Lectures 13 and 14 The Twentieth Century

1) Before 1914
- the Boer War (1899-1902) British orces deeated the Boers! "ut the conduct o
the war (inc#udin$ concentration o Boer wo%en and chi#dren in ca%&s) was
contro'ersia# at ho%e( The Boer re&u"#ics ca%e under British i%&eria# ru#e! "ut the
Boers were a"#e to do%inate the )nion o *outh +rica that was or%ed a ew years
#ater(
- Li"era# $o'ern%ent (190,-1,) o#d-a$e &ensions introduced restrictions on the
&ower o the -ouse o Lords + #eadin$ &ro%oter o these reor%s was the
Chance##or o the ./che0uer! 1a'id L#oyd 2eor$e (#ater 3ri%e 4inister durin$ the
5irst Wor#d War)
- Ca%&ai$n or wo%en6s ri$ht to 'ote inc#udin$ 'io#ent &rotest "y *ura$ettes in
1913-14 (attac7s on &ro&erty! hun$er stri7es in &rison)
- -o%e 8u#e or 9re#and Le$is#ation to set u& a -o%e-8u#e &ar#ia%ent or 9re#and
was ina##y &assed in 1914! "ut not i%&#e%ented "ecause o the 5irst Wor#d War( 9n
the %eanti%e 3rotestants in the north had or$ani:ed an ar%ed orce to o&&ose -o%e
8u#e (the )#ster ;o#unteer 5orce) and nationa#ists had or%ed the 9rish ;o#unteers
in res&onse(
2) The First World War (1914-18)
- Lar$e-sca#e 'o#unteerin$ or ar%ed orces no conscri&tion ti## 191<
- The Western 5ront (northern 5rance and Be#$iu%) trench warare %a=or
"att#es at >&res and on the 8i'er *o%%e (191< o'er 20!000 7i##ed on the irst
day) trau%atic e/&erience re#ected in #iterature and art
- ./&ansion o $o'ern%ent new %inistries - "ureaucracy
- Wo%en wor7in$ in ?%en6s =o"s@
- 8e"e##ion in 9re#and! "y a re&u"#ican %inority within the nationa# %o'e%ent
the .aster 8isin$! 191<
3) Irish independence
- The harsh British res&onse to the .aster 8isin$ stren$thened su&&ort or the
radica# nationa#ist &arty *inn 5Ain( 9n the 1918 e#ections *inn 5ein won %ost
9rish &ar#ia%entary seats and set u& a secessionist &ar#ia%ent! 1Bi# Cireann! in
1u"#in( +ter a $uerri##a war "etween the 98+ (9rish 8e&u"#ican +r%y) and the
British authorities! a treaty was ne$otiated and the 9rish 5ree *tate was set u& in
1ece%"er 1922! as an autono%ous 1o%inion in the British Co%%onwea#th
(#i7e Canada or +ustra#ia)( *i/ counties in )#ster i%%ediate#y o&ted out o the
5ree *tate (as the #e$is#ation had a##owed the% to do) and re%ained in the
)nited Din$do%! with their own -o%e 8u#e $o'ern%entEthey "eca%e 7nown
as Forthern 9re#and(
- 9n 193G! the 9rish 5ree *tate "eca%e si%&#y Cire H 9re#and! under a new
constitution which a#so $a'e the 8o%an Catho#ic Church a s&ecia# &osition and
esta"#ished the 9rish #an$ua$e as the irst oicia# #an$ua$e( )n#i7e the other
1o%inions! 9re#and re%ained neutra# in the *econd Wor#d War( 9n 1949! it
"ro7e a## re%ainin$ connections to the British %onarch! "eco%in$ the 8e&u"#ic
o 9re#and! and #et the Co%%onwea#th( Throu$h %uch o this &eriod! the
do%inant i$ure in 9rish &o#itics was Ca%on de ;a#era! a #eader o the 191<
.aster 8isin$! #ater 3ri%e 4inister (with the 9rish tit#e Taoiseach ro% 193G)
and 3resident (19,9-G3)(
4) Britain Between the Wars
- Wo%en $ot the ri$ht to 'ote in &ar#ia%entary e#ections or the irst ti%e in 1918!
when 'otin$ ri$hts were e/tended to a## %en o'er 21 and %ost wo%en o'er 30(
+## wo%en o'er 21 $ot the 'ote in 1928(
- The British Broadcastin$ Co%&any was set u& in 1922! and "eca%e the British
Broadcastin$ Cor&oration (BBC) in 192G! with the ro#e o de'e#o&in$ radio (and
#ater te#e'ision) "roadcastin$ as a &u"#ic ser'ice! unded "y a #icence ee and not
"y ad'ertisin$( 9ts irst director $enera#! Iohn 8eith! esta"#ished its &u"#ic-
ser'ice ethic and ?i%&ro'in$@ %ission(
- 8ise o the La"our 3arty (ounded in 190< "y socia#ists and trade unionists)
"rie#y in $o'ern%ent in 1924 and 1929-31 (3ri%e 4inister 8a%say
4ac1ona#d) otherwise the Conser'ati'es were do%inant (3ri%e 4inister
*tan#ey Ba#dwin)
- .cono%ic de&ression &ost-war de&ression o##owed "y the wor#d-wide 2reat
1e&ression in the 1930s(
- socia# discre&ancies and tensionsJ re#ati'e &ros&erity in southern .n$#and! where
new industries! #i7e car %anuacturin$! were successu#! and %any new houses
were "ui#t! es&ecia##y in su"ur"s around LondonEhi$h une%&#oy%ent and
&o'erty in the traditiona# industria# areas o northern .n$#and! *cot#and! and
Wa#es(
- The .%&ire By the *tatute o West%inster! 1931! the se#-$o'ernin$
do%inions (+ustra#ia! Canada! 9rish 5ree *tate! Fewound#and! and *outh
+rica) "eca%e u##y inde&endent and e0ua# %e%"ers o the Co%%onwea#th(
Fe$otiations with 2andhi and other 9ndian nationa#ist #eaders "e$an(
British Culture and Civilization 2011-2012
5) The Second World War (199-45)
- the out"rea7 o war 9n the #ate 1930s Britain co%"ined &re&arations or
&ossi"#e war with a &o#icy o ?a&&ease%ent@ (ne$otiatin$ to 7ee& &eace)
towards 2er%any and 9ta#y( 9n 1938 3ri%e 4inister Fe'i##e Cha%"er#ain
thou$ht he had achie'ed ?&eace in our ti%e@ "y a$reein$ to #et -it#er6s 2er%any
ta7e the *udeten#and ro% C:echos#o'a7ia on the understandin$ that other
territoria# dis&utes wou#d "e su"%itted to an internationa# co%%ission( -owe'er
the o##owin$ year -it#er in'aded the rest o C:echos#o'a7ia( Cha%"er#ain now
&ro%ised that Britain wou#d su&&ort 3o#and i it was threatened! and when -it#er
in'aded 3o#and in *e&te%"er 1939! Cha%"er#ain dec#ared war on 2er%any(
- 9n 4ay 1940! Cha%"er#ain was re&#aced as 3ri%e 4inister "y Winston
Churchi##! who headed a coa#ition $o'ern%ent throu$h the war years ti## 194,(
+s the 2er%an ar%y ad'anced into 5rance! British orces were e'acuated ro%
1un7ir7(
- The Batt#e o Britain! 1940 ou$ht in the s7ies o'er southern .n$#and! as the
2er%an !"ftwaffe unsuccessu##y tried to $ain air su&re%acy in &re&aration or
an in'asion o Britain
- The B#it:! 1940-41 hea'y "o%"in$ o British cities! es&ecia##y London
ci'i#ians on the ?-o%e 5ront@ cou#d now "e in as %uch dan$er as %e%"ers o
the ar%ed orces
- Kther as&ects o warti%e #ie in Britain inc#uded rationin$ o ood (%eanin$
so%e a%i#ies actua##y had a %ore nourishin$ diet than "eore)! and e'acuation
o ur"an chi#dren to the countryside(
- 9n 1942! Ia&an deeated the British in 4a#aya and *in$a&ore and in'aded
Bur%a! ad'ancin$ towards 9ndia(
- The course o the war "e$an to turn when British and Co%%onwea#th orces
deeated the 2er%ans and 9ta#ians at .# +#a%ein in .$y&t in 1942(
- 9n 1943! British! Co%%onwea#th and +%erican orces in'aded 9ta#y
- 9n 1944! a##ied orces #anded in northern 5rance (1-1ay)
- 2er%any surrendered on 8
th
4ay 194, (ce#e"rated as ;. 1ay)! and Ia&an on
1,
th
+u$ust(
-
#) $ost-war Britain
- Britain e%er$ed ro% the *econd Wor#d War 'ictorious "ut e/hausted! c#ear#y
o'erta7en as a wor#d &ower "y the )*+ and the *o'iet )nion (una"#e to aord
to %aintain the #ar$e na'y that had "een the "asis o its &ower in the &ast)! and
econo%ica##y de&endent on "orrowin$ ro% the )*+( 5ood and c#othin$
continued to "e strict#y rationed (at ti%es e'en %ore se'ere#y than durin$ the
war)(
- 1urin$ the war! there had "een %uch discussion o how conditions o #ie in
Britain cou#d "e i%&ro'ed aterwards! inc#udin$ the circu#ation o a re&ort "y *ir
Wi##ia% Be'erid$e &ro&osin$ a nationa# syste% o socia# we#areEthe ?we#are
state@( 8eor%s started e'en "eore the end o the war! with the 1944 .ducation
+ct! which &ro'ided education or a## chi#dren u& to the a$e o 1,( The syste%
in'o#'ed se#ection at a$e 11 "y an 9L test! accordin$ to which &u&i#s were
assi$ned to $ra%%ar schoo#s (or the acade%ica##y a"#e) or secondary %odern
schoo#s (or the rest)( (+"out ,M o chi#dren continued to "e sent to &ri'ate
schoo#s() *cho#arshi&s %ade it &ossi"#e or chi#dren o #ower-inco%e a%i#ies to
$o to uni'ersity! so the socia# "ac7$round o students "eca%e %ore di'erse ("ut
sti## &redo%inant#y %idd#e c#ass)(
- 9n the 2enera# .#ection o Iu#y 194,! La"our achie'ed a #ar$e %a=ority in the
-ouse o Co%%ons! and the La"our #eader! C#e%ent +tt#ee! re&#aced Churchi##
as 3ri%e 4inister( Between 194, and 19,1! +tt#ee6s $o'ern%ent nationa#i:ed
%a=or industries (coa# %inin$! trans&ort! stee#! $as and e#ectricity)! and
i%&#e%ented the &ro&osed We#are *tate! inc#udin$ a Fationa# -ea#th *er'ice
oerin$ ree %edica# treat%ent to a## who needed it(
- Britain &#ayed a #eadin$ ro#e in the or%ation o F+TK in 1949 (ha'in$
&ersuaded the )*+ to re%ain in'o#'ed in the &rotection o Western .uro&e)( Kn
the other hand! +tt#ee6s $o'ern%ent re=ected in'itations to &artici&ate in the
settin$ u& o the .uro&ean Coa# and *tee# Co%%unity in 19,0(
- 9n 194G! 9ndia "eca%e inde&endent! di'ided "etween 9ndia and 3a7istan! "oth o
which =oined the Co%%onwea#th(
%) 195&s-19#&s ' fro( a"sterit) to affl"ence
- 9n 19,1! Churchi## returned to &ower( )nder Conser'ati'e $o'ern%ent!
rationin$ and other contro#s ended! and the austerity o &ost-war #i'in$
conditions $radua##y $a'e way to increasin$ a#uence( The "asic &rinci&#es o
the We#are *tate were acce&ted "y the Conser'ati'esEon this issue! &arty
&o#icies diered on#y in detai#! within an o'era## consensus(
- )ne%&#oy%ent was #ow! inco%es rose aster than &rices! and %ore and %ore
&eo&#e owned househo#d a&&#iances #i7e 'acuu% c#eaners and washin$
%achines! te#e'isions (%ade &o&u#ar "y the te#e'isin$ o Lueen .#i:a"eth 996s
coronation in 19,3) and cars( 9n 19,G! 3ri%e 4inister -aro#d 4ac%i##an
a%ous#y dec#aredJ ?Let6s "e ran7 a"out it( 4ost o our &eo&#e ha'e ne'er had
it so $ood(@
- The BBC recei'ed co%&etition ro% a new co%%ercia# te#e'ision channe#! 9T;!
in 19,,( 9T; oered %ore &o&u#ar &ro$ra%%es! inc#udin$ $a%e shows the soa&
o&era ?Coronation *treet@! set in a northern .n$#ish wor7in$-c#ass co%%unity
(started in 19<2 and sti## runnin$N)
British Culture and Civilization 2011-2012
- 9%%i$ration ro% the Co%%onwea#th (es&ecia##y the Cari""ean is#ands! 9ndia
and 3a7istan) increased durin$ the 19,0s! encoura$ed "y #a"our shorta$es in
Britain! &articu#ar#y in the Fationa# -ea#th *er'ice and in &u"#ic trans&ort(
8acia# tensions in Fottin$ -i##! London! #ed to riots in 19,8( The irst
restrictions on Co%%onwea#th i%%i$ration were introduced in 19<2(
- Withdrawa# ro% the +sian and +rican co#onies continued! es&ecia##y in the
#ate 19,0s and ear#y 19<0s( 4ost o the new inde&endent nations =oined the
Co%%onwea#th! now a ree association o u##y inde&endent states( 9n 19,<! the
*ue: crisis! when Britain had to a"andon its in'asion o .$y&t! in the ace o
)nited Fations conde%nation and the disa&&ro'a# o the )nited *tates!
de%onstrated c#ear#y that it cou#d no #on$er "eha'e as an i%&eria# &ower(
- Britain continued to re%ain outside in the de'e#o&%ent o the .uro&ean
.cono%ic Co%%unity (&art#y "ecause its connections to the Co%%onwea#th
see%ed %ore i%&ortant to %any &eo&#e)! and when it did try to =oin in 19<3! its
entry was 'etoed "y the 5rench &resident! de 2au##e(
- 8adica# &o#itica# dissent "eca%e ocused in the Ca%&ai$n or Fuc#ear
1isar%a%ent (CF1)! ounded in 19,8! which or$ani:ed de%onstrations to ?Ban
the Bo%"@! and attracted the su&&ort o a nu%"er o #eadin$ inte##ectua#s(
(Britain had had an inde&endent nuc#ear ar%s &ro$ra%%e since 194G! and "y the
#ate 19,0s! +%erican %issi#es were a#so "ased in Britain()
8) 19#&s-19%&s ' c"lt"ral re*ol"tion+
- 5ro% 19<4 to 199G! Britain had a succession o La"our and Conser'ati'e &ri%e
%inisters ro% #ower %idd#e c#ass or wor7in$ c#ass "ac7$roundsEa chan$e
ro% the $enera##y &atrician #eaders o the &ast( 9%&ro'ed access to education
increased socia# %o"i#ity! "ut socia# c#ass sti## re%ained an i%&ortant actor in
%any &eo&#e6s #i'es (intensiyin$ the hosti#ity "etween %ana$e%ent and
wor7ers in industry! or e/a%&#e)(
- .ducation ro% the %id-19<0s $ra%%ar and secondary %odern schoo#s were
re&#aced in %ost &arts o Britain "y co%&rehensi'e schoo#s! which too7 in a##
#oca# chi#dren! without se#ection( The hi$her education syste% continued to
e/&and! with the creation o new uni'ersities and &o#ytechnics (hi$her education
institutions run "y #oca# authorities and awardin$ de$rees throu$h a centra#
a$encyEthey e'entua##y "eca%e u##y autono%ous uni'ersities in 1992)(
- 3o&u#ar cu#ture British &o&u#ar %usic and ashion were wide#y in#uentia#(
5ashion choices were now an e/&ression o $eneration rather than c#ass identity(
- Traditiona# nor%s o "eha'iour wea7enedEnoticea"#y in the area o se/ua#
"eha'iour(
- Chan$in$ 'a#ues in society were re#ected in reor%s o the %id to #ate 19<0s!
such asJ
o +"o#ition o the death &ena#ty (19<,)O
o Le$a#i:ation o a"ortion! under s&eciied conditions (19<G)O
o 1e-cri%ina#i:ation o ho%ose/ua#ity (19<G)O
o .nd o theatre censorshi& (19<8) and re#a/ation o cine%a censorshi&O
o 8eor% o di'orce #aw! re%o'in$ the need to &ro'e $ui#t (19<9)(
These chan$es were seen as %a7in$ Britain a %ore ci'i#i:ed and to#erant society
"y their su&&orters! nota"#y the La"our -o%e *ecretary 8oy Ien7ins( Kthers
conde%ned the rise o the ?&er%issi'e society@(
- 5e%inis% "e$an to "e an i%&ortant in#uence on British society in the 19G0s(
Traditiona# $ender ro#es and re#ations were 0uestioned( Le$is#ation was &assed
"annin$ se/ discri%ination(
- 8ise o nationa#is% in *cot#and and Wa#es 9n Wa#es the ocus was %ain#y
cu#tura#( 9ncreasin$ su&&ort or the se&aratist &arty 3#aid Cy%ru was answered
"y $o'ern%ent concessions inc#udin$ the reco$nition o We#sh as an oicia#
#an$ua$e a#on$side .n$#ish in 19<G( The *cottish Fationa# 3arty ar$ued that
*cot#and wou#d "e "etter o econo%ica##y i it was inde&endent! es&ecia##y ater
the disco'ery o oi# in the Forth *ea in 19G4( 9n the 19G4 e#ections! the *F3
won 30M o 'otes in *cot#and(
- 9n Forthern 9re#and! ci'i# ri$hts de%onstrations a$ainst the hi$h#y
discri%inatory )nionist (3rotestant) re$i%e that had $o'erned since 1921 were
%et with 'io#ence in 19<9! and i$htin$ "ro7e out in streets o Be#ast(
3ara%i#itary or$ani:ations e%er$ed on "oth sides( The British ar%y was sent in
to 7ee& the &eace! "ut its re#ations with the Catho#ic co%%unity (which it was
intended to &rotect) "ro7e down co%&#ete#y ater 13 unar%ed de%onstrators
were shot dead "y so#diers on ?B#oody *unday@ in 19G2( Later that year the
British $o'ern%ent sus&ended the autono%ous $o'ern%ent o Forthern 9re#and(
K'er 400 &eo&#e died in the con#ict in 19G2 a#one! and o'er 3!000 "etween
19G9 and 1998! when the 2ood 5riday +$ree%ent esta"#ished a ra%ewor7 or
&eace in Forthern 9re#and and the restoration o autono%ous $o'ern%ent on the
"asis o &ower-sharin$ "etween the 3rotestant and Catho#ic co%%unities(
- Britain and the 8e&u"#ic o 9re#and "oth =oined the .uro&ean .cono%ic
Co%%unity (nowadays the .uro&ean )nion) in 19G3! to$ether with 1en%ar7(
- The &ros&erity o the ?swin$in$ si/ties@ $a'e way to econo%ic trou"#es in the
19G0s! a$$ra'ated "y tensions in British industry(
British Culture and Civilization 2011-2012
9) 198&s ' Thatcheris(
- 4ar$aret Thatcher! 3ri%e 4inister 19G9-90! turned a$ainst the "road#y
socia#-de%ocratic consensus o the &ost-war &eriod! and &ro%oted a new
sort o radica# conser'atis%( Dey &o#icies inc#uded encoura$in$ the ree
%ar7et! cuttin$ &u"#ic s&endin$ and ta/ation! and &ri'ati:in$ the &re'ious#y
nationa#i:ed industries( This econo%ic #i"era#is% was cou&#ed with a
&o&u#ist stress on conser'ati'e ?;ictorian 'a#ues@ o se#-he#& and
nationa#is%! and a sus&icion o the socia##y #i"era# attitudes that Thatcher
considered characteristic o &u"#ic sector &roessiona#s! and ?esta"#ish%ent@
institutions #i7e the churches and the BBC(
- 3art#y as a resu#t o $o'ern%ent &o#icy! and &art#y as a resu#t o tendencies
that were a#ready e'ident "eore 19G9 (and whose eects Thatcher6s
$o'ern%ents did #itt#e to soten)! the traditiona# industries o Britain
dec#ined dra%atica##y! whi#e the ser'ice sector e/&anded! and in so%e areas
new industries de&endent on inor%ation techno#o$y e%er$ed(
- Who stood to $ain ro% the chan$esP
o s%a## "usinesses and se#-e%&#oyed &eo&#e (a $rowin$ sector o
the &o&u#ation)O
o &eo&#e wor7in$ in inancia# ser'icesO
o or%er counci# tenants (who cou#d now "uy the houses they had
&re'ious#y rented ro% #oca# authorities)O
o consu%ers (who en=oyed $reater choice o $oods and ser'ices)O
o o'era##! &eo&#e in the south-east o .n$#and %ore than in other
&arts o the )D(
- Who stood to #oseP
o %anua# wor7ers in traditiona# hea'y industry (%ines! shi&yards
etc)! %any o who% #ost their =o"sO
o trade unions (which #ost %e%"ers and &ower)
o the #on$-ter% une%&#oyedO
o &eo&#e wor7in$ in &u"#ic ser'ices ("ecause o cuts in
$o'ern%ent s&endin$)O
o o'era##! &eo&#e in the north o .n$#and! Wa#es! and *cot#and(
- 1982 saw Britain6s #ast %i#itary e/&edition in deence o a co#ony! when
+r$entina in'aded the 5a#7#and 9s#ands( The is#ands were reca&tured "y
British orces in a war seen "y %any as &oint#ess! "ut "y Thatcher as si$n
that Britain was ?no #on$er a nation in retreat@(
- The Thatcher years were a ti%e o &o#ari:ation and con#ict in British
society( .cono%ic ine0ua#ity increased( Whi#e %any $rew richer! "e$$ars
"eca%e a co%%on si$ht on the streets o British cities( The rustrations o
youn$ &eo&#e in de&ri'ed inner city districts o London and Li'er&oo#
eru&ted into riotin$ in 1981( + #on$ stri7e "y the coa# %iners in 1984! in
&rotest a$ainst the c#osin$ o un&roita"#e %ines! de'e#o&ed into a "itter
conrontation "etween the %iners6 union and the $o'ern%ent( 9n 1989-90!
the introduction o a new %ethod o #oca# ta/ation (the ?&o## ta/@)! which
was wide#y seen as unair to &oorer &eo&#e! #ed to a %assi'e ca%&ai$n o
&rotest(
- The e%&hasis on the ree %ar7et encoura$ed a new attitude to cu#ture(
?-erita$e@ was increasin$#y treated as a %ar7eta"#e resource (or e/a%&#e
in touris%)(
- K'era##! the Thatcher years saw increased $o'ern%ent intererence in the
acti'ities o the #earned &roessions (#aw! education! %edicine)( 9n
education! a Fationa# Curricu#u% or .n$#and and Wa#es was esta"#ished "y
#aw in 1988Ethe irst ti%e that a British $o'ern%ent had interered in the
detai#s o what was tau$ht in schoo#s( +t the sa%e ti%e as centra#
$o'ern%ent contro# o schoo#s was thus increased! &arents were a#so $i'en
%ore &ower in the education syste%! inc#udin$ %ore o&&ortunities to choose
their chi#dren6s schoo#! instead o si%&#y sendin$ the% to the #oca#
co%&rehensi'e(
- 9n *cot#and! the #ac7 o e#ectora# su&&ort or the Conser'ati'es #ed to a
$rowin$ sense that Thatcher6s $o'ern%ents #ac7ed #e$iti%acy there and
increased su&&ort or so%e or% o &o#itica# autono%y( K&&osition &arties
and or$ani:ations ro% ci'i# society (churches! trade unions! etc() %et to
&#an uture constitutiona# arran$e%ents! "e$innin$ the &rocess which
e'entua##y #ed to the settin$ u& o the &resent *cottish 3ar#ia%ent in 1999(
British Culture and Civilization 2011-2012