/qLogC

> V 0 hoac quay ngc lai neu V

= 0 th ong c dng lai.

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ĐHQG.kỹ Thuật Đo Tập 1-Đo Điện - Nguyễn Ngọc Tân &amp; Ngô Văn Ky, 342 Trang

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ĐHQG.kỹ Thuật Đo Tập 1-Đo Điện - Nguyễn Ngọc Tân &amp; Ngô Văn Ky, 342 Trang

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Copyright:

Available Formats

AI HOC QUOC GIA THANH PHO HO CH MINH

TRNG AI HOC BACH KHOA

O IEN AP VA DONG IEN

= 10k: ie n tr chnh tr so ln nha t cho ma ch o ien tr

c at trong hai nhanh cua cau o. ien ap

- he so nhiet o cua ien tr suat 20 C.

- o cao vung cam tnh bang volt, oi vi silicium co tr

+ KT/qLogI KT/qmLogT KT/qLogC

> V 0 hoac quay ngc lai neu V

= 0 th ong c dng lai.

You might also like

ĐHQG.kỹ Thuật Đo Tập 1-Đo Điện - Nguyễn Ngọc Tân & Ngô Văn Ky, 342 Trang

ĐHQG.kỹ Thuật Đo Tập 1-Đo Điện - Nguyễn Ngọc Tân & Ngô Văn Ky, 342 Trang