CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION TO WELL PLANNING

Drilling or digging for oil has occurred in one way or another for hundreds
of years. The Chinese, for instance, invented a bamboo rig to obtain oil and gas
for lighting and cooking. In 1859, oil came spurting out of the ground from a well
69.5 feet deep in Titusville, Pennsylvania. Colonel Drake had just gone down in oil
prospecting history. But although this initiated industrial oil well drilling, a large
number of wells had been drilled long before to produce water, brine and even
naphtha for caulking boats, and for lighting and medicinal purposes.
By the name of a well (borehole) is meant a cylindrical mine opening made
too small formans access there to, the diameter of the opening being many
times less than its length. The beginning of the well is called its mouth, collar or
well-head, the cylindrical surface is termed the wall or hole shaft (bore), and its
floor the bottom hole. The distance from the mouth to the bottom hole along
the axis of the borehole shaft is the length of the well, while the projection of
its axis onto the vertical plane represents the depth of the well. The wells are
sunk as straight, slanted or horizontal boreholes. As regards their purpose,
boreholes drilled for geological exploration of the region, search for,
prospecting and exploitation of deposits are classified into key or stratigraphic,
extension or-outpost, structure-exploratory, reconnaissance, prospecting
production and special boreholes.
Structure-exploratory boreholes serve the purpose of a thorough
investigation into the structures encountered in drilling of key and extension
holes and of drawing up a program for exploratory-prospecting drilling into
these structures. The results of the structure-exploratory drilling and of
geophysical investigations are utilized in studying the mode of occurrence,
determining the age and physical properties of the rocks making up the column,
precisely marking the reference or key horizons, and in compiling structural
(subsurface) maps.
Producing wells are drilled into a completely prospected deposit developed
for exploitation. The category of producing wells includes not only the wells
through which oil or gas is recovered (producing wells proper), but also the wells
which help to effectively develop the defining more exactly the reservoir
behavior (drive) and the extent of possible recovery of oil from individual
sections of the pool, ascertaining and accurately delimiting the boundaries of
producing fields.
Injection wells serve the purpose of edge and inter-field boundary
injection of gas or air into the producing reservoir in order in the formation
pressure. Observation wells are put down to affect a regular control over
changes in the pressure, over the position of the water-oil, gas-water and gas-oil
contacts during the operation of the reservoir.

Drilling Methods in Oil Industry

Rocks can be broken up by applying mechanical, thermal, pyhsico-chemical,
electric-spark and other methods. Practical applications in industry have found,
however, only methods involving mechanical disintegration of the rock, the
others continuing so far to be at the stage of development.
In oil industry, mechanical drilling is affected by employing percussive
(cable-tool) drilling and rotary drilling methods. Cable-tool drilling has been
abandoned about 30 years ago, and no longer employed, with some minor
exceptions. However, this method is still used for coal and ore mining industries,
geological engineering, and in drilling of wells for water. Different drilling
techniques are used in oil industry. Early days, cable-tool drilling was the major
method. Recently, rotary drilling systems are widely used. For the last two
decades, downhole motor systems are preferred as directional and horizontal
drilling needs are increasing. Cable-tool drilling will be emphasized in the next
chapter, and the rest of the course will be focused on rotary drilling technique.

Auger Drilling
In order to start an oil well drilling operation, hydraulic hammering or
auger drilling techniques are used for the conductor casing installations. Auger
drilling can be a best solution for dump leaching where dumps are in thickness of
30-60 ft or a bit more, and being in the dump site for long period of time. This
kinds of dumps may be squeezed and show some difficulties to passage of leach
solutions. Portable auger drills can drill fast and adequate sizes of holes which
leach solutions can be poured or dumped in. Drill string components of an auger
drilling system are composed of bits, augers and universal joints and subs.
Augers are usually 5 to 20 ft long. Hexagonal, circular or hollow augers are
available. Rotation of an auger system is achieved by using a top drive system or
a bevel gear. Load on the bit is determined from cable feed, chain feed,
hydraulic feed or combination of these. Cuttings are removed mechanically.

Cable Tool Drilling
The first oil well in the United States was drilled with cable tools in 1859
to a depth of 65feet. This was the historic Drake well located near Titusville,
Pennsylvania; it is credited with having started the American petroleum industry.
The cable tool (also called churn or percussion) drilling method, however, did not
originate in this country, but is believed to have been employed first by the
early Chinese in the drilling of brine wells. In this method, drilling is
accomplished by the pounding action of a steel bit which is alternately raised by
a steel cable and allowed to fall, delivering sharp, successive blows to the
bottom of the hole. This principle is the same as that employed in drilling
through concrete with an air hammer, or in driving a nail through a board. The
original percussion drilling apparatus consisted of a spring pole anchored into the
ground at an angle, with the bit suspended from the free end by a rope. To
impart the necessary reciprocating action to the bit, the Chinese employed a
number of men who alternately jumped on and off the spring pole beam from a
ramp. Many early brine wells in the United States were drilled in the same
manner, except that the spring pole was equipped with stir ups where two or
three men stood and literally kicked the well down. As more and deeper wells
began to be drilled efforts were made to improve the drilling equipment. Steam
engines began to be used; walking beams replaced the spring pole; steecables
replaced manila ropes; and other improvements followed. Although the modern
cable tool rig is a far cry from the ancient Chinese model, the changes have been
in materials and equipment, for the basic operating principle is unchanged
problems previously unsolved except by rig floor trial and error. Further field
verification of the theory is needed; such experiments could possibly aid the
economic application of cable tools.

Rotary Drilling System
Making a hole for the recovery of underground oil and gas is a process
which requires two major constituents; i) man-power, and ii) hardware systems.
The man power includes a drilling engineering group and a rig operator group.
The first provides engineering support for optimum drilling operations, including
rig selection, design of mud program, casing and cement programs, hydraulic
program, drill bit program, drillstring program and well control program. After
drilling begins, the daily operations are handled by a rig operator group which
consists of a tool pusher and several drilling crews. The hardware systems which
make up a rotary drilling rig are :
i) power generation system,
ii) hoisting system,
iii) drilling fluid circulation system,
iv) rotary system,
v) well blowout control system, and
vi) drilling data acquisition system and monitoring system.

Basic Principles of Rotary Drilling

The rotary method uses tricone-type toothed bits or one-piece bits such
as diamond or PDC bits. While the bit is being rotated, a force is applied to it by
a weight. The advantage is that a fluid can be pumped continuously through the
bit, which is crushing the rock formation, and carry cuttings up out of the hole
to the surface with the rising fluid flow. The rotary drilling rig is the apparatus
required to fulfill the following three functions:
-Put weight on the bit
-Rotate the bit
-Circulate a fluid

It is the drill collars, screwed onto the bottom of the drillpipe assembly
just above the bit, that provide the necessary weight, and prevent buckling of
the drillpipes above them. Drill collars, along with drillpipe and bit all make up
the drillstring, which is rotated by the rotary table and the kelly. The drillstring
component parts are hollow down the middle so that the drilling fluid can be
circulated down to the bit. A fluid-tight rotary joint, the swivel, is located at
the top of the kelly and provides a connection between the mud pump discharge
line and the inside of the drillstring. A hoisting system is required to support
the weight of the drillstring, lower it into the hole and pull it out. This is the
function of the derrick, the hook and the drawworks.
The drilling rig is complete with facilities to treat the drilling fluid when
it gets back to the surface, a storage area for tubular goods, shelters and
offices on site. In addition, when a well is being drilled, it is regularly cased. It
is lined with steel pipe, or casing, which is lowered into the hole under its own
weight in smaller and smaller diameters as the hole gets deeper. The first
length of pipe is run in as soon as the bit has drilled the surface formation and is
then cemented in the hole. A casing housing is connected to the top of the
surface casing. All the following lengths of pipe are hung on the casing housing
and cemented at the base to the walls of the hole. After the first drilling phase
is cased, drilling will be resumed with a bit with a diameter smaller than the
inside diameter of the casing string that was run in and cemented. The deeper
the borehole gets and the more casings are set in the well, the smaller the
diameter of the bit must be. The casing housing also serves to hold the safety
equipment, such as blowout preventers.

Drilling Crew
Besides the drilling engineers, geologist and other specialized technical
personnel, there are other men working on a drilling operation those have various
duties. The personnel on an oil or gas well drilling rig consists of a group of
operators who have certain skills and functions which are uniform in the
business of drilling a well. These operators are artisans of a sort who ply their
trade as do carpenters, bricklayers, etc, not caring much for whom they work
for as they do for the opportunity to work on a rig.
A drilling rig operates 7 days a week, 24 hours a day, and a full staff must
be on the job at all times in order that the rhythmical teamwork-type operation
may be accomplished without delays. Drilling rigs are generally staffed for a
tour or shift, by a crew of minimum 5 men. These men consist of a driller, a
derrickman, a catheadman, and two floormen (rotary helpers).The driller is
in charge of his crew, and in charge of the rigs operations during his tour.
Hereports to a foreman who is usually called a toolpusher. In his position as
boss of the rig andthe crew, the driller must be responsible for safe, economical
operations at all times. Therelationship between the driller and his crewmen is
such that the driller will often take hiscrew with him when he changes jobs.
Good judgement and alert attention to detail areprobably the two prime
requisites of a driller. Specifically, it is the drillers function tooperate the
drawworks in the hoisting of the drilling string from the hole and in running it
back into the hole, as well as to maintain the proper characteristics of the
machinery whiledrilling with a bit on bottom. The derrickman works high in the
derrick or mast while making a trip. Stationed on thederrick platform known as
the monkey board, which is 90 ft above the derrick floor, it is hisfunction among
others to seize the upper end of the 90 ft stand of pipe as it comes out of
thehole and pull it over into the rack. He also tests the circulating fluid to
maintain its properties in accordance with the mud program. It is his
responsibility to assure the proper functioningof the mud pumps. The term
catheadman, sometimes referred as motorman, is applied to the third ranking
member of the drilling crew. He is usually more experienced in all phases of the
work than the rotary helpers. His job is to operate the manual catheads on the
drawwroks whenever they are used and to supervise service of the motors and
engines for uninterrupted operations. The two rotary helpers are the tong
operators during trip. When the bit is on bottom for drilling, there are
miscellaneous duties for the rotary helper to perform. Maintaining the rigs
housekeeping is a large order in itself, straightening up the floor, picking up
numerous pieces of equipment, cleaning and painting the machinery, helping the
motorman with the engines, helping the derrickman with the mud treatment, etc.
The toolpusher is actually the manager of his branch of his companys operation.
During the drilling of the well, he must be available at any time day or night for
consultation with the drillers. Toolpushers must have at least a smattering of
knowledge on labor laws, personnel relationships, of chemistry, hydraulics,
internal combustion engines, etc. He usually has authority to spend money to
keep his rig in operation, cooperating with his supervisor on any items of major
importance. Since he does not drill a foot of hole by himself, it could be said
that his prime function is to assist the drillers and their crews to drill the hole
safely, economically and promptly. The foreman makes his headquarters in an
office at the rig known as doghouse, where he must keep accurate records of
daily drilling, performance, purchases of materials, accident reports, and other
paperwork which must go daily to the main office for coordinating with the
other company accounting and records. The foremans responsibilities cover
every operation of the rig including clearing and stacking out the drill site,
moving in the rig, and rigging up and tearing it down when the job is finished.
Depending upon the size of the contracting organization, there may be an
assistant drilling superintendent as well as a drilling superintendent. It is the
function of these men primarily to aid the toolpusher in the conduct of their
work. These are the duties of the principal field personnel on a drilling rig.
Behind them in the administrative end of the business, an office force must be
maintained to solicit business, contact clients, estimate for bids, maintain an
equipment yard and repair shop and figure what the company has left after
taxes.

Rig Components
Rotary drilling rigs are used almost all drilling done today. The hole is drilled by
rotating a bit to which a downward force is applied. Generally, the bit is turned
by rotating the entire drillstring, using a rotary table at the surface, and the
downward force is applied to the bit by using sections of heavy thick-walled
pipes, called drill collars, in the drillstring above bit. The cuttings are lifted to
the surface by circulating a fluid down the drillstring, through the bit, and
up the annular space between the hole and the drillstring. The cuttings are
separated from the drilling fluid at the surface.

Rigs
The function of rotary drilling is to allow the drilling and completion of a hole at
the lowest cost possible. The process of making a hole is made by rotating a rock
cutting tool called a bit, upon which a downward force is applied. The generated
cuttings (rock fragments) at the hole bottom are transported by a circulating
drilling fluid down through the drillstring and up the annular space to the
surface.
Rotary drilling rigs are classified as onshore (land) or offshore (marine)
rigs. Their main design features are mobility, flexibility and maximum depth of
operation. Rig components, in general, are common to both onshore and offshore
rigs. The only major difference is the utilization of motion compensation
equipment and an extension pipe (drilling riser between rig floor and seabed
when drilling in a marine environment).
Modern land rigs are built in units and are skid-mounted so that they can
be transported from one drilling site to another. Once on location, the rig
components are easily assembled together to drill the well. The derrick is
designed such that it can be assembled and disassembled with ease. Its
functions are to carry loads that are suspended in the wellbore and to provide
space between rig floor working area and crown block such that certain length
of the drillstring can be made. A rig that can handle singles, doubles or triples is
one that allow length of 30 ft, 60 ft or 90 ft sections of drillstring to be made,
respectively. These sections are called stands. For moderate depth wells, carrier
mounted rigs are used. These portable masts are mounted on flat-bed vehicles
as self-contained single units.
Offshore drilling is performed from space above water provided by
structures which may be classified as i) mobile platforms and, ii) stationary or
fixed platforms. The selection of a particular rig carrier depends on the
operations to be performed and the water depth on location where such
operations are to be conducted. These operations may consist of exploratory
drilling, development drilling, production, storage or a combination of all.
Exploratory drilling, where hydrocarbons might or might not be available
for production, is done most economically by the utilization of mobile rig
carriers. These are defined as units which can be moved from one location to
another as the need arises. Mobile units may be grouped in three categories: 1)
self-elevating (jack-up), 2) column stabilized and, 3) dynamically positioned ship
units.Self-elevating or what are normally referred to as jack-up units are those
which, in their normal operating state, rest on the sea floor by means of legs
with the deck above the highest water level. In the transit stage, these units
float with the legs in the lifted position. Their use is generally recommended in
water depth ranging approximately from 60 feet to 300 feet of water. Column
stabilized units are supported by either caissons with or without footings or by
lower displacement type hulls by means of columns. These units are classified as
submersibles which operate while resting on the seabed or semi-submersibles
which operate when they are a float. Submersibles are generally used in water
depth up to 60 feet. Semi-submersibles and dynamically positioned ships are
used in moderately to extremely deep water depths. In development drilling
where hydrocarbons are known to exist in readily producing reservoirs, drilling
operations are conducted from stationary units which generally referred to as
permanently fixed platforms. These units are of adequate size that they may
contain drilling equipment, production equipment, storage, separation equipment,
living quarters or a combination of all. Based on their construction these units
are classified as tower type, template, tower/template, tender type, tension leg,
etc. They are designed to remain on location through their entire life span. Some
of these units have been erected in water depth of approximately 600 feet. In
the case of tension-leg platforms (TLP), operations in water depth in excess of
3000 ft have been demonstrated. While selecting a derrick or mast, the
drawworks capacity or safe load capacity from the hook load are usually
considered. As a rule of thumb, every 100 ft of borehole requires 10 HP at the
drawworks. Also, the wind load and compressive loads on the joints of the
derrick should also be considered. API has standards and guides for the
selection of proper derrick for a certain drilling operation.

Rig Power System
The hoisting and fluid circulating systems consume most rig power. Total
power requirements for most rigs are from 1000 to 3000 hp. Modern rigs are
powered by internal-combustion diesel engines and generally sub-classified as:
diesel electric type and the direct-drive type depending on the methods used to
transmit power to the various rig systems. Power system performance
characteristics generally are stated in terms of output horsepower, torque, and
fuel consumption for various engine speeds. As illustrated in Fig.1-1, the shaft
power developed by an engine is obtained from the product of the angular
velocity of the shaft, w, and the output torque T:
P = w T
The overall power efficiency determines the rate of fuel consumption, w
f
at a
given engine speed. The heating values H of various fuels for internal
combustion engines are shown in the following (Table1-1) The heat energy input
to the engine, Q
i
,, can be expressed by,
Q
i
= w
f
H
Since the overall power system efficiency, E
t
is defined as the energy output
per energy input, then;
E
t
= P / Q
i
Table-1-1 Heating Value of Various Fuels
Fuel type Density,
lbm/gal
Heating Value,
Btu/lbm
Diesel 7.2 19000
Butane 4.7 21000
Methane - 24000
Gasoline 6.6 20000

Example-1 . A diesel engine gives an output: torque of 1,740 ft-Ibf at an
engine speed of 1.200 rpm. If the fuel consumption rate was 31.5 gal/hr, what is
the output power and overall efficiency of the engine?
Solution.
The angular velocity, w, is given by
W =2 (l,200) == 7,539.8 rad/min. The power output can be computed,
P = w.T
P =[7,539.8(1740) ft-lbf/min ] / [33,000ft-lbf/min/hp ]
P = 397.5 hp
Since the fuel type is diesel, the density is 7.2 Ibm/gal and the heating value
H is 19,000 Btu/lbm (Table 1-1). Thus, the fuel consumption rate w
f
is,
w
f
=31.5 gal/hr (7.21bm/gal) ( 1 hour / 60 min.)
w
f
=3.781bm/min.
The total heat energy consumed by the engine is equal to;
Qi = w
f
H
Qi = 3.78 lbm/min (19000 Btu/lbm) (779 ft-lbf/Btu) / 33000 ft-lbf/min/hp
Qi = 1695.4 hp
Thus the overall efficiency of the engine at 1200 rpm is equal to;
E
t
= P / Q
i
E
t
= 397.5 / 1695.4 = 0.234
E
t
= 23.4 %

Hoisting System
The function of the hoisting system is to provide a means of lowering or
raising drill strings, casing strings, and other sub-surface equipment into or out
of the hole. The principal components of the hoisting system are
-the derrick and substructure,
-the block and tackle, and
-the draw-works.
Two routine drilling operations performed with the hoisting system are called:
-making a connection and
-making a trip.
Making a connection refers to the periodic process of adding a new joint of drill
pipe as the hole deepens. Making a trip refers to the process of removing the
drill string from the hole to change a portion of the down hole assembly and
then lowering the drill string back to the hole bottom. A trip is made usually to
change a dull bit.
Derrick or Portable Mast:
The function of the derrick is to provide the vertical height required
raising sections of pipe from or lowering them into the hole. The greater the
height, the longer the section of pipe that can be handled and, thus, the faster
a long string of pipe can be inserted in or removed from the hole. The most
commonly used drill pipe is between 27 and 30 ft long. Derricks that can
handle sections called stands, which are composed of two, three, or four joints
of drill pipe, are said to be capable of pulling doubles, thribbles, fourbles,
respectively.

Block and Tackle:

The block and tackle is comprised of (1) the crown block, (2) the
travelling block, and (3) the drilling line. The arrangement and nomenclature of
the block and tackle used on rotary rigs are shown in Fig. 1.16a. The principal
function of the block and tackle is to provide a mechanical advantage, which
permits easier handling of large loads. The mechanical advantage M of a block
and tackle is simply the load supported by the traveling block, W, divided by the
load imposed on the draw-works, F
f.

M = W / F
f
The load imposed on the draw-works is the tension in the fast line. The
ideal mechanical advantage, which assumes no friction in the block and tackle,
can be determined from a force analysis of the traveling block. Consider the
free body diagram of the traveling block as shown in Figure. If there is no
friction in the pulleys, the tension in the drilling line is constant throughout.
Thus, a force balance in the vertical direction yields;
n F
f
= W
where, n is the number of lines strung through the traveling block. Solving this
relationship for the tension in the fast line and substituting the resulting
expression in Equation yields;
M
i
= W / (W / n) = n
which, indicates that the ideal mechanical advantage is equal to the number of
lines strung between the crown block and traveling block. Eight lines are shown
between the crown block and traveling block. The use of 6, 8, 10, or 12 lines
is common, depending on the loading condition.
The input power P
i
of the block and tackle is equal to the draw-works load F
f

times the velocity of the fast line, V
f
:
P
i
= F
f
V
f

The output power, or hook power, P
h
is equal to the traveling block load W
times the velocity of the traveling block, V
b
.
P
h
= W V
b

For a frictionless block and tackle, W = nF
f
. Since the movement of the fast
line by a unit distance tends to shorten each of the lines strung between the
crown block and traveling block by only 1/n times the unit distance. Then V
b
=V
f
/
n. Thus, a frictionless system implies that the ratio of output power to input
power is unity:
E = P
h
/ P
i
= [(nF
f
) (V
f
/ n)] / (F
f
V
f
) = 1
Of course, in an actual system, there is always a power loss due to
friction. Approximate values of block and tackle efficiency for roller-bearing
sheaves are shown in the following table. Knowledge of the block and tackle
efficiency permits calculation of the actual tension in the fast line for a given
load. Since the power efficiency is given by;
E = P
h
/ P
i
= (W V
b
) / (F
f
V
f
) = (WV
f
/ n) / (F
f
V
f
)

= W / F
f
n

Table 1-2 Efficiency of the Lines
Number of lines (n) Efficiency (E)
6 0.874
8 0.841
10 0.810
12 0.770
14 0.740




Then the tension in the fast line is;
F
f
= W / (En)
However, a safety factor should be used to allow for line wear and shock
loading conditions. The line arrangement used on the block and tackle uses the
load imposed on the derrick to be greater than the hook load. As sown in figure,
the load F
d
applies to the derrick is the sum of the hook load W, the tension in
the dead line, F
s
and the tension in the fast line, F
f
.
F
d
= W + F
f
+ F
s

If the load, W, is being hoisted by pulling on the fast line, the friction in
the sheaves is resisting the motion the fast line and the tension in the drilling
line increases from W / n at the first sheave (deadline) to W / En at the last
sheave (fast line). Substituting these values for F
f
and F
s
in above equation;
F
d
= W + (W / En) + (W / n) = [(1+E+En) / En] W
The total derrick load is not distributed equally over four derrick legs.
Since the draw-works is located one side of the derrick floor, the tension in the
fast line is distributed over only two of the four derrick legs. Also, the dead
line affects only the leg to which it is attached. For the arrangement given in
figure, derrick legs C and D should share the load imposed by the tension in the
fast line and leg A would assume the full load imposed by the tension in the
dead line. The load distribution for each leg is given in the following table.
Table 1-3 Load Distribution for Each Leg
Load Total Load Leg A Leg B Leg C Leg D
Hook Load W W / 4 W / 4 W / 4 W / 4
Fast line W / En - - W / 2 En W / 2 En
Dead line W / n
W / n
- - -
Total =
W(n+4)/(4n)
W / 4
W(En+2)/(4En) W(En+2)/(4En)





-Schematic Diagram of the Load Distribution-
Note that for E>0.5, the load on leg A is greater than the load on the
other three legs. Since if any leg fails, the entire derrick also fails, it is
convenient to define a maximum equivalent derrick load, F
de
, which is equal to
four times the maximum leg load.
F
de
= [(n + 4) / n] W
A parameter sometimes used to evaluate various drilling line
arrangements is the derrick efficiency factor, defined as the ratio of the
actual derrick load to the maximum equivalent load. For a maximum equivalent
load given by above equation the derrick efficiency factor is
E
d
= F
d
/ F
de
= {[(1+E+En) / En] W} / {[(n + 4) / n] W}
=[E (n+1) + 1] / [E (n+4)]
For the block and tackle efficiency values given in previous table, the
derrick efficiency increases with the number of lines strung between the crown
block and traveling block.


The drilling line is subject to rather severe service during normal tripping
operations. Failure of the drilling line can result in
-injury to the drilling personnel,
-damage to the rig, and
-loss of the drillstring in the hole.
Thus, it is important to keep drilling line tension well below the nominal breaking
strength and to keep the drilling line in good condition.
Drilling line does not tend to wear uniformly over its length. The most
severe wear occurs at the pickup points in the sheaves and at the lap points on
the drum of the draw-works. The pickup points are the points in the drilling line
that are on the top of the crown block sheaves or the bottom of the traveling
block sheaves when the weight of the drill string is lifted from its supports in
the rotary table during tripping operations. The rapid acceleration of the heavy
drill string causes the most severe stress at these points.
Drilling line is maintained in good condition by following a scheduled slip-
and-cut program. Slipping the drilling line involves loosening the dead line
anchor and placing a few feet of new line in service from the storage reel.
Cutting the drilling line involves removing the line from the drum of the draw-
works and cutting off a section of line from the end.
API has adopted a slip-and-cut program for drilling lines. The parameter
adopted to evaluate the amount of line service is the ton-mile. A drilling line is
said to have rendered one ton-mile of service when the traveling block has
moved 1 U.S. ton a distance of 1 mile. Note that for simplicity this parameter
is independent of the number of lines strung. Ton-mile records must be
maintained in order to employ a satisfactory slip-and-cut program.


Example-2. A rig must hoist a load of 300000 lbf. The drawworks can provide
an input power the block and tackle system as high as 500 hp. Eight lines are
strung between the crown block and traveling block. Calculate:
1-the static tension in the fast line when upward motion is impending,
2-the maximum hook horsepower available,
3-the maximum hoisting speed,
4-the actual derrick load,
5-the maximum equivalent derrick load, and
6-the derrick efficiency factor.
Solution.
1) The power efficiency for n = 8 is given as 0.8 in Table. The tension in the
fast line is;
F
f
= W /En = 300000 / 0.841 (8) = 44590 lbf
2) The maximum hook horsepower available is;
P
h
= E P
i
= 0.841 (500) = 420.5 hp.
3) The maximum hoisting speed is given by;
V
b
= P
h
/ W = 420.5 hp (33000 ft-lbf/min/hp) / 300000 lbf
V
b
= 46.3 ft/min. On the other hand, to pull 90 ft stand would require;
T = 90 ft / 46.3 ft/min. = 1.9 min.
4) The actual derrick load is;
F
d
= [(1+E+En) / En] W = [(1+0.841+0.841 (8)] / [0.841 (8)] . 300000 =
382090 lbf
5) The maximum equivalent load is;
F
de
= [(n + 4) / n] W = [(8+4) / 8] . 300000 = 450000 lbf
6) The derrick efficiency factor;
E
d
= F
d
/ F
de
= 382090 / 450000 = 0.849 or 84.9 %
Drawworks:
The drawworks provide the hoisting and braking power required to raise
or lower the heavy strings of pipe. The principal parts of the drawworks are:
-the drum,
-the brakes,
-the transmission, and
-the catheads.
The drum transmits the torque required for hoisting or braking. It also
stores the drilling line required to move the traveling block the length of the
derrick. The brakes must have the capacity to stop and sustain the great
weights imposed when lowering a string of pipe into the hole. Auxiliary brakes
are used to help dissipate the large amount of heat generated during braking.
Two types of auxiliary brakes commonly used are (1) the hydrodynamic type and
(2) the electromagnetic type. The draw-works transmission provides a means for
easily changing the direction and speed of the traveling block. Power also must
be transmitted to catheads attached to both ends of the draw-works.

Circulating System:
A major function of the fluid-circulating system is to remove the rock
cuttings from the hole as drilling progresses. The drilling fluid is most commonly
a suspension of clay and other materials in water and is called drilling mud. The
drilling mud travels;
-from the steel tanks to the mud pump,
-from the pump through the high-pressure surface connections to the drill
string,
-through the drill string to the bit,
-through the nozzles of the bit and up the annular space between the drill
string and hole to the surface, and
-through the contaminant-removal equipment back to the suction tank.
The principal components of the rig circulating system include;
-mud pumps,
-mud pits,
-mud-mixing equipment, and
-contaminant-removal equipment.
With the exception of several experimental types, mud pumps always have
used reciprocating positive-displacement pistons. Both two-cylinder (duplex)
and three-cylinder (triplex) pumps are common. The duplex pumps generally are
double-acting pumps that pump on both forward and backward piston strokes.
The triplex pumps generally are single-acting pumps that pump only on forward
piston strokes. Triplex pumps are lighter and more compact than duplex pumps,
their output pressure pulsations are not as great, and they are cheaper to
operate. For these reasons, the majority of new pumps being placed into
operation are of the triplex design.
The advantages of the reciprocating positive-displacement pump are the;
-ability to move high-solids-content fluids laden with abrasives,
-ability to pump large particles,
-ease of operation and maintenance,
-reliability, and
-ability to operate over a wide range of pressures and flow rates by changing
the diameters of the pump liners (compression cylinders) and pistons.
The overall efficiency of a mud-circulating pump is the product of the
mechanical efficiency and the volumetric efficiency. Mechanical efficiency
usually is assumed to be 90% and is related to the efficiency of the prime
mover itself and the linkage to the pump drive shaft. Volumetric efficiency of a
pump whose suction is adequately charged can be as high as 100%. Most
manufacturers tables rate pumps using a mechanical efficiency, E
m
, of 90% and
a volumetric efficiency, E
v
, of 100%. Generally, two circulating pumps are
installed on the rig. For the large hole sizes used on the shallow portion of most
wells, both pumps can be operated in parallel to deliver the large flow rates
required. On the deeper portions of the well, only one pump is needed, and the
second pump serves as a stand-by for use when pump maintenance is required.
The theoretical displacement from a double-acting pump is a function of
the piston rod diameter d
r
, the liner diameter d
l
and the stroke length L
s
. On
the forward stroke of each piston, the volume displaced is given by;
/4 d
l
2
L
s

Similarly, on the backward stroke of each piston, the lume displaced is given by;
/4 (d
l
2
- d
r
2
) L
s

Thus, the total volume displaced per complete pump cycle by a pump having two
cylinders is given by;
F
p
= /4 L
s
(2d
l
2
- d
r
2
) E
v
(duplex)
where E
v
, is the volumetric efficiency of the pump. The pump displacement per
cycle, F
p
, is commonly called the pump factor.
For the single-acting (triplex) pump, the volume displaced by each piston
during one complete pump cycle is given by;
/4 d
l
2
L
s

Thus, the pump factor for a single-acting pump having three cylinders becomes;
F
p
= 3 /4 (2) L
s
E
v
d
l
2
(triplex)
The flow rate q of the pump is obtained by multiplying the pump factor by ,N,
the number of cycles per unit time. In common field usage, the terms cycle and
stroke often are used interchangeably to refer to one complete pump revolution.
Pumps are rated for:
-hydraulic power,
-maximum pressure and maximum flow rate.
If the inlet pressure of the pump is essentially atmospheric pressure, the
increase in fluid pressure moving through the pump is approximately equal to the
discharge pressure. The hydraulic power output of the pump is equal to the
discharge pressure times the flow rate. In field units of hp, psi, and gal/min,
the hydraulic power developed by the pump is given by;
P
H
= p q / 1714
For a given hydraulic power level, the maximum discharge pressure and
flow rate can be varied by changing the stroke rate and liner size. A smaller
liner will allow the operator to obtain a higher pressure, but at a lower rate. Due
to equipment maintenance problems, pressures above about 3,500 psig seldom
are used.
Example-3 Compute the pump factor in units of barrels per stroke for a duplex
pump having 6.5 inch liners, 2.5 inch rods, 18 inch strokes and a volumetric
efficiency of 90 %.
Solution:
The pump factor for a duplex pump can be determined
F
p
= /4 (2) L
s
E
v
(2d
l
2
- d
r
2
) = /2 (18) (0.9) [2 (6.5)
2
(2.5)
2
] = 1991.2
inch
3
/stroke
There are 231 inch
3
in a U.S. gallon and 42 US gallons in a US barrel.
1991.2 inch
3
/ stroke x gal / 231 inch
3
x bbl / 43 gal = 0.2052 bbl/stroke
Rotary System
The rotary system includes all of the equipment used to achieve bit rotation.
The main parts of the rotary system are the: (1) swivel (2) kelly (3) rotary drive
(4) rotary table (5) drill pipe and (6) drill collars.
The swivel supports the weight of the drill string and permits rotation.
The bail of the swivel is attached to the hook of the traveling block, and the
gooseneck of the swivel provides a downward-pointing connection for the rotary
hose. Swivels are rated according to their load capacities. .
The kelly is the first section of pipe below the swivel. The outside cross
section of the kelly is square or hexagonal to permit it to be gripped easily for
turning. Torque is transmitted to the kelly through kelly bushings, which fit
inside the master bushing of the rotary table. The kelly must be kept as
straight as possible. A kelly saver sub is used between the kelly and the first
joint of drill pipe.
The openings in the rotary table that accepts the kelly bushings must be
large enough for passage of the largest bit to be run in the hole. The major
portion of the drill string is composed of drill pipe. API has developed
specifications for drill pipe. Drill pipe is specified by its outer diameter, weight
per foot, steel grade and range length. Drill pipe is furnished in the following
API length ranges.
Table 1-4 API Drill Pipe Ranges
Range Length (ft)
1 18 to 22
2 27 to 30
3 38 to 45

Range-2 drill pipe is used most commonly. Since each joint of pipe has a
unique length, the length of each joint must be measured carefully and recorded
to allow a determination of total well depth during drilling operations. The drill
pipe joints are fastened together in the drill string by means of tool joints. The
female portion of the tool joint is called the box and the male portion is called
the pin. The portion of the drill pipe to which the tool joint is attached has
thicker walls than the rest of the drill pipe to provide for a stronger joint. This
thicker portion of the pipe is called the upset.
The lower section of the rotary drill string is composed of drill collars.
The drill collars are thick-walled heavy steel tubulars used to apply weight to
the bit. The smaller clearance between the borehole and the drill collars helps
to keep the hole straight. Stabiliser subs often are used in the drill collar string
to assist in keeping the drill collars centralized.
In many drilling operations, knowledge of the volume contained in or
displaced by the drill string is required. The term capacity often is used to
refer to the cross-sectional area of the pipe or annulus expressed in units of
contained volume per unit length. In terms of pipe diameter, d, the capacity of
pipe, A
p
, is given by;
A
p
= /4 d
2

Similarly, the capacity of an annulus, A
a
, in terms of the inner and outer
diameter, is
A
a
= /4 (d
2
2
d
1
2
)
The term displacement often is used to refer to the cross-sectional area of
steel in the pipe expressed in units of volume per unit length. The displacement,
A
s
, of a section of pipe is:
A
s
= /4 (d
1
2
d
2
)

Example-4 A drill string is composed of 7,000 ft of 5-in., 19.5-lbm/ft drill pipe
and 500 ft of 8-in. OD by 2.75-in. ID drill collars when drilling a 9.875-in.
borehole. Assuming that the borehole remains in gauge, compute the number of
pump cycles required to circulate mud from the surface to the bit and from the
bottom of the hole to the surface if the pump factor is 0.1781 bbl/cycle.
Solution
For field units of feet and barrels, the above equation becomes:
A
p
= ( /4 d
2
) in.
2
(gal / 231 in.
3
) (bbl / 42 gal) (12 in. / ft) = (d
2
/
1029.4) bbl/ft
The inner diameter of 5-in., 19.5 lbm/ft drill pipe is 4.276 in.; thus, the capacity
of the drill pipe is;
(4.276
2
/ 1029.4) = 0.01776 bbl/ft
and the capacity of the drill collars is;
(2.75
2
/ 1029.4) = 0.00735 bbl/ft
The number of pump cycles required to circulate new mud to the bit is given by;
[0.01776 (7000) + 0.00735 (500) bbl / 0.1781 bbl/cycle = 719 cycles
Similarly, the annular capacity outside the drillpipe is given by;
(9.875
2
- 5
2
) / 1029.4 = 0.0704 bbl/ft
and the annular capacity outside the drill collars is;
(9.875
2
- 8
2
) / 1029.4 = 0.0326 bbl/ft
The pump cycles required to circulate mud from the bottom of the hole to the
surface is given by;
[0.0704(7,000) + 0.0326 (500)] bbl / 0.1781 bbl/cycle = 2858 cycles.

The Well Control System:
The well control system prevents the uncontrolled flow of formation
fluids from the well-bore. When the bit penetrates a permeable formation that
has a fluid pressure in excess of the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the
drilling fluid, formation fluids will begin displacing the drilling fluid from the
well. The flow of formation fluids into the well in the presence of drilling fluid is
called a kick. The well control system permits :
-detecting the kick,
-closing the well at the surface,
-circulating the well under pressure to remove the formation fluids and
increase the mud density,
-moving the drillstring under pressure, and
-diverting flow away from rig personnel and equipment.
Failure of the well control system results in an uncontrolled flow of
formation fluids and is called a blow-out. This is perhaps the worst disaster
that can occur during drilling operations. Blow-outs can cause loss of life, drilling
equipment, the well, much of the oil and gas reserves in the underground
reservoir, and damage to the environment near the well. Thus, the well control
system is one of the more important systems on the rig. Annular preventers,
sometimes called bag-type preventers, stop flow from the well using a ring of
synthetic rubber that contracts in the fluid passage. The rubber packing
conforms to the shape of the pipe in the hole. Most annular preventers also will
close an open hole it necessary. Annular preventers are available for working
pressures of 2,000, 5,000, and 10,000 psig. Both the ram and annular BOPs are
closed hydraulically. In addition, the ram preventers have a screw-type locking
device that can be used to close the preventer if the hydraulic system fails.

Well-Monitoring System:
Safety and efficiency considerations require constant monitoring of the
well to detect drilling problems quickly. Devices record or display parameters
such as (1) depth, (2) penetration rate, (3) hook load, (4) rotary speed, (5)
rotary torque, (6) pump rate, (7) pump pressure, (8) mud density, (9) mud
temperature. (10) mud salinity, (11) gas content of mud, (12) hazardous gas
content of air, (13) pit level, and (14) mud flow rate.
In addition to assisting the driller in detecting drilling problems, good
historical records of various aspects of the drilling operation also can aid
geological, engineering, and supervisory personnel. In some cases, a centralized
well-monitoring system housed in a trailer is used This unit provides detailed
information about the formation being drilled and fluids being circulated to the
surface in the mud as well as centralizing the record keeping of drilling
parameters. The mud logger carefully inspects rock cuttings taken from the
shale shaker at regular intervals and maintains a log describing their
appearance. Additional cuttings are labeled according to their depth and are
saved for further study by the paleontologist. The identification of the
microfossils present in the cuttings assists the geologist in correlating the
formations being drilled. The mud logger using a gas chromatograph analyzes gas
samples removed from the mud. This type of analysis often can detect the
presence of a hydrocarbon reservoir. Recently, there have been significant
advances in sub-surface well-monitoring and data-telemetry systems. These
systems are especially useful in monitoring hole direction in non-vertical wells.
One of the most promising techniques for data telemetry from sub-surface
instrumentation in the drill string to the surface involves the use of a mud
pulser that sends information to the surface by means of coded pressure pulses
in the drilling fluid contained in the drill string.

Ton-miles of a drilling line:
The total service life of a drilling line may be evaluated by taking into
account the work done by the line during drilling, fishing, coring, running casing
and by evaluating the stresses imposed by acceleration and deceleration
loadings, vibration stresses and bending stresses when the line is in contact with
the drum and sheave surfaces. Typical round trip operations include running and
pulling drill pipe during drilling.
Work done in round trip operations = work done by travelling assembly +
work done by drilling line + work done by drill collars. So work done in making a
round trip (T
r
);
T
r
= [D (L
s
+ D) W
e
/ 10,560,000] + [D (M + C / 2) / 2,640,000] ton-miles
where; M = mass of traveling assembly (lb); L
s
= length of each stand (ft) ; D =
hole depth (ft); C = effective weight of drill collar assembly in mud effective
weight of the same length of drill pipe in mud (LW
dc
LW
dp
) x BF; W
e
=
effective weight per foot of drill pipe in mud.
Drilling Operations:
The ton-mile service performed by a drilling line during drilling operations
is expressed in terms of work performed in making round trips, since there is
always a direct relationship as shown on the following cycle of drilling
operations:
-drill ahead of a length of kelly
-pull up length of kelly
-ream ahead a length of kelly
-pull up a length of kelly
-put kelly in rat hole
-pick up a single (or double)
-lower drill string in hole
-pick up kelly and drill ahead
Operations 1 and 2 give 1 round trip of work done (WD), operations 3 and 4 give
1 round trip of work done, operation 7 gives round trip of work done; and
operations 5,6 and 8 gives approximately round trip of work done. Therefore:
Total work done = 3 round trips = 3 T
r

However, in drilling a length of section from depth d
1
to depth d
2
, the work
done, T
d
, is:
T
d
= 3 T
r
= 3 (T
r
at d
2
T
r
at d
1
) = 3 (T
2
T
1
)
In coring operations:
Total WD in coring = T
c
= 2 round trips to bottom
T
c
= 2 (T
2
T
1
)
In casing operations:
Total work done in setting casing = T
s
= [4MD+ W
cs
(L
s
+ D)D]
Ts = {[D (L
s
+D) x W
cs
] / 10,560,000} + (MD / 2,640,000) ton-miles

Example-5 The following data refer to a 1 inch block line with 10 lines of
extra improved plough steel wire rope strung to the travelling block.
Hole depth: 10000 ft
Drill pipe: 5 inch OD / 4.276 inch ID, 19.5 lb/ft
Drill collars: 500 ft, 8 x 2
13/16
inch, 150 lb/ft
Mud weight : 75 lb/ft3
Line and sheave efficiency coefficient: 0.9615
Calculate:
a-weight of drill string in air and in mud
b-hook load, assume weight of traveling block and hook to be 23500 lb
c-dead line and fast line loads, assume an efficiency factor of 0.81
d-dynamic crown load
e-wireline design during drilling if breaking strength of wire is 228000 lb

Solution:
a-weight of string in air = weight of drillpipe + weight of drill collars
weight of string in air = [(10000 500) x 19.5] + (500 x 150) = 260250 lb
weight of string in mud = weight of string in air x buoyancy factor =
260250 x (1-75 / 489.5) weight of string in mud = 220432 lb
b-hook load = weight of string in mud + weight of travelling block
hook load = 2204312 + 23500 = 243932 lb
c- deadline load = (HL / N) x K
10
/ EF) = ( 243932 / 10) x [(0.9615
10
) / 0.81]
deadline load = 20336 lb
fastline load = [HL / (N x EF)] = [342932 / (10 x 0.81)] = 30115 lb
d- dynamic crown load = DL + FL + HL
dynamic crown load = 20336 + 30115 + 243932 = 294383 lb
e-design factor = (breaking strength / fast line load)
desigh factor = 228000 / 30115 = 7.6

Example 1-6 Using the data of the above example, determine:
a-round trip ton-miles at 10000 ft
b-casing ton-miles if one joint of casing = 40 ft
c-ton-miles when coring from 10000 ft to 10180 ft
d-ton,miles when drilling from 10000 ft to 10180 ft

Solution:
a-T
r
= [D (L
s
+ D) W
e
/ 10,560,000] + [D (M + C / 2) / 2,640,000]
M= 23500 lb; D = 10000 ft; L
s
= 93 ft; We = 19.5xBF = 16.52 lb/ft; C = 55267 lb
T
r
= [10000 (93 + 10000) 16.52 / 10,560,000] + [10000 (23500 + 55267/
2) / 2,640,000]
T
r
= 157.9 + 193.7 = 351.6 ton-miles
b- Ts = {[D (L
s
+D) x W
cs
] / 10,560,000} + (MD / 2,640,000) ton-miles
Wcs = 29x0.847 = 24.56 lb/ft and Ls = 40 ft
Ts = {[10000 (40 +10000) x 24.56] / 10,560,000} + (23500x10000 /
2,640,000)
Ts = (233.5 + 89) = 161.3 ton-miles
c-T
2
= round trip time at 10180 ft and T
1
= round trip time at 10000 ft
T
2
= [10180 (93 + 10180) 16.52 / 10,560,000] + [10180 (23500 + 55267
/ 2) / 2,640,000]
T
2
= 163.6 + 197.2 = 360.8 ton-miles
T
1
= 351.6 ton-miles (part-a)
Therefore: T
c
= 2 (360.8 351.6) = 18.4 ton,miles
d- T
d
= 3 (T
2
T
1
) = 3 (360.8 351.6) = 27.6 ton-miles

























Example 1-7) A 1.25-in. drilling line has a nominal breaking strength of 138,800
lbf. A hook load of 500,000 lbf is anticipated on a casing job and a safety factor
based on loading conditions on static loading conditions of 2.0 is required.
Determine the minimum number of lines between the crown block and traveling
block that can be used?
Solution:

Safety factor = F
fmax
/ F
fact

2 = 138,800 / F
fact
F
fact
= 69,400 lbf

W / E.n = 69400
E.n = 500,000 / 69,400 = 7.205
So E.vn> 7.205

Use Trial and Error procedure:
For n = 6 ; 6 x 0.874 = 5.244
For n = 8 ; 8 x 0.841 = 6.728
For n = 10 ; 10 x 0.81 = 8.100
Since 8.10 > 7.205
Minimum number of lines is = 10